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1、Planet on the moveReimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictEditors:E.Hsiao,R.Matthew,P.Le Billon,and G.SaintzINTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATUREAbout IUCNIUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil society org

2、anisations.Itprovides public,private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress,economic development and nature conservation to take place together.Created in 1948,IUCN is now the worlds largest and most diverse environmental network,harnessing the kno

3、wledge,resources and reach of more than 1,400 Member organisations and some 16,000 experts.It is a leading provider of conservation data,assessments and analysis.Its broad membership enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices,tools and international standards

4、.IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stakeholders,including governments,NGOs,scientists,businesses,local communities,Indigenous Peoples Organisations,and others,can work together to forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development.www.iucn.org

5、https:/ the IUCN Commission on Environmental,Economic and Social Policy(CEESP)CEESP is a unique network of approximately 1,500 volunteers representing disciplines from biology and anthropology,economics and law,to culture and Indigenous peoples among many others.Our work represents the crossroads of

6、 conservation and development.CEESP contributes to the IUCN Mission by providing insights and expertise and promoting policies and action to harmonise the conservation of nature with the crucial socio-economic and cultural concerns of human communities such as livelihoods,human rights and responsibi

7、lities,human development,security,equity,and the fair and effective governance of natural resources.CEESPs natural and social scientists,environmental and economic policy experts,and practitioners in community-based conservation provide IUCN with critical resources to meet the challenges of 21st cen

8、tury nature and natural resource conservation and the goal of shaping a sustainable future.www.iucn.org/commissions/commission-environmental-economic-and-social-policy About the IUCN CEESP Global Task Force on Migration,Environmental Change and ConflictTo produce this report the IUCN CEESP Theme on

9、Environment and Peace assembled a Task Force on Migration,Environmental Change and Conflict comprised of practitioners and researchers representing broad and diverse expertise and decades of experience with conservation,migration and environmental security issues.The Task Force recognises that conse

10、rvation,development and humanitarian goals are in a period of unprecedented uncertainty and tension,due in part to changes in the scale and forms of interactions between humans and the rest of the environment,and seeks to catalyse dialogues focused on the role of the conservation community in leadin

11、g and supporting just,nature-based and people-centred approaches to these issues.In conjunction with the first International Environmental Peacebuilding Conference in October 2019(Irvine,California,USA),a number of Task Force members convened to develop the outline for this report.The work of the Ta

12、sk Force builds on various mandates to increase knowledge,inform policy,build capacity for national and regional-level interventions,and,ultimately,to contribute to the transformation of the dominant naratives of migration,environmental change and conflict from stories of division,exploitation and v

13、iolence to stories of connection,sharing and adaptation.Planet on the moveReimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictEditors:E.Hsiao,R.Matthew,P.Le Billon,and G.SaintzThe designation of geographical entities in this book,and the presentation of the mat

14、erial,do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organisations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The views expressed in this publicatio

15、n do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organisations.IUCN is pleased to acknowledge the support of its Framework Partners who provide core funding:Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Denmark;Ministry for Foreign Affairs,Finland;Government of France and the French Development Agenc

16、y(AFD);Ministry of EnvWironment,Republic of Korea;Ministry of the Environment,Climate and Sustainable Development,Grand Duchy of Luxembourg;Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation(Norad);Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency(Sida);Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation(SDC)

17、;and the United States Department of State.Published by:IUCN,Gland,Switzerland Produced by:IUCN Commission on Environmental,Economic and Social Policy(CEESP)Copyright:2024 IUCN,International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Reproduction of this publication for educational or ot

18、her non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.Recommended c

19、itation:Hsiao,E.,Matthew,R.,Le Billon,P.,&Saintz,G.(Eds.)(2024).Planet on the move Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict.Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.ISBN:978-2-8317-2274-0(PDF)Copy-editing and layout:Diwata HunzikerCover photo:UCSD Center on Global Ju

20、sticePLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictiiiForeword by Amy Pope,IOM Directeur General viForeword by Grethel Aguilar,IUCN Director General viiPreface by Kristen Walker Painemilla,Chair,IUCN CEESP viiiList of boxes,figures and

21、tables vExecutive summary xiKey questions and findings xivAcknowledgements xviiiAcronyms xixNote from the editors xxI UNDERSTANDING THE NEXUS OF MIGRATION,ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE,AND CONFLICT 1 Key messages 2 1 Introduction 3 Reimagining migration 5 2 Migration,environmental change,and conflict 7 2.1 I

22、ntersecting migrations 7 2.1.1 Migratory species 8 2.1.2 Movement ecology 9 2.1.3 Political ecology 10 2.2 Beyond numbers 10 3 The arc of migration 15 3.1 Origins 16 3.2 Transits 20 3.2.1 Finding their way 20 3.2.2 Environmental impacts of transit 21 3.2.3 Other species and transit dynamics 22 3.3 D

23、estinations 22 3.3.1 Resettlement and relocation 23 3.3.2 Environmental impacts at destination 24 3.3.3 Other species and destination 25 4 Overview of laws and policies along the arc of migration 26 4.1 International laws and policies and the migration of people 26 4.1.1 Origins 26 4.1.2 Transits 28

24、 4.1.3 Destinations 30 4.2 Environmental laws and policies considering human migrations 31 4.3 Integrating laws and policies concerning the migrations of all species 32Table of contentsivPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictII

25、REIMAGINING CONSERVATION AT THE INTERSECTION OF MIGRATION,ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE,AND CONFLICT 32 Key messages 35 5 Reimagining conservation towards inclusive approaches 36 5.1 Assessing big solutions to protect nature 37 5.1.1 Connectivity conservation 37 5.1.2 Mobile,multiple use,and Indigenous prote

26、cted areas 38 5.1.3 Nature needs half,30 x30 targets and other effective area-based conservation measures 39 5.1.4 Territories of Life,working landscapes,and commons 40 5.1.5 Landscapes of locally-networked nature-based resilience 40 5.1.6 Ex situ conservation:moving conservation to new places 42 5.

27、2 Migration-sensitive conservation:towards a whole-of-arc framework 42 5.2.1 Account for push-pull plus drivers of migration 43 5.2.2 Protect existing migratory species and their pathways 47 5.2.3 Define and support migration buffer zones and corridors 48 5.2.4 Learn from movement ecology and map th

28、e dynamics of migration 48 5.2.5 Prepare for facilitated migration 49 5.2.6 Mitigate possible impacts through landscape-wide approaches 49 5.2.7 Manage migration along transit routes in real time 50 5.2.8 Improve outcomes at destinations and in transit places 50 5.2.9 Make appropriate use of existin

29、g tools and technologies ethically and transparently while remaining innovative and adaptable 52 5.2.10 Cultivate cultures of conservation and respect for diversity 53 5.2.11 Engage conservation for conflict transformation and peacebuilding 54 5.3 Designing inclusive approaches 55III MOVING FORWARD

30、TOGETHER 58 Key messages 59 6 Transforming narratives,reassessing values,and reforming practices 60 6.1 The laws and policies needed to move forward together 60 6.2 A call to action for the conservation community 62 6.3 Conclusion 63References 65Annex A Terminology 87Annex B Relevant initiatives and

31、 further readings 89PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictvBox 1 Visioning the migration impacts of climate change 9Box 2 Sea-level rise and climate migration in the Pacific 12Box 3 Socio-economic conflicts in reindeer herding a

32、nd Smi communities 15Box 4 Borderlands and border zones:What about those who stay behind?16Box 5 Responsive management principles for a planet on the move 54Figure 1 The conflict cycle xiiFigure 2 Large-scale land acquisitions in sites of conservation importance 2Figure 3 Globally distributed locati

33、ons of large-scale land acquisitions intended for conservation projects 3Figure 4 Climate-induced internal migration by major regions 10Figure 5 The arc of migration 13Figure 6a Landscape overview for movement awareness in conservation 41Figure 6b Suggested steps to identifying and mapping potential

34、 movement across the regional landscape 42Figure 7 The three focus areas for addressing migration 50Figure 8 Planet on the move Reimagining conservation 62Table 1 Synoptic table of common and distinguishing aspects of migration between humans,wildlife,and other species xviiTable 2 Conservation appro

35、aches,challenges,and opportunities 39Table 3 Categories of migrants 86List of boxes,figures and tablesviPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictMigration is as old as the Earths history,but today climate change is driving unpreced

36、ented changes in migration patterns and often irreversible impacts on many species.The adverse impact of climate change,along with other natural hazards like floods,fires,and storms,is the largest cause of new displacements,and environmental and natural resource degradation continue to restrict what

37、 people need for their livelihoods.The need to revive and protect our damaged ecosystems has never been more urgent.In too many communities,competition for increasingly scarce natural resources can turn already pre-existing tensions into more active conflicts that threaten critical ecosystems even m

38、ore.To help halt this damaging cycle,we need to be much more proactive,incorporating migration policies and concerns into conservation and environmental protection.According to the World Bank,80%of potential displacements linked to climate change could be prevented through proactive measures.That is

39、 why the International Organization for Migration(IOM)is working intensively with communities to prepare for and prevent crises,relying on existing Indigenous and traditional knowledge and practices.In 2021,IOM joined with other United Nations entities in launching the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restora

40、tion 20212030.We cannot make progress toward meeting the Sustainable Development Goals,or achieve the vision embraced in the Global Compact for Safe,Orderly and Regular Migration,unless we do more to repair and revive damaged ecosystems.One of IOMs major objectives is driving solutions for displacem

41、ent,and nowhere is our work toward achieving that objective more prominent than when it comes to climate change.We are committed to building and expanding partnerships that incorporate human mobility into addressing climate change.And we are also committed to collaborating on interventions that cons

