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1、Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeS E CO N D E D ITI O N 2023.The International Monetary Fund,the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,the United Nations and the World Trade Organization.WTO Print ISBN:978-92-870-7360-0DISCLAIMERPrepared by the staff of the International Monetary
2、Fund(IMF),the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD),the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD)and the World Trade Organization(WTO).For the IMF,the views expressed here are those of the authors and should not be construed as the views of the IMF,its Executi
3、ve Board,member governments,or any other entity mentioned herein.For the OECD,this work is prepared under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD,and the opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Member countries of the OECD
4、.For the United Nations,the findings,interpretations,and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author(s)and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States.For the WTO,this work is published under the responsibility of the WTO Secretariat.The opin
5、ions expressed and arguments employed herein are not intended to provide any authoritative or legal interpretation of the provisions of the WTO Agreements and shall in no way be read or understood to have any legal implications whatsoever.This document,as well as any data and any map included herein
6、,are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.The names of countries and territories used in this joint publication follow the practice of the WTO.The IMF,OECD,Unit
7、ed Nations and WTO do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accept no liability for any consequence of the use of these data.ContentsAcknowledgements 3Foreword 4Executive summary 51.Introduction 91.1 Introduction 101.2 The impact of digitalization on international t
8、rade is multifaceted 101.3 The statistical definition of digital trade 111.4 Measuring digital trade is key for effective policymaking 131.5 Purpose and structure of the Handbook 171.6 Areas of ongoing work 171.7 Putting the Handbook into practice 192.The conceptual framework for measuring digital t
9、rade 212.1 Measuring digital trade:the statistical framework 222.2 The nature of the transaction(How)222.3 The product(What)272.4 Actors(Who)282.5 Non-monetary digital flows 292.6 Accounting principles 292.7 Recommended reporting template 302.8 Work on updating national accounts and balance of payme
10、nts standards 303.Digitally ordered trade 333.1 Identifying digitally ordered transactions 343.2 Measuring digitally ordered trade 353.3 Estimating the overlap between digitally ordered and digitally delivered trade 593.4 Recommendations 604.Digitally delivered trade 654.1 Introduction 664.2 Sources
11、 for measuring digitally delivered trade 664.3 Digitally deliverable services 684.4 Towards measures of digitally delivered services 714.5 Other sources 824.6 Recommendations 86 Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade15.Digital intermediation platforms(DIPs)915.1 The role of digital intermediation platf
12、orms in digital trade 925.2 Classifying DIPs and intermediation services 925.3 Accounting principles for DIP transactions 935.4 Measuring DIP transactions 975.5.Recommendations 1056.Case studies 109Case study 1:Measuring digitally ordered merchandise trade in China 110Case study 2:Towards a better m
13、easurement of digitally delivered trade:Chinas experience and prospects 116Case study 3:Digital trade in Jamaica:exploring new measurement approaches 120Case study 4:Measuring digital trade in Spain:a stock-taking exercise 126Case study 5:Measuring digitally ordered merchandise trade in Trkiye 136An
14、nexes 139Annex A:Measuring the digital economy 140Annex B:Accounting for digital trade transactions 144Annex C:Expanded table on digitally deliverable services in EBOPS 2010 151Annex D:Table of allocation by mode of supply of digitally deliverable service 153Annex E:Questionnaire General Administrat
15、ion of China Customs(“China Customs”)155Annex F:Questionnaire Chinas Ministry of Commerce(MOFCOM)157Annex G:Questionnaire Tax Administration Jamaica(TAJ)and Bank of Jamaica 160Annex H:Questionnaire Instituto Nacional de Estadstica(National Statistics Institute)162Bibliography 165Acronyms and abbrevi
16、ations 173Contents-cont.Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade2This second edition of the Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade is the outcome of a collaborative effort by the International Monetary Fund(IMF),the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD),the United Nations Conference o
17、n Trade and Development(UNCTAD)and the World Trade Organization(WTO),and it has greatly benefitted from the contribution of many experts along the way.The authors of the Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade are Patrick Quill(IMF),Antonella Liberatore,David Brackfield and Julia Schmidt(OECD),Daniel Ke
18、r(UNCTAD),and Barbara DAndrea Adrian,Joscelyn Magdeleine and Ying Yan(WTO).The work was completed under the management of Carlos Snchez Muoz,Maria Borga and Kristy Howell(IMF),Annabelle Mourougane(OECD),Torbjrn Fredriksson(UNCTAD)and Barbara DAndrea Adrian(WTO).Special thanks go to the following peo
19、ple for providing the detailed case studies:Xiaoyuan Zhai,Qian Li,Zheng Fang and Weiguo Qi(General Administration of China Customs);Xuyang Wang,Yanhui Jing and Yizhen Xie(Chinas Ministry of Commerce(MOFCOM);Esmond McLean(Bank of Jamaica);Hank Williams and Diedre Campbell(Tax Administration Jamaica(T
20、AJ);Jos Antonio Isanta Foncuberta(National Statistics Institute of Spain(INE);and aglayan Aslan(Trkiye Ministry of Trade);Aylin Kolbas,Eyp Mehmet Dn and Esengl Tanrikulu(Turkish Statistical Institute(TurkStat).Additional special thanks are due to Jennifer Bruner and Alexis Grimm(United States Bureau
21、 of Economic Analysis(BEA),and John Mitchell(OECD)for their detailed and insightful input throughout the revision process of the Handbook.Important contributions were received from Silvia Matei(IMF);Andrea Andrenelli,Piet Battiau,David Bradbury,Antonio Capobianco,Javier Lpez Gonzlez,James Mancini,Si
22、mon Lange,Pierce OReilly,Silvia Sorescu and Vincenzo Spiezia(OECD);and Antonia Carzaniga,Stefania Gallo and Martin Roy(WTO).The following experts provided valuable comments on the Handbook:Mara Mercedes Juaristi Llorens and Silvia Amiel(National Institute of Statistics and Censuses of Argentina(INDE
23、C);Sophie Clarke and Tom Lay(Australian Bureau of Statistics);Fernando Augusto Ferreira Lemos and Thiago Said Vieira(Central Bank of Brazil);Leonardo Melo Lins(Brazilian Network Information Center);Denis Carron,Mark Uhrbach and Diana Wyman(Statistics Canada);Rigoberto Torres Mora(Central Bank of Cos
24、ta Rica);Sren Burman(Statistics Denmark);Jens Walter(German Central Bank Deutsche Bundesbank);Gyorgy Budahzy and Zsfia Prohszka(Hungarian Central Statistical Office);Atika Hasyyati(Statistics Indonesia(BPS);Yvonne Hayden(Central Statistics Office of Ireland);Hila Dizahav and Ilana Ben Or(Israel Cent
25、ral Bureau of Statistics);Andrea Carboni and Claudio Doria(Bank of Italy Banca dItalia);Frida Inchoga(Kenya Ministry of ICT,Innovation and Youth Affairs);Linah Ngumba and Sheldon Shelly(Kenya National Bureau of Statistics);Ricardo Gutirrez Argelles and Gerardo Durand(Instituto Nacional de Estadstica
26、 y Geografa(INEGI),Mexico);Alan Holst Chaires(Bank of Mexico);Oksana Danils-Nadolinskaia and Quinten Meertens(Statistics Netherlands(CBS);Ben Graham,Simon Jones,Luke Michaelides,Sue Ost and Charlotte Richards(United Kingdom Office for National Statistics(ONS);Patricia Abaroa,Paul Farello and Daniel
27、Yorgason(United States Bureau of Economic Analysis(BEA);Molly Lesher and Pierre Montagnier(OECD);and Michaela Grell,Magdalena Kaminska and Marios Papaspyrou(Eurostat).The revision of the Handbook benefitted from discussions at the 2020,2021 and 2022 meetings of the OECD Working Party on Internationa
28、l Trade in Goods and Services Statistics(WPTGS),along with 2022 WPTGS Focus Group meetings,the 2022 UNCTAD Working Group on Measuring E-commerce and the Digital Economy meeting,2022 meetings of the Task Team on International Trade Statistics(under the UN Committee of Experts on Business and Trade St
29、atistics).It also benefitted from written feedback on each chapter received from members of these groups.The production of the Handbook was managed by Anthony Martin and Serge Marin-Pache(WTO)and edited by Helen Swain(WTO).Finally,all contributors to the first edition of this Handbook are acknowledg
30、ed and thanked.AcknowledgementsHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade3AC KN OWL E D G E M E NTSDigital technologies have made it increasingly feasible for buyers and sellers to place and receive orders on a global scale.They also enable the instantaneous remote delivery of services directly into busine
31、sses and homes,including internationally.By focusing on these two criteria digital ordering and digital delivery across borders this Handbook offers a conceptual and measurement framework for digital trade that aligns with the broader standards for macroeconomic statistics.This second edition of the
32、 Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade is the outcome of a partnership between the International Monetary Fund(IMF),the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD),the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD)and the World Trade Organization(WTO),resulting in a compre
33、hensive agreed approach.It builds upon the first edition,published in 2019,and has benefitted from substantive inputs by both developed and developing economies.This edition of the Handbook,while it leaves the fundamental measurement framework unchanged,provides clarifications to the concepts and de
34、finitions related to digital trade,and to the guidelines on how to operationalize them.It reflects the advances that statistical compilers have made in the measurement of digital trade.Expanded compilation guidance is included,based on national and international efforts,and covering a variety of rel
35、evant survey and non-survey sources.A revised reporting template is also proposed,which offers flexibility to statistical compilers when collating components of digital trade,even when only partial information is available.This Handbook thereby establishes a valuable shared foundation for understand
36、ing and measuring digital trade in a way that is internationally comparable.Furthermore,it provides a crucial resource for an active programme of technical assistance and statistical capacity-building,through which the four co-authoring partner organizations can support statistical compilers as they
37、 seek to measure,monitor and respond to the challenges of digital trade.ForewordBert KroeseChief Statistician and Data Officer,and DirectorStatistics DepartmentInternational Monetary FundShamika N.SirimanneDirector of Technology and LogisticsUnited Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentPaul Sch
38、reyerChief Statistician and DirectorStatistics and Data DirectorateOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentRalph OssaChief Economist and DirectorEconomic Research and Statistics DivisionWorld Trade OrganizationHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade4F O R EWO R DExecutive summaryDigital te
39、chnologies are transforming virtually every aspect of the economy,and international trade is no exception.Businesses and households make increasing use of digital ordering.Many services that traditionally required proximity between producers and consumers are now traded at a distance.Online platform
40、s are playing an increasingly important role in matching supply with demand and facilitating economic transactions.Digitalization is changing how products are purchased and delivered.And yet,it remains largely invisible in traditional macroeconomic statistics,because such statistics focus on what is
