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1、Energy transition of fishing fleets Opportunities and challenges for developing countriesUNCTADUNITED NATIONSEnergy transition of fishing fleetsOpportunities and challenges for developing countriesUnitEd nations ConFEREnCE on tRadE and dEVELoPMEntPrinted at United Nations,Geneva2400765(E)January 202

2、4 451UNCTAD/TDR/2020United Nations publicationSales No.E.23.II.D.38ISBN 978-92-1-002993-3Energy transition of fishing fleetsOpportunities and challenges for developing countriesGeneva,2024UnitEd nations ConFEREnCE on tRadE and dEVELoPMEnt 2024,United NationsAll rights reserved worldwide.Requests to

3、reproduce excerpts or to photocopy should be addressed to the Copyright Clearance Center at .All other queries on rights and licences,including subsidiary rights,should be addressed to:United Nations Publications 405 East 42nd Street New York,New York 10017 United States of America Email:publication

4、sun.org Website:https:/shop.un.org/The findings,interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States.The designations employed and the presentation of material on any map in this wor

5、k do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.This publication has been edited externally.United Nations p

6、ublication issued by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.UNCTAD/DITC/TED/2023/5ISBN:978-92-1-002993-3 eISBN:978-92-1-358681-5 Sales No.E.23.II.D.38ContentsAcknowledgements vExplanatory notes vAcronyms and abbreviations viExecutive summary viii1.Introduction22.Climate change,fishin

7、g fleets and fishing ports 62.1 The contribution of emissions from fishing fleets to climate change 72.2 Fuel subsidies 132.3 The role of fishing ports and the impacts of climate change 143.Nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement as applied to fisheries 164.The regulatory frame

8、work 204.1 The International Maritime Organization 204.1.1 Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide reduction measures 214.1.1.1 Short-term measures 224.1.1.2 Medium-to long-term measures 234.1.2 Other measures to control emissions from ships 244.2 Regional and national initiatives 264.3 The World Trade

9、 Organization Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies and in-built negotiating agenda 275.Technological opportunities and challenges of alternative energy options for fishing fleets 325.1 Alternative fuels 335.1.1 Green biofuels 335.1.2 Green methanol 345.1.3 Liquified natural gas 345.1.4 Biogas and other

10、renewable gaseous fuels 355.1.5 Green hydrogen 355.1.6 Green ammonia 365.2 Electric and hybrid engines 385.3 Other means of propulsion and emission reduction options 405.3.1 Wind propulsion 405.3.2 Energy efficiency measures 405.3.3 On-board carbon capture 406.Opportunities,challenges and considerat

11、ions for the transition of fishing fleets 446.1 Economic and technological 446.2 Trade and the seafood value chains 476.3 Environmental 496.4 Social 52References55Annex 1.Measures related to fisheries in the nationally determined contributions of the top ten aquatic food exporters 66Annex 2.Summary

12、of measures related to fisheries and the blue economy in the nationally determined contributions of the top ten countries with the highest number of references to fisheries70Annex 3.Experiences of fishing associations and fisheries service centres 75FiguresTablesFigure 1.Carbon dioxide emissions(in

13、million tons)of the fishing fleets of the European Union and Japan(19902021)8Figure 2.Percentage change in the carbon dioxide emissions of the fishing fleets of selected countries(19902021)9Figure 3.Fishing fleets and their estimated carbon dioxide emissions by region 10Figure 4.Distribution of fish

14、ing vessels by motorization type and region(2020)11Figure 5.Catch and carbon dioxide emissions by region 11Figure 6.Tons of carbon dioxide emissions per ton of catch(2021)12Figure 7.OECD data on fuel tax concessions for 14 OECD members(20072020)13Table 1.Energy use by scale of fishing activity in th

15、e European Union(2020)12Table 2.List of countries with the highest number of references to fisheries-related terms in their NDCs 17Table 3.Overview of alternative fuels 37Table 4:Overview of electric and hybrid engines 39Table 5:Overview of alternative means of propulsion and emissions reduction opt

16、ions 41AcknowledgementsThis publication was produced by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD),on the basis of a study coordinated by the UNCTAD Division on International Trade and Commodities,in collaboration with the UNCTAD Division on Technology and Logistics.The study tea

17、m at UNCTAD comprised the following:at the Division on International Trade and Commodities,David Vivas Eugui,Chief of Section;Claudia Contreras,Economics Affairs Officer;and Mafalda De Braganca Mendes,Intern;and at the Division on Technology and Logistics,Regina Asariotis,Chief of Section;Anila Prem

18、ti,Associate Legal Affairs Officer;Argyro Kepesidi,Associate Legal Affairs Officer;with work carried out under the direction of Chantal Line Carpentier,Head of the Trade,Environment,Climate Change and Sustainable Development Branch,Division on International Trade and Commodities.Inputs were also pro

19、vided by Daniel Hopp,Data Scientist,at UNCTAD.UNCTAD gratefully acknowledges the substantive contributions of Sarah Theurich and Ludovic Arnaud.Regional experiences are based on the contributions of experts,who were also interviewed for the study,as follows:Monica Maldonado of Cmara Ecuatoriana de I

20、ndustriales y Procesadores Atuneros(Ecuadorian Chamber of Tuna Industrialists and Processors,CEIPA);Shirlene Anthonysamy,Firoza Buranudeen and Mohd Hazmadi Zakaria from INFOFISH;Daniel Voces de Onandi,from Europche;and Nuno Cosme and ngel Matamoro from Nueva Pescanova Group.The study benefited from

21、peer reviews and substantive revisions by Robert Hamwey and Tansug Ok,Economic Affairs Officers,UNCTAD;Marcio Castro de Souza,Senior Fishery Officer and GLOBEFISH coordinator at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO);Mariana Toussaint,Fishery Officer,FAO;and Divyam Nagpal,P

22、rogramme Officer:Energy Access,International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA),who were also interviewed for the study.Editing and graphic design of the report were carried out by Claire Ward and Wendy Worrall.UNCTAD gratefully acknowledges the support of the Government of Portugal to the Ocean Economy

23、 and Fisheries Programme,through which the development of this report was made possible.Explanatory notesTon refers to metric ton.Gross tonnage is abbreviated to GT.Power is measured in watts,often expressed as 1GW,which equals 1,000,000,000 watts.vAcronyms and abbreviationsAcronyms and abbreviation

24、sCBAMCarbon Border Adjustment Mechanism(regulation of the European Union)CEIPACmara Ecuatoriana de Industriales y Procesadores Atuneros(Ecuadorian Chamber of Tuna Industrialists and Processors)CH4methaneCIIcarbon intensity indexCO2carbon dioxide DRRdisaster risk reductionECAsemission control areas E

25、EDI Energy Efficiency Design Index EEXIEnergy Efficiency Existing Ship IndexEEZexclusive economic zone ETSEmission Trading Scheme FAOFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsGHGgreenhouse gasIEAInternational Energy AgencyIUUillegal,unreported and unregulated(fishing)LBGliquified biogas

26、 LDCsleast developed countriesLNGliquefied natural gasHFOheavy fuel oil ILUCindirect land use changeIMOInternational Maritime OrganizationILOInternational Labour OrganizationIRENAInternational Renewable Energy AgencyIWSAInternational Windship Association MARPOLInternational Convention for the Preven

27、tion of Pollution from Ships MEPCMarine Environment Protection Committee(of IMO)MRVEuropean Union regulation on the monitoring,reporting and verification of CO2 emissions from maritime transport NDCsnationally determined contributions N2Onitrous oxideNOxNitrogen oxidesOECDOrganisation for Economic C

28、o-operation and DevelopmentRFMO/Aregional fisheries management organization/arrangementR&dresearch and developmentSEEMPShip Energy Efficiency Management Plan SDGSustainable Development GoalSIDSsmall island developing States SOxsulphur oxides UNCTADUnited Nations Conference on Trade and Development U

29、NFCCCUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeWTOWorld Trade Organization Adobe StockviExecutive summaryExecutive summaryAs more countries commit to net-zero emissions and include ocean-based climate action in their nationally determined contributions(NDCs),the energy transition of the f

30、ishing industry and its fleets is becoming a pressing issue.The fisheries sector is a contributor to greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions because of its heavy reliance on fossil fuels.In total,fishing vessels contribute between 0.1 per cent and 0.5 per cent of global carbon emissions,representing about 4 pe

31、r cent of carbon emissions from global food production.Because of a lack of data,emissions from fishing fleets are estimated with different methods(bottom-up vs top-down).The International Maritime Organization(IMO)finds an increase in carbon dioxide(CO2)emissions using a bottom-up analysis,versus a

32、 decline using a top-down(or macro)approach.Academic studies estimate that the worlds fishing fleets emitted 179 million tons of CO2 in 2011 and 159milliontons in 2016.Asia has the largest fishing fleet,producing the most CO2 emissions,followed by Europe and Africa.Based on notifications made under

33、the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC),the European Union,Japan and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland have reduced the emissions of their fishing fleets by between 20 and 45 per cent over the past 20 years due to a reduction in fleet sizes and energy

34、 efficiency gains(e.g.,in fuel use,efficient engines,lighter fishing gear,and smart navigation and fishing methods).The IMO recently adopted a revised GHG strategy for global shipping(IMO,2023a)that seeks to reach net-zero GHG emissions from international shipping close to 2050 and a commitment to e

35、nsure an uptake of alternative zero and near-zero GHG fuels by 2030.While not specifically targeting fishing fleets,the revised IMO GHG strategy is likely to accelerate the deployment of low and zero emissions technologies and fuels,and their related infrastructure in the fisheries sector.Any strate

36、gy for energy transition in the fisheries sector should be coordinated and build on that of the shipping sector because regulatory and technological developments are in a more advanced stage in that ocean economic sector.To date the application of energy efficiency regulations to fishing vessels has

37、 been effective but rather limited.This is primarily due to their size,propulsion type and operational patterns.Fishing vessels that fall below certain tonnage thresholds or operate exclusively within a flag States jurisdiction,are exempt from energy efficiency measures,but some larger fishing vesse

38、ls may need to comply in the near future.The energy transition of fishing vessels,and fisheries in general,lag behind the decarbonization of the shipping industry,lacking global targets and implementation guidelines and related research and development(R&D).Executive summaryviiiExecutive summaryThe

39、fisheries sector plays a crucial role in food security and livelihoods,with more than 40 million fishers worldwide,many of them located in developing countries.However,due to volatile fossil fuel prices and increasing climate impacts,there is a need for urgent support to ensure a swift energy transi

