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1、IUCN WCPA Good Practice Guidelines Series No.XA framework for monitoring biodiversity in protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measuresConcepts,methods and technologiesDaniel Dalton,Vanessa Berger,Hanns Kirchmeir,Vanessa Adams,Judith Botha,Stephan Halloy,Robbie Hart,Vid vara,Ka

2、tia Torres Ribeiro,Sunita Chaudhary,Michael JungmeierIUCN WCPA Technical Report Series No.7 IUCN WCPA PUBLICATIONSIUCN WCPA publishes two landmark series providing authoritative resources for managers of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs),policy makers and sc

3、ientists.Definitions and details of guidance on protected areas and OECMs can be found on the inside back cover of this publication.The Good Practice Guidelines and Technical Reports involve collaboration among specialist practitioners dedicated to supporting better implementation of conservation in

4、 the field,distilling learning and advice drawn from across IUCN WCPA.Applied in the field,they build institutional and individual capacity to manage conservation systems effectively,equitably and sustainably,and help cope with the myriad of challenges faced around the world.The Guidelines also assi

5、st national governments,protected area agencies,non-governmental organizations,communities and private sector partners in meeting their commitments and goals,and especially to the Convention on Biological Diversity.For more information on all WCPA publications see:https:/www.iucn.org/our-union/commi

6、ssions/world-commission-protected-areas/our-work/wcpa-publicationsFor information on publishing with WCPA see:https:/www.iucn.org/our-union/commissions/world-commission-protected-areas/our-work/wcpa-publications/publishing-wcpa#:text=WCPA%20publishes%20a%20variety%20of,publication%20standards%20set%

7、20by%20IUCN.Complementary resources are available at:www.30 x30.solutions Contribute to developing capacity for a Protected Planet at: A framework for monitoring biodiversity in protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measuresIV|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and

8、OECMsUNESCO Chair on Sustainable Management of Conservation AreasThe UNESCO Chair on Sustainable Management of Conservation Areas is one of about 950 UNESCO Chair programmes worldwide and was established at Carinthia University of Applied Sciences,Austria in 2020.Our integrated programme is part of

9、the UNITWIN Network,combining research,teaching,community engagement and training to advance UNESCOs role as a global observatory and source of innovative ideas.Our UNESCO Chair is composed of international scientists and a robust network of collaborators that bring diverse experiences and perspecti

10、ves to the table,resulting in strong global partnerships.unesco.org/enInternational Union for Conservation ofNatureIUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil society organisations.It provides public,private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tool

11、s that enable human progress,economic development and nature conservation to take place together.Created in 1948,IUCN is now the worlds largest and most diverse environmental network,harnessing the knowledge,resources and reach of more than 1,400 Member organisations and around 16,000 experts.It is

12、a leading provider of conservation data,assessments and analysis.Its broad membership enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices,tools and international standards.IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stakeholders including governments,NGOs,scientist

13、s,businesses,local communities,Indigenous peoples organisations and others can work together to forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development.Working with many partners and supporters,IUCN implements a large and diverse portfolio of conservation projec

14、ts worldwide.Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local communities,these projects work to reverse habitat loss,restore ecosystems and improve peoples well-being.www.iucn.org https:/ World Commission on Protected AreasIUCNs World Commission on Protected Areas(WCPA)is the wo

15、rlds premier network of protected and conserved areas expertise.The Commission has over 2,500 members spanning 140 countries who provide strategic advice to policymakers and work to strengthen capacity and investment for protected areas establishment and management.The Technical Reports series is on

16、e of the Commissions flagship products,providing timely guidance on aspects of protected area planning,management and assessment.iucn.org/wcpaCarinthia University of Applied Sciences Carinthia University of Applied Sciences is a leading institute of higher education in southern Austria and is home t

17、o the UNESCO Chair on Sustainable Management of Conservation Areas.Providing high quality educational offers,international partnerships and practical work experiences,the university has five campus locations featuring areas of expertise in Civil Engineering&Architecture,Engineering&IT,Health Science

18、s&Social Work and School of Management.Many faculty specialise in high-tech fields,including using state-of-the-art technologies for environmental analysis and monitoring.About 40 degree programmes are offered at the Bachelors or Masters level,including the distinguished Master of Science programme

19、Management of Conservation Areas.cuas.at/enA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|VE.C.O.Institute of EcologyE.C.O.Institute of Ecology is an Austrian company that is a world leader in planning,consulting,research and training for nature conservation,certified regions and protected

20、 areas since 1997.The company has a permanent staff of around 20 highly qualified professionals,supported by an international network of cooperating professionals and organisations.E.C.O.provides consultancy,research,training and project design services specifically for protected areas and for organ

21、isations or authorities concerned with conservation,natural resources,land-use planning or ecology.Based on many years of practical experience,E.C.O.develops ecological solutions in close cooperation with different stakeholders and projects.e-c-o.atICIMODThe International Centre for Integrated Mount

22、ain Development(ICIMOD)is an intergovernmental knowledge and learning centre working in eight regional member countries of the Hindu Kush Himalaya(HKH)region Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,China,India,Myanmar,Nepal,and Pakistan.ICIMOD works to improve the lives and livelihoods of men,women and childr

23、en of the HKH and protect mountain environments and cultures.icimod.orgICMBioThe Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation(ICMBio)is a Brazilian federal institution linked to the Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change.It is in charge of 336 protected federal areas,in the most dive

24、rse IUCN categories,including areas of shared management with traditional communities.ICMBio is also responsible for articulating conservation strategies for endangered fauna and protecting the countrys speleological heritage,through national conservation action plans.The main lines of action are pr

25、omoting public use,strengthening biodiversity production chains,promoting research and monitoring.In addition,the institution supports activities such as enforcement and land regularization,having social participation as a transversal axis of action.gov.br/icmbioMissouri Botanical GardenThe Missouri

26、 Botanical Gardens mission is“To discover and share knowledge about plants and their environment in order to preserve and enrich life”.Founded in 1859,the Missouri Botanical Garden is the USAs oldest botanical garden in continuous operation and a National Historic Landmark.The Garden is a centre for

27、 botanical research and science education,as well as an oasis in the city of St.Louis.The Garden offers 79 acres of beautiful horticultural display,including a 14-acre Japanese strolling garden,historic architecture,and one of the worlds largest collections of rare and endangered flora.The Gardens S

28、cience and Conservation division is dedicated to exploring,conserving,and restoring global plant life and ecosystems while amplifying impact through collaboration to ensure a sustainable future for biodiversity and people.missouribotanicalgarden.orgVI|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs a

29、nd OECMsObservatoire des Forts dAfrique CentraleCreated in 2007,the Observatoire des Forts dAfrique Centrale(OFAC)is a specialised unit of the Commission des Forts dAfrique Centrale(COMIFAC)that provides up-to-date,relevant data on the regions forests and ecosystems,aimed at informing political deci

30、sion-making and promoting better governance and sustainable management of natural resources.OFAC collaborates with several international partners(IUCN,UNEP-WCMC,FAO,JRC,ATIBT,etc.).Its information system is organised around an online interactive analytical platform(https:/www.observatoire- the obser

31、vatory publishes numerous analyses through maps and flagship publications such as the State of Forests and the State of Protected Areas.OFAC is supported by the RIOFAC project,financed by the European Union.observatoire-South African National ParksSouth African National Parks(SANParks)is based in So

32、uth Africa and is mandated to conserve both natural and cultural heritage through the network of protected areas that they manage.The bulk of the biophysical and social science monitoring and research is conducted by the Scientific Services division.The generated knowledge informs park management an

33、d promotes the conservation of biodiversity.Biophysical monitoring and research span the terrestrial,aquatic and marine domains and includes current threats such as climate change,invasive alien species and many more.sanparks.orgUniversity of TasmaniaSince its beginnings in 1890,the University of Ta

34、smania has established a strong foundation in research excellence.The University of Tasmania strategy focuses on place-based but globally significant research,world-leading for Tasmania and from Tasmania to the world.Environmental research is central to this.The School of Geography,Planning,and Spat

35、ial Sciences builds on and advances the Universitys strategic pursuit of academic and applied multi-disciplinarity,encompassing and integrating human geography,physical geography,spatial sciences,planning,and environmental management.The School seeks to leverage its collective expertise in geography

36、,planning,and spatial sciences to contribute to a sustainable and equitable future.We believe in the power of scientific inquiry,systems thinking,and community collaboration to generate solutions that address complex social and environmental challenges.utas.edu.auBahir Dar UniversityBahir Dar Univer

37、sity(BDU)is situated in the beautiful city of Bahir Dar,Ethiopia at the southern shore of Lake Tana Biosphere Reserve.Lake Tana is the largest freshwater body protected by UNESCO.The establishment of BDU is associated with the beginning of Bahir Dar Polytechnic Institute and Bahir Dar Teachers Colle

38、ge in 1963 and 1972,respectively.Currently,BDU is one of the largest universities in Ethiopia enrolling more than 40,000 students in its 434 programmes(115 undergraduate and 297 postgraduate programmes,16 specialty and subspecialty and six certificate programmes).Nationally,BDU has been ranked first

39、 in the higher education differentiation scrutiny by the Ethiopian Ministry of Education.It has also been ranked in the top 20 Sub-Sahara African universities.BDU aspires to be one of the leading research-intensive universities in Africa and the first choice in Ethiopia by 2030.It aligns its operati

40、onal and educational priorities with relevant Sustainable Development Goals.bdu.edu.etA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|VIIEarthRangerEarthRanger is a data visualisation and analysis software platform that gives conservationists the real-time information they require to keep w

41、ildlife,habitats and communities safe.Easy to use and free for conservation missions,the platform collects,integrates,and displays all historical and available data and combines it with reports from the field to provide one unified view of collared wildlife,rangers and any other assets whether on la

42、nd or sea.The EarthRanger programme has been in place for over nine years and has reduced threats to biodiversity and habitats in over 500 protected areas across more than 60 countries and on six continents.It has facilitated the reintroduction and restoration of diverse species and ecosystems that