41、 produced and who produces it.This invisibility ultimately hampers policymaking,and may lead to the misperception that the economy is not being measured accurately.This Handbook aims to help statistical compilers to address policymakers needs for better statistical evidence on digital trade.While co
42、mprehensive,comparable evidence on digital trade may be most necessary in the area of international trade policy,digital trade also affects,and is affected by,many other policy areas at both the domestic and international levels,including competition,tax policy,development and economic growth.Defini
43、ng digital tradeUnderstanding what“digital trade”refers to,and how it relates to international trade as a whole,is a crucial prerequisite of the statistical framework.Thus,building on previous measurement efforts,the first edition of this Handbook(OECD,WTO and IMF,2019)combined the two key criteria
44、of digital ordering and digital delivery to formalize for the first time a statistical definition of digital trade:“digital trade is all international trade that is digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered”.This statistical definition reflects the multi dimensional character of digital trade by
45、identifying the nature of the transaction as its defining characteristic.It is the basic building block of a conceptual measurement framework,which is fully consistent with the broader macroeconomic accounts.Leaving the fundamental measurement framework unchanged,this second edition of the Handbook
46、provides clarifications to the concepts and definitions introduced in the first edition,and to the guidelines on how to operationalize them.It also builds on national experiences and best practices to expand compilation guidance.Measuring digital tradeDigital trade transactions are a subset of exist
47、ing trade transactions,as measured in international merchandise trade statistics and in international trade in services statistics.Any economic actor can engage in digital trade.The accounting principles for recording digital trade follow those defined in the International Merchandise Trade Statisti
48、cs Concepts and Definitions(UN,2011),the Manual on Statistics of International Trade in Services(UN et al.,2010),and the Balance of Payments(IMF,2009).As the statistical framework set out in this Handbook is designed to align with the broader macroeconomic standards,any updates to those standards(no
49、tably,any change in the production boundary)will,by construction,be reflected in the measurement framework,with no impact on the statistical definition of digital trade.The concepts in this Handbook are also in line with the broader guidance on measuring the digital economy established through the f
50、ramework for digital supply and use tables(OECD,2023).Although international trade statistics should,in principle,cover digital trade,digital ordering and delivery exacerbate some of the known measurement challenges involved in recording international transactions.One reason is that digitalization i
51、ncreases the involvement of small firms and households in international trade,and this involvement may not be adequately covered by traditional data sources,often reliant on large firms.The rise in digital ordering has led to an increase in low-value trade in goods,which may elude methods of trackin
52、g merchandise trade based on higher value thresholds.The involvement of digital intermediation platforms(DIPs)compounds those difficulties by adding a third actor to certain transactions.To overcome these challenges,it is necessary to reconsider the existing data sources in terms of their coverage a
53、nd accuracy,not only to develop digital trade statistics,but also to improve the measurement of international trade in general.The recommendation of this Handbook is,to the extent possible,to build Executive summaryHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade5on and combine existing data sources with a view
54、to producing comprehensive digital trade statistics.Thus,a discussion of the benefits and limitations of each data source is included,and a wealth of case studies and national experiences is presented.DIGITALLY ORDERED TRADEIn line with the OECD definition of e-commerce(OECD,2011),digitally ordered
55、trade is defined in this Handbook as“the international sale or purchase of a good or service,conducted over computer networks by methods specifically designed for the purpose of receiving or placing orders”.Digitally ordered trade is therefore synonymous with international e-commerce,and covers tran
56、sactions in both goods and services.Business transactions are a natural starting point when measuring digitally ordered trade,as businesses account for the bulk of e-commerce sales and purchases(UNCTAD,2023).Information and communications technology(ICT)surveys have long been used to measure e-comme
57、rce uptake among businesses(UNCTAD,2021a).Many economies have built upon these surveys,or have implemented modules in general business surveys,to measure the income that businesses make through e-commerce sales,sometimes also delineating domestic and international e-commerce(UNCTAD,2023).Some such s
58、urveys also measure international e-commerce purchases by businesses.Following successful experiences at national level,this Handbook recommends that business surveys be enhanced to collect information on the monetary value of e-commerce transactions,and to break out digitally ordered trade.Comprehe
59、nsive measurement of digitally ordered trade extends beyond transactions involving firms:household and/or travel surveys can also provide a means to measure e-commerce transactions(both sales and purchases)undertaken by individuals.Besides survey information,other sources,such as administrative data
60、 or card payment data,can also be used to measure key components of digitally ordered exports and imports.Of these sources,customs records are particularly relevant.Digitally ordered imports and exports can,in fact,be directly identified as a subset of international merchandise trade statistics if d
61、igitally ordered shipments are flagged with specific customs procedure codes.However,an accurate estimation of low-value trade,which is largely driven by digital ordering,is necessary to ensure exhaustive coverage.A variety of sources can be explored to enable this,including administrative data from
62、 customs authorities or information from postal and courier agencies.No single source can offer a holistic measure for digitally ordered exports and imports at the whole economy level.Information from different sources should be integrated to derive digitally ordered trade estimates covering transac
63、tions involving all institutional units in the whole economy.DIGITALLY DELIVERED TRADEDigitally delivered trade is defined in this Handbook as“all international trade transactions that are delivered remotely over computer networks”.This Handbook takes the view that only services can be digitally del
64、ivered.Unlike digital ordering,which is instantaneous,digital delivery can take place over a longer period and can involve a significant degree of inter-personal interaction.Crucial to the definition is that such interaction occurs remotely through computer networks.The first step in measuring digit
65、ally delivered trade is to identify service items that are digitally deliverable i.e.,that can be delivered through computer networks(most often the internet).Where sufficient product detail is available,aggregating these items from existing statistics offers an upper-bound estimate of digitally del
66、ivered trade that can be produced without changes to existing data collection mechanisms.Such estimates of digitally deliverable trade can be refined by exploiting the inherent relationship between the concepts of digital delivery and of cross-border service supply(i.e.,Mode 1).For the digitally del
67、iverable services identified,cross-border supply can be considered equivalent to digital delivery.Consequently,shares derived from the measurement of trade in services by mode of supply can provide reasonable estimates for digitally delivered trade.However,most countries are only just beginning to m
68、easure trade in services by modes of supply.In the absence of such data,shares based on expert judgement,such as those in the Eurostat-WTO model(Eurostat,2021a and WTO,2023),may be used,provided that that they are regularly assessed to reflect country-specific conditions.Handbook on Measuring Digita
69、l TradeExecutive summary6International trade in services(ITS)surveys,which cover businesses,provide the best means for obtaining direct estimates of digitally delivered services trade.By enhancing these surveys with supplemental questions,for example following the model developed by UNCTAD in collab
70、oration with Costa Rica,India,and Thailand(UNCTAD,2021a),shares of digitally delivered exported and imported services can be measured in a way that is integrated with the sources and methods used to measure overall services trade.Like for digital ordering,firm-based sources are likely to cover the b
71、ulk of digitally delivered trade.Nevertheless,with households increasingly involved in digitally delivered services trade,statistical compilers must investigate further how household surveys and other data sources can be used to improve the coverage of digitally delivered trade estimates.In addition
72、,although the values are often not economically significant,some digitally delivered services may be consumed while abroad(i.e.,supplied via Mode 2),and would therefore require different estimation strategies.Information from various sources should therefore be integrated so that digitally delivered
73、 trade estimates representative of the entire economy can be derived.DIGITAL INTERMEDIATION PLATFORMS(DIPs)Digital intermediation platforms are defined as“online interfaces that facilitate,for a fee,the direct interaction between multiple buyers and multiple sellers,without the platform taking econo
74、mic ownership of the goods or rendering the services that are being sold(intermediated)”.Although transactions intermediated by DIPs are,in principle,included in existing trade statistics and are covered by the concepts of digitally ordered and digitally delivered trade,DIPs are separately highlight
75、ed in this Handbook because of their significant role in the economy,the policy interest surrounding them,and the specific compilation challenges they pose.The service provided by DIPs is that of“matching”buyers with sellers,and thus facilitating the exchange of goods or the provision of services.Th
76、ese digital intermediation services,which are,by definition,both digitally ordered and digitally delivered,are defined as“online intermediation services that facilitate transactions between multiple buyers and multiple sellers in exchange for a fee,without the online intermediation unit taking econo
77、mic ownership of the goods or rendering the services that are being sold(intermediated)”.To record transactions facilitated by DIPs,it is necessary to distinguish the supply of goods or services(i.e.,the transaction between the seller and the buyer)from the provision of intermediation services(i.e.,
78、the transaction between the DIP and both the seller and the buyer).Regardless of whether a given DIP facilitates transactions in goods or services,the intermediation fees should be recorded under trade-related services in the international accounts.Several data sources should be explored to compile
79、transactions facilitated by DIPs.The recommendation in this Handbook is to collect information on the exports and imports of intermediation services by businesses via ITS surveys.Surveys of ICT usage in business are instead better placed to collect information on the transacted products(i.e.,the goo
80、ds and services being intermediated).To ensure coverage of the household sector,several types of household surveys should include questions on the value of goods and services purchased via DIPs(notably from well-known DIPs and for tourism-related services),as well as,ideally,on the intermediation fe