40、tion for the fisheries sector,with special attention paid to small-scale and artisanal fishers and female fisheries workers.With agriculture and tourism,the fisheries sector is one of the three economic sectors most vulnerable to climate change.The main causes for concern are rising sea levels,warme

41、r water temperatures and ocean acidification and their impacts on fishing activities particularly in least developed countries(LDCs)and small island developing States(SIDS).While non-motorized fishing vessels are emissions-free,artisanal fishers face fish stocks decline because of climate change.The

42、y need public support to adapt to climate change and improve their livelihood.On the other hand,motorized fishing vessels need support in shifting to renewable and clean energy resources.This applies especially to small-scale fishers.Policies to incentivize or mandate the energy transition of the fi

43、shing fleet cannot be designed without considering trade-offs and co-benefits.For example,increasing the fuel efficiency of engines may not improve fuel efficiency in terms of litres of fuel per ton of catch if overfishing continues.Canada and Norway,for instance,have the most fuel-efficient fishing

44、 vessels,while the European Union and the United Kingdom have lower fuel-efficiency,largely due to more intense competition for catches.1Similarly,industrial fishing fleets,which are more fuel-efficient,can undermine small-scale fishers if they are allowed to compete in the same marine areas or fish

45、 for overfished shared resources.The review of NDCs conducted in this study shows surprising results.It reveals that three major aquatic food exporters show no commitments on ocean or fisheries-related matters.In contrast,countries such as Canada,Chile and the Russian Federation have committed to pr

46、otecting ocean space and include climate mitigation and adaptation measures within marine protected areas.And,despite being a part of the most polluting region in the world,China and Viet Nam stand out for committing to implement measures for energy saving,energy efficiency and emission reduction in

47、 fisheries as a means of mitigating GHG emissions.The review of regulations and agreements found little evidence of such measures being used in the fisheries sector.At the European Union level,regulatory initiatives have been introduced to address GHG emissions from maritime transport.The inclusion

48、of shipping activities in the monitoring,reporting and verification of CO2 emissions from maritime transport(MRV)Regulation and the Emission Trading System(ETS)of the European Union,may have some implications for the fishing industry,albeit indirectly.While fishing vessels have been excluded from ce

49、rtain reporting obligations and market-based mechanisms,the European Union has recognized the importance of fair contributions across all sectors to achieve climate neutrality and Member States are required to take necessary measures,including at national level,under the European Union Climate Law,w

50、hich has been directly applicable and effective since July 2021.This suggests there is potential for the future inclusion of fishing vessels in emission reduction measures,as well as potential taxation of energy products used for propulsion.When zooming in on the fisheries sector,certain forms of(fu

51、el)subsidies clearly contribute to overfishing because they expand the capacity of fishing fleets.According to data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD),China is the biggest provider of fishing subsidies in value,followed by the United States of America,Japan,Canada

52、and the European Union.About 80 per cent of all fisheries subsidies,including fuel subsidies,are directed to industrial fleets.Most LDCs and SIDS do not provide,nor do they have the financial capacity to offer considerable subsidies,particularly for industrial fishing.The World Trade Organization(WT

53、O)Fisheries Subsidies Agreement reached in 2022 prohibits certain fisheries subsidies that contribute to illegal fishing and fishing on overfished stocks and is a significant step towards phasing out fisheries subsidies.However,negotiations are still ongoing for additional provisions under a compreh

54、ensive agreement to address issues related to overcapacity and overfishing,including fossil fuel subsidies.Phasing out fuel subsidies and shifting resources to support the energy transition of small-scale fisheries are essential to address overfishing and GHG emissions.1UNCTAD calculations based on

55、data from UNFCCC(2023)and FAO(2023a).ixEnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and challenges for developing countriesThis study finds several alternative energy sources for fishing vessels at different levels of commercial development,such as green methanol,liquified natural gas(LNG),biog

56、as,green hydrogen and wind propulsion.Each option has its challenges and opportunities.Green biofuels,made from non-food feedstocks or fish waste,stand out as the most readily available and mature fuel option for fishing vessels.Green methanol and LNG give rise to challenges in terms of retrofitting

57、,safety and limited potential to fully decarbonize.Green hydrogen and green ammonia show promise but require further R&D to address safety risks,scalability,cost-effectiveness,the storage capacity of vessels and ports,and delivery infrastructure.Onboard carbon capture only shows promise in the middl

58、e to long term.Ultimately,the choice of alternative fuels depends on the specific technical requirements and capabilities of fishing fleets,the crew and the type of fishing activity,as well as coordination and cooperation across the world to ensure access to alternative fuels wherever a fleet may op

59、erate.Another approach involves utilizing electric engines and hybrid engines,which can be powered by renewable energy sources such as solar panels.These engines offer a clean and quiet energy option.Electric engines are particularly suitable for smaller fishing vessels and short trips close to shor

60、e.Hybrid engines,which combine batteries,fuel cells and traditional engines,offer greater autonomy and flexibility for longer trips.This study also explores emerging wind propulsion as an attractive and carbon-neutral option for vessel propulsion for fishing and tourism activities through innovative

61、 technologies.Energy efficiency measures,such as digital tools and optimization methods,can be integrated into fishing vessels to enhance performance and reduce energy consumption.While on-board carbon capture could play a role in maritime decarbonization in the long term,the technology is not yet m

62、ature and faces high costs.Overall,technological alternatives such as alternative fuels,electric engines,hybrid engines,wind propulsion and energy efficiency measures,offer potential solutions to reduce GHG emissions in the fisheries sector and contribute to the just energy transition.However,each a

63、lternative presents challenges and limitations,requiring continuous R&D to fully realize their potential.Four case studies from diverse regions at different levels of development and with uniquely sized fleets offer valuable insights and can be found in Annex 3.For instance,the Ecuadorian experience

64、 shows efforts to measure the carbon footprint and introduce carbon-neutral production in the tuna value chain.The Asia-Pacific region focuses on clean energy and emissions targets but faces challenges related to capacity building,financing and regional strategies.In Europe,alternative renewable ene

65、rgy sources are not yet available for fishing fleets at a commercial scale and the region is focused on reducing energy consumption,improving efficiency and introducing circular economy schemes.The fourth case study provides an example from the private sector to achieve carbon neutrality by 2040 thr

66、ough emissions reduction and compensation.Accelerating the energy transition of fishing vessels will require collaboration and cooperation among stakeholders,governments,international organizations,research bodies and the private sector.Enabling coherent strategies,sharing technological advances and

67、 introducing financial incentives are essential to achieve a just energy transition for fishing fleets,particularly in developing countries and for small-scale fisheries.Additionally,further research on sustainable fisheries management and ecosystem-based approaches,and their links to energy transit

68、ion,is needed.The transition should focus on a balanced approach that encourages trade and investment in a sustainable energy mix and promotes the incremental adoption of renewable technologies that mitigate impacts on small-scale fisheries and marginalized fisherfolk.The following are some of the e

69、conomic and technological,trade,environmental and social considerations that are proposed and developed in detail in the report.1.Economic and technological considerationsDevelop and implement comprehensive national mitigation and adaptation plans for the fisheries sector,prioritizing a just energy

70、transition that involves all stakeholders along the entire fishing value chain and national energy matrix.xExecutive summaryBuilding on the experience of the IMO and FAO,establish a globally harmonized system for data collection,monitoring and reporting of fishing fleet emissions adapted to small-sc

71、ale and artisanal fisheries.Explore and adopt sustainable fuel options from circular economy practices,such as transforming fish waste and seaweed into biofuel or biogas for fishing vessels.Such transition implies retrofitting or adopting new engines and vessel design,efficient fishing practices and

72、 adequate port infrastructure.2.Trade,value chain decarbonization and trade-related infrastructure considerationsExplore the need to develop specific Harmonized System codes for the latest renewable energy goods and related technologies.Incrementally phase out and ultimately prohibit fossil fuel-bas

73、ed subsidies to the fisheries sector.Incorporate carbon footprint criteria for fish and seafood products into voluntary standards or consumer seafood sustainability guides.Develop and implement effective measures on climate change adaptation,resilience building and disaster risk reduction(DRR)for se

74、aport infrastructure on which fisheries activities depend;and improve access to affordable financing for developing countries.3.Environmental considerationsDevelop and agree on a specific and measurable global emission reduction goal for fishing fleets and on effective regulatory measures that are a

75、pplicable to fishing vessels.Include specific objectives for emission reduction and adaptation for the fisheries sector and fishing fleets in the revision and updates of NDCs and scale up mitigation commitments(by major aquatic food traders and fishing nations).Bolster efforts to reduce fishing flee

76、t emissions with effective stock and ecosystem management and restoration.4.Social considerationsEnsure that the shift towards renewable and sustainable energy sources promotes a just energy transition that also prioritizes the well-being,livelihoods and rights of fishers and their families.Revitali

77、ze the ratification and implementation process of the International Labour Organizations(ILOs)Work in Fishing Convention(C188)that ensures minimum working conditions,occupational safety and health and social security in the fisheries sector.Enhance fishing safety and prevent marine pollution by enco

78、uraging ratification of the IMO Cape Town Agreement and enforce the agreement to establish comprehensive safety standards for fishing vessels once it is in force.xi Adobe StockIntroduction11.Introduction1.IntroductionThe fisheries sector is important for food security,jobs and for the livelihoods of

79、 millions of people,especially in developing countries.Fisheries are an important provider of animal protein,macronutrients and micronutrients,such as Omega 3 fatty acids and iodine,that are difficult to find in other foods.Global capture fisheries generate 51 per cent of all fish and seafood produc

80、ed today(versus 49 per cent from aquaculture)(FAO,2022a).Developing countries depended on fish for more than 11.7 per cent of consumed animal protein in 2017,while in some SIDS this figure exceeded 50 per cent(UNCTAD,2021a).The fisheries sector is also an important source of jobs and livelihoods,wit

81、h more than 40 million people working in fisheries and aquaculture in 2020,about 21 per cent of whom are women(FAO,2022a).By way of comparison,there are 20 times more fishers than seafarers worldwide.On the other hand,energy efficiency and GHG emission reduction are vital for addressing both climate

82、 change and air pollution.They are key to achieving the ambitions of the Paris Agreement,1 which include“holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5C above pre-industrial levels”2 by

83、 2100.Net anthropogenic GHG emissions have increased since 2010 across all major sectors globally and,depending on the scenario,the global temperature increase of 1.5C relative to pre-industrial times is likely to be reached by 2040 or earlier,if emissions are not drastically reduced in the next few

84、 years,giving rise to more extreme heatwaves,droughts and flooding,with devastating consequences(IPCC,2022a,2022b).Accelerated mitigation action is needed in all sectors,including the fisheries and fishing ports sectors.Effective action on climate impact mitigation and adaptation are needed for thes