42、ider the impacts of environmental degradation and conservation measures on migration dynamics.Given the complex linkages between migration,environmental change and conflict,we need to strengthen the dialogue about migration,environmental conservation,peacebuilding,and development throughout the huma

43、nitarian community.This report led by the International Union for Conservation of Nature is an excellent example of this growing partnership,and I hope that the expertise it contains will help further the dialogue about how to create a more sustainable and climate-resilient future.Amy Pope Directeur

44、 General International Organization for MigrationForewordPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictviiFor as long as people have existed,they have journeyed from place to place.And while the ebb and flow of movement can be positive

45、and driven by new opportunities,migration is not always voluntary.Instead,it may be due to factors such as the degradation of nature,climate change,and conflict creating insecurity and posing risks to peoples lives.For example,between 2008 and 2016,the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees e

46、stimated that an average of 21.5 million people were displaced each year by weather-related events such as storms,fires,and floods.Unfortunately,both environmental change and related conflicts are expected to continue as key drivers of forced migration over the coming decades,displacing the people a

47、nd societies most vulnerable to their negative effects.We live in a world where up to 700 million people could be driven from their homes by climate change and land degradation by 2050.Worryingly,this migration can converge and interact with armed conflict.This report recognises the multifaceted nat

48、ure of migration and suggests that in response,conservation needs to be reimagined.It further argues that a multi-stakeholder and multi-disciplinary approach is needed for nature conservation to work especially when it comes to migration,environmental change,and conflict.This report also shows how p

49、rotecting nature can build peace,while warning us of how conservation could unintentionally contribute to armed fighting between communities.Ultimately,we must rethink traditional approaches that focus on jurisdiction-based protection,and engage with migration processes,policy makers,and managers at

50、 a transboundary level.Holistic approaches to understanding the complex links between migration,environmental change and conflict are crucial,and conservation practitioners must be mindful that this issue is set to become more complex in the face of climate change.In a publication that centres on th

51、e movement of vast numbers of people and species,it is fitting that we remember the crucial need to build bridges and use conservation interventions that are just,inclusive and protective of the rights of all,especially the most vulnerable groups.Only then can we truly make a difference for people a

52、nd the planet.Dr Grethel Aguilar Director General International Union for the Conservation of NatureForewordviiiPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictThe world is in motion,and our planet is on the move.As we bear witness to unp

53、recedented shifts in climate,the devastating consequences of environmental change,and the heartbreaking fallout of conflicts,it becomes increasingly evident that our approach to conservation must evolve to address these interconnected challenges.Planet on the move is more than just a publication;it

54、is a testament to our collective commitment to reimagining conservation in an era defined by migration,environmental change,and conflict.It is a journey into the heart of the complex relationship between our natural world and human society.The genesis of this publication lies in a profound realisati

55、on:our conservation efforts can no longer exist in isolation from the broader context of global change.Climate change,habitat destruction,and resource scarcity drive the displacement of both human and non-human species,altering the very fabric of ecosystems.Simultaneously,conflicts,both large and sm

56、all,disrupt the lives of millions,often forcing them to seek refuge in unfamiliar lands.Congratulations are in order:This publication is a milestone achieved through collaboration,dedication,and a shared vision for a more sustainable and harmonious world.I applaud the IUCN Commission on Environmenta

57、l,Economic and Social Policy(CEESP)Migration,Environmental Change and Conflict Task Force and the contributions of all those involved in bringing Planet on the move to fruition.Planet on the move is an exploration of the intersection of these forces.It delves deep into the challenges and opportuniti

58、es that arise at this crossroads.Through the lens of research,stories,and expert insights,we aim to shine a light on the innovative approaches,the resilience of communities,and the untapped potential for positive change.The pages that follow are not just words on paper;they represent a chorus of voi

59、ces from conservationists,scholars,activists,communities,and species around the world.They call for a reevaluation of our conservation strategies,urging us to recognise that the protection of nature and the well-being of people are inextricably linked.This publication is an invitation to consider ne

60、w paradigms of conservation,rooted in empathy,inclusivity,and sustainability.It challenges us to embrace adaptive strategies that acknowledge the dynamic nature of our planet and the adaptability of its inhabitants.As you embark on this journey through Planet on the move,I encourage you to reflect,e

61、ngage,and take action.Let this publication serve as a source of inspiration and a catalyst for change.Together,we can reimagine conservation for a world in motion,where the natural world thrives,and human societies find harmony with the planet we call home.Thank you for joining us on this important

62、and transformative exploration.Kristen Walker Painemilla Chair,IUCN Commission on Environmental,Economic and Social Policy(CEESP)PrefacePLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictix.I know a few things to be true.I do not know where

63、I am going,where I have come from is disappearing.Warsan Shire,Teaching My Mother How to Give Birth Syrian refugees crossing the Serbian-Croatian border.Francesco Malavolta/IOM 6N7A5683xPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictWoma

64、n collecting water from the nearest well to her house in Gash Barka,Eritrea,a three-hour walk.As a result of 30 years of war against Ethiopia(19611991 and 19982000),there are 50,000 Eritreans currently living in internally displaced persons(IDP)camps.These IDPs have fled three times in the last 10 y

65、ears,each time because of renewed military conflict.They lived in relatives homes when lucky enough,but mostly fled to the mountains.Photo by Matilde Gattoni PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictxiOur living planet is and has a

66、lways been on the move.Many species move in search of necessities such as food,water,shelter,reproduction,and safety.Their movements may be seasonal,sudden or sporadic;they may take place over brief or lengthy periods of time;and they may be temporary or long-term.Movement can be motivated by curios

67、ity or a means to take advantage of perceived opportunities.In some cases,movements are an adaptive response to environmental stresses and shocks;in other cases,environmental change,whether land degradation,climate change or other forms,may add to other drivers of migration.Migration can be preventi

68、ve or opportunistic as migrants seek to protect a place from becoming overly degraded from persistent use or capitalise on seasonal or ephemeral resources,as in the cases of nomadic species and semi-nomadic practices including transhumance(Stenning,1957).Movement can also be responsive as migrants s

69、eek to move out of a place that has become too degraded(such as coastal zones lost to sea-level rise)or insecure(such as conflict zones).When species are compelled to move involuntarily in order to survive,they are forcibly displaced.We refer to some human migrants as refugees or displaced persons.W

70、hile these terms are used in a variety of ways in popular discourse,they also have explicit legal definitions(for example,in the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 2012 Kampala Convention,respectively)that link them to specific entitlements and duties,creating challenges in extending them to other spec

71、ies.Nonetheless,today,largely correlated to environmental change and land degradation,the rate and scale of forced migration or displacement are increasing for both humans and the rest of nature.In rural communities,this may involve loss of land access,erosion of ecosystem services,declining viabili

72、ty of traditional livelihoods,increasing conflict and deterioration of community bonds.For Indigenous peoples,this can take the form of displacement from ancestral lands and ecosystems that define multigenerational knowledge systems and embody the cultural values that are the basis of identity.Some

73、species,including certain groups within the human species,may not be able or willing to move and could end up trapped in ecologically compromised places or at increased risk of violence and exploitation.They are also central to this report.We use variations of the terms forced displacement and trapp

74、ed populations to cover the plight of both human and other species.If the displacement of species,including humans,continues along current and predicted trajectories,then the conservation community faces an enormous challenge that will likely have ripple and cascade effects in the decades and even c

75、enturies to come.Large-scale and widespread,unplanned or sudden onset migrations,accumulating over time or taking place in a single event,could affect traditional systems of sustainable land management as well as conservation gains made over many decades,such as established protected areas,conservat

76、ion easements and wildlife corridors.This is not to suggest that past conservation efforts must be preservednumerous critiques have raised important questions about the social impacts of many conservation practicesbut rather to introduce another motivation for reimagining how conservation achieves i

77、ts objectives,an important theme of IUCNs programme of work.11 For more information,please see:Benjaminsen etal.(2010);Cernea&Schmidt-Soltau(2006);Duffy etal.(2019);Kabra(2019);and Kelly(2011);see also the IUCN Reimagining Conservation website:https:/www.reimagineconservation.global/Executive summar

78、y xiiPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictImportant work is being done on species displacement.For example,in 2014,the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals adopted

79、 a Programme of Work on Climate Change and Migratory Species.The Programme of Work explicitly calls for increasing research to deepen our understanding of this problem,and developing a framework for addressing the needs of vulnerable species.This is a concern that needs to be broadly supported and p

80、erhaps even mainstreamed into conservation.We could note here that considerable efforts are also being made to find creative,fair and effective approaches to the growing challenge of the forced displacement of people.For example,the 2018 Global Compact on Refugees calls on the world to both address

81、the drivers of displacement and also to share responsibility for supporting those who have been displaced-which is currently falling heavily on a small number of countries in the global South.We believe there is also a role for the conservation community in this regard.Changes to the character of hu

82、man migration dynamics can create new challenges for conservation by amplifying pressure on coastal areas,water basins,rangelands and other vulnerable but vital ecosystems.For example,climate change may increase rural to urban migration,especially where there are alternative livelihoods opportunitie

83、s,such as in many rapidly expanding,despite being poorly planned,underserviced and underregulated peri-urban areas.Such migration might contribute to an accelerated pace of resource extraction,infrastructure development and land conversions like intensified agriculture,catalysing or deepening social

84、 and environmental conflicts.2 Some conventional conservation responses to these challenges,especially those that might be described as promoting strictly protected areas or exclusive area-based conservation,may actually risk increasing displacement and conflict.Migration and migrants are both polit

