1、Digital Trade for DevelopmentDisclaimerPrepared by the staffs of the International Monetary Fund(IMF),the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD),the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD),The World Bank,and the World Trade Organization(WTO).For the IMF,the v

2、iews expressed here are those of the authors and should not be construed as the views of the IMF,its Executive Board,member governments,or any other entity mentioned herein.For the OECD,the report is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD,and the opinions expressed a

3、nd arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Member countries of the OECD.For the United Nations,the findings,interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author(s)and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or its official

4、s or Member States.For The World Bank,the findings,interpretations,and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank,its Board of Executive Directors,or the governments they represent.For the WTO,the views expressed,and the terms and illustrations used in

5、this publication are without prejudice to WTO members rights and obligations,and do not constitute or imply an expression of opinion by the WTO Secretariat concerning the status or boundaries of any territory.This document,as well as any data and any map included herein,are without prejudice to the

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7、d conditions for specific territorial disclaimers applicable to this joint publication(https:/www.oecd.org/termsandconditions/).2023.The International Monetary Fund,the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,the United Nations,The World Bank and the World Trade Organization.WTO ISBN

8、978-92-870-7544-4(print)WTO ISBN 978-92-870-7543-7(PDF)1Executive summary 3A.Introduction 5B.Unleashing the potential of digital technologies:growth,trade and development opportunities 71.Digitalization changes the way economies grow 82.Trade is increasingly digital,but some developing economies are

9、 struggling to be part of this transformation 103.Digital trade provides opportunities to launch new products 144.Digital trade can contribute to making trade more inclusive 17(a)Digital trade can create new opportunities for developing economies,including LDCs 17(b)Digital trade can open up opportu

10、nities for greater participation of MSMEs,women and young people in international trade 19C.Role of domestic policies and international cooperation in supporting digital trade 211.Improving digital connectivity,ICT infrastructure and digital skills is essential to promote digital trade 22(a)Investme

11、nt in infrastructure along with policies to ensure reliable and affordable internet access is key 22(b)Policies to support the development of digital skills of consumers and firms are crucial to facilitate digital trade 24(c)International cooperation can help bridge the digital gap by enhancing digi

12、tal connectivity and skills 252.An enabling legal and regulatory environment coupled with proactive trade policies are essential components of the ecosystem for digital trade 26(a)A robust domestic regulatory framework is crucial for fostering digital trade 26(b)While digital trade is increasingly b

13、eing disciplined in bilateral and regional trade agreements,the participation of developing economies in such agreements remains limited 26(c)WTO rules already cover digital trade,but some of these rules may need to be updated to adequately address the evolving nature of digital trade 28(d)The WTO m

14、oratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions will be a key issue at the upcoming WTO 13th Ministerial Conference(MC13)to be held in February 2024 31(e)Digitally ordered goods trade can benefit from the full implementation of the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement(TFA)333.Some regulatory iss

15、ues in the realm of digital trade could benefit from deeper international cooperation 36(a)Cross-border data flows are pivotal to the expansion and efficiency of digital trade 36(b)Competition policy is essential to maintain open and dynamic digital markets 38(c)Enhanced online consumer protection h

16、elps build trust in digital markets 39D.Conclusions 43Annex A:Literature review on studies analysing the customs revenue implications of the WTO moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions 45References 47Contents2DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENTAcknowledgmentThis report was approved by Ken

17、neth Kang(Deputy Director,Strategy,Policy and Review Department,IMF),Marion Jansen(Director,Trade and Agriculture Directorate,OECD),Shamika Sirimanne(Director,Division on Technology and Logistics,UNCTAD),Mona Haddad(Global Director,Trade,Investment and Competitiveness,The World Bank),Ralph Ossa(Dire

18、ctor,Economic Research and Statistics Division,WTO).Its preparation was coordinated by Adam Jakubik and Michele Ruta,under the guidance of Martin Sommer(IMF);Julia Nielson and Javier Lopez-Gonzalez(OECD);Shamika Sirimanne,Torbjrn Fredriksson,Miho Shirotori,and Teresa Moreira(UNCTAD);Sebastien Dessus

19、(The World Bank);Marc Bacchetta,Jos-Antonio Monteiro and Roberta Piermartini(WTO).The authors of the report are Tibor Hanappi,Adam Jakubik and Michele Ruta(IMF);Andrea Andrenelli,Javier Lopez-Gonzalez and Julia Nielson(OECD);Torbjrn Fredriksson,Arnau Izaguerri Vila,Daniel Ker,Teresa Moreira,Miho Shi

20、rotori,and Akari Yamamoto(UNCTAD);Martn Molinuevo and Javier Suarez(The World Bank);and Marc Bacchetta,Antonia Carzaniga,Barbara DAndrea,Jos-Antonio Monteiro and Roberta Piermartini(WTO).Useful comments were received from IMF Departments;Carolina Abate,Francesca Casalini,Audrey Plonk and Silvia Sore

21、scu(OECD);Poul Hansen and Dong Wu(UNCTAD);Yuki Araki,Jieun Choi,Tuan Minh Le,Pierre Sauv,Alexandrea Schwind and Gaute Solheim(The World Bank);Emmanuelle Ganne and Zainab Mchumo(WTO).Research assistance was provided by Tinotenda Mataire(WTO).Serge Marin-Pache and Anthony Martin(WTO)managed the produc

22、tion of the report.3Executive summaryThis report explores the opportunities and challenges for developing economies arising from digital trade and discusses the role of international cooperation in tackling these opportunities and challenges.The report considers policy actions in the areas of digita

23、l infrastructure,skills,international support for capacity development,and the regulatory and policy environment.Specific policy issues include the WTO e-commerce moratorium,regulation of cross-border data flows,competition policies and consumer protection.The digital transformation is having profou

24、nd effects.Digitalization of the economy is radically transforming the way we communicate,produce,govern and trade with one another.Digital technologies are engines of growth,increase productivity by reducing production costs,foster economies of scale and more efficient financing,promote innovation

25、by fostering exchange of ideas and expand and diversify export baskets by reducing international trade costs.Digitalization can also promote resilience to shocks,a wider services-led growth model and more inclusive growth.At the same time,by transforming existing processes and business models,digita

26、lization creates opportunities and risks,with winners and losers both across and within economies.Cross-border digitally delivered services are the fastest growing segment of international trade,with new players emerging.Digital trade refers to all international trade digitally ordered and/or digita

27、lly delivered.According to WTO estimates,digitally delivered services have recorded an almost fourfold increase in value since 2005,rising 8.1 per cent on average per year over the period 2005-22,outpacing goods(5.6 per cent)and other services exports(4.2 per cent)to account for 54 per cent of total

28、 services exports.With new ways of obtaining comparative advantage,opportunities arise for new players to engage in global markets,including for farmers to connect to markets and for small business to trade via parcels.While developed economies are responsible for the majority of digitally delivered

29、 services exports,they have also grown in most developing economies,including in Africa,where Ghana,Morocco and South Africa have seen the largest growth.That said,growth in least developed countries(LDCs)continues to lag behind and Africa contributed less than 1 per cent of digitally delivered serv

30、ices exports globally in 2022.During the COVID-19 pandemic,the gap between the most and the least advanced economies in terms of exports of such services widened further.Some economies are more prepared to seize opportunities and take on challenges associated with digital trade,highlighting the impo

31、rtance of digital infrastructure and skills.In general,to engage in and benefit from digital trade,consumers and businesses must have access to fast,affordable and reliable digital infrastructure as well as the skills and capabilities to use digital technologies for productive activities.Today,an es

32、timated 5.4 billion people,or 67 per cent of the worlds population,are able to connect to the internet,doubling the number of people connected only 10 years ago.Yet,2.6 billion people,or one-third of the global population remains offline,most of them in low-and lower-middle income economies.High tar

33、iffs on imports of information and communication technology(ICT)equipment,restrictions on imports of enabling services and limited competition in telecommunications services can reduce affordability and slow down the adoption of these technologies.Governments need to put in place a regulatory and po

34、licy environment that not only facilitates trade in a digital world but also generates inclusive and sustainable outcomes.Policies and regulations should enable remote transactions,enhance trust in digital markets,promote affordable access and support cross-border deliveries.A predictable and intero

35、perable environment that provides appropriate safeguards related to online transactions(such as data privacy,consumer protection and cybersecurity)is essential for the digital trade ecosystem to thrive.Laws and regulations that ensure easy entry and exit of firms,effective competition and an open tr

36、ade regime promote healthy competition.Estimates suggest that improved digital connectivity is twice as effective at lowering trade costs in middle-and low-income economies with an enabling regulatory environment for digitally delivered services.Bridging the digital divide and strengthening the read

37、iness of developing economies to benefit from digital trade requires both domestic and international mobilization.More international financial and technical support is needed to build the capacity of developing economies to improve connectivity and skills and to regulate in areas relevant to digital

38、 trade.Initiatives like the WTO-led Aid for Trade,the UNCTAD-led eTrade for all and the World Bank-led Digital Advisory and Trade Assistance(DATA)Fund can help.Digital connectivity is one of the three priority areas in the WTO Aid for Trade work programme for 2023-24,and recent Aid for Trade commitm

39、ents to the ICT sector stand at US$2.16 billion in 2021-22.International cooperation increasingly covers rules on digital trade.To date,progress on governance of digital trade-related issues has largely taken place in the context of bilateral and regional trade agreements(RTAs).By the end of 2022,th

40、ere were 116 agreements with digital trade provisions,representing 33 per cent of all existing RTAs.Overall,since 2001,44 per cent of agreements signed contain at least one EXECUTIVE SUMMARY4DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENTdigital trade or e-commerce provision.However,only few LDCs are party to RTAs wi

41、th provisions on digital trade.The African Continental Free Trade Area(AfCFTA)is,for many countries,the first experience negotiating provisions on digital trade.Since 1998,the WTO Work Programme on E-commerce has considered how WTO rules apply to e-commerce.E-commerce is widely seen as within the sc