85、e sectors,particularly because of the importance of the sector for food security,livelihoods and womens economic empowerment(UNCTAD,2023a).1195 out of the 198 Parties to the UNFCCC adhere to the Paris Agreement which was adopted in 2015 and has been in force internationally since 4 November 2016.2Se

86、e Article 2 1(a)of the Paris Agreement:https:/unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf.21.IntroductionFishing fleets are a key contributor to the fisheries and seafood value chain,but also an important source of GHG emissions because they rely on fossil fuels such as marine diesel

87、as a source of energy.Although fish production emits less carbon per calorie,it is the most energy-intensive food production system in the world with a ratio of about 1 ton of fuel to 2 tons of catch(Tyedmers et al.,2005).Also,capturing the same amount of fish today involves fishing further away fro

88、m ports and over longer periods of time due the unsustainable biological level of about one third of global stocks(FAO,2022a),and therefore requires even more use of fuels.Estimates of CO2 emissions by fishing fleets ranged between 73 and 159 million tons annually during the previous decade(2012 to

89、2016),contributing to between 0.1 per cent and 0.5 per cent of global carbon emissions.However,these numbers are considered an underestimate because emissions have not been measured accurately and constantly in many countries.With shipping emissions deeply integrated into countries economies,a recen

90、t legal analysis concludes that emissions from international shipping should be included in government climate targets under the Paris Agreement(Transport&Environment,2021).Therefore,the energy transition of the fisheries sector and fishing fleets will need to be addressed as part of an economy-wide

91、 response by the main fishing nations.For this paper,the energy transition is understood as the shift by the energy and other economic sectors(in this case the fisheries sector)away from fossil-based systems of energy production and consumption towards renewable and zero-carbon systems.While much ha

92、s been written on the decarbonization of the shipping industry,the energy transition of the fisheries sector,and particularly of fishing vessels,is still a new and under-researched topic.Thus,fishing fleets usually face no specific global decarbonization targets,and best practices or guidelines do n

93、ot yet exist in most regions.Rising fuel prices and infrastructure-related costs provide an obvious incentive to transition fishing vessels to alternative and renewable energy sources.It is paramount that the necessary support is provided to the fisheries sector in developing countries,especially to

94、 small-scale and artisanal fishers and women workers,so that they can fully participate in the energy transition and all costs and benefits are shared fairly.The United Nations General Assembly declared 2022 as the International Year of Artisanal Fisheries and Aquaculture,“highlighting the importanc

95、eofsmall-scale artisanal fisheries and aquacultureforourfood systems,livelihoods,cultureandthe environment”(FAO,2019a).It must be emphasized that unmotorized artisanal vessels do not contribute to GHG emissions,yet too often suffer from the impacts of climate change on fish stocks,such as rising sea

96、 levels,warmer water temperatures and ocean acidification.A recent FAO study found that there is“increasing scope and need to promote the use of renewable energy for applications at all stages of the small-scale fisheries and aquaculture value chains.”(Puri et al.,2023).Motorized small-scale fishing

97、 vessels should be included in the energy transition.Indeed,all motorized fishing vessels,from small-scale to medium-and industrial-sized vessels,contribute to GHG/CO2emissions through the use of fossil fuels.Transitioning away from fossil fuels towards alternative and renewable energy use in motori

98、zed fishing vessels will contribute to the blue economy,energy transition and emissions reduction goals,particularly in the high seas.The Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan adopted at the 27th Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC,stressed“the urgent need for immediate,deep,rapid and sustained re

99、ductions in global greenhouse gas emissions by Parties across all applicable sectors,including through increase in low-emission and renewable energy,just energy transition partnerships and other cooperative actions”(UNFCCC,2022a).Measuring carbon emissions and the carbon footprint of specific sector

100、s and value chains is key to contributing to the achievement of international climate action goals.It allows businesses and countries to accurately determine the source of their main carbon emissions and take appropriate actions to reduce them.In the absence of proactive mitigation measures,climate

101、change impacts on the ocean could amount to$428 billion a year by 2050,owing to losses in fisheries,tourism and ocean carbon absorption,and damages arising from sea level rise and storms(IPCC,2022b).The energy transition of fishing fleets and the seafood value chain must be considered in the context

102、 of the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs),in particular SDG 7 on clean and affordable energy,SGD 12 on production and consumption methods 3EnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and Challenges for Developing Countriesand SDG 13 on climate action.SDG 14(life below water),and more precise

103、ly its target 1,also calls for the prevention and significant reduction in pollution of all kinds by 2025.Any energy transition of fishing fleets must respect the targets and indicators of SDG 14 and relevant international instruments pertaining to overcapacity,overfishing and illegal,unreported and

104、 unregulated(IUU)fishing.It is against this background that this study aims to provide a first mapping of the main challenges and opportunities of the energy transition of fishing vessels for developing countries.To do that,the study explores the interface between climate change,CO2 emissions and fi

105、shing fleets by analysing emissions data and ocean and fisheries commitments in NDCs under the Paris Agreement.It also analyses the incipient regulatory framework for emissions from fishing fleets,fuels used and fisheries subsidies under IMO and WTO.Additionally,it reviews the ways in which energy e

106、fficiency and efforts towards decarbonization are starting to be approached at the national and regional level in selected case studies.The study identifies the different technological options that are commercially available,or in the R&D phase,to enable such a transition and assesses their implicat

107、ions.The study is limited to the activity of fishing vessels from pre-harvesting to landing,including related port infrastructure.Fishing is an extractive sector and most emissions stem from the fuels that are used to propel the fishing vessels,but fuel is also used for processing fish on board vess

108、els.Moreover,the fuel used in fishing vessels is often diesel or other forms of bunker fuel or heavy fuel oil(HFO),which contains more contaminants than regular fuel and is therefore more polluting.This study provides a set of key economic,technological,trade,environmental and social considerations

109、to support a just energy transition for fishing fleets,particularly in developing countries.A complete analysis of the energy transition of the fisheries sector,including a review of the entire fisheries value chain,sustainable fisheries and ecosystems management,is beyond the scope of this initial

110、study and could be the subject of future research.4Climate change,fishing fleets and fishing ports22.Climate change,fishing fleets and fishing ports2 Climate change,fishing fleets and fishing portsClimate change has a significant impact on the fisheries sector,fishing fleets and fishing ports.It is

111、causing rising sea levels,warmer water temperatures,ocean acidification and deoxygenation,which affect fishing activities,especially in LDCs and SIDS.Climate change impacts specific to the fisheries sector include less seasonality;changes in species distribution,reproductive patterns and species com

112、position;fishing gear replacement;an increased number of invasive species;a decrease in catch;more days of fishing;and venturing farther offshore to catch the same amount of fish(Macusi et al.,2021).Fish stocks are expected to be reallocated by climate change,migrating poleward and to greater depths

113、,which can lead to significant problems for the operation of fishing fleets(FAO,2018a).Small-scale and artisanal fishing vessels may no longer be able to safely reach fish stocks which may migrate to waters of other countries or to the high seas.More alarming reports indicate that climate change cou

114、ld wipe outup to 60 per cent of all fish speciesby 2100 if average global temperatures rise by 5C(World Economic Forum,2020).This would likely cause significant problems for food security,effectiveness of access and conflict around fishing rights,fleet sizes and existing quota agreements.At the same

115、 time,fishing fleets today run almost exclusively on fossil fuels,particularly marine diesel,the emissions from which contribute to climate change.This section will look at what the actual contribution of fishing fleets is to CO2 emissions,emission reduction efforts,the role of fishing ports and the

116、 impacts of climate change.62.Climate change2.1 The contribution of emissions from fishing fleets to climate change Measuring emissions from fishing fleets is a complex and elusive task owing to various factors,including:The limitations of existing methodologies to measure GHG emissions from fishing

117、 fleets.The use of different criteria to determine vessel types,sizes and the activities being measured.Significant data and notification gaps.The IMO draws on official data to estimate the GHG emissions of fishing fleets.It has developed a bottom-up approach using ship activity data and a top-down

118、approach using fuel sale statistics.The bottom-up approach relies on the Automatic Identification System(AIS),which is mandatory for vessels above 500GT(gross tonnage).The top-down approach relies on fuel sales data provided by a selected number of countries to the International Energy Agency(IEA).D

119、rawing on the bottom-up approach,the IMO estimates that CO2 emissions from fishing vessels increased from 37.8 to 40million tons of CO2 between 2012 and 2018.According to the top-down approach,however,the CO2 emissions of the same fishing vessels declined from 20.7 to 18.8 million tons between 2012

120、and 2017.In any case,both approaches severely underestimate fishing vessel emissions because many small vessels do not have an AIS and the IEA data covers only 33 countries(IMO,2020).In the absence of data on global fishing fleet emissions,other studies have attempted to estimate emissions based on

121、global catch and fishing effort,using indicators such as the days at sea and fuel consumption of fishing fleets.For instance,Greer et al.(2019)estimate that the worlds fishing fleets emitted 159 million tons of CO2 in 2016.Using a slightly different methodology,Parker etal.(2018)estimate that fishin

122、g fleet emissions totalled 179 million tons of CO2 in 2011,with emissions increasing by 28 per cent between 1990 and 2011.They find that China,Indonesia,Viet Nam,the United States and Japan are the five countries with the largest overall GHG emissions,accounting for 49 per cent of total emissions in

123、 2011.According to these estimates,fishing fleet emissions increased continuously over past decades.Based on the IMOs analyses and these academic studies,fishing vessels contribute between 0.1and0.5 per cent of global CO2 emissions(Parker et al.,2018)and represent approximately 4percent of the carbo

124、n emissions generated by global food production which,in turn,is estimated to contribute almost a third of GHG emissions(FAO,2021),although some estimates are as high as 34 to 37 per cent(Kristofersson et al.,2021).Fish production generates less carbon emissions per calorie than raising cattle or po

125、rk,and it is the only animal protein considered to have a low carbon footprint(World Resources Institute,2023).As such,decarbonizing the fishing industry does not attract the same media attention and political support as decarbonizing other protein production sources.Yet,average emissions per ton of

126、 landed fish increased by 21 per cent between 1990 and 2011(Parkeretal.,2018).As mentioned above,the fishing industry on average requires one ton of oil for every two tons of landed catch,although some fisheries consume less fuel per ton of landed catch than others,as detailed below(Tyedmers et al.,

127、2005;FAO,1999).For instance,the fishing fleet of the European Union consumed an average of 578 litres of fuel for each ton of catch in 2020.However,large-scale fishing seems to be somewhat more efficient,closer to a 1-to-3 ton catch ratio(Table 1).These are generalized averages/ratios and it must be

