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1、THE POTENTIAL OF ONBOARD CARBON CAPTURE IN SHIPPINGWHITE PAPERContentsProject teamEdition EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.031 INTRODUCTION.042 THE ROLE OF ONBOARD CARBON CAPTURE.05 3 VALUE CHAIN DEVELOPMENTS.063.1 From onboard capture to permanent storage or utilization.063.2 Connecting onboard carbon capture to

2、the CCUS value chain.083.2.1 Status of carbon storage projects.083.2.2 Convenient disposal locations.083.2.3 Demonstration and collaboration in closed value chains.104 ONBOARD CARBON CAPTURE.114.1 Onboard carbon capture technologies.124.1.1 Capture methods.124.1.2 Balancing capture rate versus fuel

3、penalty.144.2 Economic considerations.164.3 Regulatory status.164.3.1 Environmental and GHG emission regulations.164.3.2 Safety regulations.174.3.3 Regulatory overview.184.4 Practical considerations.195 REFERENCES.21AuthorsDorthe Alida SlotvikChara GeorgopoulouIngeranne Strm NakstadErik Mathias Srha

4、ugReviewersJason Stefanatosyvind EndresenJan KvlsvoldEirik OvrumMay 20242The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|ContentsExecutive summaryWhile many efforts to reduce greenhouse gas(GHG)emis-sions from shipping focus on improving energy efficiency of the vessels and switching to carbon-n

5、eutral fuels,another option is to capture the CO2 produced by carbon-based fuels and utilize or store it in underground reservoirs.The carbon capture,utilization and storage technologies and value chains are under development to support decarbon-ization of land-based emissions,and the maritime indus

6、try is looking into its application on board ships.This white paper aims to provide guidance to shipowners,technology providers,and other stakeholders on central matters related to onboard carbon capture.Technical feasibility and testingThe concept of onboard carbon capture is based on tech-nology w

7、hich captures the carbon on board the ship before the CO2 is emitted to the atmosphere through the exhaust.Studies show that the technology can be applied safely on ships,but it still needs to be further developed and opti-mized for maritime use and integration.Key factors that affect the technical

8、feasibility of onboard carbon capture for a dedicated ship are the size,operational profile and trading pattern,the machinery capacity for power and heat production,and the space available.Shipowners must in-vestigate different decarbonization alternatives and should evaluate if onboard carbon captu

9、re could be a feasible option for their vessels.In general,an onboard carbon capture storage(OCCS)-ready think ing approach could be relevant to consider at newbuilding stage to reduce cost for future potential onboard carbon capture retrofit.Commercial competitiveness Onboard carbon captures releva

10、nce for wider application by the shipping industry also depends on its commercial performance compared to other decarbonization alter-natives.The application and uptake of onboard carbon capture technology depends on the relevant cost elements of the system,in addition to the regulatory and competi-

11、tive landscape.In general,as long as decarbonization of shipping is enforced through regulations and market-based mechanisms,onboard carbon capture may be a commer-cially attractive solution if high capture rates,low fuel penal-ties,and low CO2 deposit costs can be achieved.Regulatory approvalFor sh

12、ipowners to adopt onboard carbon capture,appropri-ate emission regulations must be established to credit cap-tured carbon dioxide.Currently,the EU Emissions Trading System is the only regulatory framework incentivizing carbon capture on ships,which is in alignment with EU strategy on land-based CCS.

13、In addition,the IMO has initiated a working group to look further into how onboard carbon capture can potentially be implemented in new GHG emission regula-tions.A continued push to quickly develop regulations that credit onboard captured CO2 will reduce uncertainties for the industry and support fu

14、rther development.Connection to the carbon capture,utilization,and storage(CCUS)value chainA wide uptake of onboard carbon capture by the shipping industry is dependent on its integration within the broad-er CCUS value chain.A scaling of the CCUS infrastructure network,across geographies and nations

15、,will establish the grounds for uptake of onboard carbon capture technology.As of today,this infrastructure is not established.The shipping industry needs to reach out to relevant CCUS development projects near major shipping hubs to discuss how the mari-time industry can connect to the wider CCUS v

16、alue chain.DNV has been working on onboard carbon capture since 2009,and can support stakeholders wanting to investigate the feasibility of onboard carbon capture and its connection to the value chain.FIGURE 1-1Stepwise process of the onboard carbon capture value chainOnboardcarbon captureOnboardtem

17、porary storageOffloading of CO2 at reception pointDistribution of CO2Transportation by ship or pipelineUse of CO2 as feedstock to create productsPermanent underground storageUtilization/storage of CO23The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Executive summary1 IntroductionAs the maritime

18、industry prepares to meet updated and new regulations for decarbonization,demand for cost-efficient solutions is increasing.Candidate options include energy ef-ficiency measures,alternative fuels,and onboard carbon cap-ture(OCC).The latter is attracting increasing attention because it provides the o

19、pportunity to continue operation on conven-tional fuels,while reducing greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions.Currently,DNV participates in numerous large-scale onboard carbon capture technology pilots and feasibility studies and has already executed a range of Approval in Principle.1For onboard carbon captur

20、e as a potential decarbonization solution,the industry is asking key questions about its marinization and implications:Will it be accepted by future emission-related regulations,and under which terms and conditions?How and where can the captured CO2 be disposed of,and how will this be handled in a f

21、ull value-chain perspective?Is onboard carbon capture a technically and economically feasible option?This white paper reflects on these questions and aims to provide guidance to shipowners,technology providers,and other stakeholders on central matters related to onboard carbon capture.Figure 1-2 giv

22、es an overview of the nec-essary steps for the evaluation of the technology feasibility and commercial attractiveness related to onboard carbon capture vessel integration.The paper covers the potential role that onboard carbon capture can play in the decarbonization of the shipping industry while al

23、so dealing with its integration in the broader developments of the carbon capture,utilization and storage(CCUS)value chain,which is essential for shipping.A broad range of onboard carbon capture technologies are explored,and the impact of capture rates and fuel penalties discussed.In addition to eco

24、nomic influencing factors,we highlight practical considerations with regards to the implementation on board and in different ship segments all affecting the commercial attractiveness of onboard carbon capture.Environment,GHG emission and safety regulations sur-rounding onboard carbon capture are als

25、o outlined,provid-ing insights into the current status and future directions of regulations that could impact the adoption and implemen-tation of these technologies.Ship and tradeShip type,trade route and machineryOCC acceptanceCredits for CO2 captureInfrastructure developmentCO2 captured,taxation,f

26、uel penaltyRegulatory approvalCCUS value chain developmentCO2 and fuel pricesTechnology feasibility and commercial attractivenessFIGURE 1-2Evaluation of onboard carbon capture1)Some examples of projects:EverLoNG,https:/everlongccus.eu/about-the-project The Maritime CCS project(2009-2012)The MemCCSea