42、ope of existing WTO agreements.At the same time,a majority of WTO members consider that,to respond to the changing nature of trade and to facilitate e-commerce related activities,existing WTO rules related to digital trade need to be updated and complemented by new ones.Under the Joint Statement Ini

43、tiative(JSI)on E-commerce,90 WTO members,including many developing economies and five LDCs,are negotiating specific rules on digital-trade-related issues.The WTO moratorium on the imposition of customs duties on electronic transmissions is attracting attention in the run-up to the WTOs 13th Minister

44、ial Conference(MC13).It is the only WTO provision that applies explicitly to e-commerce and has been in place since 1998.Additional commitments not to impose customs duties on electronic transmissions have also been included in 88 RTAs involving a total of 87 economies,of which 33 are developing eco

45、nomies.In June 2022 at MC12 members agreed to further extend the moratorium until the 13th Ministerial Conference or 31 March 2024,whichever is earlier.At this meeting,members also agreed to“intensify discussions.including on the“scope,definition and impact”of the moratorium.WTO members views about

46、the renewal of the moratorium on customs duties differ.Proponents of the moratorium emphasise that the commitment has supported a stable and predictable environment for digital trade to thrive.However,other WTO members have expressed concerns about the lack of clarity regarding the scope of the mora

47、torium and the definition of electronic transmissions as well as the opportunity costs of the moratorium.These include the potential foregone customs revenue and the desire to maintain policy space in light of the uncertainty associated with rapid technological change.They have also expressed concer

48、ns about the impact of the moratorium on their ability to use customs duties for industrial policy purposes.The impact of the moratorium on government revenue is estimated to be below 0.33 percent of overall government revenue on average.Value added tax(VAT)represents another way to collect revenue

49、from digital trade that does not discriminate between domestically supplied and imported products,is more uniform across different products,and does not impose a tax burden on intermediate inputs used by domestic producers.The moratorium can impact the amount of customs revenue collected by governme

50、nts.Uncertainties exist about its scope and the definition of electronic transmissions,but existing estimates of the potential revenue that could be collected using tariffs on electronic transmissions vary between 0.01 per cent and 0.33 per cent of overall government revenue on average for developin

51、g economies,with higher losses for a handful of economies.While tariffs and VAT are not mutually exclusive,recent evidence shows that for most economies,VAT could generate higher revenue from taxing electronic transmissions with appropriate investment in the capacity of tax administrations.Tariffs o

52、n electronic transmissions might also impact competitiveness and participation of firms in trade,especially MSMEs and women owned traders.Beyond trade rules,other regulatory issues also require global solutions:cross-border data flows,competition and consumer protection.A growing number of measures

53、condition the cross-border data flows that underpin digital trade.But deeper and inclusive international cooperation is needed for a balanced approach to global data governance,which ensures data can flow across borders as freely as possible while addressing public policy concerns.The features of di

54、gital markets,including network effects,economies of scale and scope,give rise to concerns about market power and anti-competitive behaviours.Governments around the world are seeking ways to effectively regulate such behaviours by adapting their legislative frameworks and strengthening enforcement a

55、gainst anticompetitive practices.Efforts should continue to encourage exchange of information and knowledge,collective responses when feasible,as well as innovative approaches and consensus-building to promote competition in digital markets.The lack of appropriate policies and regulations on consume

56、r protection and resources for effective enforcement hinder trust in the digital economy.Enacting adequate legal frameworks,enforcing regulations and addressing cross-border disputes are essential to create a safer and more inclusive digital environment for consumers.Key challenges include insuffici

57、ent information and education of online consumers,misleading advertising,unsafe products and payments systems,unauthorized collection and use of customers personal data,and inadequate dispute resolution and redress mechanisms.International cooperation is critical to ensure inclusive benefits of digi

58、tal trade.Global cooperation is needed to ensure that small businesses,women and young entrepreneurs and consumers in all economies can reap the benefits of digital trade.This is particularly challenging as the issues involved fall within the purview of multiple government ministries,which calls for

59、 a whole-of-government approach.International organizations can support these efforts by strengthening their cooperation with governments,stakeholders,and each other,and this joint report is a step in this direction.Introduction A6DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENTTrade has played an important role in fo

60、stering economic growth,promoting income convergence among economies and lifting hundreds of millions of people out of poverty(World Bank and WTO,2015).The expansion of global value chains(GVCs)(ADB,2021)has been a driving factor behind this growth.Some people,firms and economies have,however,missed

61、 out and not fully benefited from trade opportunities.Following the great financial crisis,the growth of GVCs has stagnated.The rise of automation and the backlash against globalization have further fuelled uncertainties regarding the future viability of this GVC-led model of industrialization.Accor

62、ding to WTO projections,the volume of world merchandise trade is expected to grow by 0.8 per cent in 2023,marking a decline from the 3 per cent growth estimated for 2022(WTO,2023b).With subdued trade growth and weak economic growth,advances in living standards and prospects for individuals worldwide

63、 could be hampered.Digital trade,statistically defined as“all international trade transactions that are digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered”(WTO,OECD,IMF,and UNCTAD,2023),1 has emerged as a dynamic and fast-growing area of the global economy.The value of global exports of digitally delivere

64、d services reached US$3.82 trillion in 2022,capturing an estimated 54 per cent share of total global services exports and accounting for 12 per cent of total goods and services exports.Between 2005 and 2022,the estimated average annual growth rate of digitally delivered services reached 8.1 per cent

65、,outpacing those of goods exports(5.6 per cent)and other services exports(4.2 per cent)(WTO,2023b).Alongside trade in digitally delivered services,digitally ordered trade is also an important component of digital trade.Digital ordering is an increasingly vital way for producers to reach and take ord

66、ers from customers both in the same economy and abroad.Although statistics on digitally ordered trade are limited,its share in exports appears to be growing rapidly,including in several developing economies.The share increased from 5 to 8 per cent of all exports in Malaysia between 2015 and 2019 and

67、 has more than doubled in Thailand from 2 per cent in 2015 to 5 per cent in 2021.In the same year,digitally ordered exports reached 11 per cent in Canada,up more than one-third since 2019(UNCTAD,2023a).This rapid growth in digital trade highlights the increasing importance and influence of digital t

68、echnologies in the global economy in facilitating and expanding international trade,enabling businesses to provide goods and services across borders in a more seamless and cost-effective manner.In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic,digital trade has also become an important tool for supporting and en

69、hancing resilience by maintaining business operations and delivering goods and services amidst physical restrictions but also diversifying supply chains and opening up new markets (IMF,2022;OECD,2020b;World Bank and WTO,2021).The realm of digital innovations continues to experience rapid growth and

70、transformation(WIPO,2022).As a consequence,the digitalization of international trade is expected to expand further.With the rise of remote working,an increasing number of firms,especially those in high-income economies,are expected to rely on imported intermediate services for tasks,such as accounti

71、ng,graphic design and software engineering(WTO,2019).In specific sectors,such as health services and information and communications technology(ICT),the potential for growth in digital trade is particularly noteworthy.This growth is in part driven by the demands of ageing populations in high-income e

72、conomies for digital services,including health and wellness,as well as the expanding workforce in geographically remote areas that can work online(ILO,2021;ITU,2021b).As the digital economy continues to evolve,policymakers,businesses and consumers are grappling with the opportunities and challenges

73、it presents.Harnessing the potential of digital trade and ensuring its inclusivity and sustainability are key considerations as the world navigates the complexities of the fast-changing economic landscape.In an effort to deepen the understanding on a pivotal topic that is becoming increasingly centr

74、al to trade and the global trading system in the 21st century,the International Monetary Fund,the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,the Organisation for Cooperation and Development,the World Bank and the World Trade Organization have joined forces to conduct this study on the role o

75、f digital trade for development.The joint report is intended to provide a factual and balanced assessment of current developments.It consists of two main sections.Section B discusses the growth potential of the digital economy,explores the impact of digital technologies on trade patterns and looks a

76、t the implications for development.Section C discusses the challenges faced by developing economies in harnessing the opportunities of digital trade and the role of domestic policies and international cooperation in overcoming these challenges and fostering a more inclusive digital trade.The study i

77、ncludes a focus on the possible implications of the WTO moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmission,given that the moratorium is one of the issues attracting particular attention in the run-up to the WTOs 13th Ministerial Conference(MC13)to be held in February 2024.Endnotes1.The Handbook

78、 on Measuring Digital Trade defines all digitally delivered trade as services trade(IMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO,2023).It should be noted,however,that WTO members hold different views as to whether digitizable goods are goods or services once digitized and digitally delivered.Unleashing the potential of

79、digitaltechnologies:growth,tradeand development opportunitiesIncreased use of digital technologies is transforming the way workers,firms and consumers interact.The digital revolution has seen the transition from mechanical and analogue technologies to the widespread adoption of computers and the exc

80、hange of machine-readable information(i.e.digital data).While new digital technologies will continue to emerge,current technologies include artificial intelligence(AI),3D printing,cloud computing and blockchain(OECD,2019a;UNCTAD,2021b;WTO,2018).1 Digitalization is transforming processes of productio

81、n,consumption and trade and ultimately impacting on economic growth in multifaceted ways.This section looks at the opportunities from digitalization.Like any technological change,digitalization brings with it challenges and opportunities.While this section focuses on the potential benefits of digita

82、lization and how digitalization impacts trade,Section C discusses the challenges and the necessary policy options.Whether digital technologies are used in production to order or deliver services or order goods online domestically or internationally(like in the case of digital trade),digitalization p

83、rovides new opportunities for growth and development and changes what we trade and who trades.B8DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENT1.Digitalization changes the way economies grow Digitalization promotes wider services-led growth.The services sector has been significantly impacted by the advent of new digi

84、tal technologies,potentially more so than the agriculture and manufacturing sectors(Matthess and Kunkel,2020).ICTs have played a crucial role in overcoming the traditional need for physical proximity in many services activities.This has resulted in increasing tradability of many services across bord

85、ers as well as a surge in“trade in tasks”within global value chains and the outsourcing of services,both domestically and internationally(UNCTAD,2022a;WTO,2019).Services,such as ICT,finance,and business and professional services,whose suppliers can leverage digital technologies to upscale by reachin