128、 borne in mind that the ratios depend on the type of fishery,the targeted species and where the fishing takes place.While some fishing fleets are investing in fuel efficiency technologies to reduce input costs and CO2emissions,and the total number of fishing vessels has fallen in some regions such a

129、s Europe and China,a lot more needs to be done to achieve carbon neutrality in the fisheries sector by 2050(FAO,2023a).Furthermore,studies often do not consider other ways in which fishing vessels contribute to climate change.Certain short-term pollutants emitted by fishing vessels absorb heat(McKui

130、n and Campbell,2016).Black carbon,for instance,which results from incomplete combustion,warms the earth by absorbing radiation from the sun.3 Certain fishing methods also contribute to global warming by releasing carbon stored in the 3Black carbon,or soot,is part of fine particulate air pollution an

131、d contributes to climate change.Source:https:/www.ccacoalition.org/en/slcps/black-carbon.7EnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and challenges for developing countriesocean.It has been estimated that bottom trawling,by moving sediments on the seabed,could release up to 1 Gt of carbon glo

132、bally(BBC News,2021;Sala etal.,2021).Even if the carbon released by bottom trawling remains in the ocean instead of being released into the air,this reduces the carbon absorption capacity of the ocean,which absorbs one-third of the CO2 emitted globally each year(Gruber et al.,2019).Increasing carbon

133、 levels in the ocean also negatively impact biodiversity and ecosystem health(Teixid et al.,2018).Given that investment decisions,engine designs,retrofits and vessel replacement have repercussions over decades,decarbonizing fishing vessels requires urgent action.Fishing vessels purchased in 2023 wil

134、l continue to fish in 2030 and even up to 2050,depending on the lifespan of the vessel.Although it is problematic for accurately estimating the emissions of the global fishing fleet,the IMO data allows for a more accurate estimate of the energy efficiency of the fisheries sector,with the caveat that

135、 analyses mostly apply to large vessels.According to the IMO,the energy efficiency of fishing vessels increased between 2012 and 2018 from an operational indicator of 125 to 114 g CO2/ton cargo/nautical mile(IMO,2020).To obtain more precise data on fishing fleet emissions,we must rely on national or

136、 regional statistics.As parties to the Kyoto Protocol(mostly high-income countries,see Annex 1),the European Commission and Japan have provided data on the CO2 emissions of their fishing fleets to the UNFCCC(Figure 1).Figure 1.Carbon dioxide emissions(in million tons)of the fishing fleets of the Eur

137、opean Union and Japan(19902021)25804200520062007200820092000009876543210Million tons of CO2 equivalentEuropean Union JapanSource:UNCTAD based on data from UNFCCC(2023).The total GHGemissions of the fis

138、hing fleet of the European Union fell by 52 per cent between 1990 and 2021,from 8.9 to 4.3 million tons of CO2 equivalent.Total emissions decreased as a result of a 28 per cent reduction in the fleet size of the European Union between 2000 and 2020,and investments in energy efficiency,including dies

139、el electric engines,efficient refrigeration and propeller systems(Europche,2023;FAO,2023a).Total GHG emissions from the fishing fleet of Japan fell by 37 per cent over the same period(with some periods of oscillation)from 8.56 to 5.42 million tons of CO2 equivalent.A few other countries have reporte

140、d fishing fleet emissions data to the UNFCCC since 1990,including Canada,Iceland,Norway and the United Kingdom.Figure 2 shows the percentage change in GHG emissions 82.Climate changeof each countrys fishing fleet since 1990.The data suggest that Canada has made the most impressive efforts to reduce

141、the emissions of its fishing fleet.Iceland and the United Kingdom have also reduced the emissions of their fleets,while the emissions of the Norwegian fishing fleet have increased since 1990.Given that the Norwegian fishing fleet decreased in size over this period and that engine efficiency has incr

142、eased,higher emissions are likely due to a greater amount of time spent at sea(Jensen,2021).Figure 2.Percentage change in the carbon dioxide emissions of the fishing fleets of selected countries(19902021)258042005200620072008200920013

143、20002020200806040200Percentage change in emissions of CO2 equivalentCanada Iceland Norway United KingdomSource:UNCTAD based on data from UNFCCC(2023).Given the number of countries that do not report data to the UNFCCC,it is necessary to rely partly on academic source

144、s to compare the emissions of fishing fleets by region.FAO provides data on fishing fleets by motorization status,size and region,while academic studies have estimated regional carbon emissions based on global catch and fishing effort.Combining these data sources,albeit methodologically complex,enab

145、les a better understanding of regional variation in fishing fleets(Figure 3).Academic estimates reconstructed from catch and fishing effort that include smaller vessels are larger than estimates from official data(Greer et al.,2019).According to these estimates,Asia has by far the biggest fishing fl

146、eet and produces the lions share of CO2 emissions.Although Europe has a much smaller fishing fleet than Africa,it produces more carbon emissions,which is in part due to vessel size and levels of high seas fishing activity.Its fishing fleet includes a greater number of large,motorized vessels which s

147、pend more days at sea and operate further from port(Greer et al.,2019).Less than 30 per cent of Africas fishing fleet is motorized and very few vessels are large and motorized(FAO,2022a).The global fishing fleet totalled 4.1 million boats in 2020,of which 2.5 million were motorized.Of all fishing ve

148、ssels,2.7 million(65 per cent)were in Asia(including China)and 1 million in Africa(23.5percent).China alone had the biggest fishing fleet in 2020 with 564,000 boats,close to 14percent of the worlds total and higher than the Americas(361,000),Europe(95,000)and Oceania(15,000)combined.The size of the

149、motorized fishing fleet of the European Union fell by 28per cent from 2000 to 2020 to 74,000 vessels,while in China the size of the fleet fell by 47 per cent after 2013,when it had about 1 million vessels,to its current size of a little more than half a million as mentioned above(FAO,2023a)(Figure 3

150、).9EnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and challenges for developing countriesFigure 3.Fishing fleets and their estimated carbon dioxide emissions by region32.521.510.50AsiaChinaAfricaAmericasEuropeOceaniaFishing feet(million vessels)in 2020 CO2 emissions(million tons)in 2016Fishing fe

151、et(left axis)Motorised fshing feet(left axis)CO2 emissions(right axis)0806040200Source:UNCTAD based on data from FAO(2022a)and Greer(2019).UNCTADs Review of Maritime Transport 2023(UNCTAD,2023b)estimates the total CO2 emissions by vessel type(in tons).The data include certain activities o

152、f fishing vessels in the“Services and Miscellaneous”category.The emissions in this category reached 34 million tons in March 2023,compared to 19 million tons for January 2012(UNCTAD,2023b).This estimate includes tugboats and“other”vessels in addition to fishing vessels.However,these figures are cons

153、idered to be a very partial estimate due to the type and size of vessels covered by IMO data vis-vis the actual size of the entire motorized fishing vessel fleet as shown in Figure 3.The lack of specific data on global fishing fleet emissions points to the need to develop and agree on common methodo

154、logies to measure emissions by motorized vessels effectively and accurately,as well as to invest in efforts to collect data so that the sectors energy transition pathway can be better monitored and assisted.According to FAO data(Figure 4),all fishing vessels in Europe were motorized in 2020,in contr

155、ast to 70 per cent of fishing vessels in Asia,67 per cent in China,and only 27 per cent in Africa.Non-motorized fishing vessels do not emit CO2,which partly explains the low carbon emissions of fishing vessels in Africa.In most cases,owning a non-motorized vessel is not a choice,but rather the resul

156、t of insufficient financial and technological resources.Catches from non-motorized boats could be marketed as GHG emission-free for all purposes,particularly for trade and labelling,without further evidence than the non-motorized vessel registry and a catch or landing certificate from local authorit

157、ies.While most of the catch taken by non-motorized vessels is sold in local markets,the catch of high value species tends to be exported,as is the case with lobsters,crayfish,queen conch and other molluscs that are captured with traps and by diving.With technical support from governments,the private

158、 sector and international organizations,small-scale fishers could increase their management capacity as well as revenues from sales.Support should also be provided to incentivize investments in renewable energy technologies for motorized vessels of all sizes.102.Climate changeFigure 4.Distribution o

159、f fishing vessels by motorization type and region(2020)Non-motorizedMotorized and 24 mOceaniaEuropeAmericasAfricaAsia020406080100Source:UNCTAD based on data from FAO(2022a).Figure 3 provides data on total CO2 emissions and Figure 4 on fishing vessel size and motorization status by region.However,the

160、 fuel efficiency of fishing vessels,typically measured by litres of fuel per ton of catch,is not indicated in these figures.Technological improvements,more efficient engines,vessel design and retrofits have contributed to reducing engine emissions.The shrinking of fish stocks has been the most cruci

161、al factor affecting the increase in average consumption of fuel per weight of catch(Kristofersson et al.,2021).Thus,reducing the emissions of fishing fleets not only requires improving efficiency but also reducing fleet overcapacity to ensure sustainable and responsible stock management.Figure 5 pro

162、vides a better indication of fuel efficiency by region by combining FAO data on catch with academic estimates of CO2 emissions.Based on these estimates,Asia emits more CO2 per ton of catch than other regions,while Oceania and the Americas are the best performers.Figure 5.Catch and carbon dioxide emi

163、ssions by region6050403020100AsiaAfricaAmericasEuropeOceaniaCatch(million tons)in 2020 CO2 emissions(million tons)in 2016Catch(left axis)CO2 emissions(right axis)0806040200Source:UNCTAD based on data from FAO(2022a)and Greer(2019).11EnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and ch

164、allenges for developing countriesTo obtain more precise data on energy efficiency,it is necessary to draw on national and regional statistics.Based on data from the European Union(Table 1),large-scale fishing vessels are more fuel efficient than small-scale fishing vessels,requiring 434 litres of fu

165、el per landed ton of catch,compared to 627 litres(European Commission,2022,p.40).Although,large-scale vessels consumed 21 times more fuel than small-scale vessels per day at sea,they managed to be more fuel efficient by catching more fish.Table 1.Energy use by scale of fishing activity in the Europe

166、an Union(2020)Small-scale coastal fishingLarge-scale fishingDistant water fleetAverage fuel cost/day at sea253351 799Percentage change compared to 201951923Average fuel consumption(l)/day at sea408435 790Percentage change compared to 2019+8+5+7Average fuel consumption(l)per ton627434672Percentage ch

167、ange compared to 2019888 Source:UNCTAD based on data from the European Commission(2022).For countries that reported the emissions from their fishing fleets to the UNFCCC in 2021,it is possible to analyse fuel efficiency by dividing total fishing fleet emissions by total catch,based on data reported