27、 project(started in 2019)The decarbonICE project (2019-2020)Green Shipping Programme OCC Pilots:On tankers led by Altera Infrastructures,https:/ on containers led by SinOceanic,https:/ potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Introduction2 The role of onboard carbon captureGiven the urgency o

28、f global decarbonization,it is expected that the competition for green energy carriers in transporta-tion may become challenging leading to higher fuel costs.DNVs Maritime Forecast to 2050(DNV,2023b)predicted that together with carbon taxes,the limited availability and high prices of low-carbon fuel

29、s could generate commercial grounds for onboard carbon capture.Shipping companies will aim to ensure compliance through effective combinations of decarbonization options:car-bon-neutral fuels,energy-efficiency improvements,opera-tions optimization,and onboard carbon capture.Similar to what happened

30、in the 2020s with the global sulphur cap,the after-treatment of carbon emissions is expected to be relevant for both existing ships and newbuilds.Despite similarities with the SOx scrubber case,onboard carbon capture bears additional challenges that may impact decision-making.One major challenge is

31、the current lack of regulatory clarity on carbon emission creditability,which generates commercial uncertainty for shipowners.On the technical side,important considerations are the fuel penalty from system operation,and the practical implications for system installation,temporary onboard storage and

32、 dispos-al to shore.The trade-off lies between high capture rates of CO2 and higher fuel costs due to additional fuel needed to capture the carbon dioxide.The onboard carbon capture investment and increased fuel costs need to be evaluated against the cost of emitting CO2 and the cost of renewable fu

33、el alternatives to reach emission targets.Furthermore,the uptake of onboard carbon capture de-pends on the growth of a disposal network to receive and handle the capture process products.With the wider CCUS infrastructure in development,scaling up of the maritime carbon capture network will take tim

34、e and is expected to reach a broader uptake after 2030.Disposal costs will be af-fected by carbon market developments,and especially the cost of transportation and storage of CO2,which is reduced by the distance between emitter and storage(Clean Air Task Force,2023).While the onboard technology come

35、s,it will require collaborative action involving regulators,policymakers,ports,class,suppliers and other industry stakeholders to make a difference.Scarce availability and potentially high cost of carbon-neutral fuels present significant hurdles to the decarbonization of the maritime industry.This c

36、hapter explores onboard carbon capture as a decarbonization option and touches on the challenges and considerations involved.The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|The role of onboard carbon capture53 Value chain developmentsShipping will need to integrate into the expanding CCUS networ

37、k shaped by land-based point sources of CO2 emissions.This chapter discusses how onboard carbon capture could connect to a future developed CCUS value chain and shows the global status of storage locations and capacities.Underground storageFeeder vessels transportingCO2 from remote sourcesTransport

38、and offshore injectionTransport fromother CO2 sourcesVessel transporting CO2captured on board Offloading,temporary storageand injectionFloating collection hubCO2 sourceCO2 emissions from land-based industry will drive develop-ment of the CCUS value chain,establishing the technologies and CO2 purity

39、requirements together with the transporta-tion and storage providers.Shipping will have to fit into this chain as a branch,taking advantage of the expansion of CO2 terminals near major ports.Special shipping services on a small scale may emerge to support CO2 collection from ships around major hubs.

40、The growth of such an infrastructure network is crucial for onboard carbon capture to increase.3.1 From onboard capture to permanent storage or utilizationOnboard carbon capture systems will depend on a devel-oped infrastructure for wider CCUS,as such capture will be the starting point of a long log

41、istics chain.The onboard carbon capture value chain,as part of a greater value chain,is illustrated in Figure 3-1,with permanent storage as the endpoint.FIGURE 3-1A simplified maritime carbon capture and storage value chain from capturing and temporary storage of CO2 on a ship or at an industry faci

42、lity,offloading and ship transportation to permanent storage locationThe potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Value chain developments6The five steps of this value chain are shown in Figure 3-2 with permanent storage or utilization as the endpoint.Details of steps 1 to 3 are covered in se

43、ction 4.1.Step 1 Onboard capture:The ship will require a sys-tem to capture,remove and process the CO2 to a state suitable for onboard storage.The captured carbon can be in various states,depending on the capture method:compressed gas,liquid,or solid(bonded in a mineral).Step 2 Onboard storage:The c

44、aptured carbon is temporarily stored on board before being offloaded.Depending on the CO2 state,different properties and containment systems are needed.In the case of liquid,the CO2 product may be stored in IGC Type C tanks,following IGF code requirements,and the CCUS value chain properties.2Step 3

45、Offloading:Periodically,the ship will need to get rid of the captured carbon,either at the end of a voyage,or by making additional port calls or offload-ing to CO2 carrying vessels.The offloading frequency depends on the trade and the availability of disposal facilities(e.g.CO2 terminals,floating co

46、llecting hubs,and CO2 receival vessels).Step 4 Transportation:After offloading,the CO2 is trans-ported to CO2 reception facilities.In general,the CO2 can be transported by ship and pipelines(but also trucks and trains).The facilities will be important nodes of the value chain,as further processing m

47、ay be needed to prepare and condition the CO2 stream to be compatible with the downstream CCUS value chain.Step 5 Permanent storage or utilization:The value chain ends with either permanent storage(sequestra-tion)as waste or utilization.As waste,the captured CO2 is permanently stored deep undergroun

48、d geological formations.2)Depending on the value-chain characteristics and the capture system selected,the CO2 is required to be in different forms:liquid(captured in a liquid solvent),liquefied gas(medium or low pressure),gaseous(compressed gas),solid(captured through adsorption).3)The Northern Lig

49、hts project(https:/)is dedicated to medium pressure carriage of liquefied CO2 for offshore sequestration.As part of the project,specifications of the CO2 product were created,to ensure high-quality conditions that do not risk maintainability and operability of the systems.Important factors in the CO

50、2 specifications are the composi-tion of non-dissolved species(N2,O2,Ar),and the level of acceptable contaminants(e.g.H2S,NOx)and moisture(30 ppmol).The definition of the CO2 stream properties is essential to avoid corrosion in the containment system,as well as predictable thermodynamic behaviour.CO

51、2 properties and compatibility between the nodes in the value chainThe specification and condition of the CO2 stream is an essential requirement for compatibility between the nodes of the value chain.Regardless of endpoint,the offloaded CO2 must meet product specifications(e.g.purity,temperature,and

52、 pressure)dictated by the design characteristics of the offloading services and/or CCUS infrastructure.Also,purity standards will need to be met to ensure the integrity and reliability of the downstream CCS systems,and the interoperability of facilities to re-ceive disposed carbon dioxide.3FIGURE 3-