81、es paid.When a DIP is resident in the compiling economy,surveys can be used to measure both exports of intermediation services and the underlying goods and services transactions.REPORTING DIGITAL TRADE TRANSACTIONSThis Handbook proposes a reporting template which supports the compilation of the two
82、components of digital trade digitally ordered trade and digitally delivered trade as well as the calculation of total digital trade.The template allows the different components to be measured in the way that best suits the compiler,even when only partial information is available.For a comprehensive
83、measure of total digital trade,it is important to develop data sources that can measure digitally ordered trade,digitally delivered trade and also identify trade that is both digitally delivered and digitally ordered.ICT usage surveys(for both businesses and households)are well placed to measure thi
84、s overlap.To this end,surveys should collect information on sales and purchases broken down by goods,digitally delivered services,and other services.Executive summaryHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade7Moving forwardThis Handbook provides a consistent measurement framework to guide compilers in thei
85、r efforts to measure digital trade.While further research and empirical testing will be needed to improve and refine the compilation approaches,the fundamental conceptual framework,which is now well established,constitutes the basis for the compilation of internationally comparable statistics on dig
86、ital trade.The Handbook also provides the foundation for an active programme of technical assistance and statistical capacity-building,by means of which the four partner organizations the International Monetary Fund(IMF),the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD),the United Nat
87、ions Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD)and the World Trade Organization(WTO)can support statistical compilers as they seek to measure,monitor and respond to the challenges of digital trade.Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeExecutive summary81.IntroductionWhy is it important to measure digi
88、tal trade?This chapter outlines the multifaceted impact of digitalization on international trade and examines which policy areas require consistent,comprehensive and feasible measurement approaches.1.IntroductionWhy is it important to measure digital trade?This chapter outlines the multifaceted impa
89、ct of digitalization on international trade and examines which policy areas require consistent,comprehensive and feasible measurement approaches.9Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade1.1 IntroductionDigital technologies are transforming economic and societal processes.Major improvements in internet co
90、nnectivity have enabled businesses and households to exchange and transfer information with greater variety,in increasing volume and at higher velocity.Computing power and data storage have surged as costs have declined,boosting the development of software tools as well as of advanced technologies a
91、nd analytical techniques.Consequently,the number of new business models,products and modes of delivery that exploit digital technologies is rapidly increasing.These developments reflect processes both of digitization and digitalization.Digitization is defined as“the conversion of analogue data and p
92、rocesses into a machine-readable format”(OECD,2019a).Digitization can take many forms,such as the translation of analogue measurements into a digital format,the encoding of business and industrial processes,or the transmission of Voice over Internet Protocol(VoIP)(i.e.,the conversion of voice into d
93、igital signals for transmission via the internet).Digitalization is a broader concept,understood as the use of digital technologies and data and the interconnections between them,which result in new activities or in changes to existing activities.Collectively,the changes produced by different forms
94、of digitization and digitalization on economic and social activities constitute the digital transformation.Digital technologies have profoundly impacted international trade.On the supply side,firms benefit from the use of digital technologies,as they can boost efficiency and productivity,transform b
95、usiness processes and foster innovation(Nguyen and Paczos,2020;Gal et al.,2019;Sorbe et al.,2019).At the same time,digitalization has spurred the use of digital technologies on the demand side.In particular,the rise of online retail,wholesale and digital platforms has eased businesses access to mark
96、ets,with consumers in turn benefitting from access to a broader selection of products and increased customization(Coreynen,Matthyssens and Van Bockhaven,2017).Arguably,the most transformative impact that digitalization has had on trade has been a rapid reduction in the costs of international transac
97、tions,which has made it affordable for firms to reach global markets.In much the same way that reductions in transport and coordination costs enabled the fragmentation of production along global value chains,falling costs of sharing information are powering this digital trade revolution.The lower co
98、sts of storing and sharing information are reducing some of the traditional constraints associated with engaging in international trade,such as asymmetric information,delays in delivery,or contract enforcement.This is encouraging a greater number of businesses and consumers to connect globally,as we
99、ll as leading to a faster diffusion of knowledge and ideas across borders.The rest of the chapter is organized as follows.Section 1.2 shows some indicators providing a view of the impact of digitalization on international trade.Section 1.3 presents the statistical definition of digital trade.Section
100、 1.4 outlines the policy needs that call for better measurement of digital trade.Section 1.5 presents the purpose and the structure of this Handbook.Section 1.6 identifies areas where research is ongoing and may have an impact on the measurement of digital trade and the compilation guidance provided
101、 in the Handbook.Finally,Section 1.7 concludes.1.2 The impact of digitalization on international trade is multifaceted1.2.1 DIGITALIZATION HAS ENABLED THE EMERGENCE OF ECOMMERCEThanks to rapid technological advancements,businesses and households can now order goods and services online.The rise of e-
102、commerce,both at domestic and international level,has spurred significant policy interest and motivated several measurement initiatives.Surveys of ICT usage have been used for a number of years as the main instrument to gather information on businesses participation in e-commerce and to provide insi
103、ghts on e-commerce trends and dynamics(see Figure 1.1).In 2021,the countries reporting the highest share of firms engaged in e-commerce purchasing were New Zealand(89.6 per cent),Australia(80.7 per cent),Sweden(78.4 per cent)and Brazil(75.0 per cent),followed by Canada(74.9 per cent)and the Netherla
104、nds(66.1 per cent).The share of firms engaging in e-commerce sales is generally lower,with the most active countries being Australia(63.3 per cent),New Zealand(60.3 per cent)and India(60.2 per cent).Widespread and comparable evidence on the split between domestic and international e-commerce,as well
105、 as on the value of e-commerce transactions,is,however,not available.1.2.2 SERVICES ARE INCREASINGLY TRADED AT A DISTANCEMany services that traditionally required proximity between producers and consumers can now be traded remotely,allowing firms more opportunities to reach global markets.Falling pr
106、ices for voice and data communications,along with the computerization of tasks,allow service providers to segment and relocate work to take advantage of large,remote pools of lower-cost labour with the skills needed to deliver high quality services.At the same time,low-value services,such as smartph
107、one applications Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeC HAPTE R 1 I NTR O D U CTI O N10or online banking services,are increasingly traded internationally,often via digital platforms(UNCTAD,2022c).In 2012,the United States Bureau of Economic Analysis(BEA)made a first attempt to measure trade in“digital
108、ly enabled”services,referring to services“for which digital information and communications technologies(ICT)play an important role in facilitating cross-border trade in services”.In the study,the BEA stated that“improvements in ICT technologies and reductions in their costs could be expected to cont
109、ribute to growth in trade in services”(Borga and Koncz-Bruner,2012).In 2013,the Task Group on Measuring Trade in ICT Services and ICT-enabled Services(TGServ),led by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD),developed recommendations and indicators on ICT-enabled services trade.
110、4 In its first report,the Task Force set out definitions for ICT services(defined in OECD(2011),ICT-enabled services and potentially ICT-enabled services,which this Handbook builds on to define digitally deliverable services(UNCTAD,2015).Services trade as a whole and trade in digitally deliverable s
111、ervices have increased significantly over the past two decades(Figure 1.2).In 2012,digitally deliverable services represented 48 per cent of global exports of services.This share increased to 52 per cent in 2019 and jumped to 63 per cent in 2021,reflecting the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on both
112、 the composition and the nature of internationally traded services.1.2.3 ONLINE PLATFORMS PLAY A TRANSFORMATIVE ROLE IN MANY INDUSTRIESOnline platforms are increasingly important“market makers”.They match supply with demand,facilitating and structuring online interactions and transactions(OECD,2019b
113、).They can develop and exploit large network externalities,with many online platforms offering their services on a global scale.Often considered as“catalysts”of digitalization,online platforms have transformed not only retail and wholesale trade marketplaces,but also industries such as accommodation
114、,transport and food services,as well as many business-to-business(B2B)transactions.Just like digitally deliverable services,sales of goods and services through online platforms surged during the COVID-19 pandemic(Figure 1.3).1.3 The statistical definition of digital tradeWhile relevant and informati
115、ve,the stylized facts presented above only provide a partial view of what is a complex,multidimensional phenomenon.Measures of trade in digitally deliverable services shed some light on which products could be delivered digitally,yet do not fully capture the dimension of how these services were actu
116、ally delivered.On the other hand,the core indicators on e-commerce target how products are purchased and sold but do not capture the monetary value of these transactions and often do not delineate domestic and international e-commerce(UNCTAD,2023).Similarly,information on the activity of online 0102
117、030405060708090100E-commerce salesInternational e-commerce salesE-commerce purchasingInternational e-commerce purchasing%of businessesAustraliaNew ZealandIndiaMauritiusTunisiaQatarIrelandDenmarkIcelandSwedenLithuaniaCanadaBelgiumAustriaCroatiaEcuadorFinlandMaltaUnited KingdomBrazilNetherlandsSpainSl
118、oveniaColombiaSerbiaNorwayRussian FederationDominican RepublicCzech RepublicJapanEstoniaGermanySouth KoreaGreeceHungaryBosnia and HerzegovinaSwitzerlandCyprusFranceItalyPolandLatviaPortugalSlovakiaThailandUnited Arab EmiratesIsraelRomaniaMontenegroTrkiyeLuxembourgBulgariaPeruChileNorth MacedoniaPhil
119、ippinesUkraineAzerbaijanFigure 1.1:Businesses make extensive use of e-commerceNote:The latest available figures are presented for each economy.Sales and purchases figures may refer to different years.International e-com-merce sales figures relate to reporting year 2020.International e-commerce purch