168、by FAO(Figure 6).Of the countries considered,Canadian and Norwegian fishing vessels were the most fuel efficient,with 0.24 tons and 0.36 tons of CO2 per ton of catch,respectively.Fishing vessels from the United Kingdom and the European Union used 1.23 tons and 1.22 tons of CO2 per ton of catch,respe

169、ctively.This highlights the importance of fish stocks and ecosystem health for fuel efficiency:fishing vessels from the European Union and United Kingdom face much more competition on the fishing grounds,leading to lower catches per ton of fuel compared to Canadian and Norwegian fishing vessels.Whil

170、e higher capacity increases fuel efficiency,it can also contribute to overfishing if not properly regulated and managed,thereby reducing fuel efficiency in the long term as more litres of fuel must be burnt to catch the same volume of fish,owing to longer fishing voyages and fishing further away fro

171、m port.Stock management and GHG emission policy for the fisheries sector are thus closely related and will need parallel planning and intervention.The technologies deployed to achieve efficiency,such as bottom trawling,need to be carefully assessed to avoid unwanted overfishing and ecosystem impacts

172、.Moreover,the indirect consequences of any future policy need to be defined and discussed to generate the right policy mix that enables the environmental,social and economic sustainability of the sector.Figure 6.Tons of carbon dioxide emissions per ton of catch(2021)1.41.210.80.60.40.20CanadaNorwayI

173、celandEuropean UnionUnited Kingdom Tons of CO2/tons of catchSource:UNCTAD calculations based on data from UNFCCC(2023)and FAO(2023a).122.Climate changeFuel use versus actual catch is an important issue to be considered.In 2019,35.4 per cent of fish stocks were at biologically unsustainable levels in

174、 comparison to 10 per cent in 1974(FAO,2022a).In the United Kingdom,for every hour spent at sea,fishing vessels catch only 6 per cent of what they caught in 1866(The Observer,2014).Industrial fishing vessels,which are the most fuel efficient(low fuel consumption per ton of catch),are often blamed fo

175、r having a more direct impact on the global and regional status of stocks than small-scale vessels.A small number of fishing vessels could potentially undermine the livelihoods of small-scale fishers by depleting resources.Small-scale fishers represent 90 per cent of the worlds 40 million fishers(FA

176、O,2022a).Therefore,fuel efficiency goals and investments in greener fishing vessels and related infrastructure at ports cannot be decoupled from fish stock management at all levels,and responsible fishing by fishing vessel owners and operators.This is necessary to achieve both environmental and soci

177、al objectives.Governments play a key role in enabling the transition to more sustainable and responsibly operated fishing vessels through regulation and subsidies.Subsidies and regulation can contribute to providing the right incentives to minimize GHG emissions from fishing fleets,such as by suppor

178、ting stock assessment and investments in sustainable technologies and waste management.Fuel subsidies undermine the energy transition and can contribute to overfishing and inequity.Developing countries do not have the required fiscal space to offer the same degree of subsidies as developed countries

179、,especially as their debt levels have skyrocketed(UNCTAD,2023c).2.2 Fuel subsidies Certain forms of subsidies contribute to overfishing by expanding the capacities of fishing fleets rather than financing stock assessments,fishery management,monitoring,sustainable technologies and environmental conse

180、rvation(Standing,2022).China is by far the biggest provider of fishing subsidies,with$1.15 billion in 2020,followed by Japan,the United States,Canada and the European Union(OECD,2023).The OECD estimates that in 2018 to 2020,53 per cent of subsidies provided by emerging economies(for which it had dat

181、a)presented a high-risk of encouraging unsustainable fishing,in contrast to 12 per cent in the case of OECD countries(OECD 2022,p.7).The OECDs data on emerging economies are driven by large emerging economies such as China,Brazil and India,which still tend to subsidize the price of fishing fuel and

182、stock management.Most developing countries that are not included in the OECD database do not have the fiscal space to provide considerable subsidies.Based on OECD data(including a few non-OECD economies such as India and Brazil),fuel tax concessions have remained at similar levels since 2012(Figure

183、7).This figure should be read with caution because data for 2020 were only available for 14 economies.Figure 7.OECD data on fuel tax concessions for 14 OECD members(20072020)450400350300250200150100500Million$2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021Source:UNCTAD based on data from OECD(2023).All form

184、s of fuel subsidies that benefit the fisheries sector(whether sector-specific or not)should be scrutinized as part of the reform under negotiation within the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies(2022)due to clear links between fuel subsidies,overcapacity,overfishing and GHG emissions.The special cas

185、e of limited capacity to offer public support for the energy transition of small-scale fisheries,particularly in developing countries,is a priority given the sectors importance for employment and livelihoods.13EnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and challenges for developing countriesI

186、t is necessary that governments,international organizations and fishing communities coordinate on the measurement of carbon emissions from fishing vessels.Measuring energy efficiency in terms of litres of fuel per ton/value of catch is problematic in the long term given that it could reward practice

187、s which contribute to overfishing.Instead,measures of energy efficiency should focus on the efficiency of motorized vessels.A classification of fishing fleets should be developed based on the energy efficiency of vessels propulsion systems.Catches from non-motorized boats could be marketed as GHG em

188、ission-free for all purposes,particularly for trade and labelling without further evidence.However,small-scale fisherfolk should still be provided,or rewarded,with technical support to increase their management capacity and revenues from sales.Improved data will help stakeholders to recognize the fi

189、shing industrys efforts to reduce CO2 emissions,as well as the sectors where public support for green investments should be prioritized,such as the incentivization of investments in renewable energy technologies for motorized vessels of all sizes.The section on technological opportunities and challe

190、nges provides an indication of the different options available for decarbonizing vessel propulsion systems.2.3 The role of fishing ports and the impacts of climate changeSeaports,including fishing ports,are essential for global trade-led development,and for the ocean or blue economy.They provide acc

191、ess to global markets and supply chains for all countries,including those that are landlocked,and are integral to maritime transport,as well as fisheries,the development of offshore energy and many other economic activities that take place in coastal zones.At the same time,due to their location alon

192、g open coasts or adjacent to low-lying estuaries and deltas,ports are particularly affected by rising sea levels and storm surges,waves and winds,as well as riverine and pluvial flooding.Associated risks,costs and trade-related repercussions may be considerable and have important implications for gl

193、obal trade and the sustainable development prospects of the most vulnerable countries(UNCTAD,2021b).4 Most SIDS are highly dependent on their ports and particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.These critical infrastructure assets are at a high and growing risk of coastal flooding fro

194、m as early as the 2030s(Monioudi et al.,2018).In some cases,fishing and shipping activities are carried out in the same seaport but with separate facilities and storage houses because fish and other marine species need special handling and sanitary measures,including isolation from polluting activit

195、ies or hazardous substances.Often,countries have separate ports for fishing and cargo vessels,and particularly for small-scale fishing vessels.Fishing ports play a major role in the fishing industry.They give vessels,crews and processors access to essential services and supplies,enabling vessel oper

196、ators to land and process their catch.The authorities of fishing ports are also an essential ally in the fight against IUU fishing because they control landings and enforce fishery management plans.Fishing ports will play an important role in the energy transition because many of the new technologie

197、s and fuels will need storage,servicing,fixing,fuelling and landing infrastructure.Current infrastructure has been designed for diesel and other fossil fuels.To accommodate hybrid or alternative fuels such as biofuels,ammonia or hydrogen,significant infrastructure changes and investment will be need

198、ed.It will be impossible for such changes to be undertaken by the owners of fishing vessels and fishers alone because of the size of the security,safety,technical and delivery challenges to come.In the light of lengthy infrastructure lifespans and planning horizons,and with climate hazards growing,e

199、nhancing the climate resilience of seaports,including fishing ports,will be key to achieving progress on many of the goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,including Goal9 on building resilient infrastructure;Goal 13 on taking urgent action to combat climate change and its

200、impacts;Goal 14 on conserving and sustainably using the oceans,seas and marine resources for sustainable development;and target 1.5 on building the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reducing their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other econ

201、omic,social and environmental shocks and disasters.All ports,including fishing ports,are very important in post-disaster response and recovery,as well as reconstruction.However,as was noted in a recent UNCTAD policy brief(UNCTAD,2022a)better availability and access to port infrastructure adaptation

202、finance,including in the form of grants rather than loans,will be critical for the resilience,food security and local livelihoods of developing countries and particularly SIDS.Drawing on synergies with energy efficiency,decarbonization and renewable energy can also provide important co-benefits for

203、adaptation.For example,in response to the impacts of extreme heat,they can reduce related energy needs and costs and increase energy security,especially for developing countries that are at the forefront of climate change impacts,but with limited capacity to respond.4 For information about UNCTADs r

204、elated research,technical cooperation and consensus-building see https:/unctad.org/topic/transport-and-trade-logistics/policy-and-legislation/climate-change-and-maritime-transport.14Nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement as applied to fisheries33 Nationally determined contribu

205、tions under the Paris Agreement as applied to fisheriesNDCs are central to achieving the Paris Agreements long-term goal of limiting global temperature rise this century to well below 2C above pre-industrial levels.NDCs present best endeavour commitments of individual countries to reduce national em

206、issions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.Contributions are voluntary and flexible in nature and subject to continuous improvement and monitoring through subsequent submissions and the global stocktake exercise(UNFCCC,2023).The UNFCCC provides guidance on the information needed to facilitat

207、e clarity,transparency and understanding of the mitigation aspects of NDCs(UNFCCC,2018).Fisheries are specifically mentioned in this UNFCCC guidance when referring to projects,measures and activities that contribute to mitigation co-benefits.According to the UNFCCC NDC Synthesis Report(UNFCCC,2022b)

208、,an increasing number of countries are targeting ocean-based climate action,mostly related to adaptation.Forty per cent of NDC adaptation components refer to fisheries and aquaculture.5 When looking at contingency measures required to deal with emergencies and unforeseen impacts within the fisheries

209、 sector,both NDCs and national adaptation plans(NAPs)have included de-risking tools such as insurance against extreme events and establishing a minimum income for fishers.NDCs also tend to include measures for enhancing the sustainability of fisheries,including research,diversification,capacity buil

210、ding,sustainable management,habitat protection and financial instruments.To assess the relevance of the commitments on mitigation and adaptation in fisheries that are included in NDCs,the commitments of the major fisheries and seafood exporters may be examined.Annex 1 shows a comparative analysis of

211、:5It is important to note that countries may choose to communicate information on adaptation planning through separate instruments,such as adaptation communications(Fransen et al.,2022)3.Nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement as applied to fisheries163.Nationally determined co