43、deliver global environmental and socioeconomic benefits.The programme is a philanthropic initiative by the Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence(AI2),a non-profit founded by the late Paul Allen,co-founder of Microsoft.EarthRDivjaLabsDivjaLabs,a spin-out company of the University of Ljubljana,S

44、lovenia,was founded in 2022.Its diverse,international and multi-disciplinary team of scientists leverages state-of-the-art eDNA-based molecular and computational tools to tackle challenges in biodiversity conservation and wildlife management.With its dedication to innovation and appreciation of natu

45、re and wildlife,the DivjaLabs team has rapidly emerged as a frontrunner in European biodiversity and wildlife monitoring and GEO BONThe Group on Earth Observations Biodiversity Observation Network(GEO BON)is a flagship of GEO and is hosted by the Quebec Centre for Biodiversity Science at McGill Univ

46、ersity in Montreal,Canada.GEO BON is a rapidly growing global research network and community of practice of nearly 3,000 members,from more than 1,700 organisations and 144 countries,dedicated to improved monitoring of Earths biodiversity.GEO BONs mission is to improve the acquisition,coordination an

47、d delivery of biodiversity observations and related services to users including decision-makers and the scientific community.GEO BON initiates and coordinates efforts to design and implement interoperable national and regional biodiversity monitoring programmes with a vision of a global biodiversity

48、 observing system that contributes to effective management policies for the worlds biodiversity and ecosystem services.geobon.orgCentre for Biodiversity Conservation ResearchThe Centre for Biodiversity Conservation Research(CBCR)is an autonomous research institution hosted by the University of Ghana

49、.CBCRs mission is to promote the conservation of biological diversity for the benefit of current and future generations of people.The Centres strategies for achieving its mission include,knowledge generation,training/capacity building,networking,policy analysis and research dissemination.CBCRs curre

50、nt programme focus includes:wetlands,a most vulnerable ecosystem in Ghana and globally;protected areas,a key tool for biodiversity conservation;species conservation to stem the tide of biodiversity losses and ecosystem services to demonstrate the value of biodiversity and highlight the nexus between

51、 nature conservation,livelihoods and development.cbcr-ug.orgVIII|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsStellenbosch UniversityBased at a world-class South African tertiary institution,Stellenbosch University,the School for Climate Studies is focused on developing and implementing a

52、n Africa-relevant research programme that responds to existing and emerging issues in climate change impacts,adaptation and mitigation responses,thus supporting human climate resilience on the continent.By working across all faculties in the university,it is developing new academic capacity,career p

53、aths and infrastructure for climate studies,creating opportunities for students to develop the skills required to work in leading national and international public and private entities engaged in fundamental and applied climate studies.The School consolidates and integrates current disciplinary and

54、transdisciplinary thinking on climate,conducts and coordinates primary research,publishes and makes accessible research results,and creates or supports the required platforms for data-intensive research and innovation.climate.sun.ac.zaUniversiti Teknologi MARAFounded in 1956,Universiti Teknologi MAR

55、A(UiTM)is a mega public university in Malaysia.With its main campus in Shah Alam,the university has 34 campuses spread throughout the nation.UiTM is not only the largest university infra-structurally,but also demographically with 187,551 local and international student enrolment supported by 18,983

56、academic and non-academic staff.The university currently offers 510 academic programmes,and providing innovative education within four colleges of study,14 faculties and seven academic centres across Malaysia.UiTM campuses are well equipped with modern facilities to accommodate its communitys academ

57、ic and research needs.The university has earned a reputation for teaching and research excellence over the last six decades.uitm.edu.myUniversity of FlorenceThe University of Florence is a leading European research and higher education institution,including on biology and biodiversity science.The Un

58、iversity offers 126 Degree courses(Bachelor and Master Degrees)to a population of approximately 50,000 students,and each year awards around 9,000 diplomas.The Department of Biology is one of the 24 departments and carries out research mainly on conservation biology,functional and structural biology,

59、and evolutionary biology.The various research groups that focus on biodiversity include the laboratory of animal ecology and biodiversity conservation.ecologyandbiodiversity.unifi.itNational Institute for Environmental StudiesThe National Institute for Environmental Studies(NIES)was established in J

60、apan in 1974 as the National Institute for Pollution Studies and was renamed in 1990.NIES focuses on research related to societal,social changes,and environmental challenges.The relationship between climate change and natural disasters,which have become increasingly common in recent years both in Ja

61、pan and globally,has become a matter of major public concern,prompting Japanese government declarations that set goals for adaptation to climate change and achievement of carbon neutrality.The next decade will be a crucial period for achieving these goals and building a new society.At NIES,the prima

62、ry mission is to study the many issues related to these challenges and provide scientific knowledge to inform the decisions of the Japanese government and the public.Since 2013,NIES has also collaborated with the International Union for Conservation of Nature-Japan(IUCN-J)to enhance biodiversity con

63、servation efforts.nies.go.jp/index-e.htmlA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|IXUniversity of LjubljanaThe University of Ljubljana,founded in 1919,stands as Slovenias premier higher education and research institution.With over 40,000 students and 6,000 faculty and staff across 23

64、 faculties and three arts academies,our rich tradition and modern facilities are central to Ljubljanas academic landscape.Consistently ranked among the top 500 universities globally by multiple analytics firms,University of Ljubljana is an important hub of academic and research activity.uni-lj.si/X|

65、A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsIUCN WCPA Technical Report Series No.7 A framework for monitoring biodiversity in protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measuresConcepts,methods and technologiesDaniel Dalton,Vanessa Berger,Hanns Kirchmeir,Vanessa Adams,Ju

66、dith Botha,Stephan Halloy,Robbie Hart,Vid vara,Katia Torres Ribeiro,Sunita Chaudhary,Michael JungmeierA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|XIThe designation of geographical entities in this publication,and the presentation of the material,do not imply the expression of any opinio

67、n whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organizations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers orboundaries.The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or ot

68、her participating organizations.Mention of commercial products does not constitute endorsement by the sponsors of this publication.IUCN is pleased to acknowledge the support of its Framework Partners who provide core funding:Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Denmark;Ministry for Foreign Affairs,Finland;Go

69、vernment of France and the French Development Agency(AFD);Ministry of Environment,Republic of Korea;Ministry of the Environment,Climate and Sustainable Development,Grand Duchy of Luxembourg;the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation(Norad);the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agen

70、cy(Sida);the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation(SDC)and the United States Department of State.This publication was supported through funding by the Austrian Research Promotion Agency(FFG)COIN project Biodiversity Monitoring Technologies Test,Development and Transfer of disruptive engineeri

71、ng technologies into conservation practice(BioMONITec)and the Austrian Federal Ministry of Labour and Economy(BMAW).Published by:IUCN,Gland,SwitzerlandProduced by:IUCN WCPA and Carinthia University of Applied Sciences UNESCO Chair on Sustainable Management of Conservation AreasCopyright:2024 IUCN,In

72、ternational Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural ResourcesReproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of this publication for

73、resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyrightholder.Recommended Dalton,D.,Berger,V.,Kirchmeir,H.,Adams,V.,Botha,J.,Halloy,S.,Hart,R.,citation:vara,V.,Torres Ribeiro,K.,Chaudhary,S.&Jungmeier,M.(2024).A framework for monitoring biodiversity in pro

74、tected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures:Concepts,methods and technologies.IUCN WCPA Technical Report Series No.7,Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.ISBN:978-2-8317-2268-9(PDF)DOI:https:/doi.org/10.2305/HRAP7908Cover photo:Red-eyed tree frog,Agalychnis callidryas,La Gamba,Costa Rica.Jen

75、nifer InsuppBack cover:Groglockner,Austria Vanessa BergerFigure design:Vanessa Berger,Daniel Dalton,Anneliese Fuchs,Jennifer Insupp,Michael Jungmeier,Larissa Keintzel,Elisabeth Wiegele Layout:Elisabeth Wiegele,Carinthia University of Applied Sciences Template provided by Miller Design,millerdesign.c

76、o.ukXII|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsContentsList of figures XIVList of tables XIVList of annex figures XIVList of annex tables XIVList of checklists XIVList of boxes XVPreface XVIExecutive summary XVIIAcknowledgements XIXGlossary XXCHAPTER 1.INTRODUCTION 2CHAPTER 2.PREPAR

77、ATORY PHASE 72.1 Conventions and standards 72.2 Basic investigation and site assessment 82.3 Specifying conservation objectives 82.4 Management planning 92.5 Output:Statement of purpose 11CHAPTER 3.CONCEPTUAL PHASE 143.1 Why:The purpose of monitoring 153.2 What:Indicators in a biodiversity monitorin

78、g programme 153.3 Where:Scale of spatial features 183.4 When:Scale of temporal features 193.5 Who:Identifying actors and stakeholders 213.6 Required resources:Identifying the resource pool 233.7 Output:Defined scope of the biodiversity monitoring programme 23CHAPTER 4.IMPLEMENTATION PHASE 254.1 Deci

79、ding on sample design and methods 274.2 Acquisition and customisation of tools and materials 294.3 Elaboration of a field manual 304.4 Conducting test runs 304.5 Ongoing monitoring cycles 31CHAPTER 5.RE-EVALUATION PHASE 39A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|XIIICHAPTER 6.GENERAL

80、 CONSIDERATIONS 416.1 Obligations:International conventions and policies 416.2 Art of omission:Daring to simplify 446.3 Biodiversity monitoring systems 456.4 Combining forms of knowledge 476.5 Continuity risks:Avoiding disruptions and gaps in data 486.6 Detecting trends and correlations:The value of

81、 time series 496.7 Maintaining ecological balance:Establishing baselines and thresholds 516.8 Setting up monitoring systems:Costs and outcomes 516.9 Protected Area Management Effectiveness evaluation tools 52CHAPTER 7.A REVIEW OF METHODS AND TECHNOLOGIES TO IMPLEMENT EFFICIENT AND EFFECTIVE BIODIVER