120、ases relate to reporting year 2017.Source:Eurostat Digital Economy and Society Statistics Comprehensive Database;1 OECD ICT Access and Usage by Businesses database;2 and UNCTAD core indicators on ICT use in business.3C HAPTE R 1 I NTR O D U CTI O NHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade11Figure 1.2:Glob
121、al exports of digitally deliverable services have been growing steadilyNote:Digitally deliverable services are an aggregation of the BPM6/EBOPS 2010 service categories insurance and pension services,financial services,charges for the use of intellectual property n.i.e.,telecommunications,computer an
122、d information services,other business services,and audiovisual and related services.Source:UNCTAD calculations based on WTO and UNCTAD(2022).020001920202021US$trillionDigitally deliverable servicesTotal services050002500300035004000RakutenAirBnBExpediaWalm
123、artBooking HoldingseBayUberMeituanShopifyPAmazonAlibaba2020020002500300035004000RakutenWalmartAirBnBMeituanShopifyUbereBayBooking HoldingsExpediaPAmazonAlibaba2019platforms is still piecemeal,focused on a specific subset of platforms,and not comparable across countries because of differen
124、ces in definitions and compilation methods(OECD,2018a).Over the last twenty years,a number of initiatives have emerged to measure different aspects of digitalization.The most important measurement initiatives on which this Handbook draws are the OECD and UNCTAD work on defining and measuring e-comme
125、rce,UNCTADs work on ICT-enabled trade,and the OECDs broader efforts on measurement in the context of the Going Digital Project.5 On the policy front,the WTO Work Programme on Electronic Commerce,established in 1998,defines e-commerce as the“production,distribution,marketing,sale or delivery of goods
126、 and services by electronic means”(WTO,1998a).More recently,the work of Lpez-Gonzlez and Jouanjean(2017)proposes a framework for digital trade useful for trade policy analysis,by which all digitally enabled transactions are considered to be in scope for digital trade.Building on all of the above,the
127、 first edition of this Handbook(OECD,WTO and IMF,2019)formalized for the first time a statistical definition of digital trade,combining the two key criteria of digital ordering and digital delivery:“digital trade is all international trade Figure 1.3:Sales through online platforms are boomingNote:Th
128、e chart covers digital intermediation platforms as defined in this Handbook(e.g.,Uber),as well as e-tailers.In some cases,both business models may co-exist on the same platform(e.g.,Amazon,Alibaba).The figures reflect the gross value of goods and services sold by/through these companies.Source:UNCTA
129、D(2022a),based on company reports.Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeC HAPTE R 1 I NTR O D U CTI O N12that is digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered”.This definition reflects the multi-dimensional character of the phenomenon by identifying the nature of the transaction as the defining characte
130、ristic of digital trade and acknowledges the overlap that may exist between digitally ordered and digitally delivered trade.Digitally ordered trade,defined in this Handbook as“the international sale or purchase of a good or service,conducted over computer networks by methods specifically designed fo
131、r the purpose of receiving or placing orders”,echoes the OECD definition of e-commerce(OECD,2011).Digitally delivered trade,which only covers services,is defined as“all international trade transactions that are delivered remotely over computer networks”and builds on the concept of ICT-enabled servic
132、es transactions developed by TGServ(UNCTAD,2015).This definition of digitally delivered trade is broader than that in the first version of this Handbook,as it covers any form of digital delivery,not only delivery methods“specifically designed for the purpose of delivering services”(see Chapter 2).Th
133、e definition thereby becomes more straightforward to interpret and to implement in practice.The alignment in concepts and terminology with previous initiatives provides clarity for users and ensures that compilers can leverage the measurement instruments already in place to produce estimates of digi
134、tal trade.Importantly,the two statistical criteria of digital ordering and digital delivery are inherently encompassed by the WTO definition of e-commerce cited above.Figure 1.4 illustrates the relationships between e-commerce,digital trade and their components.Following extensive consultations with
135、 compilers and policymakers,6 this definition of digital trade is now widely accepted and has proven feasible and practicable for statistical compilers.Several countries have started to implement the concepts and measurement approaches introduced by the previous edition of the Handbook(see,for examp
136、le,the case studies in Chapter 6).Furthermore,the concepts of digital ordering and digital delivery have been fully integrated into,and are consistent with,the framework of digital supply and use tables(see Annex A and the OECD Handbook on Compiling Digital Supply and Use Tables(OECD,2023).1.4 Measu
137、ring digital trade is key for effective policymakingThe goal of this Handbook is to help statistical compilers to address policymakers demands for better statistical evidence on digital trade.Starting with its Chinese presidency in 2016,the Group of 20(G20)has been placing significant emphasis on th
138、e measurement of the digital economy and,by extension,the measurement of digital trade.The 2017 G20 Digital Economy Ministerial Declaration,under the German Presidency,called for a review of the statistical frameworks to encompass and separately identify the digital economy(G20 Research Group and Un
139、iversity of Toronto,2017).The measurement dimension has remained high up on the agendas of the more recent G20 presidencies.Through the G20 Trade and Investment Working Group and the Digital Economy Task Force,the G20 has regularly emphasized the importance of measuring digital trade to enable polic
140、ymakers to harness,regulate and shape digital trade flows.International trade policy is arguably the policy area in which comprehensive and comparable evidence on digital trade is most crucial to assess existing market access in the context of a rapidly changing business environment,as well as to ne
141、gotiate new digital economy agreements.However,digital trade affects and is affected at both the domestic and international levels by many other policy areas,including competition and tax policies,as well as development and economic growth.This section gives a brief overview of the policy needs that
142、 call for better measurement of digital trade.1.4.1 INTERNATIONAL TRADE POLICYAs digital trade continues to grow,so too do discussions on digital trade policies,in the context of the WTO Work Programme on Electronic Commerce,through the WTO Joint Initiative on E-commerce,in regional trade agreements
143、(RTAs),as well as in digital economy agreements(DEAs).7 However,these discussions are taking place in the context of a relatively thin evidence base,which limits the understanding of the short and long-term benefits,the channels of transmission and the implications of digitalization and related poli
144、cies.This underscores the importance of this Handbook in providing guidance to better capture the nature and evolution of digital trade and helping to examine its economic,social and environmental impact.Multilateral agreements under the WTO cover important aspects of digital trade in goods and serv
145、ices.The General Agreement on Trade in Services(GATS),which entered into force in January 1995,remains of primary importance for digital trade.The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT),which entered into force in October 1947,and the Trade Facilitation Agreement(TFA),which entered into force
146、in February 2017,have supported digitally enabled trade in goods,while the Information Technology Agreement(ITA),which was concluded in December 1996,has been key in eliminating tariff barriers for certain ICT products.Despite rapid and far-reaching technological change,the rules and commitments und
147、erpinning the digital trade environment at the multilateral level,although C HAPTE R 1 I NTR O D U CTI O NHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade13technology-neutral,have remained unchanged.Multilateral discussions on digital trade began in 1998 with the launch of the WTO Work Programme on Electronic Co
148、mmerce(WTO,1998a).In the same year,WTO members agreed on a moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions,which states that“members will continue their current practice of not imposing customs duties on electronic transmission”.The moratorium has been regularly extended(most recently at th
149、e 12th Ministerial Conference in June 2022).8 In January 2019,a group of WTO members confirmed their intention to commence negotiations on trade related aspects of e-commerce(WTO,2019).As of July 2023,89 members were participating in the Joint Initiative on Electronic Commerce and addressing a range
150、 of issues,including the development of disciplines on e-signatures and e-payments,as well as information flows,privacy,consumer protection and cybersecurity.9 Prior to the Joint Initiative on Electronic Commerce,the governance of issues related to digital trade was largely negotiated in the context
151、 of bilateral and regional trade agreements.In 2022,there were 116 such agreements with digital trade provisions,representing 33 per cent of all agreements notified to WTO(Figure 1.5).These cover a range of crosscutting issues,from digital trade facilitation to privacy and data protection,consumer p
152、rotection,source code,customs duties on electronic transmissions,and cybersecurity.In parallel,countries have also started negotiating broader“digital economy agreements”.These include,among others,the Digital Economy Partnership Agreement(DEPA)between Chile,New Zealand and Singapore,and the DEA bet
153、ween Australia and Singapore.10 These agreements incorporate many of the issues discussed in existing trade agreements,such as the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership(CPTPP),but extend discussions to cover further areas,such as artificial intelligence(AI).Despite pr
154、ogress in discussing digital trade-related provisions internationally,evidence from the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index(DSTRI)Figure 1.4:Digital trade and e-commerce fundamental concepts and statistical definitions1.4E-commerceDefnition for measurement purposes(OECD,2009)“The sale
155、or purchase of a good or service,conducted over computer networks by methods specifically designed for the purpose of receiving or placing orders”Domestic e-commerce“The domestic sale or purchase of a good or service,conducted over computer networks by methods specifically designed for the purpose o
156、f receiving or placing orders”Digitally delivered trade“All international trade transactions that are delivered remotely over computer networks”Digital TradeHandbook on Measuring Digital TradeIMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO,2023“All international trade that is digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered”In
157、ternational transactions that are both digitally ordered and digitally deliveredWTO Work Programme on Electronic Commerce defnition(1998)“The production,distribution,marketing,sale or delivery of goods and services by electronic means”Digitally ordered trade=International e-commerce“The internationa
158、l sale or purchase of a good or service,conducted over computer networks by methods specifically designed for the purpose of receiving or placing orders”Note:The statistical definitions of e-commerce and digital trade are fully compatible with the WTO definition of the Work Programme on Electronic C
159、ommerce.In addition to cross-border e-commerce,the WTO Work Programme also covers the domestic e-commerce activities of foreign owned or foreign-controlled service suppliers.The definition of digital trade given in this Handbook is also compatible with the description of e-commerce in IMF(2009)(i.e.