212、ntributions under the Paris Agreement as applied to fisheriesThe top 10 exporters of fisheries and seafood products by value(FAO,2022a).The types of commitments relevant to fisheries found in their respective NDCs.Net-zero pledges related to ocean and fisheries mitigation and adaptation efforts.The

213、analysis under Annex 1 shows that three countries do not include any commitments on ocean or fisheries-related matters in their revised and updated NDCs.A further three countries incorporate commitments to protect ocean space and include climate mitigation and adaptation measures within their marine

214、 protected areas(i.e.,Canada,Chile and the Russian Federation)but not specifically on fisheries.Only two countries present general commitments related to energy savings,energy efficiency and emission reduction technologies in fisheries as a means of mitigating climate change(i.e.,China and Viet Nam)

215、.At the same time,six countries include references to their NAPs and other adaptation measures related to fisheries in their NDCs,showing concerns about the physical impacts of climate change on the sector.In terms of net-zero pledges,all top ten fisheries and seafood exporters have deposited econom

216、y-wide reduction efforts,with six countries targeting 2050 for the net-zero goal and four countries targeting later dates ranging from 2060 until 2070.In summary,it seems that for several of the top ten aquatic exporters,the energy transition and decarbonization of fishing fleets is not a priority i

217、n their NDCs.Adaptation is mentioned often,showing that the physical impacts of climate change are a challenging reality for the fisheries and seafood exporting value chains of both developed and developing countries.To further understand the type of fisheries-related measures that countries include

218、d in their NDCs,references to fisheries and related terms of other relevant countries were also analysed.The measures were categorized by type(adaptation versus mitigation);whether they directly or indirectly target fisheries;and whether they are general or specific.Table 2 lists the countries inclu

219、ded in the analysis(refer to Annex 2 for a summary of the measures).The sample includes five countries from Africa,two from Asia,one from Europe and two from Latin America and the Caribbean.Half the countries in the sample are LDCs and three are SIDS.The relative importance of LDCs and SIDS undersco

220、res the importance of the fisheries sector for these countries.Table 2.List of countries with the highest number of references to fisheries-related terms in their NDCsCountryLDCSIDSRegionAlbaniaNoNoEuropeAngolaYesNoAfricaAntigua and BarbudaNoYesLatin America and the CaribbeanCambodiaYesNoAsiaDominic

221、aNoYesLatin America and the CaribbeanLiberiaYesNoAfricaSeychellesNoYesAfricaSierra LeoneYesNoAfricaSouth SudanYesNoAfricaSri LankaNoNoAsiaNotes:Only NDCs in English or for which an English translation is available were included in the analysis.The sample considers the countries with the highest word

222、 count of the terms“catch”and“fish”in their NDCs(available on the NDCs registry as of 14 May 2023).The analysis shows that countries highlight the importance of the blue economy,marine resources,and the fisheries sector because of their social,economic and environmental relevance.Most of the NDCs an

223、alysed highlight the vulnerability of the fisheries sector to climate change and stress the negative impact of climate change on the livelihoods of fishers and their communities.Consequently,several countries include adaptation measures aimed at increasing the resilience of the sector.Some of the ma

224、in types of adaptation measures identified are aimed at:17EnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and challenges for developing countriesSupporting the adaptation of the fisheries sector to climate change,protecting and preserving fisheries resources(e.g.,Albania,Angola and Dominica).Impro

225、ving the protection and conservation of marine and coastal ecosystems,including mangroves(e.g.,Liberia,Seychelles,Sierra Leone and Cambodia).Supporting the diversification of fishers livelihoods and supporting the vulnerable(e.g.,Albania and Dominica).Considering research and monitoring of marine re

226、sources to support sustainable management of resources(e.g.,Albania)and assessing and mitigating the impact of climate change on fisheries(e.g.,South Sudan and Liberia).Risk reduction and management of resilience(e.g.,Albania,Cambodia,Dominica,Liberia,Seychelles and Sri Lanka).Supporting food securi

227、ty(e.g.,Dominica,Sierra Leone and Sri Lanka).In terms of mitigation measures,three countries included references to increasing the energy efficiency of,and emissions reduction in,the fisheries sector(Albania,Liberia and Sri Lanka).In short,the analysis of two subsamples of NDCs revealed that the fis

228、heries sector is considered to be vulnerable to climate change and,consequently,measures often focus on adaptation efforts.The analysis also revealed an apparent lack of priority for mitigation measures aimed at decarbonizing the fishing sectors of the largest exporters of aquatic food;only two coun

229、tries include measures to increase the energy efficiency of the fisheries sector.For countries in which fisheries is an important topic(measured by the number of mentions in their NDCs),the analysis revealed selected efforts aimed at increasing the energy efficiency of the fisheries sector.Overall,o

230、f the 20 countries analysed,only five include measures aimed at increasing the energy efficiency of the sector.These types of measures may include efforts that lead to a reduction in the carbon emissions of the fishing fleet.Adobe Stock18The regulatory framework44The regulatory framework4.1 The Inte

231、rnational Maritime OrganizationAccording to the Fourth IMO Greenhouse Gas Study(IMO,2020),GHG emissions from shipping(international,domestic and fishing)including CO2,methane(CH4)and nitrous oxide(N2O),increased by nearly 10 per cent between 2012 and 2018,accounting for almost 3 per cent of global a

232、nthropogenic GHG emissions in 2018.6 Even if this increase corresponds to a similar increase in the volumes of shipping,it was a trend going in the wrong direction at a time when all areas of the global economy must cut emissions by 45 per cent by 2030 and achieve net-zero emissions by 2050,if the P

233、aris Agreements 1.5C goal is to be met.Without further action,shipping emissions are projected to increase by up to 50 per cent until 2050 compared to 2018(equal to an increase of up to 130 per cent compared to 2008 levels)despite further efficiency gains.This is because demand for transport is expe

234、cted to continue growing.Against this background,in 2023 the IMO adopted an ambitious revision of its 2018 Initial IMO Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships(IMO,2018).The 2023 IMO GHG Strategy(IMO,2023a,Annex 15,Resolution MEPC.37780)includes an enhanced common ambition to reach net-zero

235、 GHG emissions from international shipping close to 2050,a commitment to ensure an uptake of alternative zero and near-zero GHG fuels by 2030,as well as indicative checkpoints for 2030 and 2040.While not specifically targeting emissions from fishing fleets,the revised IMO strategy will have an impac

236、t on the carbon intensity of ships and activities covered by it,and a higher uptake of low-and zero-emission technologies and fuels that could serve as a benchmark for developing a more precise global strategy for the decarbonization of fishing fleets.The level of ambition of the 2023 IMO GHG Strate

237、gy includes:Carbon intensity of the ship to decline through further improvements in energy efficiency for new ships to review,with the aim of strengthening the energy efficiency design requirements for ships.Carbon intensity of international shipping to decline to reduce CO2 emissions,as an average

238、across international shipping,by at least 40 per cent by 2030 compared to 2008.6The share of shipping emissions in global anthropogenic emissions increased from 2.76 per cent in 2012 to 2.89 per cent in 2018.4.The regulatory framework204.The regulatory frameworkUptake of zero or near-zero GHG emissi

239、on technologies,fuels and/or energy sources to increase to represent at least 5 per cent,striving for 10 per cent,of the energy used by international shipping by 2030.GHG emissions from international shipping to reach net-zero “to peak GHG emissions from international shipping as soon as possible an

240、d to reach net-zero GHG emissions by or around,i.e.,close to,2050,taking into account different national circumstances,whilst pursuing efforts towards phasing them out as called for in the Vision consistent with the long-term temperature goal set out in Article 2 of the Paris Agreement”(IMO,2023a).I

241、ndicative checkpoints to reach net-zero GHG emissions from international shipping include:reduction of total annual GHG emissions from international shipping by at least 20 per cent,striving for 30 per cent,by 2030 compared to 2008,and reduction of total annual GHG emissions from international shipp

242、ing by at least 70 per cent,striving for 80 per cent,by 2040 compared to 2008.Following the adoption of the new strategy in July 2023,the development of a range of measures to ensure its implementation can be expected.However,several regulatory measures to enhance energy efficiency and reduce GHG an

243、d other emissions from ships are already in place and are worth noting.IMO,the main international regulatory body for shipping,started its work on control of emissions from international shipping in 1997(IMO,2017)when Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships were included as Annex

244、VI7 to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships(MARPOL)(United Nations,1983).For the first time,deliberate emissions of ozone-depleting substances were prohibited,and limits were set on air pollutants contained in ship exhaust gas,including sulphur oxides(SOx)and nitro

245、gen oxides(NOx),both globally and at lower levels in designated emission control areas(ECAs).MARPOL Annex VI,which came into effect on 19May2005,also regulates shipboard incineration and the emissions of volatile organic compounds from tankers.The Annex has undergone several amendments over the year

246、s to reflect the increased focus on reducing ships emissions.8 For instance,limits of SOx and NOx harmful pollutants released into the atmosphere during the combustion of ships fuels and posing serious risks to human health have gradually become more stringent over the years.By adopting technologies

247、 and practices that increase energy efficiency,including optimizing engine performance and improving propulsion systems,fishing vessels can reduce their overall fuel consumption,and/or achieve more complete fuel combustion,thus limiting their emissions of GHGs and other pollutants,including SOx and

248、NOx,and helping to reduce adverse environmental impacts as well as promote sustainable maritime operations(Ward,2009;Shankman,2019).4.1.1 Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide reduction measuresWith regard to CO2,the main contributor to global anthropogenic GHG emissions,the fourth IMO greenhouse gas

249、 study(IMO,2020)estimated that CO2 emissions deriving from shipping in 2018 amounted to 1,056 million tons,an increase of 9.3 per cent since 2012.While CO2 emissions from fishing vessels(classified as domestic)are estimated at 40 million tons,the study recognized difficulties in calculating those em

250、issions,especially in view of the ambiguous type of fuel used by fishing vessels and the different movement patterns during the fishing operation compared to commercial vessels(such as the proportion of time spent on international and domestic voyages and the energy needs for refrigeration units onb

251、oard)(IMO,2020).To reduce CO2 emissions,a new chapter 4 of MARPOL Annex VI was adopted in 2011,entitled“Regulations on the carbon intensity of international shipping”and covering mandatory technical and operational energy 7Protocol of 1997 to amend the International Convention for the Prevention of

252、Pollution from Ships of 2 November 1973,as modified by the Protocol of 17 February 1978(MARPOL Annex VI).8An index of Marine Environmental Protection Committee Resolutions and Guidelines related to MARPOL Annex VI is available at https:/www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/Index-of-MEPC-Resoluti