85、ical and highly politicised,whether it is people or other species on the move,which shapes migration responses and interventions.Such responses will inevitably have the greatest impact on already at-risk and marginalised human populations,especially Indigenous peoples and local communities,women and

86、 girls,and the poor,compromising their rights,dignity and security.As a result,inequalities and grievances may deepen,with social tensions escalating into violent conflicts.The potential for conservation practices to either contribute to conflict and injustice or to lead or support conflict resoluti

87、on and peacebuilding has been an area of interest to the conservation community at least since the publication of the International Institute for Sustainable Development(IISD)-IUCN study,Conserving the Peace:Resources,Livelihoods and Security(Matthew et al.,2002).That report is part of a broader lit

88、erature that has examined the complex linkages among different forms of environmental change,the conflict cycle(that is,2 For more information,please see:Deudney&Matthew(1999);Conca&Dabelko(2002);Matthew etal.(2002);Matthew etal.(2022).2The environment as a resolution tool4The environment as a preve

89、ntion tool1The environment as a cause or 3The environment as a peace strategyPeaceLatencyStalemateDe-escalationEscalationEruptionSettlement(or relapse)Violence levelFigure 1 The conflict cycle Source:Dresse etal.(2016,p.10).PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration

90、,environmental change,and conflictxiiithe initiation of violent conflict,the period of violent conflict,and practices of conflict resolution and peacebuilding)(Figure 1)as well as human security,which focuses on how the capacity of people to survive and flourish,can be compromised in many ways,such

91、as through food insecurity,changes in disease patterns,and loss of livelihoods.Since the early 1990s,when the end of the Cold War and the first Earth Summit combined to generate considerable interest in issues of environmental security,this body of research has evolved significantly from conceptual

92、and experimental approaches to more sophisticated,nuanced,evidence-based and robust theories and programmes(Ide et al.,2021).The connection between natural resources and violent conflict,for example,is no longer seen as linear or unidirectional,but rather in terms of multi-pathway possibilities acro

93、ss a spectrum of conflict and peace that is influenced by various factors,including governance,grievances,greed,ingenuity,profitability and lootability.3 In this context,conservation can function as either a driver of conflict or a vehicle for peace.4 In addition to the longstanding arguments about

94、the relationship of some forms of conservation to poverty,displacement and conflict,the prospect of significant changes to the migration patterns of many species including humans,suggests that the practitioners of mainstream conservation need to carefully consider whether existing approaches are pre

95、pared for these changes or instead need to be reconceptualised in fundamental ways,embracing a new network of partnerships,and evolving practices and approaches aligned with the complex,turbulent and in some ways unfamiliar world we inhabit today.In connectivity conservation and evolving concepts of

96、 mobile protected areas,conservation has given space to the movement of migratory species,but aside from traditional forms of transhumance,it has not considered large-scale human movement as part of the dynamic,nor attempted to reconcile movements of other species with human migration within a conse

97、rvation context.Conservation also continues to operate largely in silos from the other actors of concern in these scenarios.Notably,it is time to deepen and expand relationships between those working to address migration,humanitarian crises and peacebuilding needs,and those working to protect biodiv

98、ersity to collectively integrate people,nature and peace.Further complicating matters,migration is all too often considered from the perspective of either human migration or species migration,a siloed vision that extends into policy,as if we do not share the same planet,travel the same pathways,and

99、rely on the same ecosystems.This report challenges this division by interlinking the migrations of humans and all other species,seeking to understand the complexity of inter-species dynamics at different places and parts of migration pathways.In a persistent effort to ensure that the generic use of

100、the term migration does not allow one to forget its more-than-human nature,we have repeatedly been forced to separate and distinguish between humans and all other species and their respective mobility.We recognise that in uniquely identifying what is human and what is other-than-human,we might reinf

101、orce the conceptual separation of humans from other species but language is challenging on this front.In highlighting how different species migrations interact in response to environmental change and conflict,our intent is to enhance human thinking,planning and peacebuilding for all species.We have

102、chosen for this report to use the phrase humans and other species to capture the inter-species,more-than-human nature of migration.Our aspiration is that 3 For further information,please see:de Soysa(2002);Le Billon(2012);and Lujala(2012).4 For further information,please see:Ali(2007);Bocarejo&Ojeda

103、(2016);and Hsiao(2019).xivPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictone day,readers of this report will think of migration as a phenomenon inclusive of all life on Earth,irrespective of whether their mandate is to care for human nee

104、ds or the needs of other species.The planet is a shared space,species are interdependent as well as competitive,and recognition of this fundamental reality is critical to reimagining conservation in the context of migration,environmental change and conflict.When referring to migration,the report foc

105、uses on forced migration and displacement.Although traditional forms of migration,such as nomadism and transhumance,have always existed,both are being forcibly re-shaped and displaced by environmental change and violent conflict.This includes movements away from these traditional forms of livelihood

106、-based migration into other forms of existence.Similarly,with all other species which have historically migrated,we are observing shifts in their seasonal patterns and places of migration.These various altered forms of migration are also captured in this report.Conservation in many places is already

107、 needing to address how it responds to,plans for,and manages events and instances where these different,and yet in many ways similar types of migration and movement intersect,both today and in the future.This report seeks to assess conservation challenges and opportunities at the confluence of migra

108、tion,environmental change and conflict;initiate a widely inclusive dialogue with sensitivity towards justice and the difficult trade-offs ahead;and peer cautiously into the future while offering some optimism through the lens of environmental peacebuilding.Key questions and findingsUnderstanding the

109、 nexus of migration,environmental change,and conflictKey question:How might significant changes in the migration of most species,including humans,affect conservation?How does conservation affect these dynamics?Findings X Movement is an important part of the repertoire of adaptive strategies for huma

110、ns and many other species and is a beneficial process for ecosystem health as well as human and other species well-being,although it can also be damaging in certain contexts.However,movement is not always voluntary and can be forced,often causing considerable stress and harm.There are also both huma

111、ns and other species that are trapped and cannot move easily or at all even when conditions become difficult or impossible to live and thrive in.X Environmental change is a prominent cause of forced migration and is predicted to contribute to dramatic increases in the displacement of vulnerable peop

112、le and other species over the coming decades.X Conservation practice has at times resulted in and in some places continues to contribute to the forced and violent displacement of local communities and Indigenous peoples and the relocation of other species.X Forced displacements have environmental an

113、d social impacts across migration arcs that is,in places of origin,transit and destination including furthering environmental change,causing or amplifying violent conflict and/or human-wildlife conflict,deepening PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmen

114、tal change,and conflictxvimpoverishment and generating new forms of displacement.Holistic approaches to understanding human and other species migrations and their interplay in the context of global environmental change are crucial.X Through engagement with environmental peacebuilding,conservation pr

115、actice can be reduced as a contributing driver behind human and other species displacement and resulting conflicts.Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictKey question:Should conservationists be rethinking their activities in fundamental ways?How mi

116、ght conservation activities be transformed to become part of the solution?Findings X The growth of displacement related to environmental change and conflict suggests the need for reimagining conservation in ways that extend beyond area-based protection measures.X Conservation needs to plan for likel

117、y future conditions,not just present conditions,in order to be prepared for migrations associated with climate,development and demographic change.X Elements of the practice of conservation need to be reconceptualised to embrace a new network of partnerships outside conservations conventional areas o

118、f influence and at scales beyond its usual focus,in order to address migration,humanitarian and development needs without compromising biodiversity and nature.It is equally incumbent on other sectors and governments,in particular,to reach out to mainstream and new conservation actors across diverse

119、scales to complement their actions with the inclusion of migration and conflict-sensitive conservation approaches and interventions.X Conservation approaches need to contemplate push/pull migration factors and take a whole-of-arc migration approach that integrates the fluid and opportunistic charact

120、er of migrations and the roles of migrants in sustaining healthy social and ecological systems.Cross-sectoral whole-of-arc migration interventions can be supported in several ways:Account for push-pull plus drivers of migration Define and support migration buffer zones and corridors Protect existing

121、 migratory species and their pathways Learn from movement ecology and map the dynamics of migration Prepare for facilitated migration Mitigate possible impacts through landscape-wide approaches Manage migration along transit routes in real time Improve outcomes at destinations and in transit places

122、Make appropriate use of existing tools and technologies ethically and transparently while remaining innovative and adaptable Cultivate cultures of conservation and respect for diversity Engage conservation for conflict transformation and peacebuildingxviPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at

123、 the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict X Conservation interventions need to be just,inclusive and conflict-sensitive,and protective of the rights of peoples and nature,particularly those at-risk or vulnerable groups,through safeguards and the integration of embedded environ

124、mental peacebuilding processes to reduce drivers of both conflict and migration,as well as reduce the environmental impacts of migration and conflict.X Conservation should support human communities seeking to stay in place by respecting their rights,self-determination,and territories,including throu

125、gh allyship with environmental defenders and support communities of other species that may not migrate easily through ecological regeneration,or enhancing ecological resilience.X Conservation approaches can increase landscape-wide socio-ecological resilience through nature-based and ecosystem regene

126、rative livelihoods and informed decision-making that respects local and Indigenous knowledge and socio-natural systems,but these need to be built from the bottom-up through shared decision-making and governance.Moving forward togetherKey question:Given the complex and deep-rooted causes of migration

127、,environmental change and conflict,what sorts of partnerships and initiatives are required to meet current and future conservation and migration challenges and environmental peacebuilding opportunities?Findings X Reimagining conservation and developing new migration narratives are essential for a pl