86、g remote markets and to innovate by processing more information,can also bring positive spillovers to other sectors.They are therefore well positioned to increase productivity and foster economic growth(Hallward-Driemeier and Nayyar,2017).Digital technologies,whether used in production,online purcha

87、sing and delivery of goods or services,domestically or internationally,can act as engines of growth by increasing productivity,fostering innovation and boosting trade.Digital technologies can increase productivity by reducing production costs and fostering economies of scale.They can increase the in

88、centive to innovate and foster the exchange of ideas.Digital technologies can also help to expand and diversify exports of both goods and services by reducing trade costs.Conclusive evidence on the impact of digitalization on growth is limited,but there is some evidence that certain forms of digital

89、ization affect positively selected factors of growth(Cardona,Kretschmer and Strobel,2013;Goldfarb and Tucker,2019;Hjort and Tian,2023;Stanley,Doucouliagos and Steel,2018).First,digitalization can lower production costs.By leveraging digital technologies,companies can reduce labour costs,streamline o

90、perations,optimize resource use and reduce maintenance and downtime costs.For instance,cloud services and high-speed broadband have been found to improve productivity by enabling young firms,particularly those in the manufacturing sector,to expand without increasing their geographic footprint and by

91、 allowing established firms to reorganize operations,reduce costs and extend their reach(DeStefano,Kneller and Timmis,2020;Jin and McElheran,2017).Digitalization can also lower production costs in the agricultural sector(FAO,2022).ICT services can provide farmers with access to better and more timel

92、y information on soil properties,temperature and weather conditions,crop growth,livestock feed levels and market conditions,thereby reducing information and coordination costs.Equipment monitoring can automate the operation of a range of equipment,such as irrigation pumps,or can be used to track the

93、 movement of equipment and animals.The contribution of services to agricultural production and exports is increasingly linked to digital services that are making agriculture“smarter”(i.e.more productive and sustainable)(World Bank and WTO,2023b).Digitalization can also increase productivity by helpi

94、ng producers to expand market access or improve input-sourcing strategies and by facilitating lending.By reducing the time,effort and resources required for searching for,accessing,retrieving and communicating information,digital technologies-for example,data analytics-can enable a more efficient an

95、d cost-effective access to relevant data.As a result,firms with relevant capabilities can make data-driven decisions and potentially expand their market access.For instance,internet access was found to help smallholder farmers improve their market participation and volume decisions regarding their o

96、utput by providing valuable information on prices,marketing strategies and potential buyers and brokers(Fan and Salas Garcia,2018).Digital technologies have also the potential to reduce input-sourcing costs by facilitating the search for suppliers,offering more competitive prices(Kandilov et al.,201

97、7).For example,Fintech(an application of digital tech to finance)has been found to facilitate increased lending to households and small business(Cornelli et al.,2020).Second,digitalization facilitates exchange of ideas and fosters innovation.The exchange of ideas made possible through digital techno

98、logies can spark creativity,bring diverse perspectives,enable sharing of knowledge,facilitate feedback and refinement of thinking,foster collaboration,and expand the knowledge base(WIPO,2022).Firms often act as the primary drivers of technological adoption and implementation thanks to their resource

99、s,expertise and market presence that enable them to adopt and integrate more sophisticated technologies into their operations(Cirera,Comin and Cruz,2022).For instance,adopting cloud services has been found to not only enhance productivity and boost revenue,but also allow teams to collaborate effecti

100、vely regardless of their geographic locations(Jin,2022).The adoption and utilization of digital technologies can also have a positive spillover effect,benefiting other firms and industries by creating demand and driving further technological advances.For instance,internet use by industries in develo

101、ping 9economies has been found to have led to knowledge spillovers that have boosted the productivity and innovation of other firms,in particular the most productive ones(Paunov and Rollo,2016).Third,improving digital connectivity lowers international trade costs,thus boosting trade across all secto

102、rs.Digital technologies enable real-time communication,simplify cross-border transactions and expand market access by allowing for greater efficiency,transparency and customization.Digital technologies can reduce trade costs(such as transportation,information verification and tracking costs),thus im

103、proving supply chain efficiency through shorter delivery times,better transport,logistics and distribution services and enhanced traceability along the supply chain(Kang,2016;Ma,Shi and Kang,2023).WTO research suggests that a 10 per cent increase in mobile broadband subscription per capita is associ

104、ated with around 1 per cent lower trade costs both in goods and services.The effect is especially strong for trade in digitally deliverable services,such as business and professional services(Bellucci,Rubnov and Piermartini,2023).The impact of digital technologies on reducing trade costs has increas

105、ed over time.OECD research shows that by 2018,the impact of an increased share of individuals using the internet on international trade costs was three times higher than it was in 1995(Lpez Gonzlez,Sorescu and Kaynak,2023).Although estimated trade effects of improved digital connectivity vary depend

106、ing on the specific measure of connectivity used and methodology,they are significant and positive for all sectors and different levels of development.Digital trade can be an engine for growth.Similar to other forms of trade,digital trade fosters growth by improving resource allocation,allowing econ

107、omies to take advantage of economies of scale,and fostering innovation,technological diffusion and access to education.While existing empirical evidence primarily highlights the positive impact of trade in goods on growth,a growing body of evidence shows that services and services trade(which are in

108、creasingly delivered digitally)are key drivers of productivity,competitiveness and rising living standards(World Bank and WTO,2023b).In 2022,cross-border digital payments for online courses through platforms,e-books and audiobooks,reached US$1.2 million in Namibia,suggesting the importance of digita

109、l technologies in providing learning opportunities(Bank of Namibia,2023).The use of digital technologies to supply or access innovative services(even if not exclusively cross border)is central to the realization of economic development strategies.Digitalization strengthens resilience against increas

110、ingly frequent and more intense events of an unpredictable nature.Economic resilience refers to the ability to prevent and prepare for,cope with and recover from unpredictable events,with a view to reducing business interruptions and economic losses caused by them(WTO,2021).Digital technologies can

111、be essential tools to implement risk prevention,reduction and preparedness strategies,including identifying priorities,developing contingency plans and reviewing insurance coverage.Digital technologies can also enable business operations to continue once an unpredictable event strikes by making the

112、production processes more flexible.Digital technologies have been instrumental in coping with and recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic(Jaumotte et al.,2023).Exports in sectors with more digitally enabled remote work suffered less from COVID-19-related local supply disruptions(Espitia et al.,2021).G

113、reater digitalization also helped insulate economies from negative spillovers from COVID-19-related lockdown measures adopted in other economies(IMF,2022).Limited connectivity and ICT adoption as well as liquidity shortages and persistent cash-based and payment-on-delivery cultures hampered the diff

114、usion of digital solutions in developing economies during the COVID-19 pandemic(UNCTAD,2020).The growth and resilience potential stemming from digital technologies,including through digital trade,ultimately depends on the capacity to adopt and use these technologies.Open trade can help businesses ac

115、quire digital technologies,but addressing barriers to using these technologies,including for trading goods and services,is also crucial(see Section C).While barriers to digital technology adoption and use vary depending on the specific context,some common obstacles include insufficient or inadequate

116、 physical infrastructure(such as unreliable electricity supply,poor internet connectivity and limited telecommunications networks),restricted access to affordable devices and internet services,and a lack of digital skills and literacy needed to effectively use these technologies.Inadequate regulator

117、y frameworks and policies,such as the lack of consumer protection,data protection and privacy regulations,unnecessary obstacles to data collection,transfer and sharing,or high levels of market concentration and failure to prevent anti-competitive behaviour,can also hinder digital technology adoption

118、 and use.Duties and charges on electronic transactions would also represent an obstacle to digital trade.B.UNLEASHING THE POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES:GROWTH,TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES10DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENT2.Trade is increasingly digital,but some developing economies are strug

119、gling to be part of this transformationDigitalization impacts how international trade is conducted.Digital technologies enable buyers and sellers to place and receive orders on a global scale,eliminating the need for in-person interactions.In addition,digital delivery facilitates the remote provisio

120、n of products from one territory to another via computer networks.The terms digital trade and e-commerce are often used interchangeably(see BoxB.1.).For this report,digital trade covers products that are digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered.“Digitizable goods”refers to goods before digitizat

121、ion(e.g.,a printed book),while“digitized products”applies after digitization(e.g.,an e-book),as the word“product”can refer to both goods and services.Improved data collection is needed to address the limited availability of official statistics on digital trade.Few national statistical agencies espec

122、ially in developing economies publish comprehensive figures on digital sales,and even fewer provide a breakdown of domestic and international digital trade transactions(UNCTAD,2023a).The lack of information on the economic value of digitally ordered exports and imports makes it difficult to assess h

123、ow digital methods compare to traditional ones in stimulating economic activity.It also makes it challenging to gauge the effects of online orders on replacing local purchases with foreign options,and how factors like firm size,sector,payment techniques and openness to trade affect these results.Ava

124、ilable evidence suggests that the contribution of digital trade to total exports can differ significantly across economies.The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated a long-term trend toward digital ordering,be it domestically or internationally,that has transformed both business-to-business and business-to-

125、consumer sales,including by driving a significant increase in online retail sales and the expansion of digital marketplaces(OECD,2023a;UNCTAD,2022c).Available statistics,however,suggest that the share of digitally ordered exports varies significantly across economies,from 5 per cent in Thailand and

126、8 per cent in Malaysia to 18 per cent in the United Kingdom(see Figure B.2)(UNCTAD,2023a).On-going technological advances,uptake and changes in business practices suggest that the share of trade that is digitally ordered is likely to continue to increase.Digitally delivered services have become an i

127、ncreasingly important component of trade and are likely to continue to increase.Digital technologies have facilitated the direct cross-border trade of certain services,such as consulting,education and financial services.Global exports of digitally delivered services reached US$3.82trillion in 2022,m

128、arking an almost fourfold increase in value since 2005 and accounting for 54 per cent of total global services exports.Between 2005 and 2022,these exports grew by an average of 8.1 per cent annually,outpacing goods(5.6 per cent)and other services exports(4.2 per cent)(WTO,2023b).2 The ability to dig