253、ons-and-Guidelines-related-to-MARPOL-Annex-VI.aspx.21EnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and challenges for developing countriesefficiency measures(IMO,2011).In addition,market-based or economic measures have been under discussion at the IMO for some time and work on related candidate

254、short-,medium-and long-term measures to be finalized and agreed by 2023,2030 and post 2030,respectively has been underway since 2018,in line with the Initial IMO strategy on the reduction of GHG emissions from ships(IMO,2018).Reflecting a growing recognition of the need for increased ambition,the 20

255、23 IMO Strategy for the reduction of GHG emissions from ships(IMO,2023b)sets out a number of revised and additional candidate GHG reduction measures together with possible timelines.Candidate short-term measures include those finalized and agreed between 2018 and 2023(detailed in Appendix 1 of the 2

256、023 Strategy)and are to be reviewed by 2026.A series of 10 technical guidelines was adopted in 2022 to support the implementation of short-term measures(IMO,2022a,annexes 817).4.1.1.1 Short-term measures Mandatory technical and operational energy efficiency measures adopted in 2011 were incorporated

257、 as a new Chapter 4 of MARPOL Annex VI,which has since undergone some revision(IMO,2011).Related substantive amendments adopted in 2021 are the latest to have entered into force in November 2022(IMO,2021a).Annex VI has been ratified by 105 States,representing almost 97 per cent of the worlds merchan

258、t fleet.9Subject to limited exceptions for State-owned or operated ships,10 the MARPOL Convention and its Annexes apply to all ships entitled to fly the flag of a Contracting State or operating under the authority of a Contracting State(Art.31).This covers vessels“of any type whatsoever operating in

259、 the marine environment”,including“hydrofoil boats,air-cushion vehicles,submersibles,floating craft and fixed or floating platforms”(Art.24).However,some of the provisions are applicable only to ships of 400 GT and above.While the mandatory provisions of Annex VI are in general applicable to all shi

260、ps(Regulation 1),some of the substantive regulations in Annex VI are subject to exceptions.Thus,the energy efficiency measures set out in Chapter 4 are not applicable to ships of less than 400 GT or to ships that are not propelled by mechanical means.They are also not applicable to ships that are so

261、lely operating in the flag States jurisdiction(including its exclusive economic zone EEZ);however,States should take appropriate measures to ensure that such ships are constructed and act in a manner consistent with the requirements of Chapter 4,so far as is reasonable and practicable(Regulation 19)

262、.While there clearly are fishing vessels that far exceed 400 GT11 and operate in waters beyond the flag States EEZ,because of the abovementioned exceptions,many,if not most fishing vessels may in practice be exempt from the provisions of Chapter 4.In addition,as is highlighted here,some of the energ

263、y efficiency measures are reserved for specific types of vessels and might therefore not be applicable to fishing vessels.Energy Efficiency Design Index Regulations 22 and 24The Energy Efficiency Design Index(EEDI)measure,in force since 1 January 2013,refers to the structural efficiency of a vessel

264、and requires a minimum energy efficiency level(gram CO2 per ships capacity mile)depending on different ship sizes and segments.Fishing vessels are not required to hold an EEDI,as they are exempted from the list in Regulation 22,para.1.12 Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index Regulations 23 and 259Se

265、e https:/gisis.imo.org/Public/ST/Treaties.aspx.10According to its Art.3(3),the Convention does not apply to“any warship,naval auxiliary or other ship owned or operated by a State and used,for the time being,only on government non-commercial service.However,each Party shall ensure that such ships act

266、 in a manner consistent,so far as is reasonable and practicable,with the present Convention.”11For example,the Vladivostok 2000 fishing factory has a gross tonnage of 49,367 tons(https:/ highlighted in the IMO Train the Trainer Course on Energy Efficient Ship Operation(2013).Available at:https:/wwwc

267、dn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Environment/Documents/Air%20pollution/M2%20EE%20regulations%20and%20guidelines%20final.pdf,p.11.224.The regulatory frameworkThe Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index(EEXI)measure has been in force since 1 January 2023 and applies to all existing ships of 400 GT o

268、r above.EEXI is a“sister”measure to EEDI,and concerns design parameters of the vessels and measures their structural efficiency in terms of energy efficiency level per capacity mile.Fishing vessels are not required to hold an EEXI,as they are exempted from the list in Regulation 23,para.1.Ship Energ

269、y Efficiency Management Plan Regulation 26Since 1 January 2013,each ship of 400 GT or above that is involved in international voyages should have a Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan(SEEMP)on board.This may form part of the ships safety management system.For vessels of 5,000 GT or more,the SEEMP

270、 needs to contain specific information.The SEEMP is an operational measure that sets a path for the vessel to improve its energy efficiency.It is revised annually but there are no repercussions if the vessel does not meet its own goals.Collection and reporting of ship fuel oil consumption data Regul

271、ation 27Effective from 2019,each ship of 5,000 GT and above shall collect data(IMO,2021b)on ship fuel oil consumption and submit it to the IMO Ship Fuel Oil Consumption Database,where the data is anonymized and available to the parties of the Convention for their analysis and consideration.A Stateme

272、nt of Compliance is submitted yearly to that effect(Regulation 9).Carbon intensity indicator Regulation 28Since 1 January 2023,ships of 5,000 GT or more must calculate their attained carbon intensity indicator(CII)index which links the CO2 emissions to cargo carrying capacity over distance travelled

273、 and ranks the vessel on a scale of A to E.Fishing vessels are not obligated to calculate their CII annually(Regulation 26).Compliance should be ensured both by the flag States and the port States(Regulations 5 and 10),which respectively issue and verify the existence of a statement of compliance in

274、 relation to fuel oil consumption reporting and operational carbon intensity rating,while the IMO provides implementation guidelines.13 CII ratings are recorded in the ships SEEMP.If a ship is rated as D or lower for three consecutive years,its SEEMP will need to be reviewed and include corrective a

275、ctions to improve the rating.4.1.1.2 Medium-to long-term measures The IMO Work Plan(IMO,2021a)to progress the development of medium-and long-term measures is already underway,and consists of three phases:Phase i consists of the collation and initial consideration of proposals for measures and was co

276、mpleted in spring 2022.14(IMO,2018).Phase ii consists of the assessment and selection of measures to be further developed.It was completed in spring 2023 and was paired with a revision of the Initial IMO strategy for GHG emission reduction.In July 2023,in addition to adopting the 2023 IMO GHG Strate

277、gy,IMO advanced the development of a set of candidate mid-term GHG reduction measures which are key to enabling that strategy,thus moving forward from Phase II to Phase III of the work plan to finalize these measures.Phase iii focuses on the development of the measure(s)chosen along with the agreed

278、target dates by the Member States.13All resolutions and guidelines in relation to the implementation of MARPOL Annex VI are available at https:/www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/Index-of-MEPC-Resolutions-and-Guidelines-related-to-MARPOL-Annex-VI.aspx.14During Marine Environment Protection Com

279、mittee(MEPC)79.23EnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and challenges for developing countries4.1.2Other measures to control emissions from ships Sulphur oxides Regulation 14IMO has adopted regulations related to maximum allowed sulphur content in fuels used onboard all ships(IMO,2021b;U

280、NCTAD,2022b).15 Limiting SOx emissions from ships will help improve air quality and protect human health and the environment.Until 2019,the limit for ships operating outside of designated ECAs was 3.5 per cent.As of 1 January 2020,the limit was significantly reduced,down to 0.5 per cent.For ships op

281、erating within ECAs,it has been mandatory to use fuel with a sulphur content of 0.1 per cent or less since 2015.16(IMO,2022b).To support consistent implementation and compliance and provide a means for effective enforcement by States,particularly port State control,in October 2018 IMO adopted an add

282、itional amendment to MARPOL.The amendment entered into force on 1 March 2020,prohibiting not just the use,but also the carriage of non-compliant fuel oil for combustion purposes for propulsion or operation on board a ship,unless the ship is fitted with an approved equivalent method(such as a scrubbe

283、r/exhaust gas cleaning system).To conform with the regulation,three major options are available:Switching to fuels with low or no sulphur content,such as low sulphur fuel oil and LNG.Installing exhaust gas treatment systems(scrubbers)and continuing to use conventional high sulphur fuel.Consuming les

284、s fuel,for example by improved energy efficiency,and consequently emitting less SOx.At the national level,fishing vessels may be subject to a sulphur tax that may vary according to the sulphur content of fuels used(Gabrielii and Jafarzadeh,2020,p.7).This may serve as an incentive for them to use cle

285、aner fuels.Nitrogen oxides Regulation 13The NOx emissions control requirements under MARPOL Annex VI have become steadily stricter over the last two decades(IMO,2021b;UNCTAD,2022b).Different levels(tiers)of control apply,based on the ship construction date.The strictest regulation,Tier III,entered i

286、nto force in 2016,but only applies to designated ECAs.Outside such areas,the Tier II controls apply.A marine diesel engine with an output greater than 130 kW,that is installed on a ship constructed on or after the following dates and operating in the following ECAs,shall comply with the Tier III NOx

287、 standard:a)1 January 2016 and operating in the North American ECA and the United States Caribbean Sea ECA;or b)1 January 2021 and operating in the Baltic Sea ECA or the North Sea ECA.Thus,smaller ships would not be required to install Tier III engines,and many fishing vessels may fall into this cat

288、egory.17In many countries NOx emissions from shipping and fishing activities are taxable.In countries where a dedicated NOx fund has been established,parties qualify to pay a reduced fee to the fund instead of tax when NOx emission-reducing measures are implemented(Gabrielii and Jafarzadeh,2020,p.8)

289、.15An overview of regulatory developments is provided as part of the chapter on legal issues and regulatory developments in the annual UNCTAD Review of Maritime Transport,available at https:/unctad.org/rmt.16In December 2022,amendments to MARPOL Annex VI were adopted,which designate the Mediterranea

290、n Sea as a whole as a new ECA for Sulphur Oxides(SOx-ECA)and particulate matter(IMO,2022b).The other four designated SOx-ECAs are:the Baltic Sea area;the North Sea area;the North American area(covering designated coastal areas off the United States and Canada);and the United States Caribbean Sea are

291、a(around Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands).Another ECA under discussion at IMO is the Norwegian west coast.17https:/www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/Nitrogen-oxides-(NOx)-%E2%80%93-Regulation-13.aspx.244.The regulatory framework Black carbon emissionsBlack carbon emissions,a