82、SITY MONITORING PROGRAMMES 557.1 Early bird or late adopter:Drivers and barriers of technology deployment 567.2 Toolkit:Overview of the indicators 567.3 Technology-based approaches for biodiversity monitoring 597.4 Analysis:Applying advanced computer technologies for big data 64CHAPTER 8.SYNTHESIS:A

83、 NEW AGE OF BIODIVERSITY MONITORING 69REFERENCES 70ANNEXES 77AUTHOR PROFILES 86XIV|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsList of figuresFigure 1 Key phases of developing a biodiversity monitoring programme in protected areas and OECMs XVIIIFigure 2 Scope of the framework for monito

84、ring biodiversity in protected areas and OECMs 2Figure 3 Ontology of the preparatory phase 7Figure 4 The framework cycle of drivers,pressures,state,impacts and responses is the main tool for managers 10Figure 5 Ontology of the conceptual phase 14Figure 6 Indicator selection will be site-specific and

85、 based on biodiversity monitoring system objectives 15Figure 7 Selection of key indicators is ideally based on two attributes 16Figure 8 Spatial considerations of monitoring include area of interest,sampling format and statistical design 18Figure 9 The spatial scale of a biodiversity monitoring prog

86、ramme can range from a genetic to landscape level 18Figure 10 Temporal aspects of a biodiversity monitoring programme 19Figure 11 Timescale of different biological processes 20Figure 12 Example stakeholder worksheet listing key participants in a biodiversity monitoring programme 21Figure 13 A biodiv

87、ersity monitoring programme depends on the available staff,resources and knowledge 23Figure 14 Ontology of the implementation phase 25Figure 15 Example plot designs for biodiversity monitoring 27Figure 16 Monitoring system implementation and data management 44Figure 17 Data are brought together to d

88、etermine a modular framework of new biodiversity monitoring programmes 46Figure 18 Monitoring at an improper frequency may display faulty trends 48Figure 19 Timeline of key achievements advancing monitoring capacities 49Figure 20 Long-term monitoring provides increasingly accurate knowledge 50Figure

89、 21 The initial stages of a monitoring programme come with high up-front costs 51Figure 22 Biodiversity assessment using genetic methods follows a uniform workflow 64List of tablesTable 1 Examples of proxy indicators for biodiversity monitoring 16Table 2 Plot designs used in field-level biodiversity

90、 monitoring programmes 28Table 3 State-of-the-art approaches to biodiversity monitoring 29Table 4 List of main international biodiversity treaties and conventions 42Table 5 Criteria and assumptions for integrating Nature-based Solutions into management activities 43Table 6 Overview of different tech

91、niques for biodiversity monitoring with examples,benefits and limitations 55Table 7 A selection of apps and data logging tools for modern biodiversity assessment 65List of annex figuresAnnex Figure 1 Blank monitoring concept worksheet 77Annex Figure 2 Cheat sheet for monitoring concept worksheet 78A

92、nnex Figure 3 Blank stakeholder worksheet 79List of annex tablesAnnex Table 1 Point system to rate biodiversity monitoring programme priorities 80Annex Table 2 Cost worksheet describing the human resources,travel and material expenses for data collection 81List of checklistsChecklist 1 Ethical and c

93、ultural considerations of the implementation phase 82Checklist 2 Field logistics 82Checklist 3 Safety and field training 83Checklist 4 Safe field work and data acquisition 83Checklist 5 Data management 84Checklist 6 Communication 85A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|XVList of b

94、oxesBox 1 Scope of monitoring,biodiversity monitoring systems and monitoring programmes XVIIBox 2 A global concept:Understanding indicators through the Essential Biodiversity Variables 8Box 3 Bush encroachment in an African savanna 10Box 4 South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Ar

95、ea 11Box 5 Indicator selection:Biosphere Reserve Integrated Monitoring in the Nock Mountains of Austria 17Box 6 Integrating citizen science to estimate the Slovenian brown bear population:It counts to be involved 22Box 7 Test and experimental sites:BioDivTecs Hub Carinthia,Austria 26Box 8 Working wi

96、th SMART and CyberTracker:An example at Lake Tana,Ethiopia 32Box 9 Unified approach to scientific monitoring in the mountains:Example of the GLORIA network 34Box 10 CARE and FAIR data sharing principles:Protecting the data sources 35Box 11 Dashboard view:The example of EarthRanger 36Box 12 Monitorin

97、g in Natural World Heritage sites:Japanese island ecosystems in focus 41Box 13 Best of mistakes in monitoring:Succession in a fallow field in Austria 44Box 14 From individual sites to a protected area system:The Brazilian Programa Monitora 45Box 15 Forest restoration using traditional ecological kno

98、wledge in a transboundary biosphere reserve 47Box 16 Monitoring and evaluation of environmental measures:Water usage in the south-east of the United States 50Box 17 Integrated Management Effectiveness Tool(IMET):Implementation in central Africa 52Box 18 High-tech approaches:Camera trapping for biodi

99、versity monitoring 61Box 19 High-tech approaches:Airborne laser scanning for forest biodiversity assessment 62Box 20 High-tech approaches:Terrestrial laser scanning for forest biodiversity assessment 66High-elevation arid plateau featuring giant lobelia(Lobelia rhynchopetalum),Bale Mountains Nationa

100、l Park,Ethiopia.Michael JungmeierXVI|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsThe growing pressures on Earths natural environments threaten biodiversity and the functioning of ecosystems.Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures provide areas of land and wat

101、er to safeguard species populations.As their numbers and expanse increase,these landscapes play a key role in conservation.Yet,management of our protected areas requires a strategic and evidence-based approach.Accurate information is gained through monitoring the right indicators at the right time.M

102、aintaining a balance between ecological and cultural elements is a major challenge to site management,especially in the absence of sufficient resources or when monitoring programmes are not performed consistently.To make the best use of limited resources,systematic monitoring of management outcomes

103、that affect biodiversity is critical.This Technical Report Series guideline provides a decision-making framework for managers to develop biodiversity monitoring programmes in protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures.The guideline is organised into eight chapters and conta

104、ins several workshop tools to assist in programme conceptualisation.Chapter 1 introduces the road map for a four-step framework that will guide managers in the development of efficient and meaningful long-term biodiversity monitoring programmes.Chapter 2 details the information required to complete

105、the first step of the decision-making framework,the preparatory phase.Managers identify international conventions that require monitoring and gather all background information and site conservation objectives.This step helps to plan and prioritise management activities,leading to documentation of a

106、monitoring statement of purpose.Chapter 3 defines the six questions that guide the conceptual phase of a new biodiversity monitoring programme.Managers and site employees address the questions together to identify why monitoring is needed,what indicators are most appropriate to monitor,where the pro

107、gramme will take place,when monitoring will occur,who will be involved in the programme and what their responsibilities are,and how many resources are needed to accomplish the programme.This dialogue reveals a meaningful and realistic scope of monitoring.Chapter 4 describes the implementation phase

108、of the biodiversity monitoring programme.In this phase managers define how the decisions from the conceptual phase are put into action,including developing a statistically robust sampling design and determining which tools to use.Field monitoring cycles are outlined with consideration towards data m

109、anagement and analysis.Chapter 5 briefly expresses the value of periodic programme re-evaluation to determine whether the programme should be continued in its original state,whether and how it should be modified to address site management,or whether it should be terminated.Chapter 6 details the many

110、 general considerations that help make effective biodiversity monitoring programmes.Chapter 7 provides an overview on the methods and technologies available today for biodiversity monitoring.Expert monitoring tips are provided for diverse species groups.These are followed by a review of the suitabil

111、ity of different types of monitoring tools and techniques for monitoring target species.Advanced data analytical techniques are introduced.Chapter 8 provides a synthesis of the guideline and a vision of hope as we face the growing challenges to biodiversity.To complete the guideline,a series of anne

112、x figures and tables is provided,followed by checklists to help prepare for efficient field work and data collection.These materials are designed to be used in a workshop setting to effectively communicate ideas and decisions to involved staff and stakeholders.We express in this guideline that the v

113、alue of consistent design and good methodological and technical preparation is fundamental for effective biodiversity monitoring.In addition,we show our enthusiasm for technologies and approaches that are currently transforming biodiversity monitoring.We cast a wide net to gain the perspectives of p

114、rotected area managers,research scientists,IUCN scientists and other stakeholders.Each monitoring programme is a commitment to describe our planets rich biodiversity.May this publication empower and guide all those dedicated to managing our natural wonders.PrefaceA framework for monitoring biodivers

115、ity in PAs and OECMs|XVIIProtected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs)are important to stop the global decline in biodiversity.Systematic site-based monitoring of the state of biodiversity and conservation outcomes is necessary for evidence-based adaptive management in

116、protected areas and OECMs.Biodiversity monitoring is also important to inform managers if they are meeting their conservation goals.The framework described in this publication will help managers and site planners to consider all relevant details to develop effective biodiversity monitoring programme

117、s for improved management outcomes(Box 1).A step-by-step approach is provided on how to establish biodiversity monitoring programmes as components of biodiversity monitoring systems in conservation areas including protected areas and OECMs,Key Biodiversity Areas and UNESCO sites including biosphere

118、reserves,Global Geoparks and Natural World Heritage Sites.More than 295,ooo protected areas and OECMs are represented on the World Database on Protected Areas(UNEP-WCMC,2023a),indicating the great need for utilising standardised monitoring frameworks whilst meeting local objectives.Todays monitoring

119、 technologies are undergoing a rapid evolution,and this publication also provides a snapshot of the state-of-the-art of monitoring tools.Executive summaryThe framework for developing biodiversity monitoring programmes is introduced in a step-by-step manner consisting of four phases:a)preparatory pha

120、se;b)conceptual phase;c)implementation phase with periodic interim evaluation guiding adaptive management;and d)periodic re-evaluation(Figure 1).We conclude with a discussion on the level of technology that is required for adequate monitoring,considering that monitoring is a long-term activity and t

121、he state-of-the-art is continually improving.We point out the importance of data continuity given the different methodologies and monitoring tools worldwide.Developing a good biodiversity monitoring system requires using different forms of knowledge,ethical issues,scientific evaluation and effective