53、2Stepwise process of the onboard carbon capture value chainOnboardcarbon captureOnboardtemporary storageOffloading of CO2 at reception pointDistribution of CO2Transportation by ship or pipelineUse of CO2 as feedstock to create productsPermanent underground storageUtilization/storage of CO2The potent

54、ial of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Value chain developments73.2 Connecting onboard carbon capture to the CCUS value chainThe uptake of onboard carbon capture technologies will need to be linked to the development of the wider CCUS value chain development.Large onshore CO2 emitters,such as ind

55、ustries that consume fossil energy or produce CO2 as a by-product of their production processes(e.g.steel,cement,and fertilizers),drive the need for developing this logistics chain,as the volume from single onshore emitters is much larger than from an individual ship.Successful downstream integratio

56、n of onboard captured carbon in the CCUS value chain depends on the ability to offload the CO2 at convenient locations and then connect to carbon storage or utilization locations.3.2.1 Status of carbon storage projectsBy April 2024,35 carbon storage projects were in operation worldwide with a total

57、storage capacity of 37 million tonnes per annum(Mtpa),most of them related to natural gas pro-cessing and enhanced oil recovery(Alternative Fuels Insight(https:/),April 2024).8 Data on CO2 storage capacities are also available from the Global CCS Institute(GCCSI,2023).In general,the CCUS value chain

58、 is still at an early stage.Many projects for end-use and storage-related infrastructure for CO2 are currently in the conceptual phase,with Final Investment Decisions(FIDs)expected in 2025 and beyond(GCMD,2024).Between now and 2050,the carbon storage capacity must be more than 100 times higher than

59、the projected capacity for CO2 storage if we are to reach net zero by mid-century.9 The forecasted global CCS capacity in net-zero policies 2050 scenarios ranges from 4,000 to 8,400 MtCO2 stored annually,part of which could be made available for CO2 captured from shipping(Richardo&DNV,2023).In compa

60、rison,shipping consumes about 3%of the worlds energy and emits around 880 MtCO2 per year.3.2.2 Convenient disposal locations Convenient reception points could be established near large bunkering hubs which can facilitate the development of terminal infrastructure and carbon-receival shuttle vessel s

61、ervices(similar to bunker vessels),or tailor-made disposal points for dedicated trades.Trades and routes with proximity(reasonable sailing distances)to hubs and carbon reception points will likely be more compatible with onboard carbon capture than others.For example,liner trades with fixed routes t

62、hat call at major ports where CO2 infrastructure is expected to be in place could more easily adopt onboard carbon capture than irregular spot trades.To illustrate the potential CO2 volumes to be offloaded in different ports,the planned CO2 storage locations and capacities can be compared to the acc

63、umulated CO2 emis-sions from ship voyages.Figure 3-3 shows the planned CO2 storage capacities in 2030 as outlined in DNVs Alternative Fuels Insight(AFI)database.Figure 3-4 shows estimates on CO2 emission from direct voyages into major shipping ports.The estimates are based on 2022 AIS data,applying

64、a voyage-based approach that follows the vessels movement from one port to another;a similar methodology is described in an AIS analysis from the Nordic Roadmap project(DNV,2022).4)Read more about DNVs work on CO2 storage and use:https:/ 5)https:/unfccc.int/documents/6273986)https:/www.miljodirektor

65、atet.no/publikasjoner/2024/mars-2024/greenhouse-gas-emissions-1990-2022-national-inventory-report7)https:/ and utilization of facilities within a year may differ from its nominal capacity potential.For reference in 2019,25Mt of CO2 was permanently stored worldwide.9)https:/www.irena.org/Energy-Trans

66、ition/Technology/Carbon-CaptureHow to ensure permanent CO2 storage?While carbon capture and storage(CCS)has the potential to play a significant role in mitigating climate change,concerns about the security and permanence of CO2 geological storage have been raised.For geological storage of CO2,it is

67、fundamental to create confidence that the geological formations selected for the storage are suitable for the purpose,will deliver long-term emission reductions,and do not involve unacceptable risk.To ensure the permanence of a storage site,a thorough risk assessment and site characterization along

68、with a suitable operations and monitoring plan are required.As every storage site is different,these assessments must be done on a case-by-case basis to minimize any risk of leakage.4Permanent geological storage of CO2 has been achieved since the 1996 at the Sleipner gas field in Norway with around

69、19 million tonnes stored up to 2022.5 The Snhvit CCS project has operated since 2007 and stored around 7 million tonnes up to 2022.6 Both projects have had some issues with either injection or venting of CO2 but are generally consid-ered to show that permanent CO2 storage is possible.However,most CO

70、2 injection to date has been used for enhanced oil recovery(since the 1970s),and leakages have occurred during the injection process 7,which highlights the need for rigorous risk assess-ments and operational planning to minimize risks.The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Value chain d

71、evelopments8FIGURE 3-3Map of existing and planned global carbon storage projects in 2030,from the Alternative Fuel Insight(AFI)database(excluding enhanced oil recovery),by annual storage capacity(size of bubble)and location Source:AFI(April 2024)10)The estimates are based on 2022 AIS data,applying a

72、 voyage-based approach that follows the vessels movement from one port shape to another;a similar methodology is described in an AIS analysis from the Nordic Roadmap project(DNV,2022).https:/ 3-4Voyage-based estimates of CO2 emissions from direct voyages into major shipping ports,by annual tonnes of

73、 CO2 emissions and location(AIS data,2022)10 The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Value chain developments911)PORTHOS-Port of Rotterdam CO2 Transport Hub and Offshore Storage,https:/www.porthosco2.nl/en 12)AntwerpC CO Export Hub,https:/ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/p

74、ortal/screen/opportunities/projects-details/43251567/101103080/CEF2027 https:/ CO2 hub in the Port of Gothenburg,https:/ EU CC Interconnector,https:/ec.europa.eu/energy/maps/pci_fiches/PciFiche_12.9.pdf 15)Dunkirks CO2 hub,https:/dunkerquepromotion.org/en/investments/7-dunkirks-co2-hub-the-first-co2

75、-hub-in-france16)CO2nnectNow,https:/ Lights,https:/ on green shipping corridors-from policy ambitions to realization,Nordic Roadmap Publication No.3-A/1/2022,https:/ Demonstration and collaboration in closed value chainsTo foster collaboration and coordination in the CCUS value chain,groups of stake

76、holders could work in closed value chains where they agree to share the costs and ben-efits of capturing,transporting,and storing CO2.This can create a stable demand for CCUS services and reduce the risks and uncertainties associated with market fluctuations and policy changes.Closed value chains ca