160、,“e-commerce is a method of ordering or delivering products at least partly by electronic means,such as through the internet or other computer mediated networks”).Source:IMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO.Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeC HAPTE R 1 I NTR O D U CTI O N14suggests that domestic regulation affe
161、cting digital trade has become increasingly tight.Measures concerning infrastructure and connectivity,which include restrictions on cross-border data flows and data localization requirements,account for the bulk of the increase in the index(see Figure 1.6).Quantifying digital trade flows in an accur
162、ate and comparable way would not only provide long-awaited information to support trade policy discussions,but also provide a basis to analyse and understand the digital trade implications of national regulatory changes,whether through the removal of restrictive measures or the introduction of new o
163、nes,and to establish good regulatory practices.1.4.2 TRADE IN LOWVALUE GOODS AND DE MINIMIS THRESHOLDSThe digitization of information can be a powerful instrument to facilitate trade,as easier data exchange paves the way for faster customs clearance procedures and improved risk management.For exampl
164、e,the World Customs Organizations(WCO)“Framework of Standards on cross-border e-commerce”prescribes the establishment of a legal and regulatory framework for advance electronic data exchange among the parties involved in an e-commerce supply chain,and requires customs administrations and other relev
165、ant government agencies to enhance facilitation and control measures(WCO,2022).The WCO also promotes the enhanced exchange of information and inter-agency cooperation on cross border flows of low-value packages.As a result of the emergence of online platforms,more low-value goods are crossing intern
166、ational borders than ever before,and while this has given rise to new opportunities,not least for individuals and micro,small and medium-sized enterprises(MSMEs),to directly engage in trade,it is also raising new challenges for both measurement and policy(Lpez Gonzlez and Sorescu,2021).Measurement c
167、hallenges can arise as a result of de minimis thresholds,as these can render goods exempt from customs duties and/or taxes,as well as entitle them to expedited procedures with fewer documentation requirements.Despite recommendations to estimate low-value trade in merchandise trade statistics(UN,2011
168、),the value of goods falling below de minimis thresholds is often not recorded.By providing guidance on improving official measures of digitally ordered goods(see Chapter 3),including to better capture low-value trade,this Handbook helps to build the evidence base that will enable a better understan
169、ding of the challenges and opportunities raised by small-value goods trade.Figure 1.5:A growing number of RTAs have digital trade provisions Note:The vertical axis shows the number of RTAs(left axis)and the share of RTAs with provisions or a chapter on digital trade(right axis).The analysis only con
170、siders agreements currently in force.“RTAs with digital trade provisions”refers to there being at least one e-commerce/digital trade provision,whether in a separate chapter of the trade agreement or not(e.g.,intellectual property provisions which might be important for the digital economy but are no
171、t in an individual e-commerce chapter).RTAs are identified using the WTO RTA database(https:/rtais.wto.org/).Digital provisions sourced from the Trade Agreements Provisions on Electronic-commerce and Data(TAPED)database(https:/www.unilu.ch/en/faculties/faculty-of-law/professorships/managing-director
172、-internationalisation/research/taped/).Source:Lpez Gonzlez,Sorescu and Kaynak(2023).0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%0500300350400Share of RTAs with digital trade provisions(right axis)Share of RTAs with digital trade chapter(right axis)All RTAsRTAs with digital trade provision(s)RTAs wit
173、h digital trade chapters2000200042005200620072008200920000022C HAPTE R 1 I NTR O D U CTI O NHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade151.4.3 COMPETITION POLICYOnline platforms have the potential to affect competition and the structure of markets acros
174、s various industries.They can generate consumer benefits in many markets,including lower prices,greater accessibility and more variety.At the same time,their business models can cause questions to be raised about how existing regulatory frameworks need to be adapted to digitalization(G7 Germany,2022
175、).For instance,the size and reach of certain large digital firms across multiple markets has highlighted the risks of anti-competitive conduct,durable market power(and thus less market dynamism and innovation),systemic risks and rent-seeking(for example,through lobbying)(UNCTAD,2019).Therefore,it is
176、 important to identify these actors in the digital trade framework separately and to develop relevant statistics that can better assess the role of these intermediaries in international trade.1.4.4 TAXATION POLICYDigitalization has provided greater scope for firms to export products to markets witho
177、ut having a physical presence in those markets.This is at odds with the allocation of taxing rights based on physical presence.In addition,digitalization exacerbates already existing challenges concerning profit-shifting,as multinational enterprises(MNEs)can more easily relocate highly valuable inta
178、ngible assets to low-tax jurisdictions to reduce their tax burdens.This is the case for intellectual property assets,but it is equally true with respect to a whole range of other knowledge-based assets,notably marketing assets.The ability to quantify such digitally delivered flows will help to infor
179、m the debate on international taxation,and will potentially administer the two-pillar solution put forward by the OECD/G20 Base Erosion and Profit Shifting(BEPS)framework(OECD and G20,2021).Under this agreement,Pillar One involves reallocating taxing rights among economies with respect to the share
180、of profits of the worlds largest and most profitable MNEs.Pillar One also involves reallocating some taxing rights over MNEs from their home economies to the markets in which they have business activities and earn profits,regardless of whether those MNEs have a physical presence there.Pillar Two inv
181、olves ensuring that all MNE groups with an annual turnover of more than EUR 750 million will be subject to a minimum effective tax rate of 15 per cent.Besides corporate taxation,rapid digitalization has also created considerable challenges for indirect taxation frameworks globally,such as for the im
182、position and collection of value-added tax(VAT)on online sales of services,and physical goods in international trade.For most countries,VAT is the single largest source of indirect tax revenues,and in several developing economies,VAT is the single largest source of all tax revenues(OECD,2022).The pu
183、rpose of VAT is to generate government revenue through a broad based tax on final consumption,and it follows that its imposition in international transactions accords the right to tax international supplies to the jurisdiction in which consumption takes place.Accurate measurement of digital trade wi
184、ll help governments adapt their taxation frameworks to new business models.At the same time,VAT information itself can be a useful source with which to measure certain elements of digitally ordered trade and digitally delivered trade(see Chapters 3 and 4).Note:Panel A shows the simple average DSTRI
185、for the 74 economies currently covered.The DSTRI ranges between zero and one,one being the most restrictive.Source:OECD(2022).Figure 1.6:Digital trade barriers are intensifying and are concentrated in infrastructure and connectivity issues0.1450.1550.1650.1750.1850.1950.2050.2152014 2015 2016 2017 2
186、018 2019 2020 2021 2022Barriers to infrastructure andconnectivity(incl.data fows)Electronic transactionsPayment systemsBarriers related to intellectualproperty rightsOther digital trade barriersDigital Services TradeRestrictiveness Index(DSTRI)64%15%14%4%3%A.Evolution of DSTRI over time(2014-22)B.Sh
187、are of measures across categories(2022)Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeC HAPTE R 1 I NTR O D U CTI O N161.4.5 ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTAlthough it is widely accepted that digital trade provides significant new opportunities,there is also a sense that many developing economies are lagging be
188、hind in terms of the infrastructure,skills and regulatory environment needed to take advantage of these opportunities(UNCTAD,2022d).Market openness is a necessary element to enable benefits from digital trade,but it is not sufficient.Comprehensive policy action is needed across skills,trade,competit
189、ion,taxation,innovation and connectivity policies,if we are to avoid a growing digital divide.At the 12th WTO Ministerial Conference,WTO members agreed to reinvigorate work under the Work Programme on Electronic Commerce,particularly in line with its development dimension.11 WTO members have also ag
190、reed that digital connectivity will be one of the three priority areas in the WTO Aid for Trade work programme for 2023-24.12 Development cooperation activities should contribute to bridging gaps in digital connectivity and information technology(IT)to support an enabling environment for business an
191、d trade facilitation in developing countries and least-developed countries(LDCs).A challenge here is to ensure that developing economies are also not left behind in their ability to produce evidence for policymaking.This Handbook showcases various developing economy experiences of producing insights
192、 on digital trade(see Chapter 6).1.5 Purpose and structure of the HandbookThe objective of this Handbook is to provide compilers with a statistical definition of digital trade,a conceptual measurement framework and practical compilation guidance on how to make digital trade transactions more visible
193、 in existing statistics on international merchandise and services trade.Building and expanding on its first edition(OECD,WTO and IMF,2019),this second edition of the Handbook provides several conceptual clarifications,while keeping the definition and the measurement framework broadly unchanged.It bu
194、ilds on extensive consultations with a wide range of national statistical compilers,international organizations and other key stakeholders in the domain of trade statistics and policy analysis.The work presented in this Handbook is at the frontier of statistical measurement and contributes to develo
195、ping the domain of digital trade statistics by:Providing a statistical definition of digital trade and its components;Establishing a conceptual framework on how to measure digital trade;Proposing a reporting template to record digital trade transactions;Providing specific compilation guidance;Sharin
196、g best practices and case studies.The Handbook is structured as follows:Chapter 2 introduces the conceptual framework and reporting template for digital trade.Chapters 3,4 and 5 provide compilation guidance on the components of digital trade identified in the conceptual framework:Chapter 3 focuses o
197、n the measurement of digitally ordered trade,Chapter 4 presents the measurement of digitally delivered trade,and Chapter 5 addresses the specific challenges related to the recording of transactions enabled by digital intermediation platforms.Finally,Chapter 6 presents detailed case studies contribut