122、 communication.Box 1Scope of monitoring,biodiversity monitoring systems and monitoring programmes Monitoring is the process of regular data collection and analysis that is then used by managers to determine whether project objectives are being met.Monitoring may occur at multiple points within the f

123、ramework cycle of drivers,pressures,state,impacts and responses and is the main tool for managers to determine overall management effectiveness at their sites.Multiple monitoring programmes are contained under a comprehensive biodiversity monitoring system,supporting management objectives of protect

124、ed areas and OECMs.A biodiversity monitoring programme is an ongoing module of the biodiversity monitoring system.It is designed to deliver benefits to the organisation that are aligned with its objectives(Weaver,2010).Programmes may or may not be time-limited,as determined by the organisational str

125、ucture of the protected area or OECM.A biodiversity monitoring project is an activity that is usually limited in time and funding.A project is designed to deliver a specific output.Efficiency of the work is key to a successful project(Weaver,2010).Monitoring projects serve as opportunities for prote

126、cted areas and OECMs to showcase effective monitoring methods and their unique biodiversity.The schematic shown in Figure 2 describes the different purposes of monitoring.If information on the indicator is missing,and management activities have not been determined,typically a research project will g

127、enerate basic site information.If the state of the indicator is unknown,but management activities have already been determined,monitoring is conducted as a baseline study.If the status of the indicator is known,and the management activities are not decided,monitoring is most suitable for regional do

128、cumentation.If information on the indicators is available and the desired management techniques are known,monitoring to support site management may proceed.This guideline focuses on this last scenario,monitoring for management purposes.Source:Compiled by the report authorsXVIII|A framework for monit

129、oring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsFigure 1 Key phases of developing a biodiversity monitoring programme in protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measuresEffective biodiversity monitoring programme planning will correspond with site management goals.In the preparatory phase,a r

130、eview of the site details and obligations should be conducted,resulting in a monitoring statement of purpose.The conceptual phase follows,where a series of basic questions are addressed about the intended monitoring programme.The result is an understanding of how the monitoring programme will be imp

131、lemented.To verify the protocols,test runs are conducted in the implementation phase prior to the repeating cycles of the programme.Data analysis will guide management decisions based on findings.Detailed re-evaluation of the programme occurs after a predetermined number of cycles,providing opportun

132、ities for adaptive management.Source:Compiled by the report authorsAll site-based monitoring programmes should be well-integrated into the biodiversity monitoring system.Within individual protected areas or OECMs,several types of monitoring programmes may be established,contributing to protected are

133、a management effectiveness(PAME),law enforcement,threat assessment and resource use efficiency.Biodiversity monitoring programmes must produce accurate data supporting site management,and multiple sites will ideally be included in a programme for conclusions on long-term trends.Effective management

134、will in turn help develop policy recommendations to remedy the loss of biodiversity and restore damaged ecosystems.A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|XIXThis Technical Report Series guideline is the result of a large joint effort of conservation area management practitioners,sc

135、ientists and stakeholders.We extend our gratitude towards peer reviewers Mr Ludi Apin,Dr Marta Mgica and Dr Stephen Woodley for their critical reviews of the ideas and content expressed in the guideline,and for the proofreading services of Mrs Caroline Snow.We thank all participants who contributed

136、ideas,text,graphics and support to the production of this guideline.In particular,we thank IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas Series Editors Nigel Dudley and Sue Stolton,active members of the IUCN WCPA and other IUCN Commissions,namely Wendy Foden,Sue Gubbay,Paola Mejia,Florence Palla,Francesc

137、o Rovero,Nick Salafsky,Toma Skrbinek,Andrej Sovinc,Erika Vaida-Bela and Sue Wells for their support and critical analyses of draft versions of the guideline.We acknowledge the advice of Working Group members Vanessa Adams,Maria Augusta Almeida Ferri,Vanessa Berger,Judith Botha,Sunita Chaudhary,Danie

138、l Dalton,Stephan Halloy,Robbie Hart,Michael Jungmeier,Hanns Kirchmeir,Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu,Mohd Nazip Suratman and Katia Torres Ribeiro.We recognise Tirusew Ebistu,Tobias Fremout,GEO BON,Kerry Grey,Donald Jomha Djossi,Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservao da Biodiversidade,Quentin Jungers,Clive Kaiser,Mi

139、ha Krofel,Gernot Kunz,Daniel Mengistu,Frank Muller-Karger,Faizah Pardi,Harald Pauli,Michael Russell,Ulf Scherling,Jordan Steward and Yayoi Takeuchi for their contributions and reviews of the guideline.We extend our sincere appreciation for the support of the team at the UNESCO Chair on Sustainable M

140、anagement of Conservation Areas,Villach,Austria,namely Melanie Erlacher,Jennifer Insupp,Larissa Keintzel,Klaus Steinbauer,Vid vara,Ilja Svetnik,Elisabeth Wiegele,as well as colleagues Anneliese Fuchs and Michael Huber of E.C.O.Institute of Ecology,Klagenfurt,Austria.We thank the countless other coll

141、eagues worldwide who provided feedback to us in remote presentations and conference calls.We express our sincere thanks to the IUCN publishing team,Global Communications Unit,and IUCN WCPA Chair Dr Madhu Rao for their support throughout the review process.The writing of this guideline was supported

142、financially by the Austrian Research Promotion Agency(sterreichische Forschungsfrderungsgesellschaft,FFG)through the COIN project,no.884138,BioMONITec and the Austrian Federal Ministry of Labour and Economy(Bundesministerium fr Arbeit und Wirtschaft,BMAW).This funding further supported the developme

143、nt of a prototype monitoring configurator,MoniConfig,that is designed to be an online decision support aid to assist managers of protected areas and OECMs in meeting their monitoring objectives.All opinions,findings,conclusions and recommendations expressed in this Technical Report Series guideline

144、are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the funding agencies or the IUCN WCPA.All textual errors are the responsibility of the authors.AcknowledgementsPrimeval beech forest,Poloniny National Park,Slovakia,part of the Serial World Heritage Site“Ancient and Primeval Beech F

145、orests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe”.Hanns KirchmeirXX|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsAdaptive management.A systematic process of continually improving management policies and practices by learning from the outcomes of existing programmes(IUCN,2022b).Area o

146、f interest.Area representing a habitat,environment or ecosystem where biodiversity monitoring takes place.Biodiversity monitoring.Regular,statistically designed counts of a population in order to watch its numbers,composition and distribution(IUCN,2022b).(Biodiversity)monitoring programme.An ongoing

147、 component of the site management framework that addresses site objectives(e.g.vegetation monitoring,bird monitoring).Biodiversity monitoring system.Framework that considers management objectives,conceptual elements and best practices to support multiple biodiversity monitoring programmes.Conservati

148、on goal.An identified target that is intended to be reached in conservation planning,including species,habitats,landscapes,biodiversity or ecosystem services(Lacher,2018).Conservation outcome.The result of a management action.Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD).International agreement effective

149、from 29 December 1993 containing three main goals:conservation of biodiversity;sustainable use of biodiversity resources;and fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources(CBD,1992).Drivers,pressures,state,impacts and responses.Causal chain framework where driving forces such as econo

150、mic development put pressure on the environment,changing its state.These changes lead to impacts on ecosystems,leading to a societal response that feeds back into the causal chain(Niemeijer&de Groot,2008).Flagship species.Popular charismatic species that serve as symbols to stimulate conservation aw

151、areness and action locally,nationally,regionally or globally(IUCN,2022b).Governance.Relating to seven principles of legitimacy,transparency,accountability,inclusiveness,fairness,connectivity and resilience that enable positive management outcomes(Lockwood,2010).Indicator(species).A species sensitive

152、 to environmental change,which can therefore provide a measure of health for the ecosystem(IUCN,2022b).Indigenous peoples and local communities.The CBD does not recommend a formal definition of Indigenous peoples and local communities.However,the IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ec

153、osystem Services provides the following definition:“individuals and communities who are,on the one hand,self-identified as indigenous and,on the other hand,are members of local communities that maintain inter-generational connection to place and nature through livelihood,cultural identity and worldv

154、iews,institutions and ecological knowledge”(Brondizio et al.,2019).Key Biodiversity Area.Site contributing significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity(IUCN,2016).Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework(GBF).Building on the CBD Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 20112020,the GBF calls

155、 for transformative changes in the world approach to conserving biodiversity by 2050,including placing at least 30 per cent of the Earths terrestrial surface under effective conservation,with emphasis on management effectiveness.Marine Protected Area.Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain,togeth

156、er with its overlying water and associated flora,fauna,historical and cultural features,which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment(Kelleher,1999).Minimum mapping unit.The size of the smallest unit that can be reliably detected or mapped

157、.Monitoring.The process of regular data collection and analysis that is then used by managers to determine whether project objectives are being met.Monitoring concept worksheet.Strategic template worksheet used by managers and staff to identify the available resource base and appropriate scope of a

158、proposed biodiversity monitoring system.Monitoring cycle.Single monitoring interval that includes complete routine from securing field workers to data analysis and archiving.National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan(NBSAP).Principal instrument for implementing the CBD at the national level.Sign

159、atories are required to prepare a national biodiversity strategy or equivalent instrument.NBSAPs provide important information on national targets and commitments and on the activities planned to achieve them(CBD,2020).Other effective area-based conservation measure(OECM).A geographically defined ar

160、ea other than a protected area,which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ conservation of biodiversity with associated ecosystem functions and services and,where applicable,cultural,spiritual,socio-economic and other locally relevant

161、values are also conserved(IUCN,2022b).Protected area.A clearly defined geographical space,recognised,dedicated and managed,through legal or other effective means,to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values(Dudley,2008).Protected Area Managem

162、ent Effectiveness(PAME).Assessment of biodiversity,social,cultural and economic outcomes as a result of protected area management.This evaluation also includes understanding the context of management,planning,inputs,processes,outputs and outcomes(Hockings,Leverington&Cook,2015).Proxy indicator.Somet