77、n also serve as green shipping corridors19,with a coordinated develop-ment of supply and demand showcasing the feasibility and impact of onboard carbon capture and CCUS as a decarbonization solution for the shipping industry.Another way to accelerate the integration of onboard carbon capture and CCU

78、S is to initiate dialogue with the larger CCUS projects that are in development,both in the short term and the long term.By engaging with these projects,the shipping industry can explore the possibilities and challenges of connecting ships to planned CCUS in-frastructure,such as pipelines,hubs,termi

79、nals and storage sites.This can help to identify the optimal locations,tech-nical specifications and contractual arrangements for CO2 delivery and offloading from ships.It can also help to raise awareness and interest among the CCUS project develop-ers and operators about the potential CO2 volumes a

80、nd revenues that can be generated from the maritime sector.These approaches require first movers taking the lead in establishing partnerships and collaborations across the CCUS value chain.The first movers can gain a competitive advantage,enhancing their reputation and influencing the regulatory fra

81、mework.However,they also face higher risks and costs,as well as technological and institutional bar-riers.Therefore,it is important to provide incentives and support for first movers,such as public funding,subsidies,guarantees,standards and regulations.The global network of CCUS will need to evolve

82、to accom-modate increased CO2 volumes and the requirement for more geographically spread offloading facilities for ship-ping.Ships can be regarded as small-scale CO2 producing units.However,as indicated in Figure 3-4,the accumulated annual volumes of CO2 emissions in the busiest shipping locations a

83、re large even when compared with single on-shore emitters.Singapore and Rotterdam are the two ports with largest accumulated annual CO2 emissions from ship voyages into port,with around 24 and 13 million tonnes CO2,respectively(2022 data).In comparison,the 10 largest announced projects for dedicated

84、 CO2 storage have a planned capacity of 7.520 Mtpa(in 2030).With ports hav-ing the potential to collect and transmit such large amounts of CO2 emissions,incentives to build out CCUS infrastruc-ture and dedicated CO2 storage for shipping in the most travelled shipping hubs should be considered.The gr

85、owth of onboard carbon capture-related infrastruc-ture will depend on the development of networks of the CCUS value chain.The availability of disposal locations near shipping routes is a crucial factor for deciding to invest in onboard carbon capture.There are ongoing developments of CO2 offloading

86、facili-ties near port terminals;for example,at the ports of Rotter-dam11,Antwerp12,Gothenburg13,Gdansk14,Dunkirk15,and Wilhelmshaven16.Other initiatives are working to advance the value chains;for example,the Northern Lights proj-ect17 that is developing CO2 transport and storage facilities in the N

87、orth Sea.In the Netherlands,the Porthos project is developing a value chain to transport CO2 from industry in the Port of Rotterdam and store it in empty gas fields under the North Sea via pipelines.18 The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Value chain developments10FIGURE 4-1Simplified

88、 illustration of subsystems in an onboard carbon capture system based on their functionality4 Onboard carbon captureVarious methods exist to capture CO2.This chapter provides an overview of onboard carbon capture technologies,looking at possible capture rates and taking into account economic and des

89、ign considerations.It also looks into the status of environmental,GHG emission and safety regulations needed to push the uptake of onboard carbon capture.Onboard carbon capture is based on technology that cap-tures the carbon in the fuel or the ship exhaust gas before CO2 is emitted to the atmospher

90、e.In principle,this can lead to significant emissions reduction,but at the expense of extra energy and storage space requirements.An illustration of onboard carbon capture components is shown in Figure 4-1.Ongoing pilots around the globe currently aim at filling the knowledge gaps around onboard car

91、bon capture imple-mentation.The Norwegian shipowner Solvang ASA is one of the early movers within amine-based onboard carbon capture.Solvang and Wrtsil have received funding from ENOVA and will do a full-scale testing of a Wrtsil carbon capture plant on an LPG carrier.20,21 The goal is to demonstrat

92、e that CO2 can be captured from heavy fuel oil combustion and stored on board in deck tanks,and to gain experience on operational aspects of the process,energy consumption,and maintenance needs.EverLoNG22 is a three-year EU research initiative involving maritime industry stakeholders,DNV and R&D,and

93、 is co-funded by the ERA-NET ACT3 programme.The project aims to encourage the uptake of onboard carbon capture and storage by demonstrating its use on LNG-fuelled ships and moving it closer to market readiness.The work tasks include demonstrating onboard carbon capture and storage effectiveness by i

94、nstalling test installations on two LNG-fuelled vessels,evaluating the cost of onshore logis-tics,and developing a roadmap proposal for a European CO2 offloading network.The Ermafirst Neptune Lines demonstration project was initiated in 2023 with an Approval in Principle by DNV and continues with a

95、dedicated conversion pilot,focused on the onboard capture plant on a RoRo ship.20)https:/solvangship.no/2021/10/19/solvang-signs-deal-to-decarbonise-fleet-2 21)https:/maritime- 22)https:/everlongccus.eu/about-the-project CO2EngineSteam supplyCO2 treatmentAuxilliarypowerOnboard storageCarbon capture

96、systemSource:DNVThe potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Onboard carbon capture114.1 Onboard carbon capture technologies The onboard carbon capture technology space is currently expanding with a wide range of concepts,which could be di-vided mainly into two categories:pre-and post-combust

97、ion(Figure 4-2).In pre-combustion,the carbon is removed from the fuel before combustion,while in post-combustion,CO2 is removed from the exhaust gas stream.Oxy-fuel combustion is a third category,which refers to oxygen-rich combustion with exhaust recirculation,resulting in CO2-rich exhaust and the

98、release of CO2 as a by-product.The latter is relevant to fuel cells as energy converters,whereas post-combustion is more relevant to conventional machinery such as internal combustion engines(ICE).There is ongoing work for includ-ing the uptake of onboard carbon capture technologies on the AFI platf

99、orm(https:/).4.1.1 Capture methodsThe most relevant method for conventional marine energy systems is post-combustion,where carbon is separated from the exhaust after combustion.Table 1 shows an over-view of different post-combustion capture methods.These use various mechanisms,such as chemical absor

100、ption,adsorption,and membrane-based or cryogenic separation.The concept of post-combustion carbon capture(example:amine absorption process)is illustrated in Fig 4-3.Chemical absorption with amine solvents is one of the most advanced options,with a long history of use in onshore applications.Marine e

101、xamples are currently testing its feasi-bility for ships.For fuel-cell systems with LNG as fuel,pre-or oxy-fuel combustion are possible capture methods.In the pre-combustion case,the LNG fuel is reformed be-fore combustion to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide.The hydrogen is utilized in fuel cells