198、ed by China,Jamaica,Spain and Trkiye.The chapters build on existing compilation practices and have greatly benefitted from inputs received from national compilers.Nevertheless,as the domain is still evolving,and compilation practices are not yet well established,the authors of the Handbook recognise
199、 that coordinated international effort is still required to address the remaining practical and conceptual challenges.1.6 Areas of ongoing workTo the extent possible,this Handbook attempts to cover all of the digitalization issues which are of relevance for trade statistics.Nevertheless,it also reco
200、gnises that in some areas,measurement efforts are still in their infancy,and therefore further conceptual research,as well as empirical testing,will be needed to improve and refine the guidance provided in this Handbook.For example,more research is needed concerning the coverage of orders via online
201、 chat functions,the addition of new services to the list of digitally delivered services as technology advances,and the provision of additional services such as warehouse services by digital intermediation platforms.There are also topics in which conceptual research was ongoing at the time of writin
202、g of this Handbook,and therefore these topics have not yet been covered by the conceptual framework.In addition,for certain topics,important compilation challenges persist.Many of these issues are currently being investigated in the context of the update of the UN System of the National Accounts(SNA
203、)13 to SNA 2025,and of the IMF Balance of Payments Manual(BPM)to BPM7.C HAPTE R 1 I NTR O D U CTI O NHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade171.6.1 DIGITALIZATION,INVESTMENT AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Digitalization exacerbates some of the best-known challenges to measuring international trade.For exampl
204、e,intellectual property products can easily be“moved”across international borders,often within the same MNE,and in this case,attributing economic ownership of those intellectual property products,and thus determining the type and direction of the related transactions,is no trivial task(IMF,2008).Dig
205、italization has also further blurred the lines between cross-border services transactions(as covered in the balance of payments)and services sales/output through the establishment of foreign affiliates.In the case of digital intermediation platforms and other platforms providing access to intellectu
206、al property product content,such as streaming platforms,the lines can become even less clear.While these issues do not undermine the conceptual measurement framework presented in this Handbook,the complexity of the related transactions calls for the development of further guidance on feasible and co
207、mparable compilation approaches based upon country experiences.1.6.2 CROSSBORDER DATA FLOWS Trade and production can be heavily dependent on data and information,which are increasingly being exchanged across borders.Cross-border data flows create new trading opportunities,but also amplify concerns r
208、elated to privacy protection,digital security,national security,regulatory reach,competition and industrial policy.In order to shape adequate policies around cross-border data flows,it is crucial to develop better measurement of the volume of international data flows and better assessments of the co
209、nditions under which data cross borders effectively.Some international data flows are a direct manifestation of digital trade,arising in the process of an order being placed,or of a service being delivered,through computer networks.The economic value associated with these data flows is accounted for
210、 by recording the value of the transaction they facilitate in digital trade.Where data assets(e.g.,databases)are traded internationally as products,these transactions are also accounted for in digital trade.At the same time,not all cross-border data flows arise from or are related to trade transacti
211、ons(UNCTAD,2021b).While digitally delivered trade already captures part of the data components of transactions,measuring and recording the value of assets based on the data underlying goods and services transactions is being discussed in the context of the update of the macroeconomic statistical fra
212、meworks.Understanding the full implications will require further research and experimentation.1.6.3 CLOUD COMPUTING Cloud computing services,defined as“computing,data storage,software,and related IT services accessed remotely over a network,supplied on demand and with measured resource usage that al
213、lows charging on a pay-per-use basis”,are increasingly used to replace ownership of on-premises IT equipment.The main suppliers of cloud computing services are MNEs with operations spanning many countries and a potentially global customer base.Although paid international transactions in cloud comput
214、ing should be recorded as trade in services,determining where the service originated and where it was consumed is a challenging task in practice,even if both the countries making and receiving the payment are known.Moreover,and related to the point above on cross-border data flows,cloud computing of
215、ten relies on international data transfers between related parties,which take place without a corresponding monetary transaction(IMF,2022).1.6.4 NONLIABILITY CRYPTO ASSETS Crypto assets are defined as“digital representations of value that rely on cryptography and decentralized peer-to-peer architect
216、ure based on distributed ledger technology(DLT),which enables two parties to directly transact with each other without the need for a trusted intermediary”.Non-liability crypto assets are those assets designed to act as a general medium of exchange without a corresponding liability,such as Bitcoin a
217、nd Ether.Within the context of the updates of the BPM6 and SNA 2008,an agreement has been reached in March 2023 to treat non-liability crypto assets as non-produced non-financial assets,and therefore excluding them from the scope of digital trade.14 A further agreement was made that the recommendati
218、on could be revisited if there are significant market,regulatory and/or accounting changes,either before or after the release of the manuals in 2025.Bearing in mind also that the measurement framework proposed in this Handbook is in general consistent with BPM6,no crypto asset is currently considere
219、d in scope for measuring digital trade.1.6.5 COMPLEMENTARY GUIDANCE ON MEASURING THE VALUE OF ECOMMERCE Digitally ordered trade constitutes a subset of total e-commerce,i.e.,where the seller and buyer are in different economic territories.At its meeting in November 2022,the UNCTAD Working Group on M
220、easuring E-commerce and the Digital Economy established a task team to discuss relevant international measurement practices in detail and to work toward developing guidelines to support and encourage countries in measuring the value of e-commerce.Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeC HAPTE R 1 I NTR
221、O D U CTI O N18Given the relationship between e-commerce and digitally ordered trade,this effort will support the operationalization and adoption of the compilation guidance set out in Chapter 3 of this Handbook on using surveys to measure digitally ordered trade.1.7 Putting the Handbook into practi
222、ceThis Handbook provides a common basis from which statistical compilers can work to produce measures of digital trade.Nevertheless,countries may face various challenges in putting the Handbook into practice,from applying the core concepts to the specific national context and to the available data s
223、ources,to compiling and disseminating the resulting statistics.This Handbook establishes a foundation for an active programme of regional and bilateral technical assistance,capacity-building and workshops,by means of which the four co-authoring partner organizations,the IMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO,can s
224、upport countries in measuring digital trade.This programme of activities can take place within existing activities conducted by the four agencies or through the development of specific programmes on digital trade measurement.C HAPTE R 1 I NTR O D U CTI O NHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade191 https
225、:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/digital-economy-and-society/data/database.2 https:/stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=ICT_BUS.3 https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=81140&IF_Language=eng.4 Members of the Task Group included UNCTAD,the United Nations Statistics Division
226、(UNSD),the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD),the World Trade Organization(WTO),the International Telecommunication Union(ITU),the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia(UNESCWA)and the World Bank.5 See https:/www.oecd.org/digital/going-digital-project/.6 The OECD
227、Working Party on International Trade in Goods and Services Statistics(WPTGS)widely discussed and endorsed this Handbook in their 2020,2021 and 2022 annual meetings.This Handbook has also been extensively discussed at the UNCTAD Working Group on Measuring E-commerce and the Digital Economy.7 Importan
228、t progress has also been achieved through the recently agreed G7 Trade Ministers Digital Trade Principles(https:/www.gov.uk/government/news/g7-trade-minis-ters-digital-trade-principles),which cover open digital markets,data free flow with trust,safeguards for workers,consumers and businesses,digital
229、 trading systems,and fair and inclusive global governance.8 The original moratorium decision refers to WTO(1998b),while the latest extension is contained in WT/L/1143 and WT/MIN(22)/32(https:/docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=q:/WT/MIN22/32.pdf&Open=True).9 The original Joint Stat
230、ement on Electronic Commerce from 2017 is accessible here:https:/docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=q:/WT/MIN17/60.pdf.In January 2019,participants confirmed their intention to commence negotiations on e-commerce(https:/docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=q:/WT/L/1
231、056.pdf&Open=True).In a statement dated 20 January 2023,the co-chairs of the discussions(Australia,Japan and Singapore)noted progress on ten articles “paperless trading,electronic contracts,electronic authentication and electronic signatures,unsolicited com-mercial electronic messages,online consume
232、r protection,open government data,open internet access,transparency,cybersecurity,and electronic transactions frameworks”.(https:/www.wto.org/english/news_e/news23_e/igo_20jan23_e.pdf).10 In addition to the recent DEA between the United Kingdom and Singapore(December 2021),Canada has expressed inter
233、est in joining the DEPA,China officially filed an applica-tion to join(November 2021),and an agreement has been reached for the Republic of Korea to begin negotiations to join formally.Moreover,in December 2021 Singapore and the Republic of Korea concluded discussion on their Digital Partnership Agr
234、eement Korea Singapore Digital Partnership Agreement(KSDPA),which entered into force on 14 January 2023.11 See https:/docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=q:/WT/MIN22/32.pdf&Open=True.12 See https:/docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=q:/WT/COMTD/AFTW95.pdf&Open=True.