163、hing that might not be directly important but helps to get information about an indicator of interest.GlossaryA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|XXIRed List of Threatened Species.Listing of the conservation status of the worlds flora and fauna administered by IUCN.The IUCN Red

164、List of Threatened Species,known as the IUCN Red List,is the worlds most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species.It uses a set of criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of species and subspecies.The IUCN Red List is recognised as the most authoritative

165、 guide on the status of biological diversity(IUCN,2022b).Simulated data.Realistic mock data that can be used during project development to assist developing a robust statistical design.Stakeholder.Actor(such as but not limited to landowners)socially endowed with legal or customary rights with respec

166、t to land,water and natural resources who possesses direct or indirect interests and concerns about these resources but does not necessarily enjoy a legally or socially recognised entitlement to them(Borrini-Feyerabend et al.,2013).Statement of purpose.Brief summary of the purpose of a biodiversity

167、monitoring system or management programme.Traditional ecological knowledge.Knowledge from Indigenous or local communities that plays a significant role in facilitating or discouraging collaboration between Indigenous and non-Indigenous stakeholders(Whyte,2013).Umbrella species.A species whose conser

168、vation is expected to confer protection to a large number of naturally co-occurring species(Roberge&Angelstam,2004).United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO).Organisation that promotes international cooperation in education,sciences and culture.UNESCOs programmes contri

169、bute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals defined in the 2030 Agenda(UNESCO,2022).World Heritage Site.Unique area of Outstanding Universal Value that requires long-term protection,is non-renewable and irreplaceable,as identified by UNESCO and the World Heritage Committee(Zhang et

170、al.,2022).Floodplain forest along the Isar River,Bavaria,Germany.Vid vara1|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsChapter 1 IntroductionCHAPTER 1.IntroductionA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|2Chapter 1 Introduction1 IntroductionBiodiversity monitoring is the

171、main tool to assess the state of biodiversity at a site.Long-term monitoring can show the effect of management actions and helps managers determine the outcome of conservation measures.It is also an approach supporting establishing baseline information,scientific research and regional documentation(

172、Figure 2).This publication presents a consistent decision-making framework for designing biodiversity monitoring programmes that support biodiversity monitoring systems in protected areas and OECMs.It is beyond the scope of the guideline to consider monitoring for general scientific research or for

173、establishing baseline inventories of habitats and species.Besides monitoring,additional features of a management programme will contribute to positive conservation outcomes,including governance and social engagement(Jungmeier et al.,2013).An IUCN Best Practices guideline is available that details th

174、e many components of governance that contribute to protected area management effectiveness(Borrini-Feyerabend et al.,2013).Figure 2 Scope of the framework for monitoring biodiversity in protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures(OECMs)Biodiversity monitoring accomplishes ma

175、ny potential goals.The focus of the guideline is on achieving management objectives through monitoring of biodiversity in protected areas and OECMs.Monitoring for baseline data,scientific value and regional documentation are beyond the scope of the guideline.Source:Compiled by the report authorsProt

176、ected areas are sites where the main management objective is the conservation of biodiversity or the environment.By contrast,OECMs are sites where management activities should deliver positive conservation results even though such activities may not be the main purpose of site management.For OECMs,t

177、he most important biodiversity values may need to be identified in advance of developing a site-level biodiversity monitoring system.A three-step assessment tool requiring fulfilment of eight criteria is available for managers to determine whether their site qualifies as an OECM.After all criteria a

178、re satisfied,the assessment is transferred to the governing authority,who then reports the site through the World Database on Protected Areas(Jonas et al.,2023).Protected areas and OECMs are both considered important for achieving the targets established by the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity F

179、ramework(see chapter 6.1).The decision-making framework for biodiversity monitoring includes four phases(see Figure 1).The preparatory phase is designed to help managers identify the requirements of their sites to accomplish management objectives.In the conceptual phase,managers and staff evaluate t

180、he scope of individual biodiversity monitoring programmes.The outcome is a monitoring strategy that is applied in the implementation phase.The re-evaluation phase helps decision-makers determine whether the findings of the monitoring programme effectively guide adaptive management procedures,conclud

181、ing with a decision to continue,modify or terminate the monitoring programme.Monitoring for management purposesRegional documentationknownunknownknownunknownStatus of indicatorManagement activityFocus of guidelineBaseline studyResearch project3|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECM

182、sChapter 1 IntroductionPreparatory phase.Site management activities are determined by management plan goals,protected assets,actual or potential threats,the demands of different stakeholders,and from changing uses of the protected area or OECM and surrounding areas.Site-specific conditions will impa

183、ct the scope of the biodiversity monitoring programmes that make up the biodiversity monitoring system.In many cases,requirements on indicators and protocols already exist and should first be considered,such as the objectives of a countrys National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan that is requi

184、red by the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD).Legal obligations from other national or international policies may also exist.Additional site-specific background information will reveal any knowledge gaps that can be improved in later phases.The output of the preparatory phase is a clear program

185、me-specific statement of purpose that identifies priority questions for monitoring.Documenting the approaches used to address a particular monitoring question will help other sites in the network implement effective protocols.Conceptual phase.With clearly defined biodiversity goals from the statemen

186、t of purpose,the next step is to document the questions and answers that guide the specific biodiversity monitoring programme.This step is the conceptual phase.The conceptual phase is assisted by the use of the monitoring concept worksheet,a tool that helps to focus the many considerations of biodiv

187、ersity monitoring programmes through a series of six basic questions:why establish the monitoring programme,what will be monitored,where and when will monitoring occur,who are the stakeholders involved,and what required resources are needed.We provide a printable poster-sized version of the monitori

188、ng concept worksheet to help managers and staff make the necessary considerations(Annex Figure 1).Example considerations of each part of the monitoring concept worksheet are provided(Annex Figure 2).Questions can be considered in any order and can be revisited at any time.It is recommended to review

189、 all questions at least two times.After the questions have been considered,the framework of how monitoring will be conducted and the synergies with other monitoring programmes will complete the monitoring concept worksheet.A key output of the conceptual phase will be to document supporting decisions

190、 on which tools and methods will be used in the next phase of the monitoring programme,implementation.Working through the six questions will identify how monitoring will be conducted and potential synergies with the larger management programme or national network.Implementation phase.The actual moni

191、toring occurs during the implementation phase of the monitoring programme.This phase involves specific steps for performing field work and data collection.The necessary materials should be acquired,and a preliminary manual describing the details of the field work should be produced.When finalised,fi

192、eld workers should be trained according to the manual.After training,at least one test run should occur at an easily accessible site.Any changes should be recorded in the manual,and training and test run cycles should be repeated until the workflow functions as planned.Data collection can then begin

193、 at field sites through monitoring cycles that are repeated at appropriate intervals,depending on the indicators.Statistical analysis of the collected data should occur periodically during the implementation phase.Presentation of the results should be given transparently and in appropriate formats t

194、o different stakeholder groups.Findings should support adaptive management decisions,provide the basis for PAME reporting,and can be valuable for outreach.Re-evaluation phase.The fourth phase is the re-evaluation phase.The timing of this phase is typically defined through funding cycles or reporting

195、 requirements to comply with biodiversity treaties.Findings are given to decision-makers to identify strengths and weaknesses of the biodiversity monitoring programme.Effective components can be transferred to other site monitoring programmes,or within national and regional biodiversity monitoring n

196、etworks.Sharing findings can maximise synergies with other programmes because successful elements may serve as templates for further use in other protected areas and OECMs.The outcome of the re-evaluation phase is the decision to continue,adjust or terminate the monitoring activities.Many general co

197、nsiderations are relevant to developing a biodiversity monitoring system and its many biodiversity monitoring programmes.The following points are applicable to most situations:Obligations:International conventions and policies(see chapter 6.1)Biodiversity monitoring programmes in protected areas and

198、 OECMs should be guided by international agreements and must contribute in a meaningful way to national reporting requirements.Art of omission:Daring to simplify(see chapter 6.2)To obtain high-quality data despite potential budgetary or resource restrictions,simplifying monitoring to the lowest numb

199、er of indicators and technologies possible should be a key feature of a biodiversity monitoring programme.A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|4Chapter 1 Introduction Biodiversity monitoring systems:Designing modular,multi-scale and multi-purpose monitoring systems(see chapter 6.

200、3)Biodiversity monitoring systems should utilise known effective methods and synergies to guarantee that the results are comparable between sites.Combining forms of knowledge(see chapter 6.4)Indigenous and traditional ecological knowledge should be utilised in combination with scientific data for th

201、e best understanding of the state of biodiversity in the protected area or OECM.Continuity risks:Avoiding disruptions and gaps in data(see chapter 6.5)Data are most valuable when they are supported by an appropriate statistical design.Detecting trends and correlations:The value of time series(see ch

202、apter 6.6)Well-timed and regular collection of data provides strong evidence of trends of the selected indicators.Maintaining ecological balance:Establishing baselines and thresholds(see chapter 6.7)The baseline condition of an indicator is required knowledge to develop meaningful thresholds of chan

203、ge,at which point management activities may be necessary for adaptive management.Setting up monitoring systems:Costs and outcomes(see chapter 6.8)Biodiversity monitoring programme costs are highest at the beginning of the programme,whilst knowledge gain occurs in later cycles.Protected Area Manageme

204、nt Effectiveness evaluation tools(see chapter 6.9)Protected area management programmes are evaluated using PAME evaluation tools that are harmonised across protected area networks or National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans.The processes to develop effective biodiversity monitoring programm

205、es are outlined in the following chapters.The preparatory phase is introduced in chapter 2,followed by a detailed breakdown of the conceptual phase in chapter 3.The implementation phase is addressed in chapter 4.Key components of ongoing monitoring cycles are illustrated,with particular emphasis on

206、data management and feedback to facilitate adaptive management(Caughlan&Oakley,2001).Considerations of the re-evaluation phase are addressed in chapter 5.In re-evaluating the programme,reflection is given on appropriate ways to guide future monitoring cycles.In chapter 6,greater detail is provided o