102、 for energy conversion,while the CO2 is captured and processed.This concept can be combined with other systems,such as conventional marine engines,to create designs where the fuel cell acts as both the energy converter and the CO2 separator.In the oxy-fuel case,the systems use pure oxygen and gas re

103、circulation,resulting in high CO2 exhaust.These concepts are not well-developed in shipping,affected by the low adoption of fuel cells in the market.FIGURE 4-2Graphical representation of onboard carbon capture technologies by system features and relevance to the type of energy converter and fuelPOST

104、-COMBUSTIONChemical absorption and onboard liquefactionMembrane separation Chemical absorption to saturation Mineralization(calcium looping)Cryogenic separationLNG reforming and pre-combustion capturePyrolysis of LNG and carbon separationStorageTreatmentCaptureMarine energy systemFuelAll fossil fuel

105、sLNGPRE-COMBUSTIONCO2CO2CO2CO2CarbonCO2 bonded in liquidCO2 bonded in mineralAftertreatmentThe potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Onboard carbon capture12Exhaust gasCleaned gasAminesolutionABSORPTIONCOLUMNREGENERATIONCOLUMNHeatexchangerReboilerCO2 product(gas to liquefaction)Source:DNVF

106、IGURE 4-3The concept of post-combustion carbon capture the example of an amine absorption processTABLE 1Overview of post-combustion capture methodsChemical absorptionThe exhaust gas stream is scrubbed by a liquid solution,comprising of a chemical agent and water,such as amines.CO2 is selectively abs

107、orbed into the liquid,where it is bonded by the chemical compound and thus removed from the exhaust.The clean gas stream leaves the system,while the liquid solution saturated with CO2 is either recirculated in the system or regenerated to release CO2 gas.The regeneration pro-cess is energy consuming

108、,requiring significant amounts of heat,between 34 GJ/tCO2 for conventional solvents.Novel solvents can achieve improved performance of 2 to 2.5 GJ/tCO2(T.Damartzis,et al.2022).When CO2 gas is generated,proper treatment and handling is required for temporary onboard storage until discharge.The CO2 ga

109、s can either be compressed and pressurized,or most often liquefied under medium or even low-pressure conditions.Onboard carbon capture involves cleaning of exhaust gases from CO2,separating the CO2 and storing it on board in various forms,depending on the technology(gas,liquid,or mineral),before off

110、loading.Membrane separationThe exhaust gas stream passes through membrane modules that selectively allow CO2 to transport through their structure and become separated from the exhaust.The cleaned gas leaves the system,while the CO2 stream is led to the treatment system,to become either compressed ga

111、s,or liquid.Some market concepts combine membranes and liquid absorption,to ensure increased mass transport efficiency,and reduced space requirement and regeneration energy demand on board.Cryogenic separationThe exhaust stream is cooled down until CO2 is separated into liquid and solid forms.As a r

112、esult,CO2 is separated from the gas constituents(e.g.nitrogen and oxygen)that require significantly lower tempera-tures to solidify.Impurities like water may separate out earlier than carbon dioxide.Effectively,the CO2 product has high purity.The separation of phases is achieved by centrifuges,for e

113、xample,and hence requires electric power for the cooling and compression unit.Mineralization (calcium looping)Depending on the concept design,the exhaust gas is passed through a reactor,where minerals are used to bond CO2 into their structures,removing it from the exhaust gas.The saturated mineral i

114、s gath-ered as deposited sludge,which is offloaded at the port.The concept involves storage areas for both the mineral and the saturated product.The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Onboard carbon capture134.1.2 Balancing capture rate versus fuel penaltyCapturing carbon onboard ships

115、is associated with the use of energy needed to operate the carbon capture and treat-ment system,usually in the form of heat and electricity.This energy demand may lead to additional fuel consumption.The fuel penalty depends on the type and performance of the capture technology,as well as the ships o

116、perating pro-file and engine load.The trade-off between high capture and low fuel penalty is one of the main challenges of on-board carbon capture,as it affects both the environmental and economic viability of the technology.Systems oper-ating with a high capture rate may have excessive energy deman

117、ds,making them less feasible from an operational and cost perspective.Figure 4-4 shows the impact of an onboard carbon capture system on baseline emissions,illustrating the captured CO2 versus the extra CO2 emissions,because of the fuel penalty.Fuel penalty refers to the additional fuel needed to ru

118、n the capture and processing system on board.The fuel penalty,typically estimated to be in the order of 10%and 40%,depends on the capture method and capacity.Indicatively,for conventional amine scrubbing technol-ogies,the fuel penalty is caused by the extra heat for solvent regeneration,and the elec

119、tric power to run the fluid pumps,the exhaust gas force draft fan,and the CO2 liquefaction plant.Capture rate refers to the percentage of CO2 captured against the total emissions of the vessel,including the extra energy and emissions to run the carbon capture system.With conventional carbon capture

120、technologies,a 100%capture rate may be unrealistic;however,net-zero emis-sions can be achieved by combining onboard carbon cap-ture with blend-in of carbon-neutral fuels.The capture rate is limited by several factors,including the following:Capture technology and space requirements for on board appl

121、ication.Available space and weight on board.Energy demands of the technology.Machinery system power and heat supply resources,in terms of extra electric power and thermal supply.Ship type and trade,with emphasis on the number of frequent port calls.FIGURE 4-4Illustration of carbon emissions and redu

122、ction by use of an onboard carbon capture(OCC)systemCO2 emissionsFossil fuel+OCCCaptureFinalEffective emission reductionCaptured CO2CO2 emissions of base+CO2 fuel penaltyCapture rate=End case with OCCCaptured CO2Fuel penaltyBase case fossil fuelThe potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Onb

123、oard carbon capture14A higher capture rate means more CO2 is prevented from being released into the atmosphere,which improves the environmental and GHG emission performance of the vessel.However,a higher capture rate may also require more ener-gy(increasing the fuel penalty)and more onboard space fo

124、r the capture and storage system,potentially reducing cargo capacity.Therefore,finding the optimal balance between capture rate,fuel penalty,and other operational consider-ations is key to making onboard carbon capture a feasible and effective solution.Capturing carbon can be a measure to comply wit

125、h the upcoming GHG regulations,following a decarbonization trajectory and minimizing costs.One way to balance the trade-off between high capture rate and low fuel penalty is to optimize the capture rate accord-ing to the ships route and the availability of CO2 offloading facilities along the way.For

126、 example,a vessel that operates in a region with a dense network of offloading stations can potentially reduce the intermediate need of CO2 storage on board.Additionally,the capture rate can be adjusted based on the carbon intensity of the fuel used,such as LNG,and the emission regulations of the ar