129、itally deliver services played an important role in trade resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic.While tourism and other services requiring cross-border mobility declined,digitally delivered services exports,including IT consulting,continued to rise(see FigureB.3).Driven by digital technological ad

130、vances and changing business practices,the share of services trade that can be delivered remotely over computer networks is likely to continue to increase(UNCTAD,2015;2023c;WTO,2023b).Exports of digitally delivered services are dominated by high-income economies and a few emerging economies.In 2022,

131、high-income economies were responsible for over 82 per cent of global exports of digitally delivered services(see Figure B.4).Among these economies,the European Union holds the largest share at 37 per cent,followed by the United States at 16 per cent,and the United Kingdom at 9 per cent.Meanwhile,17

132、 per cent of digitally delivered services exports originated from middle-income economies,with China and India accounting for 6 per cent and 5 per cent,respectively.Notably,regions such as Africa,and Latin America and the Caribbean have a relatively restrained market presence in digitally delivered

133、services of 1 per cent and 2 per cent,respectively.The participation of LDCs is particularly limited,accounting for a mere 0.2 per cent of global exports of digitally delivered services,a market share that has fallen.Despite overall growth in the export of digitally delivered services,Africa and Lat

134、in America have continued to experience slower progress.Between 2015 and 2022,exports of digitally delivered services grew faster in middle-income economies(10 per cent on average per year)than in high-income economies(7 per cent).In contrast,exports of digitally delivered services in LDCs expanded

135、by 11B.UNLEASHING THE POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES:GROWTH,TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES WTO Work Programme on Electronic Commercedefnition(1998)“The production,distribution,marketing,sale or delivery of goods and services by electronic means”International transactions that are bothdigital

136、ly ordered and digitally deliveredE-commerceDefnition for measurement purposes(OECD,2009)“The sale or purchase of a good or service,conductedover computer networks by methods specificallydesigned for the purpose of receiving or placing orders”Domestic e-commerce“The domestic sale or purchaseof a goo

137、d or service,conductedover computer networks by methodsspecifically designed for the purposeof receiving or placing orders”Digitally delivered trade“All international tradetransactions that are deliveredremotely over computernetworks”Digitally ordered trade=International e-commerce“The international

138、 sale or purchaseof a good or service,conductedover computer networks by methodsspecifically designed for the purposeof receiving or placing orders”Digital TradeHandbook on Measuring Digital TradeIMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO,2023“All international trade that is digitally orderedand/or digitally delivered

139、”Figure B.1:Digital trade and e-commerce fundamental concepts and statistical definitionsSource:IMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO(2023).Box B.1Digital trade and e-commerce fundamental concepts and statistical definitionsOver the years,different concepts and definitions relating to e-commerce and digital trade

140、 have been developed in international institutions.The IMF-OECD-UNCTAD-WTO Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade clarifies the linkages between these concepts by providing a statistical definition of digital trade(IMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO,2023).This definition has gained widespread acceptance by govern

141、ments,following extensive consultations with statistical compilers and policymakers.The Handbook defines digital trade as“all international trade that is digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered”.It comprises both digitally ordered trade and digitally delivered trade through computer networks,la

142、rgely through the internet.Digitally ordered trade covers transactions in both goods and services.Ordering a T-shirt from abroad through the retailers website or booking a hotel room in another country through a digital intermediation platform are examples.Digital delivery may take place in the form

143、 of emails,voice,and video calls,via apps and intermediation platforms such as online gaming,music and video streaming,and remote learning platforms.All economic actors,such as businesses,households and governments,can engage as buyers and sellers.The definition of digital trade in the Handbook is f

144、ully compatible with the WTO definition of electronic commerce agreed under the Work Programme on Electronic Commerce,which refers to the“production,distribution,marketing,sale or purchase of goods and services by electronic means”(see Section C.2.c).In fact,from a measurement perspective,the value

145、of products traded digitally intrinsically incorporates the cost of their production,distribution,marketing or delivery.The two statistical criteria of digital ordering and digital delivery are encompassed by the WTO definition of electronic commerce.In addition to cross-border e-commerce,the WTO de

146、finition also covers the domestic e-commerce activities of foreign-owned or foreign-controlled service suppliers.Figure B.1 illustrates the relationships between the WTO definition of e-commerce and of digital trade and their components.12DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENT18%12%11%8%5%02004006008001000Un

147、ited Kingdom(2019)Spain(2021)Canada(2021)Malaysia(2019)Thailand(2021)E-commerce sales(US$billions)DomesticCross-borderCross-border share(%of exports)Figure B.2:Few economies have published statistics on the value of cross-border business e-commerce salesSource:UNCTAD(2023a).Note:The figure reports t

148、he sales by businesses only,including both Electronic Data Interchange(EDI)sale and web sales.This figure assumes that the statistics for business e-commerce exports and total exports can be treated as mutually compatible,despite being based on different data sources.only 4 per cent.Some of these LD

149、Cs,such as Uganda and Zambia,and several other economies,including Barbados and Bolivia,experienced a contraction of their exports of digitally delivered services.Overall,exports of digitally delivered services grew by an average of 6 and 8 per cent annually in Latin America and Africa,respectively,

150、while Asia experienced a higher annual growth rate of 10 per cent(see Figure B.5).Intra-Asia trade in digitally delivered services trade experienced the highest increase in recent years,accounting for 43 per cent of the regions total trade of these services in 2021,while the share of intra-regional

151、trade in digitally delivered services remained stable in South and Central America and the Caribbean.In contrast,intra-Africa trade in digitally delivered services declined to 3 per cent in 2021,representing the lowest share of intra-regional trade in these services.13B.UNLEASHING THE POTENTIAL OF D

152、IGITAL TECHNOLOGIES:GROWTH,TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022Export growth rate index(2005=100)GoodsDigitally delivered servicesOther services0300350400High-income,82.7%(-4%)Middle-income,17.1%(+24%

153、)Low-income,0.2%(-27%)Figure B.3:Global exports of digitally delivered services have grown faster than exports of goods and other servicesFigure B.4:Digitally delivered service exports are dominated by high-income economies and a small number of middle-income economiesSource:WTO(2023b).Note:The figu

154、re displays the growth rate of exports of goods,digitally delivered services and other services.The base year of the growth rates is 2005(2005=100).Source:WTO(2023b).Note:The figure displays the share of exports of digitally delivered services in 2022 by income group.The numbers in parenthesis repre

155、sent the growth rate of market share between 2015 and 2022.14DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENT3.Digital trade provides opportunities to launch new products Digital technologies have provided new opportunities to trade a broad range of services.In the last decade,computer services were the most dynamic s

156、ervices sector.In 2022,digitally delivered services exports were dominated by business,professional and technical services,which accounted for approximately 40 per cent,followed by computer services(20 per cent),financial services(16 per cent)and intellectual property-related services(12 per cent)(W

157、TO,2023b).Digital delivery is increasingly common,with impacts on goods trade,predominantly in developed economies.Demand in physical formats of music,movies,books and software,which once dominated the market,have plateaued as digital equivalents have become more accessible and convenient.4 The prol

158、iferation of online streaming platforms,e-books and downloadable software has also made it easier for consumers to access these products.These developments make it significantly easier and less costly to deliver a wide range of products across borders.As a result,international trade in digitizable g

159、oods has stagnated as digital distribution channels offer cost savings,immediate delivery and a broader reach.However,this is largely a high-income economy phenomenon as digitizable goods imports continued to grow in many middle and low-income economies(see Figure B.6)(Andrenelli and Lpez Gonzlez,20

160、23).Africa and Middle EastAsia and OceaniaEurope and CISLatin America and the CaribbeanWorld2000212022Export growth rate of digitally deliveredservices(2015=100)9000Figure B.5:The growth of digitally delivered services exports of low-and middle-income econ

161、omies differs by regionSource:WTO(2023b).Note:The figure displays the changes in exports of digitally delivered services from middle-and low-income economies by region.The base year of the export index is 2015(2015=100).High-income economies are excluded from regional groupings but included in the w

162、orld average.3 CIS corresponds to the Commonwealth of Independent States including certain associate and former member states.15B.UNLEASHING THE POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES:GROWTH,TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES High incomeUpper middle incomeLower middle incomeLow incomeLower middle income

163、Upper middle incomeHigh incomeLow incomeb.Import growth of digitizable goodsa.Evolution of imports of digitizable goodsIncome group average0204060809036920002000420052006200720082009200001920202021Imports of digi

164、tizable goods(US$billions)-50%0%50%100%150%200%Average yearly change in physical imports of digitizable goodsin 2008-19Figure B.6:International trade in goods that can be digitized has plateauedSource:Andrenelli and Lpez Gonzlez(2023).Note:The calculations are based on UN Comtrade data and cover 196

165、 economies(panel a)and on the BACI database for 206 economies(panel b).The scope of digitizable goods covers photographic material,printed matter,storage devices and video games.16DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENTTrade in goods that underpin the use of digital technologies has seen an increase too.The r

166、ising demand for innovative digital products and solutions,coupled with the growing reliance on digital infrastructure and tools,are making certain goods,such as ICT equipment,essential for achieving optimal functionality and performance in the digital economy.As a result,the demand for these goods

167、has led to an increase in their international trade.From 2012 to 2021,global ICT goods exports grew by nearly 50 per cent to US$2.7 trillion.The share of trade in ICT goods in total merchandise trade varies across regions.While Asia continues to lead in terms of trade in ICT goods,other regions have

168、 demonstrated comparatively lower levels of engagement in this sector.In particular,in LDCs and several developing regions,including Northern and Sub-Saharan Africa,the share of ICT goods in total merchandise trade remains limited due in part to differences in technological development and industria

169、l focus as well as higher tariffs.These economies further experienced a strong decline in the value of both imports and exports of ICT goods as the COVID-19 pandemic took hold(see Figure B.7)(UNCTAD,2021).While some digital technologies might reduce trade in goods,others could potentially bolster it