207、n the general considerations listed above.In chapter 7,a brief review of past and current tools for biodiversity monitoring is provided.The guideline concludes in chapter 8 with a synthesis and future outlook of biodiversity monitoring in protected areas and OECMs.With this road map,it is now time t

208、o develop site-specific biodiversity monitoring programmes that will contribute to meeting the overall protected area or OECM management objectives.5|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsChapter 1 IntroductionStand of cacti surrounding epiphyte-covered tree Eriotheca ruizii,Refugi

209、o de Vida Silvestre Laquipampa,Lambayeque,Peru.Tobias FremoutA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|6Chapter 2 Preparatory phaseCHAPTER 2.Preparatory phase:Setting the frame7|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsChapter 2 Preparatory phaseSetting up a biodiversit

210、y monitoring programme is a strategic decision-making process that will have long-term effects on protected area or OECM site management.Therefore,enough time should be spent in the preparatory phase to make sure that the programme is properly conceptualised.Site-specific goals and main conservation

211、 challenges should be reviewed through a basic site investigation if they are not present in the pre-existing management plan.In the preparatory phase,all background materials on management of the protected area or OECM should be collected and analysed for their relevance in the subsequent phases.Th

212、is will indicate the major site threats and where they are most serious prior to developing the supporting biodiversity monitoring programmes.Decisions affecting the design of a programme will reference the materials gathered in the preparatory phase.The key output of the preparatory phase is to pro

213、duce a monitoring statement of purpose to identify and prioritise the main objectives of each monitoring programme in the biodiversity monitoring system(Figure 3).2 Preparatory phaseFigure 3 Ontology of the preparatory phaseDevelopment of effective biodiversity monitoring programmes requires conside

214、ration of management objectives as components of the larger management plan.The previous establishment of a protected area or other effective area-based conservation measure(OECM)is the starting point for filling any knowledge gaps through a basic site investigation.Managers should become familiar w

215、ith relevant outstanding features,ecological characteristics,threats and site conservation goals.This includes identifying frameworks such as the cycle of drivers,pressures,state,impacts and responses(see Figure 4).With all available information,a list of priority monitoring objectives will be descr

216、ibed in a monitoring statement of purpose.Source:Compiled by the report authors2.1 Conventions and standardsMany international conventions and national programmes have reporting obligations on species or habitats of particular value.These requirements should be the first considerations for developin

217、g or revising a biodiversity monitoring programme.Sources for this information include formal paperwork,previously surveyed indicators,appropriate monitoring intervals and legal agreements.The information will establish a binding basis for monitoring.To compensate for incomplete information,administ

218、rators may consult pre-existing standards and frameworks applicable to similar sites as a guide to develop site-specific approaches.This step is only necessary if the information is not already available in the protected area or OECM management plan.A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and

219、 OECMs|8Chapter 2 Preparatory phase2.3 Specifying conservation objectives Desired conservation outcomes are usually listed either in the text of the nomination or in the legal document establishing the protected area or OECM.However,based on national and international standards and obligations,manag

220、ers must have a comprehensive site overview of key species and habitats and their protection status.Indicators may be of biological,geological,ecological or cultural significance.Species monitoring can track abundance,distribution,diversity,conservation status and biological characteristics,as descr

221、ibed by the Essential Biodiversity Variables developed by GEO BON(Box 2).A site will have elevated conservation responsibility for rare or endangered species and habitats if it meets the criteria for Key Biodiversity Area designation(IUCN,2016).Comprehensive site planning is beyond the scope of regu

222、lar management activities.If the management plan does not provide a detailed description of the conservation objectives,administrators should invest sufficient resources for comprehensive site planning,at least to the extent that is reasonably achievable.2.2 Basic investigation and site assessmentTh

223、e basic requirement for establishing a biodiversity monitoring programme is good knowledge of the baseline conditions of the protected area or OECM.Existing data,documents,Indigenous and traditional ecological knowledge,and descriptions should be assessed early on to identify the most important biod

224、iversity assets and indicators of the site.If available,assessment should be based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species(IUCN,2022c)for species that have historically lived at the site.Data from previous programmes,national and regional catalogues,or other institutions may be helpful.For exampl

225、e,data of climatological or hydrological relevance may improve understanding of the pre-existing site conditions.Depending on the site,cultural or natural heritage considerations may also be important.Land use history may be revealed through examining archive satellite data,historical maps and other

226、 past records.Basic investigation and site assessment are only necessary if a management plan does not already provide this information.Box 2A global concept:Understanding indicators through the Essential Biodiversity VariablesBy definition,biodiversity includes genes,species,traits,community compos

227、ition and ecosystems.Data on one or more of these dimensions over time and space support biodiversity assessments.Information on how biodiversity changes in these environments is necessary for policy-making.In order to detect change,systematic biodiversity observations are collected using standard f

228、ormats and methods,together with environmental monitoring.These observational data are moved to open databases.Ensuring that data are interoperable across databases will make efficient use of biodiversity informa-tion for guiding conservation and sustainable develop-ment strategies.9|A framework for

229、 monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsChapter 2 Preparatory phase2.4 Management planningBiodiversity monitoring is just one of many components allowing effective site-based management(Stephenson,2019).Information from monitoring campaigns will help guide adaptive management decisions,resulting in

230、 improved conservation outcomes.An effective management plan must address social,cultural,economic and ecological factors(Jungmeier et al.,2013).These factors are best considered through including the perspectives of the full range of regional stakeholders.This involves understanding how burdens and

231、 benefits are distributed amongst local communities,clearly defining the management decision-making processes,and recognising the cultural identities of local and Indigenous groups(Zafra-Calvo et al.,2017).A protected area or OECM management plan is most effective when it includes collaboration with

232、 stakeholders to achieve goals of common interest(Karadeniz&Yenilmez Arpa,2022b).A smart management plan will not only conserve biodiversity,but will also encourage local engagement.By including diverse values in management planning,governance of protected areas and OECMs can become transformative.T

233、his approach is necessary for sustainable management(Kelemen et al.,2023).A well-considered management plan will involve Indigenous peoples and local communities in all phases of development and will include legal obligations,site characteristics,and local and regional conservation objectives.A mana

234、gement plan should already be in place in advance of establishing a new biodiversity monitoring programme(Box 3).It is important to have a clear picture of the main pressures,impacts and interactions on site-level biodiversity(Figure 4).Understanding these factors will guide management activities to

235、 address specific goals.This information will expedite the conceptual phase(see chapter 3).If some information is missing,additional assessment will be required.Essential variables to understand climate,biodiversity and other environmental changes have already been developed(e.g.Essential Climate Va

236、riables,Essential Ocean Variables).The concept of Essential Biodiversity Variables(EBVs)was introduced to advance the collec-tion,sharing and use of biodiversity information(Navarro et al.,2017;Pereira et al.,2013),providing a way to aggregate the many biodiversity observations collected through dif

237、ferent methods such as in situ monitoring or remote sensing.EBVs can be visualised as biodiver-sity observations at one location over time,or in many locations,aggregated in a time series of maps.Aggregation requires collecting biodiversity observations by people and groups,depositing raw data into

238、databas-es using standard formats and metadata,and processing the data.This information helps to detect and model biodiversity change for science,policy and sustainable development applications.Completing the whole proce-dure is important for protected area and OECM manage-ment activities because th

239、e analysis shows changes in biodiversity across large spatial scales.The underlying drivers and pressures of biodiversity change can then be identified(Mace&Baillie,2007)and modelled(Oliver et al.,2015).Validation of modelling can then feed into global and regional policy processes to explain observ

240、a-tions,to improve forecasting of biodiversity change and to produce global assessment reports.EBVs are scalable,meaning the underlying observations can be used to represent different spatial or temporal resolutions required for the analysis of trends.For exam-ple,ecological community data collected

241、 at a location from different sampling events or methods can be com-bined into a single time series.The aggregated data may indicate the change in ecological communities across the region.When combined with social or economic information from human or environmental pressures,EBVs can be used to iden

242、tify indicators for biodiversity that reflect responses,for example change in the proportion of hab-itat in protected areas and ecosystem service benefits to humans.Essential Ecosystem Service Variables have been defined as a type of EBV to support the monitoring of ecosystem services(Balvanera et a

243、l.,2022).Developing and applying EBVs requires local,national and international adoption of standard approaches to collect,store and share biodiversity and environmental observations.This is fundamental to address the press-ing societal and economic needs of today and in the future.Source:GEO BON,Ca

244、nada.Picture:Animal collage.Gernot KunzA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|10Chapter 2 Preparatory phaseFigure 4 The framework cycle of drivers,pressures,state,impacts and responses is the main tool for managers to determine overall management effectiveness at their sites.This e

245、xample shows bush encroachment in a savanna ecosystem(see Box 3).Source:Compiled by the report authorsBox 3Bush encroachment in an African savanna:An application of the framework cycle of drivers,pressures,state,impacts and responses in Kruger National ParkSince the pre-industrial era,global mean te

246、mperatures have increased by 0.8C to 1.2C.This global tempera-ture increase is driven by human activity,and effects on ecosystems are already visible globally(Sala et al.,2000).The world has experienced increased frequency of extreme weather events,prolonged droughts,and heat.Global temperatures wil

247、l continue to rise,with project-ed mean temperatures from 1.0C to 3.5C warmer by 2100 than the pre-industrial era(IPCC,2021).Second only to land use change,climate change will have the greatest impact on biodiversity this century(Sala et al.,2000).Species across most ecosystems have already undergon

248、e range shifts and phenological changes(IPCC,2022).Climate change has resulted in losses of critical habitat.In terrestrial ecosystems,warming of 1.5C is expected to drive up to 14 per cent of species to extinc-tion,with greater percentages at more extreme warming scenarios(IPCC,2022).This represent

249、s a critical loss of biodiversity,even excluding direct impacts of human activities(Lenton et al.,2019).11|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsChapter 2 Preparatory phase2.5 Output:Statement of purposeA statement of purpose should be produced as a brief explanation on the purpose