127、eas where the ship operates,such as Emission Control Areas(ECAs)or zones for carbon pricing.23Fuels containing less sulphur oxides(SOX)and particulate matter(PM),such as LNG fuel,require less exhaust pre-pro-cessing and hence smaller and more efficient capture plants(Sustainable Ships,2023).Furtherm

128、ore,the integra-tion of the LNG fuel handling system with the CO2 liquefac-tion line can also be investigated,to exploit cooling load and reduce liquefaction demands.Innovations such as the use of centrifugal forces or membranes(MemCCSea,2013)can improve mass trans-port and reduce energy demands.Add

129、itionally,waste heat recovery can help reduce heat demand.Onboard heat and power integration can be optimized in the case of newbuildings(DNV and PSE,2013),and improved in the case of retrofits,through solutions like exhaust gas economizers for additional heat production.Improved carbon capture syst

130、ems can also reduce the sensitivity to impurities in the exhaust stream,resulting in less power demand on board.Capture technology integration with the rest of the ship machinery system is essential to enhance the overall per-formance and reduce the fuel penalty.The fuel penalty to produce heat can

131、be significantly reduced by the utiliza-tion of advanced waste heat recovery from the ships main and auxiliary engines.Further,internal optimization and heat recuperation of the onboard carbon capture system is necessary to minimize the external heat input,and hence the additional fuel.The electric

132、power demand by onboard carbon capture is mainly related to processing captured carbon dioxide.Again,CO2 processing optimi-zation,usually a liquefaction cycle,is critical.The introduc-tion of shaft generators and/or waste heat recovery via turbogenerator can reduce further the fuel penalty.The above

133、 indicates that the methods and technologies asso-ciated with reducing the fuel penalty of onboard carbon capture may incur higher levels of capital expenditure for the whole vessel.Solvang and Wrtsil intend to use Clipper EOS for full-scale testing of onboard carbon capture and storage(Photo render

134、ing by courtesy of Wrtsil and Solvang Shipping)23)https:/carbonpricingdashboard.worldbank.orgThe potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Onboard carbon capture154.2 Economic considerationsFor onboard carbon capture to be a feasible option in the decarbonization of the maritime sector,its com

135、mercial performance must be competitive compared with other decarbonization alternatives.There are large uncertain-ties related to the cost of onboard carbon capture since the technology and its onboard integration are still quite immature for maritime use.The application and uptake of onboard carbo

136、n capture technology on vessels is depen-dent on cost and price factors,as indicated below.Cost factors Capital costs:The system capital expenditure(CAPEX)includes the costs of the capture unit,liquefaction,storage tanks,outfitting,piping,design and installation.Fuel penalty:The additional fuel cons

137、umption due to the fuel penalty will increase the fuel costs.Operating costs:Maintenance and replacement of solvents used in the capture process is expected to pose additional operation costs.Loss of cargo carrying capacity:The system space requirements(depending on capture rate,disposal frequency,e

138、tc.)can lead to loss of cargo space and hence loss of income.Carbon discharge costs:The cost of offloading the captured carbon to the reception facilities is expected to depend on the broader CCUS value chain cost,for CO2 transport and storage.Price factors Carbon pricing:Mechanisms like the GHG emi

139、ssions allowances under the EU Emission Trading system(ETS)will influence the attractiveness of onboard carbon capture;the higher the CO2 price,the better the business case.Fuel prices:Lower fossil fuel prices will reduce both the main fuel cost and the additional cost from the fuel penalty and make

140、 onboard carbon capture more attractive.Whereas cheaper carbon-neutral fuel will make onboard carbon capture less attractive.The low availability of carbon-neutral fuels,and shipping competing with other industries for these fuels,are also factors that influence the competitiveness of onboard carbon

141、 capture.There are two essential aspects when evaluating the com-mercial attractiveness for onboard carbon capture:Cost for emission of CO2(CO2 tax),for example the EU ETS.Other drivers for decarbonization enforcing reduction of CO2 emissions.If taxing CO2 is the only incentive to reduce emissions,t

142、he cost of emitting CO2 will need to be higher than the total cost for capture and discharge.However,with other drivers for decarbonization,such as emission compliance(CII and upcoming IMO policy measures,Poseidon Principles,etc.).Decarbonization is not an option but a requirement and ticket for con

143、tinued operation.The commercial evaluation then becomes a comparison between the different decar-bonization alternatives and not only about carbon tax.In Maritime Forecast to 2050(DNV,2023b),the commer-cial feasibility of onboard carbon capture was evaluated against carbon-neutral fuel alternatives

144、for a 15,000 TEU container vessel(Figure 4-5).The study compared four fuel strategies(fuel oil,LNG,methanol,and ammonia)against onboard carbon capture with a 70%capture rate.The case study showed that onboard carbon capture was economically viable for a low-cost scenario(15%fuel penalty and deposit

145、cost of 40 USD/tCO2),and competi-tive for a high-cost scenario(30%fuel penalty and deposit cost of 80 USD/tCO2).Another DNV study investigated the economic viability of onboard carbon capture on LNG carriers,considering the sensitivity of capture rate,fuel penalties and disposal costs(DNV,2023a).For

146、 more information please click here or scan the QR code.If onboard carbon capture technologies can reach low fuel penalties and the CCUS industry can offer low CO2 deposit costs,onboard carbon capture will be an economically competitive decarbonization strategy.The potential of onboard carbon captur

147、e in shipping|Onboard carbon capture16FIGURE 4-5Range of case study annual costs(left)and net present value(right)for Low CCS and High CCS onboard carbon capture scenarios compared to the benchmark from the Maritime Forecast to 2050(DNV,2023b)4.3 Regulatory statusFor shipowners to choose onboard car

148、bon capture,emis-sion and safety regulations must be in place to ensure that the emission reductions are credited in the regulations.4.3.1 Environmental and GHG emission regulationsToday,the EU ETS is the only adopted regulatory framework which provides incentives for the use of carbon capture on bo

149、ard ships.However,there are ongoing discussions at the International Maritime Organization(IMO)and EU levels for updates on the matter:IMO:Currently,there are no regulations that include provision for onboard carbon capture in MARPOL or other instruments.At MEPC 81 in March 2024,the IMO agreed to de

150、velop a detailed work plan for establishing a framework to regulate onboard carbon capture technologies.EU ETS:EU ETS(Directive 2003/87/EC)includes a derogation exempting emissions that are verified as captured and transported for permanent storage to a facility having a permit under the CCS Directi

151、ve(Directive 2009/31/EC).In May 2023,the EU added a similar provision(Directive 2023/959)for GHG emission captured and utilized in such a way that they have become permanently chemically bound in a product so that they do not enter the atmosphere under normal use(EU,2023).FuelEU Maritime:As per Dire