170、.For instance,the introduction of 3D printing tends to be associated with an increase,rather than a decrease,in international trade in goods,such as hearing aids equipment,orthopaedic appliances,aircraft parts,medication and machine parts(Andrenelli and Lpez Gonzlez,2021;Freund,Mulabdic and Ruta,202

171、2).050000202021ICT good import share in total merchandise trade(%)WorldAfricaAsia andPacificLatin America andthe CaribbeanDevelopedeconomiesDevelopingeconomiesLDCsFigure B.7:Imports of ICT goods in LDCs remain constrainedSource:UNCTAD.17B.UNLEASHING THE PO

172、TENTIAL OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES:GROWTH,TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES4.Digital trade can contribute to making trade more inclusive Digital trade can create new opportunities for economies,firms and consumers and integrate more sectors of society into global trade.The adoption of digital technol

173、ogies can help developing economies reduce barriers to market entry and provide direct access to global markets,often bypassing traditional intermediaries,such as wholesalers,retailers and traditional media publishers.These technologies also offer cost-effective platforms for micro-,small-and medium

174、-sized enterprises(MSMEs)to showcase their goods and services,enhance productivity and compete more effectively.Additionally,digital platforms can empower women entrepreneurs by offering flexible business models,enabling them to overcome socio-cultural barriers and actively participate in internatio

175、nal trade.For these opportunities to materialize,it is essential to address economic,technical and social barriers that prevent marginalized communities from engaging in digital trade and from reaping the economic benefits(see Section C).As noted above,so far LDCs and some developing economies conti

176、nue to play a marginal role in digital trade.Also,MSMEs in these developing economies are often constrained from accessing digital platforms by lack of internet connectivity,undeveloped digital infrastructure,lack of resources for the necessary internet equipment,and lack of policies that help MSMEs

177、 access digital markets(UNCTAD,2022b).(a)Digital trade can create new opportunities for developing economies,including LDCsDigital technologies have the potential to enhance e-commerce in LDCs by connecting remote economies to global markets.To enable more inclusive outcomes from digitalization,it i

178、s important to enable economies trailing behind in terms of digital readiness to catch up.By addressing challenges in transport and connectivity infrastructure,enhancing digital skills and strengthening regulatory frameworks,LDCs would become better positioned to tap into the vast network of e-comme

179、rce,expanding their market reach and increasing economic growth.For instance,a study of Bangladesh shows that the adoption of e-commerce,in particular business-to-business(B2B)e-commerce in the ready-made garments industry,presents an opportunity for the trade development of developing economies(Hoq

180、ue and Boateng,2017).Export opportunities for digitally delivered products could be better harnessed by economies traditionally at the margins of global trade.Although distance remains a significant factor in overall trade costs(Lpez Gonzlez,Sorescu and Kaynak,2023;WTO,2021),digital technologies red

181、uce the relative importance of some factors of comparative advantage,such as geographical distance from markets and the quality of transport infrastructure.Trade in digitally delivered products,such as e-books,music and computer software,can thrive with improved internet access,an enabling regulator

182、y environment and digital payment infrastructure.Several developing economies have been making significant strides in exporting digitally delivered services(World Bank and WTO,2023b).For instance,over the past few years,Bangladesh has shown promising growth in its IT sector,especially in software de

183、velopment and IT-enabled services,with computer service exports rising by an average of 31 per cent from 2019 to 2022.Certain traditional factors of comparative advantage in trade may become less significant in the digital realm.While capital investments and labour costs remain relevant for digital

184、trade,their importance(at least for certain types of skills)is somewhat diminished compared to offline trade.This is in part due to the ability of technologies,such as AI,advanced robotics and 3D printing,to take the place of some tasks,reducing the prominence of these factors(WTO,2018).Digital trad

185、e brings forth new sources of comparative advantage.New factors of comparative advantage for conducting business in the digital economy include quality digital infrastructure,research and development investment and relevant digital skills.Regulation on cross-border data flows,data privacy and securi

186、ty,competition policy,consumer protection,rules on electronic payment,and intellectual property rights are also important factors affecting digital trade(see Section C)(Anderson et al.,2018).Data are an essential input in the digital economy by enabling firms to analyse consumer preferences,forecast

187、 demand and conclude financial transactions.In that context,market size becomes an important factor when cross-border data flows are constrained,as firms in larger economies have access to more data.While digital trade remains limited in many low-and middle-income economies,some developing economies

188、 have made significant progress.Together with other factors,high trade costs have significantly hindered the participation of LDCs in trade,including digitally ordered 18DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENTand digitally delivered trade.These costs are primarily attributed to poor transport infrastructure a

189、nd inefficient border crossing procedures.5 In this context,certain African economies have been performing well in digitally delivered services(see Figure B.8).Ghana,Morocco and South Africa accounted for over half of the regions exports of digitally delivered services in 2022.The growth of these se

190、rvices exports in some economies,such as Egypt,Ghana and Madagascar,has outperformed the rest of the world for several years,driven by the Business Processing Outsourcing(BPO)and IT industries(World Bank and WTO,2023a).In a simulation using the WTO Global Trade Model,an enhanced use of digital techn

191、ologies in Africa could lead to a potential increase of over US$70 billion in digital services exports between 2023 and 2040,assuming regions with lower broadband connectivity can reduce trade costs in face-to-face intensive sectors more than regions with better broadband connectivity,where trade co

192、sts are already lower on average(World Bank and WTO,2023a).Other developing economies,such as the Philippines,have also experienced growth in call centres,finance and healthcare services.(19%)(18%)(14%)(10%)(6.3%)(5.6%)(3.7%)(2.5%)(1.8%)(1.6%)(1.5%)(1.2%)(1.1%)(1.1%)06,0005,0004,0003,0002,0001,000Gh

193、anaSouth AfricaMoroccoEgyptAlgeriaKenyaNigeriaMauritiusTunisiaSeychellesEquatorial GuineaSenegalEthiopiaMadagascarDigitally delivered services exports(US$millions)201520192022Figure B.8:Digitally delivered services in some African economies have expanded significantly in recent yearsSource:WTO estim

194、ates.Note:The numbers in parenthesis correspond to each countrys share in Africas exports of digitally delivered services.19B.UNLEASHING THE POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES:GROWTH,TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES(b)Digital trade can open up opportunities for greater participation of MSMEs,women

195、 and young people in international trade Digital technologies not only benefit large firms but can also allow newcomers,in particular MSMEs,to participate in global trade.MSMEs in developing economies have been found to account for a relatively larger share in total exports as internet access improv

196、es(Sun,2021).There are,however,important differences across regions,with MSMEs in Africa,Asia and the Middle East reporting relatively lower levels of digital platform usage compared to other regions.At the same time,businesses participating in international trade tend to report a higher rate of usi

197、ng digital platforms,especially among micro-sized firms(WTO,2023a).Data on European firms show that the disparity between small and large firms in export participation is much smaller for sales over digital networks than overall trade(WTO,2018).In addition,as firm size increases,the reliance on e-co

198、mmerce marketplaces decreases,while the use of the firms own website or app increases.Many of the services offered by online platforms have traditionally been supplied by large wholesalers and retailers,which act as export intermediaries and facilitate indirect exports for smaller firms.Access to di

199、gital marketplaces have empowered many MSMEs by reducing trade costs associated with intermediaries(Lendle et al.,2013).For example,platforms like Soko in Kenya and Etsy in the United States have enabled artisans and MSMEs to reach a global customer base with handmade crafts and unique products(WTO,

200、2018).Strong growth in small parcel shipments reflects in part the increasing participation of MSMEs in e-commerce.While the number of cross-border online business-to-consumer(B2C)transactions is increasing,their average value is decreasing,generating more frequent international flows of lighter and

201、 cheaper parcels(Lpez Gonzlez and Sorescu,2021).For instance,in 2017,84 per cent of cross-border goods purchased online weighed 2 kilos or less,and almost 60 per cent of them cost less than EUR 50(IPC,2018).The rise of e-commerce platforms has enabled MSMEs to sell their goods globally,contributing

202、to the uptick in small parcel shipments.Direct-to-consumer sales through e-commerce also mean MSMEs are shipping individual items more often than bulk deliveries to retailers.Some MSMEs use the drop-shipping model,where they do not keep goods in stock but rather purchase them from a third party once

203、 they have an order,which inherently involves frequent small parcel deliveries.Similarly,a just-in-time production approach,which some MSMEs may have adopted to produce goods based on demand,leads to more frequent but smaller shipments.The surge in small parcels fuelled by digital trade raises logis

204、tics challenges for customs administrations in both developed and developing economies(see Section C.2.e)(WTO,2018).Digital trade can offer new opportunities for women and young people to access international markets.Digital trade can provide women with increased access to global markets and flexibl

205、e work opportunities,often removing traditional barriers of entry,including time and mobility constraints.By embracing e-commerce and online business platforms,women can achieve greater financial independence and economic empowerment(World Bank and WTO,2020).According to the World Banks Global Finde

206、x Database,in 2021,men and women across income groups showed relatively minor differences in using mobile phones or the internet for online purchases,with a gap more pronounced in lower-middle income economies where the shares were 12 per cent for men and 9 per cent for women.Women tend to be relati

207、vely more present in online marketplaces than offline,although the COVID-19 pandemic partially disrupted this trend.Despite specific statistics regarding women-owned business participation in digital platforms varying depending on the platform,region and context,there are examples showing that women

208、 are relatively more present online than offline.More than half of Shopifys global entrepreneurs are women(Jungle Scout,2023;Shopify,2023).Similarly,more than 80 per cent of Etsy sellers are female and twice as likely to be young adults(Etsy,2022).In 2019,97 per cent of US women-owned eBay businesse

209、s exported to an average of 16 economies,outpacing traditional businesses not using online tools(eBay,2021).In Upwork,an online marketplace through which freelancers provide services,44 per cent of the workers are women,compared to an average of 25 per cent of the non-agricultural economy globally(W

210、orld Bank,2016).In recent years,womens participation in digital trade has been hampered by the COVID-19 pandemic.In the Philippines,while the share of women-owned businesses on the Lazada e-commerce platform increased from 60 to 66 per cent during the pandemic,their overall sales declined by 27 per