250、 and intent of the biodiversity monitoring programme.It should be focused on a narrow area of interest and should reference a prioritised list of indicator species or habitats.The statement of purpose should be in line with the overall vision and goals of the management plan and will serve to commun

251、icate the objectives of monitoring to employees,local residents,visitors and responsible authorities(Box 4).For clear direction,each monitoring programme should have its own statement of purpose,complete with relevant modular components.The statement of purpose will constitute the first element of t

252、he monitoring concept worksheet.Box 4South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area:Conservation objectives of a Marine Protected AreaThe Southern Ocean is home to the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area.This protected area was declared in 2012 and serves a

253、s a key research site to understand marine ecosystems.The islands are home to millions of seals and birds,whilst the surrounding waters are important for migratory whale species(Government of South Georgia&the South Sandwich Islands,2016).The islands are uninhabited by people but face many pressures

254、 including climate change,tourism,fishing and introduction of invasive species.The main objective of this protected area is to conserve marine biodiversity with many specific objectives out-lined for each of its management zones and is support-ed by a comprehensive research and monitoring plan(Gover

255、nment of South Georgia&the South Sandwich Islands,2021).The plan serves as a framework under which scientific research can be conducted given avail-able funding and resources.Management activities are categorised under 10 research themes.Each theme has a clear statement of purpose with comprehensive

256、 lists of monitoring activities,research needs and relevant proj-ects.The frequency of monitoring is prescribed for many activities.These themes thus represent the biodiversity monitoring system of the South Georgia and South Sand-wich Islands Marine Protected Area.Interactions between the biodivers

257、ity and climate crises are exemplified through ongoing bush encroachment in the savannas of Kruger National Park,South Africa.A major driver of bush encroachment is the globally high usage of fossil fuels.The increased atmospheric carbon dioxide(CO2)levels are one of the pressures causing bush encro

258、achment through CO2 fertilisation that increases tree growth(Buitenwerf et al.,2012;Stevens et al.,2016).Large parts of the park are in a state of transi-tion from a more open system characteristic of savannas to a more closed system.The resulting impacts include decreased grass abundance and biodiv

259、ersity across the landscape,a lower carrying capacity for grazing ani-mals,greater tree biomass,and lower fire frequency.In closed canopy systems many species become excluded,including cheetahs that need space to reach the speed to pursue prey,and vultures that need a certain level of open canopy to

260、 take flight(Bamford,Monadjem&Hardy,2009).A possible management response includes ap-plying targeted high-intensity controlled burning in some areas,allowing grasses to dominate in some regions and woody shrubs with old growth trees in others(Smit et al.,2016).The role of protected areas and OECMs t

261、o mitigate the pressures caused by human activities is more important than ever.These pressures increase the vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change effects.More land must be conserved to allow species to respond to climate change,including movement of species through natural corridors in resp

262、onse to habitat loss or changes in climat-ic suitability.Managers must also develop stewardship plans to cope with climate change.Currently,protected area networks do not have enough coverage to ensure that species and ecosystems are resilient to human impacts and climate change.Conserving 30 per ce

263、nt of land and limiting warming to 2C could reduce species extinction risks by 50 per cent compared to a scenario where there is no global increase in conserved areas or control of climate change(Hannah et al.,2020).Source:Kerry Grey,Stellenbosch University,South Africa.Picture:A closing canopy favo

264、urs certain savanna species at the expense of others.Clive KaiserA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|12Chapter 2 Preparatory phaseSource:Government of South Georgia&the South Sandwich Islands,2021,adapted by the report authorsObjectiveResearch themeConserve biodiversity,habitats

265、,ecosystemsResilience to climate changeSustainable fisheries managementProtect from trawlingProtect predatorsProtect unique feature or areaManage human activitiesPrioritised monitoring activitiesPrioritised research needsOceanography and biogeochemistryXXyesyesPelagic ecosystemsXXyesyesHigher predat

266、orsXXXyesyesBenthic ecosystemsXXXXyesHarvested fishXXXyesyesHarvested krillXXyesyesImpact of fisheries benthic habitatsXXXyesyesImpact of fisheries predator interactionsXXXXyesyesClimate changeXyesyesOther human impactsXCHAPTER 3.Conceptual phase:Designing the monitoring concept worksheetA framework

267、 for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|14Chapter 3 Conceptual phase3 Conceptual phaseFigure 5 Ontology of the conceptual phaseStarting with the statement of purpose of the preparatory phase,the conceptual phase is completed through consideration of management goals,site characteristics and th

268、e human and financial resources available to the biodiversity monitoring programme.The analysis will show the optimal scope of the programme.Source:Compiled by the report authorsAfter the overall goals and purposes of the biodiversity monitoring programme are defined,the conceptual phase begins(Figu

269、re 5).The monitoring concept worksheet is a tool to help develop the logic of a new programme(see Annex Figure 1).It is designed to identify and structure its primary objectives within the larger protected area or OECM management plan.It can be completed together with partners,external experts and s

270、takeholders.The first element of the monitoring concept worksheet is the statement of purpose that was developed at the conclusion of the preparatory phase(see chapter 2.5).The following elements make up the majority of the monitoring concept worksheet,addressing the questions:Why prepare the monito

271、ring programme?What will be monitored?Where will monitoring take place?When will monitoring be conducted?Who will be involved in the monitoring programme?and What are the required resources to conduct monitoring?The questions are designed to be answered in an iterative way.Most importantly,the answe

272、rs to the questions should interlink with one another.Different versions of the monitoring programme for example different cost frames,areas of interest or technological approaches can be proposed for internal debate.Working through the monitoring concept worksheet will help justify the need for mon

273、itoring in the context of management objectives.The monitoring concept worksheet is a key resource to draft a field manual for implementation of the monitoring programme(see chapter 4.3),including evaluation of synergies that can be built into the larger biodiversity monitoring system and national n

274、etworks.15|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsChapter 3 Conceptual phase3.1 Why:The purpose of monitoringWhen answering the question of why,the manager should specify the purpose of the results for site management.By doing so,different uses can be targeted,for example whether th

275、e results will be used locally,regionally,nationally or internationally.A point allocation system can help to prioritise the most important purposes for the biodiversity monitoring programme(Annex Table 1).Helping to determine management effectiveness is one of the main points of a biodiversity moni

276、toring programme(Hockings et al.,2008).First,a determination is made on what type of monitoring should be conducted,for example,as a baseline study,as a research project,for regional documentation or for management purposes(see Box 1).This in turn supports the development of appropriate management a

277、ctivities.Targeted monitoring informs managers and decision-makers on whether the desired outcomes have been achieved,guiding adaptive management.Different audiences should receive descriptions of site management in diverse contexts.Monitoring results can therefore be used for outreach,educational a

278、nd instructional purposes.3.2 What:Indicators in a biodiversity monitoring programmeA biodiversity monitoring programme typically provides information about biological indicators.An indicator is the entity that a monitoring programme works with:the object that is recorded,measured and documented in

279、a time series(Figure 6).An indicator should be sensitive to change,characteristic for the site,and as easy as possible to sample or determine.In some cases,it may be effective and useful to monitor biological indicators along with meteorological,hydrological,physical or other abiotic indicators if t

280、hey are easier to track.Ecological variables such as habitat size or quality may also be useful to estimate species populations.If the indicator is not available or hard to track,a substitute of abiotic or ecological variables can be used,so-called proxies.The main challenge of using a proxy is to e

281、nsure that it accurately represents the state of the conservation target(Table 1).Pressures such as land use change can also be monitored as proxy indicators for the biological community because certain species depend on the quality of their habitat for survival(Harris et al.,2021).In addition,there

282、 is the possibility to use aggregated or sum indicators such as the degree of human influence in an ecosystem,or ecosystem services(Grabherr et al.,1998).Figure 6 Indicator selection will be site-specific and based on biodiversity monitoring system objectives.The conservation target may be a biologi

283、cal indicator,an abiotic indicator or an aggregated indicator combining environmental information with ecological properties.Source:Compiled by the report authorsA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|16Chapter 3 Conceptual phaseTable 1 Examples of proxy indicators for biodiversity

284、 monitoringSome biotic indicators are difficult to monitor due to the cryptic nature of their life cycle,dependencies on abiotic factors or logistical reasons.These biological features can be tracked through monitoring closely associated proxy indicators.Because life is so diverse,monitoring must fo

285、cus on the minimum number of indicators or else the programme will face resource limitations(Box 5).This reduction is a key process.A scorecard approach assumes that the priority for monitoring is determined by two attributes(Figure 7).First,the status of a key species or habitat is addressed throug

286、h observation of an appropriate indicator(1st ranking).The second criterion relates to the difficulty in managing the species or habitat on-site(2nd ranking).The more management activities and resources that are needed to gain a favourable conservation status of key species or habitats,the more impo

287、rtant it is to monitor change in the indicator conservation status.The next step is to check whether the indicator can be observed with reasonable effort.Effective management may involve taking note of what is happening in the surrounding environment because major changes may be occurring that do no

288、t affect the current indicator group.The monitoring programme should be designed to include additional indicators at a later time,if necessary.The decision on what to monitor will be strongly influenced by a third attribute,the resources required to conduct the monitoring programme(see chapter 3.6).