152、ctive 2023/1805(September 2023),FuelEU Maritime does not currently allow deducting captured carbon from ships when calculating the GHG intensity.The regulation includes a provision to review new technologies by 31 December 2027,including onboard carbon capture depending on the availability of a veri

153、fiable method for monitoring and accounting of the captured carbon.Another important regulation relevant for CCUS and trans-portation of CO2 across borders is the London Protocol.Arti-cle 6 of the London Protocol prohibits transboundary export of waste,including carbon dioxide.In 2009,an amendment t

154、o Article 6 was adopted to allow transboundary export of CO2 targeted for permanent storage under the seabed.This amendment has yet to enter into force and must be ratified by two thirds of contracting parties to do so.However,an inter-im solution has been agreed requiring countries to submit a decl

155、aration of provisional application and notification of any agreements to the IMO.There is some regulatory uncertainty as to how the London Protocol is managed when CO2 is captured(and transported)across international and different territorial waters and eventually discharged for storage.4.3.2 Safety

156、 regulationsDue to the technologys novelty in maritime,the IMO has not yet established any rules and regulations explicitly for carbon capture addressing the possible safety implications for onboard implementation.In the interim,due to inter-est from industry,leading Class Societies are developing g

157、uidelines and rules to ensure the safe implementation of onboard carbon capture.DNV published guidelines for the safe installation of on-board carbon capture and storage(OCCS)in 2023 and will publish classification rules in July 2024.They cover all as-pects for safe installation,including exhaust pr

158、e-treatment,absorption with the use of chemicals/amines,aftertreatment systems,liquefaction processes,CO2 storage,and transfer systems(DNV,2023c).These guidelines and rules must be accepted by relevant flag state administrations,and they may impose additional technical or other requirements,in order

159、 for safe implementation on ships.The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Onboard carbon capture174.3.3 Regulatory overviewAn overview of the regulatory status is shown in Table 4-2.StatusChallenges and uncertaintiesEnvironment and GHGEEXI/EEDI&CIINot yet included.Onboard carbon capture

160、may be considered in future developments.How fuel penalty is going to be included.How to take into account potential carbon capture at design stage for EEDI/EEXI.How captured emissions will be derogated for CII e.g.,based on direct measurements,custody transfers,or something else.Future IMO regulati

161、onsIMO plans to incorporate the application of onboard carbon capture in the IMO Lifecycle Assessment(LCA)Guidelines.MEPC 81(March 2024)discussed the issue of onboard carbon capture and established a Cor-respondence Group to further discuss the matter and develop a working plan on the development of

162、 a regulatory framework for the use of onboard carbon capture systems.How onboard carbon capture will be taken into account for well-to-wake emission factors.How captured emissions will be derogated,e.g.based on direct measurements,cus-tody transfers,or something else.EU MRV&EU ETSIncluded.What term

163、s and conditions will there be with regards to carbon utilization?A verifiable method for monitoring and ac-counting of the captured carbon is required.FuelEU MaritimeNo current consideration in the EUs FuelEU Maritime package.Provision for review by 31 of December 2027.How onboard carbon capture wi

164、ll be included in the emission factors.Waste HandlingLondon ProtocolAmendment of Article 6 of the London Protocol was proposed by contracting parties in 2009 to allow for cross-border transportation of CO2 for sub-seabed storage.To enter into force the amendment must be ratified by two thirds of con

165、tracting parties.This is as of today pending though an interim solution has been established.How the London Protocol is to be managed when CO2 is captured in various territorial and international waters remains uncertain.SafetySOLASLack of regulations and guidelines on safety and procedures.Procedur

166、es for offloading,custody trans-fers,technology risk,crew training and certification of components.Comments from Flag during onboard pilot testing.ClassClass guidelines,rules,and notations in place.Exploitation of pilot examples to build experience and test rules.TABLE 4-2Status of environmental,GHG

167、 emission and safety regulations with regards to onboard carbon captureAbbreviations:Carbon Intensity Indicator(CII);Energy Efficiency Design Index(EEDI);Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index(EEXI);Emissions Trading System(ETS);International Code of Safety for Ships Using Gases or Other Low Flashpoi

168、nt Fuels(IGF);International Maritime Organization(IMO);The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships(MARPOL);Marine Environment Protection Committee(MEPC);monitoring,reporting and verifying(MRV)The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Onboard carbon capture18 Ves

169、sel decarbonization planning,including OCC as an option Technology benchmarking Machinery feasibility for capture rate and penalty Cost benefit analysisStep 1PlanningStep 2AssessmentStep 3Implementation Risk and safety Onboard installation design Approval in Principle Piloting of onboard installatio

170、n Approval of installations Class guidelines Ready notation4.4 Practical considerationsTo decide on onboard carbon capture for a particular vessel,one must consider aspects such as the effect on machinery,the evaluation of onboard carbon capture tech-nologies,the cost benefit,and so on.In Figure 4-6

171、,a guide for shipowners that would like to consider onboard carbon capture as an option for their fleet is provided.Onboard modifications are required to fit the system com-partments(capture,treatment,storage,consumable facili-ties),their casings,and their structural foundations.Figure 4-7 gives an

172、overview of relevant parameters to consider when assessing the feasibility of onboard carbon capture technologies.FIGURE 4-6A three-step guide for shipowners considering onboard carbon capture(OCC)FIGURE 4-7Key parameters worth investigating when considering onboard carbon captureCO2 Capture rate,em

173、issions and compliance Technology maturity Process effectiveness Chemical solvent degradation Prevent exposure to hazardous chemicals Space and weight considerations Effect on engine back-pressure Auxiliary power capacity Energy penalty and heat integration Waste energy recovery Sensitivity to impur

174、ities Fuel system integration capabilities Fuel flexibility CO2 product characteristics(purity requirements,water content)Manage asphyxiation risk Onboard positioning and stability Intermediate storage properties Design for trade Compactness Value chain characteristics Space and weight consideration

175、s Arrangement for CO2 offloading Optimized storage volumes(capture rate,offloading frequency,operational range,etc.)CO2 treatmentCO2 storageCarbon capture systemMarine energy systemFuelDNV 2024The potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Onboard carbon capture19FIGURE 4-8Example of practicali

176、ties related to the integration of onboard carbon capture for selected ship types+Cooling load integration with LNG fuel+Less pre-treatment be-cause of cleaner LNG fuel+Capacity for steam use in steam-driven ships Extra weight constraints capture rateLNG carrierTankerBulk carrierRoPaxContainer+Place