211、cent.Meanwhile,in Cte dIvoire,Kenya and Nigeria,the pandemic caused,on average,a 7 per cent drop in sales for women-owned businesses on the Jumia e-commerce platform,whereas men-owned businesses experienced a 7 per cent sales increase(IFC,2021).20DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENTSocial media can enable

212、individuals,including young people and women,and MSMEs to connect with wider audiences and collaborate globally.Online education platforms provide individuals with opportunities to learn and acquire skills from any location.Instant digital translation technology also provides a solution for overcomi

213、ng language barriers and communication issues.Social media can help empower women and young entrepreneurs by providing platforms for visibility,networking and business growth(Miniesy,Elshahawy and Fakhreldin,2022).Technology-enabled crowdfunding platforms can further offer women and young people an

214、alternative means to address their financial constraints by providing a finance mechanism that bypasses the traditional barriers often faced when seeking to access capital.As discussed in Section C,small firms,women and young people need to be able to access and productively use the internet.Digital

215、 skills are essential in this context to adapt to the changing requirements of labour markets.Endnotes1.Artificial intelligence refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines(e.g.,machine learning and deep learning).3D printing,also known as additive manufacturing,refers to the process o

216、f making three-dimensional solid objects from digital files.Cloud computing is the on-demand online availability of computing resources,such as infrastructure platforms and software.Blockchain refers to a shared,immutable ledger that facilitates the process of recording transactions and tracking ass

217、ets in a network.2.These estimates are based on the assumption that what was digitally deliverable in 2015 was also digitally deliverable in 2005.3.The following high-income economies,based on the World Bank classification,have been excluded from the geographical groupings:Anguilla;Antigua and Barbu

218、da;Aruba;Australia;Austria;Bahamas;Kingdom of Bahrain;Barbados;Belgium;Bermuda;Brunei Darussalam;Canada;Cayman Islands;Chile;Croatia;Curaao;Cyprus;Czech Republic;Denmark;Estonia;Finland;France;French Polynesia;Germany;Greece;Guyana;Hong Kong,China;Hungary;Iceland;Ireland;Israel;Italy;Japan;Republic

219、of Korea;,State of Kuwait;Latvia;Lithuania;Luxembourg;Macao,China;Malta;Nauru;Netherlands;Netherlands Antilles;New Caledonia;New Zealand;Norway;Oman;Panama;Poland;Portugal;Qatar;Romania;Saint Kitts and Nevis;Kingdom of Saudi Arabia;Seychelles;Singapore;Sint Maarten;Slovak Republic;Slovenia;Spain;Swe

220、den;Switzerland;Chinese Taipei;Trinidad and Tobago;United Arab Emirates;United Kingdom;United States and Uruguay.4.Despite the increased availability of e-books,their usage continues to significantly trail behind that of printed books worldwide(Richter,2022).5.For instance,a doubling of the distance

221、 between buyers and sellers in Ethiopia and Nigeria has been found to result in transportation costs that are four to five times higher than in the United States(Atkin and Donaldson,2015).21Governments around the world are increasingly recognizing the potential of digital trade to contribute to econ

222、omic growth and enhance global competitiveness.A growing number of economies are adopting domestic policies aimed at fostering a conducive environment that allows businesses and consumers to leverage digital technologies and platforms for cross-border digital transactions.At the same time,they are g

223、rappling with the complexities of regulating the rapidly evolving landscape of digital trade.Despite the new opportunities presented by digital trade,many developing economies still face significant barriers hindering their ability to fully engage in it.Some of the most common and critical barriers

224、faced by these economies,especially LDCs,include inadequate digital infrastructure,limited digital skills,a deficient regulatory environment and an inefficient payment system(UNCTAD,2023e).Financing problems,including increasing external debt burdens and inadequate budgets for public investments,hav

225、e exacerbated some of these barriers.Addressing the barriers that hinder the participation of developing economies in digital trade can contribute to development.Improving the ability of developing economies,in particular LDCs,to engage in digital trade is necessary to help them increase their globa

226、l trade share,as envisaged in Target 17.11 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development(UNCTAD,2022f).Promoting digital trade requires improving connectivity,ICT infrastructure and digital skills,establishing a predictable and transparent legal and regulatory environment,and addressing the risks a

227、ssociated with digitalization,including cybercrime,consumer protection,privacy and upheaval in the labour market.International cooperation plays an important role in supporting developing economies in participating in digital trade.While domestic policies are essential to address digital trade barri

228、ers and challenges,international cooperation can yield benefits by maximizing positive cross-border spillovers and minimizing negative ones through the exchange of knowledge,expertise and resources.Given its cross-cutting nature,the development of digital trade spans multiple policy areas,including

229、ICT infrastructure and services,digital skills development,the legal and regulatory frameworks,trade facilitation and logistics,payment solutions,and access to financing.Greater international cooperation could further create synergies to promote digital trade and address the challenges that LDCs and

230、 other developing economies face with regard to digital trade.Role of domestic policiesand international cooperationin supporting digital tradeC22DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENT1.Improving digital connectivity,ICT infrastructure and digital skills is essential to promote digital trade The growth of di

231、gital trade relies on reliable and affordable internet access and relevant digital skills.To engage in and reap the benefits of digital trade requires access to fast and reliable internet infrastructure and affordable electronic devices,connectivity subscriptions and electricity infrastructure(to po

232、wer digital devices).According to IMF staff estimates,US$418 billion in(public and private)investment is necessary to bring connectivity to unconnected households globally(Oughton,Amaglobeli and Moszoro,2023).Governments can facilitate this by intervening both on the supply side(investing in infrast

233、ructure)and on the demand side(increase internet affordability)(Amaglobeli et al.,2023).Moving low-income developing and emerging market economies to the levels of digital adoption in emerging and advanced economies,respectively,would require annual expenditures of 1.8 and 0.05 per cent of GDP(Kumar

234、,Amaglobeli and Moszoro,2023).Widespread digital literacy and proficiency in using digital devices are also essential to bridge the digital divide(i.e.the gap between those who use the internet and those who do not).Equally important is promoting awareness of the opportunities presented by digital t

235、rade.International cooperation plays an important role in addressing the digital divide and facilitating equal access to digital trade opportunities.(a)Investment in infrastructure along with policies to ensure reliable and affordable internet access is keyModern and reliable digital connectivity an

236、d ICT infrastructure,such as fibre-optic networks and advanced wireless mobile telecommunication technologies,have become essential to expand digital trade.These networks,including international submarine cables,enable extremely fast and reliable transmission of information with minimal data loss,al

237、lowing users to share large amounts of data in real time.However,these technologies are not universally accessible,and communication networks lack the necessary bandwidth for full engagement in the global digital economy,as data-intensive services,such as AI,the internet-of-things(i.e.devices that c

238、onnect and exchange data with other devices)and big data analytics,continue to expand.Limited access to digital connectivity remains a significant hurdle for expanding digital trade in developing economies.Despite progress in digital network expansion,approximatively 2.6 billion people,or one-third

239、of the global population,do not have access to the internet,with the majority residing in low-and lower-middle income economies(see Figure C.1).This poses a significant challenge to achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goal of“universal and meaningful connectivity”by 2030.Rural areas worldwide h

240、ave particularly low digital connectivity rates,with less than half of the rural population having access to the internet compared to over 80 per cent in urban areas.Although access to the internet is gradually increasing,the high cost of internet services continues to hinder internet use,and thereb

241、y digital trade,in many developing economies.Access to the internet does not automatically translate into greater internet use.While 67 per cent of the world population uses the internet,the share in LDCs stands at 35 per cent.Similarly,international bandwidth usage per internet user is six times lo

242、wer in LDCs compared to the global average(ITU,2022b,2023).The price of 1.5 gigabytes(GB)of mobile broadband often exceeds 5 per cent of the monthly Gross National Income(GNI)per capita in many developing economies and,in some cases,even surpasses 20 per cent,resulting in internet use being unafford

243、able for low-income households and financially constrained firms(see Figure C.2).Internet access remains expensive in many developing economies due to a combination of limited infrastructure,regulatory barriers and lack of competition in the telecommunications sector(OECD,2020a).Investment plays a p

244、ivotal role in expanding and enhancing digital infrastructure,ensuring widespread and reliable digital connectivity.Investment and trade policies with clear,consistent and straightforward rules can attract domestic and foreign capital flows into crucial digital projects,from broadband networks to da

245、ta centres.Well-structured investment and trade policies can also foster competition,leading to innovation and cost reductions that make digital services more affordable for end-users.Policies can further target underserved areas,promoting more equitable access and bridging digital divides.Developin

246、g economies,in particular LDCs,however,often face budgetary constraints and competing priorities,which can limit the 23C.ROLE OF DOMESTIC POLICIES AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SUPPORTING DIGITAL TRADE007080902009200023Individuals using the internet(per

247、 100 people)World Low-income Lower-middle-income Upper-middle-income High-incomeDeveloped economiesDeveloping economies(non-LDCs)LDCs4852376248201240-2%2-5%5-10%10-20%20%Number of economiesBasket price as a percentage ofGNI per capita 444223820452420210-2%2-5%5-10%10-20%20%Numb

248、er of economiesBasket price as a percentage ofGNI per capita Data-only mobile broadbandFixed broadbandFigure C.1:The digital divide remains high Figure C.2:Digital connectivity remains very expensive in many developing economies Source:ITUs World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators Database.Source:ITU(

249、2021a).Note:The figure shows the number of economies with digital connectivity,broken down by the price of the broadband basket as a percentage of GNI per capita in 2021.24DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENTallocation of funds to digital infrastructure projects.In that context,foreign investment policy,wh

250、ile applicable to all economic sectors,is particularly relevant for creating an enabling environment for such investments(OECD and WTO,2017).Comprehensive,supportive policies,beyond investment in digital connectivity,are essential to foster the use of digital networks.Introducing competition in mono

251、polized segments of the telecommunications market can also promote digital connectivity.This often requires adding domestic policies on anti-competitive practices,interconnection rules,universal service obligations and the structure and functions of an independent regulator.1 Incentives to enable op