235、13 See https:/unstats.un.org/unsd/nationalaccount/sna.asp.14 Fungible crypto assets with corresponding liability,such as stable coins with a claim on the issuer,are considered as financial assets and are also not in scope for international trade.EndnotesHandbook on Measuring Digital TradeC HAPTE R 1
236、 I NTR O D U CTI O N202.The conceptual framework for measuring digital tradeDrawing on prior measurement initiatives and focusing on policy needs,this chapter defines digital trade as“all international trade that is digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered”.It sets out a conceptual framework tha
237、t identifies digital trade transactions within the existing measurement frameworks for international trade,specifying how digital trade transactions are defined,what types of products are included and who are the actors involved in digital trade.From the conceptual framework,the chapter develops a r
238、eporting template,setting out the key components of digital trade that are required to inform policy discussions.21Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade2.1 Measuring digital trade:the statistical frameworkDigitalization affects international trade on many levels,by transforming the way in which goods
239、and services are traded and by creating entirely new,internationally traded digital products.Just as importantly,digitalization also has a significant transformative impact on many existing industries:by“shrinking the space”between consumers and producers,and among producers,it provides previously u
240、nimaginable access to new markets,particularly for micro,small and medium-sized enterprises(MSMEs).Quantifying the overall impact of digitalization on international trade is,however,beyond the scope of this Handbook.The objective of this chapter,and indeed of this Handbook,is to establish a common u
241、nderstanding of(i)what“digital trade”refers to,and(ii)how it relates to international trade as a whole.One of the key concerns driving the demand for better evidence on digital trade has been the perception that large parts of the economy,and,by extension,of international trade,are not being recorde
242、d because of digitalization(Ahmad and Schreyer,2016;Corrado et al.,2021).Even if it is generally accepted that the current statistical frameworks are still well suited for measuring international trade,1 the fact that digital trade is not visible within existing statistics hinders the ability to ass
243、ess the impact of trade policy and may lead to the misperception that digitalization in trade is not measured accurately.The statistical definition of digital trade is based on the nature of the transaction,rather than on the characteristics of the product that is traded or on the characteristics of
244、 the actors involved in the transaction.This Handbook defines digital trade as:“All international trade that is digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered.”This definition is at the core of the conceptual framework for measuring digital trade,presented in Figure 2.1.It implies that digital trade t
245、ransactions should be compiled as a subset of existing trade transactions,i.e.,(i)international merchandise trade statistics on a cross-border basis,as defined in the International Merchandise Trade Statistics:Concepts and Definitions(IMTS)2010(United Nations,2011)and(ii)international trade in servi
246、ces statistics(transactions between residents and non-residents,as defined in the Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual,Sixth Edition(BPM6)(IMF,2009)and in the Manual on Statistics of International Trade in Services(MSITS)2010(UN et al.,2010).2 As such,and notwithstanding
247、the impact that digitalization may have on commercial presence,foreign affiliates statistics do not directly fall in the scope for the measurement of digital trade.3 As depicted in the upper part of Figure 2.1,the conceptual framework for digital trade includes transactions that are,in principle,cov
248、ered by the conventional measures of international trade in goods and services and fall within the UN System of National Accounts(SNA)2008(UN,2008a)production boundary.Consequently,monetary transactions for data products(e.g.,purchase of datasets),when they take the form of transactions in services,
249、4 also fall within the scope of digital trade.In addition,monetary transactions supported by data flows will of course be included in digital trade when these trade transactions are digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered.The framework also acknowledges the existence of,and growing interest in,
250、non-monetary digital flows,as depicted in the lower section of Figure 2.1.Examples of these are data flows to search engines and social networks,which do not entail a direct monetary transaction but do support them(for instance,services paid for by advertisers).Nevertheless,these non-monetary digita
251、l flows are outside of the production boundary of the SNA 2008(UN,2008a),and they are therefore measured neither in national accounts nor in international goods and services trade statistics.The nature of the transaction digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered is the overarching defining charac
252、teristic of digital trade,i.e.,it is how the transaction is conducted that sets out the scope of digital trade.However,the conceptual framework outlined in this Handbook also includes two other dimensions crucial for trade policy purposes:the product dimension(what is traded)and the actors engaged i
253、n digital trade(who is trading).The rest of this chapter is organized as follows.Sections 2.2,2.3 and 2.4 describe the three dimensions,outlined in Figure 2.1,of nature,product and actors in more detail;Section 2.5 clarifies the role of non monetary digital flows;Section 2.6 defines how digital trad
254、e fits in the existing accounting frameworks of BPM6(IMF,2009),SNA 2008(UN,2008a),IMTS 2010(UN,2011)and MSITS 2010(UN et al.,2010);Section 2.7 presents the recommended reporting template for digital trade transactions;and Section 2.8 provides users with a preview,based on information available at th
255、e time of writing,of how digitalization will be accounted for in the upcoming update to the international statistical standards(SNA 2025 and BPM7).2.2 The nature of the transaction(How)2.2.1 DIGITALLY ORDERED TRANSACTIONSThe first criterion to identify digital trade is transactions that are“digitall
256、y ordered”.Significant efforts have led to an internationally agreed definition for the measurement of e-commerce(OECD,2011).This Handbook builds Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeC HAPTE R 2 TH E CO N C E PTUAL FRAM EWO R K FO R M EAS U R I N G D I G ITAL TRAD E22on those efforts by aligning with
257、the OECD definition of e-commerce to define digitally ordered trade as“The international sale or purchase of a good or service,conducted over computer networks by methods specifically designed for the purpose of receiving or placing orders.”Digitally ordered trade,as defined here,is therefore equiva
258、lent to international e-commerce and as such it is a subset of total e-commerce(see also Figure 1.4 in Chapter 1).If a transaction is deemed to be digitally ordered,the total value of the transaction should be included in the measure of digital trade,irrespective of whether the traded product has di
259、gital characteristics or not and irrespective of whether the product was delivered digitally or physically.Box 2.1 provides further details on the“computer networks”enabling the relevant transactions.To assist in the consistent interpretation of this definition,the following supporting clarification
260、s are provided to help identify digitally ordered transactions in international trade:5 1.For digitally ordered transactions,the payment and ultimate delivery of the goods or services do not have to also be conducted online;2.Digitally ordered transactions can involve participants from all instituti
261、onal sectors(shown in the“Actors”column of Figure 2.1);3.Digitally ordered transactions cover orders made over the web,6 extranet or via electronic data interchange(EDI,see Box 2.1);4.Digitally ordered trade includes purchases of applications(apps)and in-app online purchases;5.Digitally ordered trad
262、e includes transactions via online bidding platforms;6.Orders made by phone,fax or manually typed email are excluded from digitally ordered trade;7.Offline transactions formalized using digital signatures are excluded from digitally ordered trade;8.Each trade transaction should be treated separately
263、.When a transaction is established via offline ordering processes,but subsequent transactions(or follow up orders)are made via digital ordering systems,the follow-up orders should be considered as e-commerce;and9.Trade transactions do not necessarily coincide with contracts.For a contract spanning s
264、everal statistical periods and potentially involving multiple transactions,each transaction should be classified as digitally ordered or not digitally ordered,reflecting the mode(s)of ordering initiated in the current period.Some areas of ambiguity remain and are subject to further research.For exam
265、ple,the OECD guidance on e-commerce does not specify whether purchases of goods or services via online chat functions(such as WeChat or WhatsApp)should be considered digitally ordered.On the one hand,the chat functions(and Nature(How)Digital Trade(included in conventional trade statistics)Digitally
266、orderedDigitally ordered and deliveredDigitally deliveredCorporations-DIPs-E-tailers-Other producers only operating digitally-Other corporationsGovernmentsHouseholds Non-profit institutions serving householdsNon-monetary digital fows(not included in conventional trade statistics)Production boundaryP
267、roduct(What)Actors(Who)Enabled by DIPsServicesNon-monetary information and dataGoods2.1Figure 2.1:The conceptual framework for digital tradeNote:This conceptual framework is in line with that presented in the OECD Handbook on Compiling Digital Supply and Use Tables(OECD,2023).Digital transactions un
268、dertaken by Actors can include transactions that are both digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered(Nature),and can encompass both goods and services(Product).Source:IMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO,adapted from OECD,WTO,IMF(2019).C HAPTE R 2 TH E CO N C E PTUAL FRAM EWO R K FO R M EAS U R I N G D I G ITA
269、L TRAD EHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade23the applications that enable them)are typically not specifically designed for placing orders(as per the e-commerce definition),and receive manually composed messages similar to emails,which are excluded from digitally ordered trade.On the other hand,rapid
270、 technological change has meant that orders,even when manually typed,can now be handled automatically(e.g.,if workflows are automatized using artificial intelligence(AI).In this case,arguably,the related transactions could be classified as digitally ordered trade.2.2.2 DIGITALLY DELIVERED TRANSACTIO
271、NSThe second criterion to identify digital trade is transactions which are“digitally delivered”and only covers services.The concept of digitally delivered trade builds on the work of the UNCTAD-led Task Group on Measuring Trade in ICT Services and ICT-enabled Services(in collaboration with Internati
272、onal Telecommunication Union(ITU),OECD,the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia(UNESCWA),the United Nations Statistics Division(UNSD),the World Bank and the WTO(UNCTAD,2015).In this Handbook,digitally delivered trade is defined as“All international trade transactions that are delivered re
273、motely over computer networks.”It should be noted that this definition is broader than that provided in the previous version of this Handbook,7 which closely mirrored digitally ordered trade by only covering delivery methods“specifically designed”for the purpose of delivering services.The simplifica
274、tion of the definition avoids complex interpretation issues around what“specifically designed”refers to,especially when a single service contract(transaction)can be rendered by multiple different means over its duration(e.g.,a combination of emails,video calls and automatic file transfers).Equally i
275、mportant,the revised definition better aligns with the pre-existing concepts of ICT-enabled services and of cross-border supply of services(or Mode 1,see MSITS 2010(UN et al.,2010)and Box 2.2).In other words,since the definition of digitally delivered trade refers to any international transaction in
276、 which the service is delivered remotely over computer(i.e.,ICT)networks,the concept of digital delivery is de facto equivalent to that of“ICT-enabled services”,defined as“services products delivered remotely over ICT networks”,in UNCTAD(2015).Furthermore,the concept of digitally delivered trade,whi
277、ch,by definition,only covers services,is,in practice,equivalent to the concept of service supply via Mode 1,i.e.,services that are digitally delivered are most likely supplied via Mode 1.Box 2.1:A note on computer networks and EDIA key element of the definitions of both digitally ordered trade and d
278、igitally delivered trade is the role of“computer networks”.This term is adopted from the OECD definition of ecommerce(OECD,2011).That definition does not provide a specific definition for“computer networks”.However,it makes clear that:1.“The internet is a worldwide public computer network”.2.“Other
279、computer networks include internal networks(e.g.,a LAN),proprietary external networks which are not IPbased(for instance,the networks set up for early versions of EDI),and automated telephone systems”.Electronic data interchange(EDI)is the computertocomputer transmission of business data such as shi