289、This illustrates why it is important for staff to examine all details of the monitoring concept worksheet and revisit all sections after a first comprehensive discussion.Figure 7 Selection of key indicators is ideally based on two attributes.The first component is the importance of the species or ha

290、bitat to meet site management objectives.The second component is how challenging the species or habitat is to manage.In reality,selection of indicators may be limited by the resources available to the monitoring programme.Source:Compiled by the report authorsSource:Compiled by the report authorsCons

291、ervation targetChallenge of monitoring conservation targetProxy indicatorRosalia alpina,Alpine longhorn beetle:endangered speciesLarvae live in old partially dead Fagus sylvatica(beech trees),the limiting ecosystem factor.Dead or dying beech wood in large-scale surveys to deduce beetle conservation

292、statusCalcareous fen containing Cladium ma-riscus,swamp sawgrass:priority habitat The favourable conservation status of the habitat depends on the range of fluctuation of the water level.Fluctuations of the water level can be measured with a data loggerHabitat that is difficult to access or reachSur

293、vey of habitat is laborious or hazardous.Remote sensing data for habitat-based metrics 17|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsChapter 3 Conceptual phaseBox 5Indicator selection:Biosphere Reserve Integrated Monitoring in the Nock Mountains of AustriaThe UNESCO Man and the Biospher

294、e(MAB)programme describes the concept of a biosphere reserve.All bio-sphere reserves should support three main functions:conservation;development;and logistical support(UNE-SCO,2020).The Salzburger Lungau&Krntner Nockberge Biosphere Reserve was established in Austria in 2012 following a long partici

295、patory planning process.As a condition for its establishment,stakeholders requested that an integrat-ed monitoring scheme already be in place to evaluate management activities,the so-called Biosphere Reserve Integrated Monitoring(BRIM)approach.For establishing BRIMNockberge,four pillars of monitorin

296、g were addressed:social,economic,ecological and management effective-ness.Within each pillar,indicators were selected based on their relevance,their availability,their sensitivity to management action,and consistency(Jungmeier et al.,2013).Using these criteria,a narrow set of 12 indicators was chose

297、n out of more than 100 proposed indicators.The 12 indicators are evaluated annually through field monitoring,questionnaires or externally.Evaluation can be simply summarised through marking an arrow on the evaluation form indicating the direction of change of the indicator.Ecological indicators repr

298、esent the condition of the mountain environment,as measured by an umbrella spe-cies representing the animal community,and two addi-tional ecological indicators.Economic indicators involve statistical analysis of local and visitor taxes,as well as description of local agricultural activities.Socio-cu

299、ltural indicators are based on active stakeholder participation and the migration balance of regional inhabitants.Man-agement indicators are based on the number of visitors to sanctioned events,number of press reports,and the number of research projects that occur in the biosphere reserve.By using t

300、he short list of 12 indicators,evaluated annu-ally,biosphere reserve managers can track the effective-ness of management activities.The BRIMNockberge ap-proach was driven by stakeholder input,fulfilling the key aspects of the UNESCO MAB programme and serving as a model of a successful biosphere rese

301、rve integrated management approach.Source:Michael Jungmeier,Carinthia University of Ap-plied Sciences.Picture:View from the Nock Mountains.Michael JungmeierA framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|18Chapter 3 Conceptual phase3.3 Where:Scale of spatial featuresAs part of developing an

302、 effective biodiversity monitoring programme,the area of interest,sampling approaches and statistical analysis should be considered(Figure 8).Depending on the indicator,the area of interest can vary from the plot level(mm2 m2)up to the site level(several hectares)to the habitat scale and beyond(Figu

303、re 9).To demonstrate the impact of area-based management practices,it may be necessary to monitor beyond the area of interest,allowing comparisons.Different monitoring approaches and statistical tests will result in choosing the appropriate target organism.For example,monitoring the behaviours of mo

304、bile or migratory bird species will require a different spatial approach than monitoring the genetic diversity of fish species in lentic waters.Figure 8 Spatial considerations of monitoring include area of interest,sampling format and statistical design.The area of interest may be the entire protect

305、ed area or other effective area-based conservation measure(OECM),a portion of it,or it may extend beyond the site boundaries.The biological characteristics of the indicator determine the selection of the best sampling scheme,and the statistical design may depend on the objectives of the management p

306、lan.Source:Compiled by the report authorsFigure 9 The spatial scale of a biodiversity monitoring programme can range from a genetic to landscape level.This chart illustrates the spatial range of indicators that can be monitored in a monitoring programme.The box indicates the typical range of most mo

307、nitoring programmes.Source:Compiled by the report authorsDecisions about the sampling design must account for area-based features such as the spatial distribution of the indicator.Species and habitats are unevenly distributed across the landscape.Elevation,exposure,water regime,water depth and nutri

308、ent availability are some factors that restrict the distribution of species or habitats.Geomorphological features or coarse vegetation types as revealed by remote sensing or satellite imagery(see chapter 7.3.3)can often be correlated with key species or habitats in the area of interest where indicat

309、ors are most likely present.It is important to perform some sampling outside the expected areas to confirm whether selected features match the expected distribution of the target.If necessary,voucher specimens can be collected outside a plot to minimise any disruption of the monitoring sites.Permiss

310、ions must be secured prior to removal of biological resources from field sites.19|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsChapter 3 Conceptual phaseThe better the understanding of the ecological relationship between the indicator and its environment,the more accurate the prediction o

311、f its spatial distribution will be.Knowledge of the distribution and behavioural patterns of the indicator will help determine the minimum mapping unit or spatial scale that can be reliably analysed.This accuracy will help to reduce sample numbers.The selection and distribution of plot,transect or p

312、oint designs can be random,stratified based on previous findings,or systematic(Elzinga,Salzer&Willoughby,2019;Magurran,2004)(see chapter 4.1).Using a polygon-based approach is of special importance for the survey of vegetation or land cover.Likewise,it is possible to set up a systematic area-based s

313、urvey using a grid-based approach.In this case,the indicators are surveyed in plots along the grid.When comparing features across sites,the sampling units should be standardised and spatially independent for statistical purposes.When possible,plot design should be consistent across sites,particularl

314、y when they are part of the same national monitoring network.3.4 When:Scale of temporal featuresBecause monitoring is an investigation over time,the temporal design of a monitoring programme is very important and must be defined in the context of the larger biodiversity monitoring system.Monitoring

315、can take place over very different timescales.To answer the question on when to monitor,three key principles should be considered:timing of programme initiation;programme duration;and the interval between monitoring events(Figure 10).Figure 10 Temporal aspects of a biodiversity monitoring programme

316、include timing of initiation,programme duration and sampling interval.Source:Compiled by the report authorsInitiation timing of a monitoring programme must be determined in the conceptual phase.Monitoring can begin as a response to an ecosystem disturbance such as a catastrophic storm,coral bleachin

317、g event or flood(Obura et al.,2019).Starting a monitoring programme may occur before restoration efforts or new management strategies begin.This timing will document the baseline condition of the indicator,allowing before-and-after comparisons.Potential considerations of site accessibility may furth

318、er guide initiation timing,for example if seasonality,potential non-target effects or cultural considerations might affect access to key sites.The duration of a time series must be long enough to identify trends or changes in the status of the indicator as a response to management actions.If a monit

319、oring programme is designed for a short-term timescale,it can produce valid results after only a few monitoring cycles(e.g.3 to 5 cycles).In this case a predetermined end date can be set.Monitoring can also occur over medium-term(e.g.5 to 25 years),long-term and indefinite time spans,depending on th

320、e management question and the variability of the indicator.Trends of an indicator can only be accurately observed following many monitoring cycles.For example,one way for a species to be classified as Threatened on the IUCN Red List is for its population to be in decline for at least 10 years or thr

321、ee generations,whichever is longer(IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee,2022).For animal population studies,the minimum A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMs|20Chapter 3 Conceptual phaseduration of a monitoring programme depends on the species but in general must continue for a

322、minimum of 16 years to confirm trends(White,2019).In a practical sense,the timeframe of a monitoring programme will more likely be based on the available resources,rather than the biology of the indicator.Innovative programme funding for example through foundation funding or tax measures may support

323、 indefinite long-term monitoring of key species(Lindenmayer et al.,2012a).As required by the CBD,National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans may provide a strong justification to administrators for long-term,sufficient funding to maintain biodiversity monitoring programmes in protected areas a

324、nd OECMs.The third factor concerning timing of monitoring is the interval of the monitoring activity.The interval will depend on the phenological activity of the indicator and its variability over time(Figure 11).Certain indicators have short lifespans or are only briefly present in the ecosystem,wh

325、ilst other indicators have a long-term presence.If possible,the beginning of a monitoring programme should feature frequent monitoring intervals,with reduced frequency at a later stage once trends and variability are known.More frequent intervals early in the programme allow managers to react quickl

326、y to any methodological or technical errors.Not all indicators will be appropriately surveyed at the same interval.Therefore,a modular approach should be applied in the case of monitoring multiple indicators.Biodiversity monitoring may focus on trends of species occurrence,distribution and dispersal

327、,as well as on their drivers such as climate change or fragmentation of habitats.These features are generally visible over long periods of time.Figure 11 Timescale of different biological processesDepending on the species or habitat,a biodiversity monitoring programme should occur at the relevant ti

328、mescale of the indicator.Some species may have rapid life cycles that require closely spaced monitoring intervals,whilst other species may be present in the environment for decades or centuries.The box indicates the typical temporal frame of most indicators.Source:Compiled by the report authorsLong-

329、term,consistent and well-documented biodiversity monitoring programmes are the gold standard because the value of monitoring accumulates over time.Long-term monitoring may continue for decades.This scope goes beyond a professional career and even the lifespan of institutions;therefore,turnover in pe

330、rsonnel,institutional,legal or financial situations is guaranteed.To ensure continuity,these limitations require consideration prior to implementation of the biodiversity monitoring programme.Complete records of monitoring protocols and objectives are necessary to maintain continuity despite these c

331、hanges over time.21|A framework for monitoring biodiversity in PAs and OECMsChapter 3 Conceptual phaseFigure 12 Example stakeholder worksheet listing key participants in a biodiversity monitoring programmeManagers and staff should work together to identify potential stakeholders for an overview of w

332、ho may be involved in the monitoring programme and the scope of their participation.Source:Compiled by the report authorsThe actors involved in the monitoring activity will affect the scope and quality of data collection.Institutional help and external collaborators can be identified at this early s

333、tage.Permanent staff positions should be secured for monitoring.Supporting staff may include scientists,statisticians,GIS experts,IT experts,database managers,field crew leaders and other specialists.Early and ongoing co-design of the monitoring programme between involved scientists,governmental agencies,non-governmental organisations,and Indigenous peoples and local communities is essential.Indig