128、anet on the move.To prevent and mitigate conflicts,the conservation community can better engage in both internal and external dialogues focused on transforming divisive narratives,aligning social and ecological values and reforming practices.X The conservation community must be proactive in engaging

129、 new partnerships and collaborative problem-solving with diverse stakeholders among the development,humanitarian,peacebuilding and migration communities at all levels to integrate agendas and program coordination,as well as to foster dialogue,cross-fertilisation and learning across sectors over prog

130、ram timelines that are long enough to impact on these intersecting dynamics.X Substantial conservation investments towards implementation,embedding peacebuilding across the arc of migration and mobilising planning and response mechanisms,including policy interventions,are needed.X International lega

131、l mechanisms to protect environmental migrants,encompassing the migrations of all species,are still lacking.Greater synergies are needed between international,humanitarian and environmental laws to adequately protect intersecting human and other species migrations in relation to environmental change

132、.X International laws and policies need to improve adaptive capacity and resilience in places of origin to prevent and mitigate displacement,protect people and other species,reduce impacts and resolve conflicts in places of transit and destination,as well as build positive peace across the migration

133、 arc.The mitigation of environmental change,support for the sustainability of adaptive migration,and prevention of conflicts are key interrelated priorities.PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictxviiA.COMMON ASPECTS CategoryHuma

134、n and other species migrationDefinitionMovement of humans/other species from one location to anotherMotivationEconomic,social,political,environmental reasons(e.g.seasonal,reproductive,foraging,climatic)ScaleGlobal,regional,localDurationPermanent,temporary,seasonal,periodic,episodicRoutesInfluenced b

135、y socio-economic factors;may share migration routes and peri-urban areasEnvironmental influencesNatural factors(climate,topography)and anthropogenically-induced environmental factors influence migration patterns(climate change,ecosystem degradation,translocation)Barriers Political,cultural,legal,phy

136、sical,natural barriers,human-made barriers(e.g.infrastructure)Movement ecologyStudy of environmental influences on migration routes and behaviour,including push-pull factorsConservation impactAlters local demographics,resource use,economies,culture,ecosystem dynamics,biodiversity patternsBiodiversit

137、y impactCan introduce non-native species,disrupt ecosystems by influencing population dynamics and genetic diversityConflict potentialMay lead to competition for resourcesManagement challengesRequires infrastructure,policy,and social and financial supportB.DISTINGUISHING ASPECTSCategoryHuman migrati

138、onOther species migrationEcosystem servicesAlters demand for resources,labour,and services;can introduce and/or eliminate species and degrade natural resourcesAffects pollination,seed dispersal,pest controlConnectivity and corridorsInfluenced by politics,economies,socio-cultural factors,infrastructu

139、re,urbanisation,and land use changes Essential for identifying and preserving migration corridors,maintaining genetic diversityClimate change impact Influences and is influenced by climate change Influenced by climate change,affects ecosystemsAdaptations Cultural,technological,social,environmentalPh

140、ysiological,behavioural,morphological Conventional conservation strategiesRequires consideration of human needs and cultural aspects(migrant integration and assimilation)Focuses on habitat conservation,regeneration,and maintaining migration pathwaysTracking technologiesRelies on various technologies

141、 for monitoring and control(passports,visas,customs,census),as well as GPS,mobile phones,and big dataUtilises advanced tracking technologies(GPS,satellite telemetry)for studying individual and population movements Table 1 Synoptic table of potential common and distinguishing aspects of migration bet

142、ween humans and other species xviiiPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictThis publication is a product of the time,effort and dedication of many people.We are deeply grateful to the following contributing authors who have shared

143、 their knowledge,insights and experience:Omer Aijazi,IUCN Commission on Ecosystem Management(CEM);Josh Ayers,Food for the Hungry;Alice Baillat,International Organization for Migration(IOM);Carl Bruch,Environmental Law Institute;Environmental Peacebuilding Association;Malvern Chikanya,Food for the Hu

144、ngry;Alec Crawford,International Institute for Sustainable Development;Janet Edmond,Conservation International;Fonna Forman,Center on Global Justice,University of California,San Diego;Lauren Herzer Risi,Wilson Center;Jason Houston,Photographer;Elaine(Lan Yin)Hsiao,Kent State University,IUCN Commissi

145、on on Environment,Economic and Social Policy(CEESP);Kanta Kumari Rigaud,World Bank;Ann Jacee Le,University of California,Irvine;Philippe Le Billon,University of British Columbia;Rebecca Lorenzen,Citizens for Responsible Energy Solutions;Pivi Lujala,University of Oulu;Eva Mach,IOM;Jonathan Maier,Univ

146、ersity of California,San Diego;Richard Matthew,University of California,Irvine;Shanna McClain,NASA;Galeo Saintz,IUCN CEESP;Mirali Shukla,IUCN CEESP;Mariam Traore Chazalnoel,IOM;Janani Vivekananda,Adelphi.We are also grateful to the generous support of the following:Blum Center for Poverty Alleviatio

147、n at the University of California,Irvine;the Environmental Peacebuilding Association;and the Center on Global Justice at the University of California,San Diego;and especially to Diwata Hunziker for her support in the production process.The external reviewers provided thoughtful feedback that has bee

148、n carefully incorporated into the report.They are:Michael Beevers,Dickinson University;Andrea Dekrout,UNEP;Shalini Dhyani,IUCN CEM;Barbara Nakangu,WWF;Judy Oglethorpe,WWF.Additionally the following kindly provided informal peer reviews:Mohammad Farhadinia,University of Oxford;John Linnell,Norwegian

149、Institute for Nature Research;Thomas Mller,Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre(SBiK-F);Liam OBrien,Kent State University;Kirk Olsen,Wildlife Conservation Society.AcknowledgementsPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and con

150、flictxixAFD Agence franaise de dveloppement(French Development Agency)CBD Convention on Biological DiversityCEESP Commission on Environmental,Economic and Social PolicyCITES Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and FloraCMS Convention on the Conservation of Migra

151、tory Species of Wild Animals CODES Coalition for Digital Environmental Sustainability EJ Environmental justiceFPIC Free,prior and informed consent GCM Global Compact for Safe,Orderly and Regular Migration ICCAs Indigenous Peoples and Community Conserved AreasIDP Internally displaced person IISD Inte

152、rnational Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentILC United Nations International Law Commission INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contributions IOM International Organization for MigrationIPBES Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services IPCC Intergovernmental P

153、anel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LSLA Large Scale Land Acquisition NAP National Adaptation PlansNAPAs National Adaptation Programmes of Action NbS Nature-based SolutionsNGO Non-governmental organisationNORAD Norwegian Agency for Development CooperationOAU Or

154、ganisation of African UnityOECMs Other effective area-based conservation measures OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOHCHR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights SADC Southern African Development Community SBiKF Senkenbury Biodiversity Conservation Re

155、search CentreSDC Swiss Agency for Development and CooperationSDGs Sustainable Development Goals SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation AgencySWAC Sahel and West Africa Club UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNEP-WCMC United

156、 Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees WHO World Health OrganizationWIM Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impa

157、cts WWF World Wide Fund for NatureAcronymsxxPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictThis report examines the implications for conservation practice of contemporary trends and patterns in the deeply interconnected areas of migratio

158、n,environmental change and conflict It encompasses not only human movements but also the current and potential migrations and displacements of other species.The decision to examine both human migration and the movement of other species is rooted in the understanding that mobility is a fundamental as

159、pect of life on Earth,influenced by a myriad of factors including environmental shifts,resource availability,land degradation,and conflict.By delving into the intricacies of migrations across species boundaries,the report aims to illuminate the interconnected nature of these movements and their impl

160、ications for reimagining conservation and environmental peacebuilding efforts.Multiple authors and peer reviewers have generously contributed their expertise and insights to this report,each offering important perspectives from their respective fields.The editors have carefully worked to integrate t

161、hese diverse contributions,weaving them into a cohesive narrative.We hope that our efforts have done justice to the wealth of knowledge and viewpoints provided by our contributing authors,especially given the challenges inherent in synthesising such varied perspectives.Any lack of clarity or misrepr

162、esentation in this report is likely the fault of the editors,while its strengths are clearly a reflection of the wealth of knowledge and experience we were privileged to draw upon.While we humbly recognise that migration is a radically different experience for individuals,groups of people,and other

163、species,making it impossible to describe completely in a report such as this,we strive to identify patterns and approaches that intertwine considerations for all life.This collaborative effort represents a small but significant step towards the broader integration needed across our diverse fields as

164、 we navigate the complexities of our changing world with mindfulness,compassion,and a focus on solutions that include a holistic and integrated view.As we present the insights gleaned from this collaborative effort,we extend our gratitude to all who have contributed to this publication.It is our col

165、lective hope that readers will find value in the perspectives shared herein,as we endeavour to move forward together in supporting conservation efforts for a planet on the move in a time of social,political,economic,and environmental change and uncertainty.Note from the editorsPLANET ON THE MOVE Rei

166、magining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict1Part I Understanding the nexus of migration,environmental change,and conflictAerial view of settlements for internally displaced persons(IDPs)near the Dawa River,in Dolow,Somalia,as environmental change strains

167、Somalias path to peace,communities hold the key.Photo:IOM 2022/TransLieu/Zubeyr/Claudia Rosel Barrios2PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict X Movement is an important part of the repertoire of adaptive strategies for humans and

168、 many other species and is a beneficial process for ecosystem health as well as human and other species well-being.However,movement is not always voluntary and can be forced,often causing considerable stress and harm.There are also both humans and other species that are trapped and cannot move easil