292、product of incomplete combustion of HFOs used in shipping,also contribute to climate change,and as such were covered by the fourth IMO GHG study(IMO,2020)and included in the emission inventory.Black carbon is particularly serious in the Arctic because it has a greater warming effect than black carbo

293、n emitted in lower latitudes.18 To address these types of emissions,a resolution was adopted by IMOs Marine Environment Protection Committee(MEPC)in November 2021,which urged Member States and ship operators to voluntarily use distillate or other cleaner alternative fuels or methods of propulsion th

294、at could help to reduce black carbon emissions when ships operate in or near the Arctic(IMO,2021c).Use of heavy fuel oil in the Arctic Another resolution adopted by the IMO in June 2021 introduced amendments to MARPOL Annex I that prohibits the use and carriage for use of HFO19 by ships in Arctic wa

295、ters on and after 1 July2024(IMO,2021d).Ships that meet certain standards for fuel tank protection need to comply with the resolution on and beyond 1 July 2029.However,up to 1 July 2029,a Party with a coastline bordering Arctic waters may temporarily waive the requirements for ships flying its flag

296、and operating in waters that are subject to that Partys sovereignty or jurisdiction.After that date,exemptions and waivers no longer apply.Currently,MARPOL Annex I regulation 43 prohibits the use or carriage of heavy-grade oils on ships in the Antarctic;under the Polar Code20 ships are encouraged no

297、t to use or carry such oil in the Arctic.The new regulation will help to further protect these fragile areas.However,concern has been expressed regarding a weakening of this regulations effectiveness by the waivers and exemptions for contracting States with a coastline bordering Arctic waters(Bobbe

298、and Hubbel,2020).While not agreed under the auspices of the IMO,also worth noting in this context is an Agreement to prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean(FAO,2018b)signed by Canada,China,Denmark,the European Union,Iceland,Japan,Norway,the Republic of Korea,the Russian

299、Federation and the United States.This agreement,which entered into force in June 2021,protects the Arctics fragile marine ecosystems against unregulated fishing and fills an important gap in the international ocean governance framework.It also sets up a mechanism to prevent commercial fishing activi

300、ties until better scientific knowledge is available.The agreement is effectively a moratorium on Arctic fishing based on the precautionary approach and therefore until the best scientific knowledge becomes available,commercial fishing is not occurring in the Artic.However,the possibility that commer

301、cial fish stocks may migrate to the Arctic because of climate change impacts,leading to fishing activities taking place there in the mid and long term,cannot be excluded.For parts of the Arctic not falling within national jurisdictions,the adoption in June 2023 of the Agreement on the Conservation a

302、nd Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction(the BBNJ Agreement)(United Nations,2023)may have repercussions for fishing activities(Romani,2021).Consideration of these is,however,beyond the scope of this study.Methane emissionsThe fourth IMO GHG study(IMO,20

303、20)shows that there has been a sharp increase in methane emissions,another contributor to climate change.Methane emissions from shipping rose by 150 per cent between 2012 and 2018.The increase is mostly driven by the increased use of LNG-fuelled engines(Pavlenko et al.,2020).Recently,proposals have

304、been submitted to IMO that Member States include all GHGs emitted from ships,including methane,NOx and black carbon,as CO2 equivalents when further developing energy efficiency measures(IMO,2022c).18See Clean Arctic Alliance website,at https:/www.hfofreearctic.org/en/front-page.19Relative emissions

305、of CO2 are higher for HFO than for LNG,and relative emissions of SOx,NOx and particulate matter are significantly higher.20See https:/www.imo.org/en/ourwork/safety/pages/polar-code.aspx.25EnErgy TransiTion of fishing flEETs Opportunities and challenges for developing countries4.2 Regional and nation

306、al initiatives European Union levelOutside the IMO framework,some regional developments at the European Union level are also directly relevant to the subjects of reducing shipping emissions,energy efficiency,market-based mechanisms and energy taxation in the shipping sector,including in trade extern

307、al to the European Union.Most,however,are not applicable to fishing vessels.Under Regulation(EU)2015/757(European Union,2015)on the monitoring,reporting and verification of CO2emissions from maritime transport(MRV Regulation),shipowners and operators of ships above 5,000 GT and making commercial voy

308、ages to,from,or within European Union ports are required to submit a verified emissions report to the European Commission.A recent amendment to the MRV Regulation(European Union,2023a)adopted in April 2023,provides that emissions from shipping will be included within the scope of the European Union

309、ETS for the first time to ensure that maritime transport activities contribute their fair share to the increased climate objectives of the Union,as well as to the objectives of the Paris Agreement(para.8).The original MRV Regulation(European Union,2015)applied only to vessels above 5,000 GT(Art.21),

310、and specifically excluded“fish-catching or fish-processing ships”(Art.22).21 Therefore,it is not applicable to fishing vessels.The amendments to the MRV regulations made in April 2023 provide that“general cargo ships below 5,000 GT,but not below 400 GT,should be included in Regulation(EU)2015/757 fr

311、om 2025”.In addition,“the Commission should assess before 31 December 2024 whether additional ship types below 5,000 GT,but not below 400 GT,should be included in Regulation(EU)2015/757”(European Union,2023b).Thus,it appears that the existing exclusion in Art.2(2)relating to“fish-catching or fish-pr

312、ocessing ships”has been maintained.Amendments to the European Union ETS adopted in April 2023(European Union,2023c),increase the overall ambition of emissions reductions by 2030 in the sectors covered by the European Union ETS to 62 per cent compared to 2005 levels(para.39).Moreover,100 per cent of

313、emissions from the European Union internal shipping and at European Union ports,and 50 per cent of emissions from ships engaged in voyages between European Union and non-European Union ports will be covered by the European Union ETS(pg.97,Art.3ga).While there is no explicit reference to developing c

314、ountries,“this approach has been noted as a practical way to solve the issue of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities,which has been a longstanding challenge in the UNFCCC context”(para.20).Obligations for shipping companies to surrender allowances will be introduced

315、 gradually.In addition,most large vessels above 5,000 GT will be included within the scope of the European Union ETS from the start,while offshore vessels between 400 and 5,000 GT will be included in the MRV regulation first,and only later(after 2026)in the European Union ETS(p.23 para.30).Non-CO2 e

316、missions(methane and N2O)will be included in the MRV regulation from 2024 and in the European Union ETS from 2026(p.17)(Verifavia,2023).Therefore,fishing vessels are not part of the allowance trading.Several other related regulatory proposals are under consideration.These include an update of the En

317、ergy Taxation Directive 2003/96/EC,which is restructuring the Unions framework for taxation of energy products and electricity(European Commission,2021).In an important change,it is expected that with its adoption,energy products and electricity supplied for intra-European Union waterborne navigatio

318、n,including fishing,would also be subject to taxation(proposed Article 15).In addition,a Regulation(FuelEU Maritime Initiative)was adopted in July 2023(European Council,2023;European Union,2023d;Rivera News,2023).It establishes requirements to gradually reduce GHG emissions across a ships life cycle

319、.It also requires,from 2030 onwards,that passenger and container ships connect to an onshore electricity supply when in port for stays longer than two hours.According to the regulation,ships shall hold a valid FuelEU document of compliance,and failing to do so,may be banned from European Union water

320、s until the obligations are fulfilled.The scope of application of the proposed Regulation is identical to the MRV Regulation,thus excluding all fish catching and fish processing ships(Art.2 7)22(European Parliament,2022).21Article 2(2)of Regulation 2015/757 states“This Regulation does not apply to w

321、arships,naval auxiliaries,fish-catching or fish-processing ships,wooden ships of a primitive build,ships not propelled by mechanical means,or government ships used for non-commercial purposes.”22Article 2(7)states“This Regulation does not apply to warships,naval auxiliaries,fish-catching or fish-pro

322、cessing ships,wooden ships of a primitive build,ships not propelled by mechanical means,or government ships used for non-commercial purposes.264.The regulatory frameworkTo summarize,while the European Union has implemented measures to tackle GHG emissions from maritime transport,fishing vessels are

323、currently excluded from all reporting obligations and market-based measures,except for taxation of energy products used for the propulsion of all vessels.However,it is important to note that European Union institutions and Member States are required,under Article2(1)of the European Union Climate Law

324、 to“take the necessary measures at Union and national level,respectively,to enable the collective achievement of the climate-neutrality objective taking into account the importance of promoting both fairness and solidarity among Member States and cost-effectiveness in achieving this objective”(Europ

325、ean Union,2021).Thus,Member States are required to take national GHG reduction measures across all sectors,which would include measures for the reduction of emissions from domestic fishing vessels;further European Union legislation may also be developed as a result.Assessment of progress on European

326、 Union measures and assessment of national measures is envisaged under Articles 6 and 7 of the Climate Law,at five-year intervals,beginning at the end of September 2023.National levelIMO has encouraged its Member States to develop national action plans aimed at reducing the GHG emissions of the ship

327、ping sector.To date,eight national action plans have been submitted by Member States,23(IMO,2018)five of which specifically account for fishing vessels in their emissions calculations.24Amongst them,the Marshall Islands highlights the need for International Fishing Ship Efficiency Research(Micronesi

328、an Center for Sustainable Transport,2022),while Norway is addressing specifically the issue of fishing vessels in its strategy,promoting measures such as battery-hybrid propulsion,heat recovery and electrification of fishing gear(Norwegian Government,2019).4.3 The World Trade Organization Agreement

329、on Fisheries Subsidies and in-built negotiating agendaAfter more than 20 years of negotiations,members of the WTO reached an agreement to prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies at the twelfth WTO Ministerial Conference(MC12)on June17,2022(WTO,2022).The WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies is

330、a standalone landmark treaty,inserted into Annex 1A of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the WTO,that aims to address the depletion of marine resources caused by public financing of unsustainable fishing practices.At the time of writing,53 countries,25 including members of the European Union,the

331、United States,Japan,China and Peru had ratified the agreement.For the WTO Fisheries Subsidies Agreement to enter into force,two-thirds of WTO Members(109 of 164)must deposit their“instruments of acceptance”with the WTO.The Agreement,while significant,is not fully comprehensive.The core obligations o

332、f the agreement are a set of prohibitions to subsidies that contribute to:IUU fishing.Fishing and related activities on stocks recognized as being overfished.Fishing in unregulated high seas areas beyond the jurisdiction of coastal or non-coastal states and of relevant regional fisheries management

333、organizations or agreements(RFMO/As).These prohibitions are subject to certain exceptions and limitations,as well as special and differential treatment for implementation by developing countries and LDCs.One of the difficulties during the negotiation was related to concerns about the need to sustain small-scale and subsistence fisheries and to protect rights over stocks within EEZs,particularly th