252、erators to provide digital services at reduced costs to end-users and in previously unviable areas can also contribute to improving the affordability of digital connectivity(Begazo,Blimpo and Dutz,2023).For instance,regulators can require telecom operators to serve rural areas as a condition for obt

253、aining a licence in lucrative urban areas,ensuring broader access to affordable digital networks.Universal service funds,sourced from telecom revenues,can also be used to finance digital connectivity in commercially challenging areas or for specific groups.Policies on technology innovation can furth

254、er encourage research and development in digital technologies,ensuring businesses remain competitive and at the forefront of emerging technologies.Trade policy can promote affordable digital connectivity worldwide by reducing trade barriers and fostering competition in the telecommunication services

255、 sector.International trade enables economies to access advanced communication equipment,infrastructure components and cutting-edge technologies that they may not produce domestically,accelerating the development and deployment of digital networks,broadband services and other connectivity tools.High

256、 tariffs on imports of ICT equipment needed to build,maintain and access networks contribute to the digital divide.For example,tariffs on the products covered by the expanded Information Technology Agreement are,on average,9.6 per cent for low-income economies compared to 4.5 and 2.1 per cent for up

257、per-middle-and high-income economies.2 Lowering trade barriers in the telecommunication services sectors can foster competition and improve access to higher-quality digital services at lower prices for both consumers and firms.It is important that market opening is accompanied by regulation to ensur

258、e competition and universal service;however this may pose challenges for low-income economies.(b)Policies to support the development of digital skills of consumers and firms are crucial to facilitate digital tradeAchieving a high level of internet usage does not guarantee a robust engagement of cons

259、umers and firms in digital trade.Digital trade remains limited in many developing economies,including those with a high level of internet use.For instance,ITU statistics show that while about 80 per cent of individuals in certain developing economies use the internet,only a fraction of them,ranging

260、from 4 to 14 per cent,actually engage in online shopping.While various factors contribute to a low participation in digital trade,the lack of digital skills is an important barrier that prevents consumers and firms from making the best use of opportunities in digital trade(UNCTAD,2023d).Developing d

261、igital skills and integrating training into all education levels are essential to support participation in digital trade.Digital skills are multifaceted and range from basic skills,including digital literacy skills required to be able to go online,make informed choices and perform digital transactio

262、ns,to specialist skills required for researching,developing,producing and servicing ICT software and systems,such as applications and websites.In addition,digital entrepreneurship skills are needed to develop new business models and drive innovation in products,markets and processes(World Bank,2019b

263、).Integrating ICT training into all education levels,collaborating with industries on curricula development and promoting problem-solving skills can help prepare young people for the workplace and enable adults to integrate digital technologies into their work(UNCTAD,2022f).Addressing the digital sk

264、ills divide is crucial to make digital trade more inclusive.The lack of digital skills is greater among vulnerable groups,such as the elderly,the economically disadvantaged,those with disabilities,rural inhabitants and certain ethnic or minority groups.Integrating ICT training throughout education,c

265、ollaborating with industry and fostering skills like problem-solving are vital(UNCTAD,2022f).MSMEs,especially in developing economies,tend also to face greater challenges to engage in digital trade compared to large companies(UNCTAD,2022c).The Future of Business survey,carried out through Metas“Data

266、 for Good”initiative in collaboration with the World Bank and the OECD reveals that some of the main obstacles identified by MSMEs include acquiring relevant technical skills and knowledge and paying fees for accessing digital platforms(WTO,2023a).Providing customized digital skills training can pla

267、y a significant role in assisting MSMEs in navigating and benefiting from digital trade.25Digital skills have become essential for workers to navigate the evolving demands of the labour market.The integration of digital technologies in production processes can render some jobs obsolete,threatening j

268、ob security for certain roles(UNCTAD,2017b).Labour market policies can support workers in adapting to technological advances and mitigate potential loss of jobs by providing retraining programmes to upskill workers for digital jobs,promoting lifelong learning,addressing time and financial constraint

269、s to training participation,tackling unequal access to digital technologies based on employment status,and encouraging firms to train groups at risk of losing their jobs(OECD,2019b).Employment protection and compensation schemes can also help to alleviate labour market disruptions arising from digit

270、alization.Reducing the costs incurred by workers who are obliged to change jobs can also lower public resistance to digital technological change(WTO,2017).(c)International cooperation can help bridge the digital gap by enhancing digital connectivity and skillsFinancing digital connectivity is crucia

271、l to broaden its reach,enhance its stability and make it more affordable for all users.The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development emphasizes the importance of digital inclusion by aiming for universal and affordable internet access for everyone.By pooling resources and expertise acro

272、ss borders,economies can jointly fund large-scale telecommunication infrastructure projects,such as undersea fibre optic cables or satellite networks,which individual economies might find challenging to finance on their own.Collaborative financial efforts,facilitated by international organizations,d

273、evelopment banks or direct donor funding,can contribute to extending digital connectivity to underserved or unserved regions,thereby bridging the digital divide and promoting global digital inclusion.Digital connectivity is addressed in international trade cooperation.The WTOs Information Technology

274、 Agreement(ITA)and its subsequent expansion contributes to digital connectivity by eliminating tariffs on IT products covered by the agreements.Many of these products are critical components of the electronic commerce physical infrastructure.In parallel,a limited but increasing number of regional tr

275、ade agreements(RTAs),namely 64 agreements,include cooperation provisions to promote ICT infrastructure development and diffusion and to address technical regulations,standards and conformity assessment procedures related to ICT equipment(Monteiro,2021;Monteiro,Posada and Tuthill,2021).Aid for Trade

276、contributes to bolstering digital connectivity by fostering physical and digital infrastructure.The Aid for Trade initiative,a WTO-led multi-stakeholder programme launched in 2005,supports developing economies,in particular LDCs,in building the necessary economic infrastructure and productive capaci

277、ty to benefit from global trade opportunities.Although current Aid for Trade metrics do not provide a precise assessment of its support for digital connectivity,the analysis of ICT-related flows suggests a growing focus on digitalization(OECD and WTO,2022).ICT-related commitments increased from US$1

278、.5 billion in 2019 to US$2.2 billion in 2021,representing 4.1 per cent of total Aid for Trade commitments(UNCTAD,2023b).Improving foreign investment policies and trade-related service sector policies are key for attracting the private investment needed to develop digital connectivity.Private investm

279、ent in public telecommunication infrastructure,including land-based and submarine cables,far surpasses official development assistance(OECD and WTO,2017).Creating an open and enabling regulatory environment to promote greater competition in the ICT sector can help to stimulate private investment in

280、digital infrastructure and increase ICT access and use.Telecommunications services are covered by the WTOs General Agreement on Trade in Services(GATS)and its Annex on Telecommunications.3 A majority of WTO members have made legally binding market-opening commitments on telecommunications services u

281、nder the GATS,and most of them have also inscribed in their schedules of commitments the pro-competitive regulatory principles for the sector contained in the Reference Paper on Basic Telecommunications.Alongside these commitments negotiated in the WTO,an increasing number of economies,including man

282、y developing economies but only a handful of LDCs,have negotiated specific provisions on telecommunications services in their RTAs.While some of these provisions replicate existing WTO rules,many other provisions add clarifications or expand some of the disciplines set out in the GATS(Monteiro,Posad

283、a and Tuthill,2021).International cooperation is intensifying efforts to foster investment in digital skills and bridge knowledge gaps.Several international organizations have developed programmes to help developing economies build the skills needed for consumers and businesses to maximize the benef

284、its of digital trade.These organizations include the International Labour Organization(ILO),the International Trade Centre(ITC),the International Telecommunication Union(ITU),the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law(UNCITRAL),UNCTAD,the Universal Postal Union(UPU)and the World Bank a

285、s well as UN regional commissions.For instance,UNCTADs eTrade For All initiative,launched in 2016,is a C.ROLE OF DOMESTIC POLICIES AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SUPPORTING DIGITAL TRADE26DIGITAL TRADE FOR DEVELOPMENTcollaborative effort among 35 members(including the World Bank and the WTO)to enh

286、ance transparency in capacity-building for“eTrade Readiness Assessment”.It serves as a central platform for developing economies to identify potential sources of assistance and connect with potential partners in various areas,including infrastructural support and skills-building(UNCTAD,2022d).2.An e

287、nabling legal and regulatory environment coupled with proactive trade policies are essential components of the ecosystem for digital trade(a)A robust domestic regulatory framework is crucial for fostering digital tradeA well-designed and effective domestic regulatory framework provides a stable and

288、secure environment for digital trade,fostering trust and confidence among businesses and consumers.The domestic regulatory framework sets the rules that govern various aspects of digital trade,including electronic authentication and signature,consumer protection,privacy,intellectual property,electro

289、nic payments,and cybersecurity(Nemoto and Lpez Gonzlez,2021).The domestic regulatory framework for digital trade remains highly dynamic,adapting rapidly to technological advances and changing market conditions.For instance,ensuring new digital technologies,such as automated or AI-based decisions,ope

290、rate fairly,without bias,and uphold human values is crucial.Domestic policies and regulatory frameworks are also increasingly addressing other key issues,such as cross-border data flows,competition in the digital environment and online consumer protection,as discussed below.Addressing the regulatory

291、 issues associated with digital trade remains,however,a challenge for many developing economies,in particular LDCs.The digital trade legislation in many developing economies still lags behind(UNCTAD,2018).An open regulatory environment magnifies the benefits of digital connectivity for international

292、 trade,in particular digitally delivered services.Estimates from the WTOs Trade Cost Index suggest that improving mobile broadband connectivity to levels seen in economies like Austria,Indonesia,South Africa or Uruguay could reduce average trade costs by 4 per cent in high-income economies and by 10

293、 per cent in low-income economies.4 They also suggest that the reduction in trade costs generated by improved digital connectivity more than doubles in middle-and low-income economies with an enabling regulatory environment for digitally delivered services.The trade cost-reducing impact of digital c