169、y or at all even when conditions become difficult or impossible to live and thrive in.X Environmental change is a prominent cause of forced migration and is predicted to contribute to dramatic increases in the displacement of vulnerable people and other species over the coming decades.X Conservation

170、 practice has at times resulted in and in some places continues to contribute to the forced and violent displacement of local communities and Indigenous peoples and the relocation of other species species.X Forced displacements have environmental and social impacts across migration arcs that is,in p

171、laces of origin,transit and destination including furthering environmental change,causing or amplifying violent conflict and/or human-wildlife conflict,deepening impoverishment and generating new forms of displacement.Holistic approaches to understanding human and other species migrations and their

172、interplay in the context of global environmental change are crucial.X Through engagement with environmental peacebuilding,conservation practice can be reduced as a contributing driver behind human and other species displacement and resulting conflicts.Key words:migration;movements;forced displacemen

173、t;origin;transit;destination;environmental change;displacement,conflicts;peacebuildingKEY MESSAGESPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict3Our living planet is and always has been on the move.Many species move in search of necessi

174、ties,such as food,water,shelter,reproduction and safety.These movements are often seasonal or patterned,but they can also be sudden and sporadic.Migration can take place over brief or lengthy periods of time and can be temporary or long-term.Movement can be motivated by curiosity or a means to take

175、advantage of perceived opportunities.Some movements are an adaptive response to environmental stresses and shocks;in other cases,environmental change may add to other pressures to move.Migration can be preventive or pragmatic,as migrants seek to avert a place from becoming overly degraded from persi

176、stent use or capitalise on seasonal or ephemeral resources(such as nomadic species,semi-nomadic practices and transhumance).Migration can also be responsive,as migrants seek to move out of a place that has become less optimal,such as coastal zones lost to sea-level rise,or dangerous such as conflict

177、 zones.When people are compelled to move involuntarily to survive,they are forcibly displaced.Sometimes,we refer to human migrants as refugees a term that has a precise legal definition in the United Nations,but that is now often employed in innovative yet possibly confusing ways,such as climate ref

178、ugees or displaced populations,designations that might be appropriate to extend to other species(Melde,2014).Today,largely because of environmental change,the rate and scale of forced migration or displacement are increasing for both people and the rest of nature.Some species,including vulnerable co

179、mmunities within the human species,may not be able or willing to move.They may thus be trapped in ecologically compromised places,where they may experience greater risk of violence or exploitation.If the forcible displacement of human and other species continues along its current and predicted traje

180、ctory,then the conservation community of the 21st century faces an enormous challenge that will likely have ripple and cascade effects in the years to come.Large-scale and widespread migration,often unplanned or unexpected,accumulating over time or taking place in a single event,could alter or rever

181、se conservation gains made over many decades.The loss of such gains could lead to new challenges by amplifying pressure on coastal areas,water basins,rangelands and other vulnerable but vital ecosystems.Rapidly expanding,poorly planned,underserviced and underregulated peri-urban areas or the acceler

182、ated pace of resource extraction,infrastructure development and land conversion are examples.Some conventional conservation responses to these challenges,especially those that might be described as strictly protected areas,or exclusive area-based conservation,may actually risk increasing displacemen

183、t and conflict.Such responses will likely have their greatest impacts on already at-risk and marginalised human populations,especially Indigenous peoples,traditional communities,women and girls and the poor,compromising their rights,dignity and security(Kumari etal.,2018).As a result,inequalities an

184、d grievances may deepen,with social tensions at times escalating into violent conflicts and humanitarian crises.The potential for conservation practices to contribute to conflict or to lead or support conflict resolution and peacebuilding has been an area of interest to the conservation community at

185、 least since the publication of the IISD-IUCN(2002)study,Conserving the Peace:Resources,Livelihoods and Security.The report is part of a broader literature that has examined the complex linkages among different forms of environmental change,the conflict cycle(that is,the initiation of violent confli

186、ct,the period of violent conflict,and practices of conflict resolution and peacebuilding),as well as human security,which focuses on how the capacity of people to survive and flourish can Introduction14PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,

187、and conflictbe compromised by food insecurity,changes in disease patterns,loss of livelihoods,and so on.Since the early 1990s,when the end of the Cold War and the first Earth Summit combined to generate considerable interest in this issue,environmental security and environmental peacebuilding in the

188、ory and practice have evolved significantly from conceptual and experimental approaches to more sophisticated,nuanced,evidence-based and robust theories and programmes(Matthew et al.,2009;Ide etal.,2021).Still,despite some early efforts to integrate this theory into conservation practice,such as in

189、the development of transboundary peace parks,conservation has not embraced the full potential of environmental security or environmental peacebuilding in its modes of operation or programmatic work,leading to ongoing critiques of its conflict and human security insensitivities.Facing conditions of e

190、nvironmental change,the lands and waters of conservation interest will likely become of heightened importance as attractive spots for relocation of humans,many other species and even infrastructure.Relocation into conservation lands could heighten environmental stressors and create feedback loops th

191、at worsen environmental conditions and increase pressures to relocate,become displaced,or drive further migration(Owley,2021).Adding to the challenge of migrating,large scale land acquisitions Figure 2 Large-scale land acquisitions in sites of conservation importance.There is significant concern tha

192、t large-scale land acquisitions(LSLAs)are becoming increasingly common around the world.Classified as any transfer of rights to use,control,or ownership of land through sale,lease,or concession of 200 hectares and above,limited data availability on LSLAs presents a major obstacle to evaluating their

193、 overall impacts.This figure depicts 1,423 LSLAs documented within areas of conservation importance by Biodiversity Hotspots(Conservation International,Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund)and Protected Areas(World Database of Protected Areas produced by UNEP-WCMC and IUCN).All data on LSLAs are deri

194、ved from the Land Matrix,an independent global land monitoring initiative created to address present data scarcity challenges and does not aim to be an exhaustive list of all land transactions.Of the 3,537 LSLAs represented by Land Matrix,57 projects in total are classified to be intended for conser

195、vation projects.While the Land Matrix initiative is widely considered one of the most comprehensive datasets on large-scale land deals to date,data on acquisitions in certain sectors,such as conservation,remain underrepresented.Map by:Ann Jacee Le,based on Esri&Land Matrix(2022).MAP LEGEND Approxima

196、te location of LSLA Protected area(WDPA)Biodiversity hotspots Outer limitsPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict5(LSLAs)around the world(Figure 2)are taking place for urban development,agricultural,and conservation purposes,dram

197、atically reducing access to vast amounts of land,often in areas that are rich in biodiversity and facing environmental stress.Figure 3 highlights LSLAs intended for conservation projects.As pressures to migrate mount and spaces to migrate diminish,the practice of conservation needs to be reconceptua

198、lised in fundamental ways,consider embracing a new network of partnerships and evolve methods and approaches that are appropriate for the times.In particular,conservation needs to bring together those working to address migration,humanitarian,peacebuilding and development needs with those engaging i

199、n the protection of biodiversity,to fairly and smoothly integrate people and other species on the move.Moving forward together across diverse sectors and backgrounds requires us to define a common language for migration that transcends not only borders and timelines,but also species.Reimagining migr

200、ationWhen referring to migration,the report focuses on forced migration and displacement or the involuntary movement of individuals or species.Even traditional forms of migration,such as nomadism and transhumance,that have always existed,are being forcibly re-shaped and impacted by environmental cha

201、nge and violent conflicts.This includes movements away from such forms of livelihood-based migration into other forms of existence,or out of migration corridors and into sedentary settlements.Similarly,with all other species which have historically migrated,we are observing shifts in their seasonal

202、patterns and places of migration.These various altered forms of migration are also captured in this report.Figure 3 Globally distributed locations of large-scale land acquisitions intended for conservation projects.This is documented by two separate databases,the Land Matrix and the EJ Atlas.The Lan

203、d Matrix data currently does not document the socio-economic outcomes of each land deal.EJ Atlas aims to document and catalogue social conflicts around LSLAs globally.Each EJ Atlas data point on this map represents a conservation project involving conflicts between investors and local community memb

204、ers.Map by:Ann Jacee Le,based on EJ Atlas(2022)&Land Matrix(2022).MAP LEGEND LSLAs designated for conservation by Land Matrix Data LSLAs designated for conservation by EJ Atlas Data Protected area(WDPA)Biodiversity hotspots Outer limits6PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection

205、 of migration,environmental change,and conflictIn a persistent effort to ensure that the generic use of the term migration does not allow one to forget its more-than-human nature,we have repeatedly been forced to separate and distinguish between humans and all other species.We recognise that in uniq

206、uely identifying what is human and what is not human,we reinforce the binary separation between humans and all other species.However,our intent is that in highlighting how these different species migrations interact in response to environmental change and conflict,we can enhance human thinking,plann

207、ing and peacebuilding for all species.We have chosen for this report to use the phrase,humans and other species,to capture the inter-species,more-than-human nature of migration.Our aspiration is that one day,readers of this report will think of migration as a phenomenon inclusive of all life on Eart

208、h,irrespective of whether their mandate is to care for human needs or the needs of other species.The planet is a shared space,species are interdependent,as well as competitive,and recognition of this fundamental reality is critical to reimagining conservation in the context of migration,environmenta

209、l change and conflict.Tens of thousands of people move by foot and on trucks towards a barricade built to prevent them from continuing their northward journey(Vado Hondo,Guatemala,2021).Photo courtesy of NIcol Filippo RossoPLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,

210、environmental change,and conflict7All forms of migration can have diverse social and ecological impacts.For example,unmanaged movement of people can in some contexts contribute to the introduction of lethal diseases,cause extensive land cover and land use changes,and be subjected to prejudice,discri