177、 on deck for the CO2 tanks+Available heat production on board+/Electric power plant capacity(engines and shaft generator,if any)delimits capture capacity Potential cargo capacity loss/max draught+Low steam utilization/Available heat+/Bigger ships have more capacity for onboard integration.Smaller ve

178、ssels have less capacities in terms of energy supply and space for tanks Potential cargo capacity loss/deck storage challenge.LCO2 tank position and hatch covers opening are critical.Auxiliary engine capacities restrict capture rate because of liquefaction power demands+Less volume because of freque

179、nt port calls.Ac-ceptance of simultaneous operations affect business case+/Integration capability with locally-grown CO2 value chains Less capacity for addition-al weight on board!Passenger safety and ac-cidental release of stored CO2 is an issue.Affects location of the temporary CO2 storage locatio

180、n.+Less volume required be-cause of frequent port calls.This benefit is expected when a global CCUS chain is fully developed.+Bigger vessels connecting major shipping hubs may have access to the growing CCUS value chain.+/Frequent port calls for smaller feeders.But possibly less timing for CO2 offlo

181、ading.Challenge tackled with simul-taneous operations.+/Space for OCC components comes at a premium due to the potential loss of boxes.But cargo load factor may support the business case.Onboard positioning Conventional amine-based components that implement exhaust gas scrubbing need to be placed cl

182、oser to funnel casing.The position of the treatment plant and the storage tanks will vary with ship type as available space.For example,tankers allow for relatively easier onboard integration than other ship types,assuming the placement of CO2 product tanks on deck.A CO2 offloading system must be in

183、stalled in order to dispose of the CO2 collected onboard and connect to the wider CCUS value chain.With the carbon capture inclusion,the design requires reassessment in terms of stability,strength,visibility and safety,to ensure,among other things,the presence of safeguards,safe passages,and mainten

184、ance routes.Onboard arrangements will,however,differ between cap-ture method and ship type.Figure 4-8 shows an example of practicalities(both advantages and disadvantages)for different ship types.As there are still uncertainties related to regulations,tech-nology and value chain developments,shipown

185、ers must in-vestigate different decarbonization alternatives and should evaluate if onboard carbon capture could be a feasible option for their vessels.In general,an OCCS-ready24 think-ing approach could be relevant to consider at newbuilding stage to reduce cost for future potential onboard carbon

186、capture retrofit.This means that newbuilds should be designed with the potential integration of a carbon capture system in mind,taking into account the space requirements,layout constraints,safety issues,additional energy needs,and operational impacts of different capture methods and ship types.24)O

187、CCS Ready for future carbon capture and storage on board shipsThe potential of onboard carbon capture in shipping|Onboard carbon capture205 ReferencesClean Air Task Force.(2023).Mapping the cost of carbon capture and storage in Europe.Retrieved from https:/www.catf.us/2023/02/mapping-cost-carbon-cap

188、ture-storage-europeDNV.(2022).AIS Analysis of Nordic Ship Traffic,s.l.:Nordic Roadmap Publication No.2-A/1/2022.Retrieved from https:/ Carbon Capture and Storage for an LNG carrier.DNV Maritime Impact,4 September 2023.Retrieved from Forecast to 2050.Retrieved from has launched new guidelines for Onb

189、oard Carbon capture Systems on board ships.DNV press release,9 October 2023(online).Retrieved from https:/ 10).Directive(EU)2023/959.https:/eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2023/959/oj.Retrieved from https:/eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2023/959/ojEuropean Commission.(2024).FAQ Maritime transport in EU Emissio

190、ns Trading System(ETS).European Commission,19 March 2024(online).Retrieved from https:/climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/transport/reducing-emissions-shipping-sector/faq-maritime-transport-eu-emissions-trading-system-ets_en#biofuels-and-other-alternative-fuelsGCCSI.(2023).Global Status of CCS 2023 Scal

191、ing up through 2030.Global CCS Institute.GCMD.(2024).Concept study to offload onboard captured CO2.Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation.IEA.(2019).Exploring Clean Energy pathways:The role of CO2 storage.Retrieved from https:/ Zero Roadmap-A global Pathway to Keep the 1.5deg Goal in Reach.Retri

192、eved from www.iea.orgIMO.(2023).2023 IMO Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships.Retrieved from https:/wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Environment/Documents/annex/MEPC%2080/Annex%2015.pdfRicardo&DNV.(2023).Study on the readiness and availability of low-and zero-carbon ship technol

193、ogy and marine fuels.Ricardo Energy&Environment and DNV joint report for the IMO Future Fuels and Technology Project.www.imo.orgSustainable Ships.(2023).Ship-Based Carbon Capture(SBCC):A techno-economic guide on the use of carbon capture and storage onboard your ship based on 11 case studies.T.Damar

194、tzis,et al.(2022).Solvents for membrane-based post-combustion CO2 capture for potential application in the marine environment.Applied Sciences 2,12,6100.MDPI.UN.(2015).Paris Agreement.Retrieved from https:/unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdfGreen Shi

195、pping Programme,Pilot led by Altera Infrastructure:Carbon capture and storage(CCS)systems on-board vessels.Retrieved from https:/ DNV and PSE report on ship carbon capture and storage(2013).Retrieved from https:/ project(2022).Retrieved from http:/memccsea.certh.grThe potential of onboard carbon cap

196、ture in shipping|References21Regional Maritime OfficesAmericas1400 Ravello DriveKaty,TX 77449USAPhone+1 281 West EuropeBrooktorkai 1820457 HamburgGermanyPhone+49 40 361495609region.west-South East Europe,Middle East&Africa5,Aitolikou Street18545 Piraeus,GreecePhone+30 210 Greater China1591 Hong Qiao

197、 Road House No.9200336 Shanghai,ChinaPhone+86 21 3279 North EuropeVeritasveien 11363 OsloNorwayPhone+47 67 579900north-South East Asia,Pacific&India16 Science Park Drive118227 SingaporeSingaporePhone+65 65 Korea&Japan8th Floor,Haeundae I-Park C1 Unit,38,Marine city 2-ro,Haeundae-Gu 48120 Busan Repub

198、lic of Korea Phone+82 51 6107700 ABOUT DNVWe are the independent expert in risk management and quality assurance.Driven by our purpose,to safeguard life,property and the environment,we empower our customers and their stakeholders with facts and reliable insights so that critical decisions can be mad

199、e with confidence.As a trusted voice for many of the worlds most successful organizations,we use our knowledge to advance safety and performance,set industry benchmarks,and inspire and invent solutions to tackle global transformations.DisclaimerAll information is correct to the best of our knowledge.Contributions by external authors do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors and DNV AS.DNVBrooktorkai 1820457 Hamburg GermanyPhone+49 40 DNV ASNO-1322 HvikNorwayPhone+47 67 57 99