294、onnectivity is even stronger for digitally delivered services(Bellucci,Rubnov and Piermartini,2023).The domestic regulatory environment that supports digital trade is becoming more restrictive in many cases.Evidence from the OECDs Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index(DSTRI)suggests that dome

295、stic regulation affecting digital trade has become increasingly tight,especially on issues relevant to bridge the digital divide,such as infrastructure and connectivity,including restrictions on data flows and data localisation measures,as discussed below(see Figure C.3).The DSTRI ranges between zer

296、o and one,one being the most restrictive.Restrictiveness is assessed against a benchmark across different areas in the DSTRI.In some areas,this means that the lack of regulation is considered to be restrictive.The 2022 DSTRI database also reveals significant regional variations.The average level of

297、restrictiveness is lower in OECD economies,and the Americas have lower average levels of restrictiveness compared to African and Asian economies.However,the DSTRI also highlights notable progress in Africa in lowering barriers to digital trade.As discussed below,eliminating relevant barriers enhance

298、s digital trade,facilitates the integration of new digital technologies across the world,and promotes a more inclusive participation in digital trade.(b)While digital trade is increasingly being disciplined in bilateral and regional trade agreements,the participation of developing economies in such

299、agreements remains limitedInternational cooperation on digital trade-related disciplines has primarily occurred within the framework of RTAs.The number of RTAs with digital trade provisions has been growing since the early 2000s(Monteiro and Teh,2017).By the end of 2022,116 RTAs incorporated provisi

300、ons related to digital trade,representing 33 per cent of all existing RTAs(Lpez Gonzlez,Sorescu and Kaynak,2023)(see Figure C.4).5 Beyond the increasing number of RTAs with 27digital trade provisions,the number of these provisions and the level of detail they contain have also increased significantl

301、y over the years.Most detailed provisions on digital trade are found in dedicated chapters on digital trade,which are included in 74 RTAs.Although the number of RTAs with digital trade provisions continues to increase,the choice to include detailed provisions on digital trade tends to remain limited

302、 to RTAs negotiated by high-income and some middle-,mostly upper middle-,income economies.Only a few LDCs have negotiated an RTA with digital trade provisions.Besides developing new regulatory disciplines or updating and clarifying existing ones,most RTAs also provide greater market access through d

303、eeper services commitments and lower tariffs in relevant sectors.Alongside RTAs,some economies are also expanding their cooperation on digital trade by entering into so-called digital economy agreements(DEAs)(see Box C.1).Digital trade provisions in RTAs cover a wide array of digital trade issues.Wh

304、ile digital trade provisions in RTAs vary greatly in terms of language,many of them tend to address similar issues(Monteiro and Teh,2017;WTO,2018).The most common digital trade provisions in RTAs address privacy and data protection,consumer protection,unsolicited commercial electronic messages,elect

305、ronic authentication,paperless trading,cross-border data flow and cybersecurity.An increasing number of RTAs,100 as of June 2022,replicate the WTO commitment to refrain from imposing customs duties on electronic transmission(the so-called“e-commerce moratorium”)(see Box C.2 and Section C.2.d).Other

306、issues,such as source code,non-discrimination treatment of digital products,and data localization(i.e.the practice of storing and processing data within a specific geographic location)are addressed in a more limited number of agreements(see Figure C.5).b.Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index

307、by policy area(2021)a.Evolution of Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index0.10.150.20.25DSTRIAfricaAsia-PacificLatin America and CaribbeanOECDAverage DSTRIBarriers to infrastructureand connectivity(incl.data flows)64%Other digital trade barriers15%Electronic transactions14%Barriers related to I

308、P rights3%Payment systems4%Figure C.3:Digital trade barriers,in particular regarding infrastructure and connectivity,are intensifying Source:OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index,2022.Note:The DSTRI ranges between zero and one,one being the most restrictive.Panel(a)displays the evolution

309、 of the DSTRI.The average DSTRI corresponds to the simple average DSTRI for the 100 economies covered,including 22 African economies,21 Asian economies,38 OECD members and 13 South American economies.C.ROLE OF DOMESTIC POLICIES AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SUPPORTING DIGITAL TRADE28DIGITAL TRADE

310、 FOR DEVELOPMENTFigure C.4:A growing number of RTAs have digital trade provisions 20002000420052006200720082009200000220%1%3%5%9%13%16%18%18%21%23%24%26%28%30%32%33%34%34%35%36%33%33%0500300350Number of RTAsShare of RTA digital trade

311、provisionsAll RTAsRTAs with digital trade provisionsRTAs with digital trade chaptersSource:Lpez-Gonzalez,Sorescu and Kaynak(2023).Note:The analysis only considers agreements notified to the WTO and currently in force.RTAs with digital trade provisions are defined as agreements with at least one e-co

312、mmerce/digital trade provision.Digital provisions are identified from the Trade Agreements Provisions on Electronic-commerce and Data(TAPED)database(accessed August 2022)(Burri,Vasquez Callo-Mller and Kugler,2022).(c)WTO rules already cover digital trade,but some of these rules may need to be update

313、d to adequately address the evolving nature of digital trade.Digital trade falls within the scope of existing WTO agreements.As mandated by the 1998 WTO Work Programme on Electronic Commerce,most discussions on how WTO rules apply to e-commerce,defined as“the production,distribution,marketing,sale o

314、r delivery of goods and services by electronic means”for the purposes of the Work Programme,have concluded that existing WTO agreements cover e-commerce,even without specific references to it(WTO,2017).6 While the applicability of the WTO agreements to digital trade is widely accepted,7 there is sti

315、ll uncertainty regarding whether digitized products are goods or services,and therefore whether the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT)or the GATS applies.The GATS covers digital trade in services.The GATS makes no distinctions regarding different technological means through which a service

316、 may be supplied,including electronic means.Measures affecting trade in services through electronic means are generally recognised as subject to GATS obligations and commitments.8 Obligations such as most-favoured-nation(MFN)treatment9 and transparency apply to all services covered by the Agreement

317、whether or not liberalisation commitments have been undertaken.Market access and national treatment disciplines,instead,apply only in sectors where a member has scheduled a specific commitment,and only to the extent of the liberalisation undertaken.10 As a result,the most advantageous and stable con

318、ditions for digital trade in services are achieved when commitments exist and when those are as open as possible.The predictability of conditions for digital trade in services might,however,be limited by the fact that many GATS commitments relevant for digital trade are nearly 30 years old and do no

319、t necessarily reflect the actual services market conditions(WTO,2019).Trade in digitally ordered goods is subject to the existing WTO rules on trade in goods.The GATT and various other relevant WTO agreements11 do not distinguish between the manner in which goods are traded and apply to goods purcha

320、sed online and delivered physically.12 Trade in digitally ordered goods is therefore subject to the principles of non-discrimination(MFN and national treatment)and transparency,among other things.In addition,several WTO agreements are particularly relevant to trade in digitally ordered goods,includi

321、ng the Customs Valuation Agreement and the Trade Facilitation Agreement(TFA)(see Section C.2.e).29Figure C.5:A wide range of digital trade issues are covered in trade agreements787872726650464235221915754Privacy(data protection)Consumer protectionUnsolicited commercial electronic messages

322、No customs duties on electronic transmissionsE-authentication and e-signaturesPrivacy(ref.to international standards)Paperless tradingCross-border transfer of information/data flowE-transaction framework(avoid unnecessary barriers)CybersecurityE-transaction/tech neutralityAccess to the internetSourc

323、e codeNational or MFN treatment(digital products)E-transaction frameworks(ref.to UNCITRAL MLEC)Location of computing facilitiesE-transaction framework(ref.to UNECC)Open government dataCryptographyInteractive computer servicesNumber of economiesSource:Nemoto and Lpez-Gonzlez(2021).Note:The figure ide

324、ntifies the number of economies having negotiated specific types of digital trade provisions in their RTAs.Digital provisions are identified from the Trade Agreements Provisions on Electronic-commerce and Data(TAPED)database(accessed June 2020)(Burri,Vasquez Callo-Mller and Kugler,2022).UNCITRAL MLE

325、C refers to the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law Model Law on Electronic Commerce.UNECC refers to the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts.C.ROLE OF DOMESTIC POLICIES AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SUPPORTING DIGITAL TRADE

326、The WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights(TRIPS)covers trade in intangible digital products.The ownership and transfer of use-rights to digital products like music,software and films largely determine the commercial transaction,making the underlying IP licence crucia

327、l in defining the nature of the digital transaction.While the TRIPS Agreement does not expressly address digital trade,it is essentially technology-neutral and extends to products traded online and online commercial activity more generally.TRIPS disciplines on the non-discriminatory availability of

328、IP rights,such as undisclosed information,copyright(including for software),patents and trademarks,balanced enforcement mechanisms,and the scope for competition safeguards,are particularly relevant to digital trade.13 A majority of WTO members consider that the existing WTO rules on digital trade ne

329、ed to be updated and complemented to respond to the changing nature of trade and to facilitate digital trade.Under the so-called Joint Statement Initiative(JSI)on E-Commerce14,90 WTO members,including many developing economies and a few LDCs,as of October 2023,are negotiating rules on trade-related

330、aspects of e-commerce.15 Significant progress has been made on several sets of disciplines,including electronic signature,online consumer protection and paperless trade.Technical discussions continue on several other issues,such as customs duties on electronic transmissions.The need for special and

331、differential treatment for developing and LDC members is also being considered.Negotiators have also started to address data-related issues as well as questions about the legal status of these talks.The negotiations of the E-Commerce JSI are expected to conclude by the end of 2023.New international

332、trade cooperation initiatives have been launched to support the participation of developing economies,in particular LDCs,in digital trade negotiations.The“E-commerce Capacity Building Framework”launched by Australia,Japan,Singapore and Switzerland in early 2023 aims to bolster the participation of d

333、eveloping and LDC members in the E-Commerce JSI and help them tap into digital trade opportunities by bringing together a wide range of technical assistance,training and capacity building efforts.One of these capacity-building initiatives is the Digital Advisory and Trade Assistance Fund(DATA Fund),a pilot programme hosted by the World Bank,aimed at fostering trust in digital markets,streamlining