211、mination and exploitation.Yet,migration can also move valuable ideas,skills and goods into different places,catalyse innovation and cross-fertilisation,encourage tolerance and enable new forms of progress.In the 20th century,as the global human population swelled from 1.6 billion to 6.1 billion,migr

212、ation had wide-ranging and unprecedented impacts across the planet,especially as many people left rural areas for urban and suburban places,dramatically altering where the bulk of humankind now resides.Indeed,it is estimated that by 2050,about 70%of the worlds population will live in urban areas(UN-

213、Habitat,n.d.),a shift that has been associated with remarkable changes in land use,property rights,family structures and even the character of government(Manning,2012).Other migration patterns,such as rural-rural or the urban-rural migration observed,for example,during the COVID pandemic,can likewis

214、e have substantive social and ecological impacts.Many of the current areas with high demographic growth rates are concentrated in places exposed and vulnerable to negative climate change impacts,including recurrent droughts or sea-level rise(Raleigh etal.,2009).Cities are often reluctant to welcome

215、immigrants,worried about their impact on services,economic growth,social relations,cultural integrity,security and governance.As a result,parts of the world,and especially areas of Africa,are experiencing rapid growth of peri-urban spaces settled by people leaving rural areas,but not able to move in

216、to urban centres.These“newly emerged agglomerations do not display either clearly urban or rural characteristics”(SWAC/OECD,2020,p.60).The rapid expansion of peri-urban settlements,a complex and typically disadvantaged space in which interactions between human and other species can cause significant

217、 harm to both,requires a new generation of integrated approaches to land use planning that is considerate of the diversity of life on Earth(Knig etal.,2020).This report highlights the gap between integrating considerations and approaches to address the intersecting migration and displacement of huma

218、n and other species in changing environments,exacerbated in peri-urban spaces,and the need for conservation to play a positive role.Indeed,the COVID-19 pandemic,which might well have its origins in peri-urban spaces where people and other zoonotic vectors,agriculture and industry intersect with rela

219、tively low regulation,has catalysed interest in these areas and underscored the paucity of research that is available.Fortunately,a growing number of initiatives from cities to develop more inclusive urban policies towards migrants has arisen in some places in response to various pressures,albeit ty

220、pically without consideration for the movement of other species(Mayors Migration Council,n.d.).2.1 Intersecting migrations More than a decade ago,Oliver-Smith(2012)noted that debates over environmental displacement were“rarely framed in terms of complex society-nature relations”,but rather based on

221、linear causality models about the influence of environmental factors on human migrations.Shaped by Cartesian dualism pitting asocial nature against human society,these perspectives are now on the retreat as post-humanist perspectives and mounting evidence of the sociality of nature become more mains

222、tream(Dalby,2020).Today,there is still substantial scope for further integrating the challenges and benefits associated with human and other species mobility into development and climate-related policies at the national and international levels.However,to get there,the conceptualisation and language

223、 of migration need to be harmonised and brought Migration,environmental change and conflict28PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflicttogether under a whole-of-arc framework that all stakeholders can understand and mobilise around.

224、This section considers migration through the lens of migratory species,movement ecology and political ecology.Migratory species movement includes many long-distance annual journeys that are of unique cultural,ecological and economic importance(Lpez-Hoffman etal.,2017).Movement ecology is key for the

225、 study of migratory species,and more generally of the causes,patterns,and consequences of movements for species and ecosystems.Political ecology adds a layer of understanding by focusing on the interplay of social and ecological factors and emphasising the importance of uneven power relations betwee

226、n people and species that come to shape policies and practices affecting migration routes and processes,such as land use,infrastructure building,or conservation projects.As a result,many migratory species are declining in numbers(Meretsky etal.,2011;Kauffman etal.2021).2.1.1 Migratory speciesSpecies

227、 movement includes many long-distance annual journeys that are of unique cultural,ecological and economic importance(Lpez-Hoffman etal.,2017).Such journeys have become increasingly risky for migratory species as human actions degraded,fragmented or destroyed habitats,thus creating obstacles to migra

228、tion and increasing mortality along migration corridors.As a result,many migratory species are declining in numbers(Meretsky etal.,2011;Kauffman et al.,2021;UNEP-WCMC,2024).Migratory species provide cultural values,and ecosystem goods and services throughout their annual cycles and,for some,such as

229、salmon,often over long distances.Certain species like sharks contribute to the well-being of fisheries and play a large role in the functioning of local ecosystems.Large cetaceans provide carbon dioxide(CO2)sequestration services.Species like whales are valuable to the local economies they surround

230、and the habitats they live in.Designing effective conservation solutions for migratory species requires knowledge of the phenology,species ecology and the socio-economic context of their migrations.For example,insectivorous bats prey on crop pests and reduce the need for pesticides;birds and insects

231、 pollinate food plants;in addition,birds also afford food security for The dark-bellied Brent geese(branta b.bernicla)breeds during the short Arctic summer.It winters along the coasts of southeast of England,northwest of France,and the Dutch-German-Danish Wadden Sea.Highly dependent on sea grass(Zos

232、tera)abundant in the saltmarshes of the Wadden Sea,it is the main food source for building up fat reserves enabling the species to migrate to its high Arctic breeding grounds.Photo:GRID-Arendal/Peter Prokosch/CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 Deed|Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International)PLANET ON THE M

233、OVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict9subsistence hunters and recreational opportunities to birdwatchers.Beyond the benefits other migratory species bring to human communities,it is important to note that the movement(dispersal)of migratory s

234、pecies ensures population viability and gene flow across diverse ecoregions.As evidenced by the ways that larger iconic species migrations rely on and are shaped by the movements of less charismatic fauna and flora,the migrations of all species are intertwined and often interdependent.Certain bird p

235、opulations undertake mass seasonal migrations that coincide with local plant and insect blooms.Large marine megafauna like whale sharks and some cetaceans make seasonal migrations to feeding and breeding grounds timed with the life cycles of lower trophic sphere species in the ecosystem.These lower

236、trophic communities are changing structure and moving geographically due to climate change and other forms of environmental change.For certain species,like whale sharks,the impacts of these changes are not fully understood,making the protection of both individuals and entire populations far more dif

237、ficult.Migration by all species can have many mechanisms and drivers.Rather than being perceived only as escaping unfavourable conditions,it can also track the most optimal conditions,sometimes creating habitat conditions that are better for the wider ecosystem,such as ungulates surfing the green wa

238、ve.Looking at patterns of transhumance or groups of people following species migrations for subsistence or livelihood,human migration has a long history of sustainable co-existence with migratory species.However,less co-evolved or unplanned human migration can have a significant impact on other spec

239、ies through the disruption of individual populations and their habitats.They are thus of direct concern for conservation objectives.2.1.2 Movement ecologyMovement ecology is the study of how organisms,whether mammals,plants or microorganisms,move within their environments or ecosystems.Movement patt

240、erns include daily activities,like foraging or dispersals across a landscape during seasonal migrations(University of Georgia,n.d.).Movement ecology can provide important insights into migration phenomena linked to biodiversity,while providing a unifying framework for understanding movement dynamics

241、 within nature(Jeltsch&Grimm,2020;Nathan et al.,2008).The approach of movement ecology might also add to how we study and understand human movement at larger scales.Many of the mechanisms that shape biodiversity are mediated by organismal movement and naturally,where humans are a part of these syste

242、ms.As made obvious by anthropogenic climate change,humans have an undeniable hand in shaping biodiversity and the movement of other species.It is essential to appreciate when considering migration that understanding how movement itself promotes diversity both directly through individual species move

243、ments and indirectly through mobile-link functions,which occur when organisms“actively move in the landscape and connect habitats in space and time”(Lundberg&Moberg,2003,p.87)may impact how we respond to or understand migration events.Movement patterns of organisms and species can critically influen

244、ce community assembly and species co-existence in less obvious ways-for example,by reducing exploitation competition in spatio-temporally heterogeneous environments(Macandza et al.,2012),strengthening predator effects on prey(Avgar et al.,2008),or modifying abiotic conditions in critical ways(Shantz

245、 etal.,2015).These understandings need to be thoroughly integrated with political ecology to capture how the decisions and activities of humans,from policymaking and economic or livelihood strategies to short or long-term displacement,influence the movement ecology of all other species and vice vers

246、a.Movement ecology has demonstrated how individual movement capacities and strategies are critical in determining the persistence of species and communities in fragmented landscapes(Brown etal.,2017;Gonzlez-Varo etal.,2017;Jeltsch&Grimm,2020)with environmental temperature and changing climatic condi

247、tions(Farhadinia etal.,2020;Wittwer etal.,2015)or in the presence of non-indigenous species(Drygala etal.,2013).Ever-increasing human impacts on 10PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictnature,including intersecting migration eve

248、nts and increasing conflict linked to environmental change,are altering long-established species movement patterns.Both movement ecologists and human migration specialists highlight that organismal movement is changing perceivably across scales,challenging us to integrate our understanding and appro

249、ach to human and other species migrations(Jeltsch&Grimm,2020).2.1.3 Political ecologyConservation practice has historically focused on ecology,biodiversity and species preservation,with humans seen predominantly as threats to all of these.It also defines migration and migration dynamics differently

250、from those who engage primarily with human migrants.In ecology,for example,species migration follows two types of movement:(i)one-way and once-off;and(ii)seasonal,or,in other words,predictable and recurring.Generally,the first is about dispersal or gene flow and meta-population dynamics,while recurr

251、ing seasonal migrations operate at individual levels.Both are considered natural behaviour and not responses to sudden or slow-onset events and/or environmental change.The human migrations most relevant and perhaps comparable to seasonal movements of species are transhumance or extractive uses,such

252、as bluefin tuna fishing,and both are very much dependent on inter-species relationships.One-way,one-off migrations of people are not typically about gene flow,but rather may be incited by a variety of push or pull factors.This includes common characterisations of human migration,such as economic mig

253、rants,internally displaced persons(IDPs)and refugees.While the terminology of migration may sometimes overlap like assisted migration,range shifts or maybe even dispersal it often varies between species or disciplines.Similarly,the influence of politics,policies,economies and technology facilitate o

254、r inhibit mobility for different species.These differences and similarities require us to understand the political ecology of inter-species migrations or the macro-and the micro-dynamics of all species movements simultaneously.The lack of intersectionality and interdisciplinarity in understanding mi

255、gration dynamics is reflected also in migration policies.Despite multilateral agreements on the topic,there is no coordinated system for conservation of migratory species that takes a whole-of-arc approach from places of origin through transit to destinations other than the Convention on the Conserv

256、ation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals(CMS)and perhaps some species-specific landscape-level collaborations,such as large mammals in the Southern African Development Community(SADC)transfrontier landscapes.Information needed to protect migratory species is often lacking or not accessible,limitin

257、g options for land and wildlife managers who seek to support these species.Targeted initiatives to fill such data deficits are emerging,including the CMS Global Initiative on Ungulate Migrations(CMS,n.d.).Furthermore,there are extensive gaps in knowledge regarding the intersection of both human migr

258、ation and the migration of all other species.Conservation science,together with a deeper understanding of species migration dynamics,needs to engage further with existing and potential future human migration events,especially in places where biodiversity may be threatened,such as near borders where

259、many intact landscapes with rare species are situated.This intersectionality and interdisciplinarity then needs to transform into policy and policy implementation.Migration is all too often considered from the perspective of either human migration or species migration,with species migration excludin

260、g the human species.In science and policy,both migrations are often blind to the other,as if we do not share the same planet.This report reconciles this division by interlinking the migrations of human and all other species,seeking to understand the complexity of inter-species dynamics at different

261、places and parts of migration pathways.2.2 Beyond numbersHuman migration is widely predicted to increase due to environmental stresses and shocks(Ionesco etal.,2016).The Secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersec

262、tion of migration,environmental change,and conflict11Box 1Visioning the migration impacts of climate changeThe 2018 World Bank report Groundswell:Preparing for Internal Climate Migration(Rigaud etal.,2018)introduced slow-onset climate impacts into a model of future human population distribution in t

263、hree regions that combines socio-economic and climate data.The Groundswell report predicts that slow-onset climate change affecting crop productivity,water stress and sea-level rise,compounded by storm surges,will result in the emergence of hotspots of climate induced in-migration and out-migration.

264、The scale of internal climate migration will ramp up by 2050 and then accelerate,unless concerted climate,humanitarian and development action are taken.It is therefore vital to pursue more climate-friendly and inclusive development scenarios to reduce the number of climate migrants.Without concrete

265、climate and development action,by 2050 some 143 million people about 3%of the population across Sub-Saharan Africa,Latin America,and South Asia could be forced to move within their own countries as part of climate-induced migration(see figure).The report projects that climate-driven out-migration wi

266、ll occur in areas where livelihood systems are increasingly compromised by climate change impacts.These out-migration hotspots are increasingly marginal areas and can include low-lying cities,coastlines vulnerable to sea-level rise,and areas of declining food productivity and high water stress.Clima

267、te in-migration hotspots across the three regions emerge in locations with better climatic conditions for agriculture,as well as cities able to provide better livelihood opportunities.Sources:Nicholls etal.(2011);Reuveny(2007);and Stenning(1957).(UNCCD)predicts 135 million people may be displaced by

268、 drought by 2045(UNCCD,2019).The World Bank estimates climate-induced internal migration could reach 216 million by 2050 in six of the worlds major regions:Sub-Saharan Africa,Latin America,the Middle East and North Africa,South Asia,East Asia and the Pacific,and Eastern Europe and Central Asia(Box 1

269、 and Figure 3)(Clement etal.,2021,2022).According to the Ecological Threat Register,1.2 billion people are highly vulnerable to being displaced by climate impacts(IEP,2020),while the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services(IPBES)reports that 50700 million peo

270、ple could be displaced by land degradation and climate change by 2050(Brondizio etal.,2019).Given expected demographic growth and in a business-as-usual climate scenario,by 2070 about 3.5 billion people would have to migrate to stay within the temperature-defined ecological niche of humans as it has

271、 been for the past millennia.Even with strong climate mitigation,such migration could still involve about 1.5 billion people(Xu etal.,2020;Lenton etal.,2023).Beyond the impacts on human communities,these same environmental stresses and shocks 12PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the inte

272、rsection of migration,environmental change,and conflictFigure 4 Climate-induced internal migration by major regionsSource:Rigaud et al.(2021,p.xv).are also placing pressure on all other species and ecosystems,with as many as half of all such species already on the move(Welch,2017).This pressure can

273、result from degraded environmental conditions for local species,as well as the arrival of non-indigenous,invasive species that may thrive in the new conditions(IUCN,2021).Invasive species are globally among the most important factors of biodiversity loss and species extinction,threatening indigenous

274、 species,ecosystem functions,livelihoods and food security.5 Invasive species can reduce the resilience of local natural habitats,and hence of resident human populations,to climate change effects.Pollinators,for example,are at risk of the effects of climate change due to timing of flowering,changes

275、in plant species,competition and predation.In North America,for example,honeybees(Apis mellifera)provide substantial economic stimulation by pollinating food crops to produce a range of apiary products,but are at increasing risk due 5 On the complexity of managing invasive species,see,for example,th

276、e case of the blue catfish in the Chesapeake Bay(Fabrizio etal.,2020).to growing populations of the predatorial Asian hornet(Vespa mandarinia).The movement of these hornets is facilitated by increased temperatures and milder winters.And as indigenous species extend their geographic ranges in respons

277、e to changing conditions,they may potentially cause harm in these new places,blurring the non-native definition of invasive species.In a context of environmental change,the concepts of alien and invasive species will need to be thoroughly reconsidered to incorporate the expanding ranges of indigenou

278、s species,the introduction of non-indigenous species transported by humans for their very survival,the voluntary movement of species towards more favourable conditions,and so on.It is important to underscore that highly reliable projections for future climate or environmentally induced migration are

279、 not currently available.When we peer into the decades ahead,we discern a PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict13broad range of carefully modelled and evidence-based climate and development futures,which suggests that programme

280、s and policies that are robust across a range of possible realities are preferable to those that are not.While estimates of 200 million6 or 300 million people(Myers,2005)displaced by environmental degradation and climate change worldwide by 2050 have been frequently cited,it is important to note tha

281、t they are fraught with uncertainty.While they have helped shift the worlds focus to the issue,such information provides very coarse predictions about the scale,timing and spatial dimensions of the challenge(Gemenne,2011).Specifically,in relation to possible climate induced migration,the Intergovern

282、mental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)does not provide a specific estimate regarding the likely number of people that will be displaced.In fact,while the IPCCs Sixth Assessment Report states with high confidence that“climate may exacerbate political,social,economic or other environmental drivers”of mi

283、gration and displacement,it also notes that“evidence of international migration in response to climate hazards is sparse with difficulties in identifying a climate signal due to the multi-causal nature of migration decision making”(IPCC,2022,p.1751).Many studies seeking to understand the effects of

284、climate change on migration have relied on climate variables,such as temperature and precipitation,rather than actual climate impacts on different sectors of society and persistently loses the multi-species lens.For example,the simplest approach to modelling climate migration is exposure mapping,whi

285、ch involves overlaying a climate-related hazard on a population distribution map.Although it provides a rough sense of hazard risk,it misses considerable heterogeneity in human vulnerability and intersectional impacts that can be evident even at a small scale,does not integrate human and other speci

286、es population data and,thus,is limited in how it can be used for building socio-ecological resilience.In this context,the first Groundswell report went beyond exposure to look at the impacts of crop productivity,water stress and sea-level 6 See Myers(1993;2002)and Myers&Kent(1995).rise,compounded by

287、 storm surge on population shifts as a measure of climate-induced migration(Rigaud et al,2018).Recent work in the Lake Victoria Basin countries(Rigaud et al.,2021a)and West Africa(Rigaud et al.,2021b)applied further enhancements to the Groundswell model,including changes in ecosystem productivity an

288、d flood risks and non-climate factors,such as demographic variables(such as median age and gender)and conflict.Analysing both climate and non-climate factors with greater granularity provides a more complete representation of how climate-induced migration trends will manifest.For example,conflict ho

289、tspots tend to be associated with slow or declining rural population growth and slightly more rapid urban growth,because when civil conflicts break out people tend to flee rural areas in search of protection in urban areasalthough the opposite can also occur.The IPCCs Fifth Assessment Report does re

290、cognise that“climate change over the 21st century is projected to increase displacement of people”and specifies that“displacement risk increases when populations that lack the resources for planned migration experience higher exposure to extreme weather events,in both rural and urban areas,particula

291、rly in developing countries with low income”(IPCC,2014a,p.20).It also posits that“changes in migration patterns can be responses to both extreme weather events and longer-term climate variability and change,and migration can also be an effective adaptation strategy”(IPCC,2014b,p.20).Higher resolutio

292、n projections of the scale of climate migration and the potential patterns of human and wild species movements are critical for communities so they can plan and prepare through informed decision-making processes(Box2).When it comes to migration originating from environmental factors,internal displac

293、ement occurs more frequently than international migration.With such migrants often missed by data collection,the challenges are enormous for them and their receiving communities,especially in coping with socio-political and contextual factors,(Morales-Muoz etal,2020).14PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining

294、 conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflictThese predictions all suggest the possibility that environmental factors trigger an unprecedented acceleration and intensification of migration trends and patterns(Box 2).The escalating movements of humans and all other

295、species will inevitably intersect,contribute to conflicts and pose significant challenges for conservation practice.Yet,the complex intersections of human and other species migration have received little attention and are important to characterise,monitor,study and engage with both in terms of conse

296、rvation for human and environmental security,and peace(Dalby,2009).Even acknowledging uncertainty,the prospect of potentially tens or hundreds of millions of humans and other species flowing rapidly through peri-urban and other sensitive ecosystems around the world can easily evoke alarming images o

297、f 7 A form of extreme capitalism that advocates privatisation and deregulation in the wake of war or natural catastrophe.turbulence and panicked responses:widespread livelihood losses amidst disaster capitalism;7 hardening borders and racialised immigration policies;violent conflict feeding social d

298、ivisions;deepening inequality and poverty;pandemic disease outbreaks;humanitarian and state resources being overwhelmed;further ecological devastation;and profound human insecurity and misery.Avoiding such outcomes requires better evidence-based participatory action research and nuanced discussions

299、that help identify fair and effective solutions approaches and strategies that are both nature-based and rights-based.Box 2 Sea-level rise and climate migration in the PacificLow-lying small island communities are especially vulnerable to several climate related environmental changes like sea-level

300、rise that necessitate or encourage migration.The relocation of large numbers of people in a number of coastal and island communities is already occurring and is expected to continue.Pacific-specific projections have estimated that approximately two million people within the region may be displaced f

301、rom their current residences by the end of the 21st century(GROMS,n.d.).The implications that this movement has on cultural and social cohesion,as well as continuity,is yet to be explored in depth,but the potential for conflict between Pacific islander groups and their host communities due to climat

302、e migration currently exists and will most likely continue to.In certain Pacific regions,cultural clashes have started between Melanesian,Micronesian and Polynesian communities post climate relocation.The stresses of migration and(re)settlement can contribute to ethnic tensions,resource competition(

303、actual or perceived),and mistrust or maltreatment of incoming migrants of differing ethnicities and socio-economic backgrounds.Through collaborative action and the support of external institutions,the facilitation of dialogue and integration between communities and NGOs can ease socio-cultural chall

304、enges faced by migrating and destination communities.In Hawaii,We Are Oceania,an NGO,has facilitated training for language access,acculturation,pre-employment and youth empowerment to support co-existence with Micronesian migrants.Sources:Nicholls etal.(2011);Reuveny(2007);and Stenning(1957).PLANET

305、ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict15Whatever their drivers,pathways and patterns are,all migrations have environmental implications from the beginning of the journey to its end,which may be temporary or permanent(Crosby,2004).To co

306、ntextualise these implications,we frame our analysis in terms of the arc of migration,a non-linear pathway featuring three contexts that can be distinguished by different or intersecting sets of push-pull factors,needs,impacts and possibilities for conflict or,alternatively,environmental peacebuildi

307、ng:1)Origins:the processes and places associated with humans and other species decisions to move out of their usual locations.Why do humans and other species leave a place(or feel trapped)and what are the implications relevant to conservation?2)Transits:the processes and places associated with human

308、s and other species on the move as they make their way from places of origin to destination(which for some becomes a permanent condition).What are the impacts of and on humans and other species as they move?3)Destinations:the processes and places of resettlement,noting that migrations are often neit

309、her linear nor simple,thus blurring the borders between places of origin,transit and destination.Where do humans or other species settle?How well are they accepted and integrated into their new place of residence,and what are the effects on conservation of their arrival and long-term presence?What a

310、re the impacts of newly migrated individuals or groups on existing ecosystems and human systems?The arc of migration3This arc can be long or short in distance,linear and non-linear,followed quickly or very slowly,and at times taking place over multiple generations.The decision to move may be volunta

311、ry or forced,with a large grey area between.Some humans and other species can be trapped at different points on the arc,while others may be highly mobile,or only able to move with some form of assistance.It is thus useful to think of a spectrum of mobility from low to high that is relevant at any po

312、int on the arc.Figure 5 The arc of migrationIllustration based on concept by Fonna Forman.16PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict3.1 OriginsDecisions to migrate are not made in social or environmental vacuums.Migration processe

313、s are inscribed within complex historical,political and economic contexts,shaping peoples perspectives and their individual agency with ever evolving contexts(Manning&Trimmer,2020).Set within the broader time frame of changes in the Earth system,processes of colonisation,industrialisation and the co

314、mmodification of nature,including mining and urbanisation,have massively transformed lives,rights,power relations and the environment(Bales,2016;Headrick,1981).Most human migratory flows have been associated with shifts in political power and vast transfers of wealth and control over land,which expe

315、rienced a dramatic increase from the late 15th century onwards as a result of widespread enslavement and colonisation by European countries over much of the rest of the world(Boomgaard&Hart,2010).Forced migrations,such as the trans-Atlantic slave trade or the push and confinement of Indigenous commu

316、nities into reserves,constitute tragic and shameful examples of racist and colonial behaviours that have had long term social and ecological consequences in both home and host countries(Watts,1990).Finding some of its roots in the impacts of colonial expansion and green imperialism,environmental con

317、servation has also been playing a part in population movements through the forced displacement of people out of newly created forest reserves,wildlife parks and protected areas(Grove,1996;Neumann,2015).More voluntary forms of migrations encouraged by colonial authorities,such as the French colonial

318、promotion of labour migration from drought-prone Burkina Faso to cocoa plantations in Ivory Coast,set historical patterns resulting in greater migration responses to contemporary environmental stressors that follow migration culture and networks already in place(Schmidt-Soltau&Brockington,2007).Deep

319、ened during the industrial revolution and exponentially accelerated through the rise of fossil fuel uses(Radkau,2008),these processes now continue under various forms as the blurring between North and South,including through Chinas massive impact,reshape the global political economy and associated p

320、opulation movements(Ascenso et al.,2015;Nawyn,2016;Thun,2007).Human migration is a deeply socio-environmental affair,with strong political and economic dimensions.It is at once structured by,and structuring of,social and environmental conditions structured because migration reflects the historical s

321、ocio-environmental conditions that individuals,households and communities face,whether in their places of origin,while on the move and at destination as this framing through the arc of migration makes clear.Migration is also structuring because it shapes the imaginaries,behaviours and concrete reali

322、ties of communities affected by migration,including along environmental dimensions(Paprocki,2019).Manning argues that“Human migration shares some characteristics with that of other species,but it has its own character:it is determined less by biological necessity and more by social choice than for o

323、ther species”(Manning&Trimmer,2020,Appendix 1.2).These human decisions,intentionally or unintentionally,have ecological impacts that can also create push-pull factors,facilitating or inhibiting the migrations of other species.In this regard,we may be witnessing a growing convergence of the forces dr

324、iving contemporary human migrations and those of other species in the wake of the stresses and shocks of global environmental change(see Box3).In fact,some human migrations are accompanied by the movement of other species and land-use practices that give preference to certain species.New crops have

325、been brought back home from distant countries,or re-exported to other ones,as in the case of corn in the Americas,Europe and Africa.New pests,parasites and diseases have been carried through both human and migratory species processes,as well as trade supply chains,changing demographics and ecosystem

326、s(Karesh et al.,2012).In turn,the movement of other species has led to new human population movements or,on the contrary,greater restrictions on movement as new economic opportunities arose or collapsed.The rapid spread of zoonotic diseases through air transportation and global supply chains,for exa

327、mple,exacerbates such processes as demonstrated by COVID-19,Spanish flu,Nipah,and others(Migration Data Portal,2023).PLANET ON THE MOVE Reimagining conservation at the intersection of migration,environmental change,and conflict17Studies of other species migration in response to climate change sugges

328、t that many will be crossing international boundaries.For example,under a high-emissions scenario,an estimated 35%of mammals and 29%of birds will have“over half of their 2070 climatic niche in countries in which they are not currently found”(Titley et al.,2021).At sea,climate changes by 2050 could r

329、esult in“species turnovers of over 60%of the present biodiversity”with potentially drastic disruptions to ecosystem services including local community livelihoods such as fisheries(Cheung et al.,2009,p.235).In anticipation of ecosystem conversion resulting from climate change processes,some scientis

330、ts have been modelling the shifting ranges of other species,trying to pre-determine where more favourable conditions for their survival may move and,in some cases,even debating or Box 3 Socio-economic conflicts in reindeer herding and Smi communitiesClimate related movement and the cultural and soci

331、o-economic implications of climate change are affecting Arctic communities like the Smi and reindeer-herding communities in Northern Europe.As the temperature rises in the arctic,weather patterns have begun to change significantly.Warming temperatures mean that traditional reindeer-herding seasons a

332、re shifting or skipped.Environmental phenomena like blue ice are becoming more common,causing significant economic pressure for subsistence living and reindeer-herding communities.Traditionally,reindeer-herders have been able to use natural forested winter pastures without having to supplement the h

333、erds seasonal food supply,but changes to the climate that affect ground ice levels and forest health have meant that reindeer-herders are increasingly needing to feed their herds year-round in order to prevent starvation.This is a huge economic endeavour and financially too burdensome for some families to maintain.This has forced some individuals and families away from traditional livelihoods and