280、pping orders,purchase orders,invoices and requests for quotations in an electronic format using agreed standards.The messages are composed and processed without human intervention,which increases the speed of order processing and reduces errors.EDI is used in a wide variety of industries,including f
281、ood,retail,logistics and manufacturing,to manage international supply chains efficiently(e.g.,justintime inventory management).Practically,and in particular considering the digitalization of voice transmission including the prevalent use of Voice Over Internet Protocol(VoIP)for telecommunications co
282、mputer networks are equivalent to the concept of“ICT networks”defined by UNCTAD as“voice or data networks,including the internet”(UNCTAD,2015).The role of computer networks in connecting buyers and sellers/service suppliers is the key factor of relevance to identifying digital trade.The precise devi
283、ces used to access those networks,and the precise features of the network(e.g.,if it is a“mobile network”or“cloud network”)do not affect this.For example,use of the internet is equivalent to use of a computer network regardless of whether the internet is accessed via a computer,mobile phone,tablet o
284、r other device,and of whether the connection is made wirelessly or through a wired connection.Source:IMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO.Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeC HAPTE R 2 TH E CO N C E PTUAL FRAM EWO R K FO R M EAS U R I N G D I G ITAL TRAD E24It is worth noting,however,that some services are deeme
285、d to be supplied via Mode 1 but are not digitally deliverable(namely most transport services and postal delivery).As transport is easily identifiable,remaining Mode 1 estimates can be considered digitally delivered trade,as postal delivery is unlikely to make a material difference.It is also importa
286、nt to point out that some services can be digitally delivered and consumed abroad(i.e.,via Mode 2 see Box 2.2);their value,however,just like services delivered by post,can be considered negligible.Finally,a service supplied via presence of natural persons(Mode 4)cannot be digitally delivered,since M
287、ode 4 implies physical presence.Figure 2.2 provides further clarity on the relationship between digitally delivered trade,ICT-enabled trade and modes of supply.To assist in the consistent interpretation of the definition,the following supporting clarifications are provided to identify digitally deli
288、vered transactions in international trade:1.Only services can be digitally delivered;2.Digitally delivered transactions can involve participants from all institutional sectors;3.For digitally delivered transactions,the payment for and ordering of the services do not have to be conducted online;4.Ser
289、vices delivered by phone,fax,video call or email are included in digitally delivered trade;Source:IMF,OECD,UNCTAD and WTO.Mode 1 servicesMode 2 servicesDigitally delivered trade(=ICT-enabled services trade)Not digitally deliveredNot digitally deliveredDigitally deliveredDigitally deliveredFigure 2.2
290、:Digitally delivered trade and related statistical conceptsBox 2.2:The GATS Modes of SupplyThe WTOs General Agreement on Trade in Services(GATS)distinguishes four modes of supplying services internationally(GATS Article I:2“Scope and Definition”).The GATS modes of supply are defined based on the loc
291、ation of the supplier and the consumer when a service is supplied,taking into account their nationality or origin(see MSITS 2010(UN et al.,2010),paragraph 2.25).The four modes are:Mode 1:Crossborder supply takes place when a service is supplied“from the territory of one WTO Member into the territory
292、 of any other Member”.Mode 2:Consumption abroad takes place when the service is supplied“in the territory of one Member to the service consumer of any other Member”.Mode 3:Commercial presence takes place through supply of a service“by a service supplier of one Member,through commercial presence in t
293、he territory of any other Member”.Mode 4:Presence of natural persons takes place when a service is supplied“by a service supplier of one Member,through temporary presence of natural persons in the territory of any other Member”.Source:WTO.C HAPTE R 2 TH E CO N C E PTUAL FRAM EWO R K FO R M EAS U R I
294、 N G D I G ITAL TRAD EHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade255.Digitally delivered trade includes services provided through apps;6.Each trade transaction should be treated separately.When a trade transaction is delivered via offline processes,but subsequent follow-up transactions are delivered digital
295、ly,the follow-up transactions should be considered as digitally delivered;and7.A trade transaction can be delivered via multiple(digital and non-digital)modes.It should be noted that transactions in products such as most insurance services(notably,the core service of risk management)and financial se
296、rvices(such as liquidity provision and transformation,underwriting,safekeeping,record-keeping and payment services)are assumed to be in scope for digitally delivered trade.This reflects the enabling role that computer networks play in the international supply of these services,even though the underl
297、ying service being provided is not determined by its ability to be digitally delivered(see Chapter 4).2.2.3 TRANSACTIONS ENABLED BY DIGITAL INTERMEDIATION PLATFORMS(DIPs)Online platforms play an increasingly important role in the digital economy.They facilitate economic transactions(e.g.trade in goo
298、ds and services),or non-economic interactions(e.g.,social media and discussion sites).In 2019,the OECD,after extensive consultations,set out a broad definition of online platforms as“a digital service that facilitates interactions between two or more distinct but interdependent sets of users(whether
299、 firms or individuals)who interact through the service via the internet”(OECD,2019a).A particularly crucial subset of online platforms are DIPs,sometimes referred to as“online marketplaces”.These platforms facilitate transactions in goods and services and charge a fee for facilitating the transactio
300、n.The World Customs Organization,in WCO(2022),and the OECD Centre for Tax Policy and Administration(OECD 2018b;2019c)identified the key defining features of DIPs:1.There are multiple buyers and multiple sellers that interact through the platform;and2.The platform itself does not own the goods,nor do
301、es it render the services that are being intermediated.Based on these criteria,digital intermediation platforms 8 are defined in this Handbook as“Online interfaces that facilitate,for a fee,the direct interaction between multiple buyers and multiple sellers,without the platform taking economic owner
302、ship of the goods or rendering the services that are being sold(intermediated).”The assumption in this Handbook is that all transactions undertaken via a DIP are digitally ordered.Often the products advertised can only be paid for electronically(although it should be noted that means of payment do n
303、ot matter when considering whether the transaction is digitally ordered or delivered).It follows from the definition that services offered by platforms that intermediate electronic content without first taking economic ownership of the intellectual property products they distribute(such as app store
304、s)are included in this category.A DIP is deemed to not take economic ownership if the licence-holder of the intellectual property does not charge the online platform for distributing the digital content until after the consumer has paid to use the content.Although all digitally intermediated trade t
305、ransactions are included in digitally ordered trade(and where relevant also in digitally delivered trade),they are separately highlighted in the framework for three reasons:1.A specific interest in the economic role of DIPs including their role in trade and in particular,their potentially transforma
306、tive impact on the economy;2.The possibility that a targeted focus on DIPs,including through dedicated survey vehicles,may deliver(partial)results on both digitally ordered and digitally delivered trade;and3.The specific conceptual and statistical challenges that transactions through DIPs present,es
307、pecially when the DIP is not resident in the economy where the intermediation services are consumed(see Chapter 5).When identifying international transactions undertaken via DIPs,it is not only necessary to record the value of the transaction between the buyer and seller as digitally ordered trade a
308、nd,where appropriate,as digitally delivered trade,but also the fee.DIPs exist to intermediate transactions between multiple buyers and sellers.The service they provide typically,the only service is that of“matching”buyers with sellers and facilitating ordering,payment,communication,etc.between them.
309、These services provided by DIPs are termed digital intermediation services 9 and are defined in this Handbook as“Online intermediation services that facilitate transactions between multiple buyers and multiple sellers in exchange for a fee,without the online intermediation unit taking economic owner
310、ship of the goods or rendering the services that are being sold(intermediated).”DIPs are remunerated for providing digital intermediation services through fees received from the buyer,the seller,or both.Fees can take various forms.For example,an amount for the platforms service may be separately ite
311、mized and charged,or the fee could be implied by a difference between the amount the buyer pays the platform,and that paid by the platform to the seller.Also,the fees may be Handbook on Measuring Digital TradeC HAPTE R 2 TH E CO N C E PTUAL FRAM EWO R K FO R M EAS U R I N G D I G ITAL TRAD E26collec
312、ted at the same time as,or separately from,the main transaction undertaken through the DIP(e.g.,in the case of a monthly subscription for the platforms services,the payment would be separate).The important point is that these amounts accrue to the DIP rather than to the other parties in the transact
313、ion(i.e.,not to the seller).Due to their unique nature,and to facilitate understanding of the role of DIPs in digital trade,fees for digital intermediation services should be separately measured or estimated(see Chapter 5).2.3 The product(What)The conceptual framework splits products into the two co
314、nventional categories of goods and services,as shown in Figure 2.1.2.3.1 GOODSThis Handbook adopts the convention that goods cannot be delivered digitally.11 Therefore,goods trade relevant for measures of digital trade comprises only those goods that have been digitally ordered.Any good can be digit
315、ally ordered.2.3.2 SERVICESDigital trade in services can be broken down into two distinct but overlapping components in the framework:digitally ordered services and digitally delivered services.The overlap reflects digitally ordered services that are also digitally delivered and includes digital int
316、ermediation services.Digitally ordered servicesTransactions in services that are digitally ordered,following the definition described,should be included as digitally ordered services.This includes digitally ordered services not digitally delivered and services that are both digitally ordered and del
317、ivered.Digitally delivered servicesAs described above in the nature of transaction,digitally delivered trade builds on the definition of ICT-enabled services developed by the UNCTAD-led Task Group on Measuring Trade in ICT Services and ICT-enabled Services(TGServ).In the operationalization of that d
318、efinition,the Task Force identified those Central Product Classification(CPC Version 2.1)products which can potentially be ICT-enabled(see Chapter 4 and UNCTAD,2015).This forms the basis for the list of services considered in this Handbook as“digitally deliverable”(see Chapter 4).Box 2.3:OECD Inform
319、al Advisory Group on Measuring GDP in a Digitalised EconomyThe OECD Informal Advisory Group on Measuring GDP in a Digitalised Economy(the Advisory Group)was created in 2017 by the OECD Committee on Statistics and Statistical Policy(CSSP).CSSP established this group to respond to questions being rais
320、ed regarding the suitability and appropriateness of the SNA production boundary to cope with the evolving digital transformation underway within the economy.The advisory group,which reports to the OECD Working Party on National Accounts(WPNA),was formed with the overall purpose of advancing the digi
321、talization measurement agenda and to“serve as a forum and focal point to share ideas and experiences;and to develop best practice”.Within the SNA,the digitalization measurement agenda includes improving(or making more visible)the measurement of such items as data,AI,DIPs and free digital services.Mo
322、re specifically,the Advisory Group was requested to:Clarify the statistical concepts in conjunction with the digital economy;Quantify potential mismeasurement issues;Quantify the value of“free”goods and services,including free digital services financed by revenue from advertising or revenue streams
323、generated by data;Quantify crossborder digitaleconomyrelated trade(ecommerce,digital services and intellectual property products).Since 2017,the main focus of the Advisory Group,which includes members from both OECD and nonOECD countries,has been on how to improve the visibility of digitalization wi
324、thin the national accounts.To do this,the group developed the Digital Supply and Use Tables(Digital SUTs)framework(Mitchell,2021),which is now beginning to be implemented in several countries.10 The Advisory Group is currently overseeing the creation of a handbook on compiling Digital SUTs,a compani
325、on to this Handbook.Source:OECD.C HAPTE R 2 TH E CO N C E PTUAL FRAM EWO R K FO R M EAS U R I N G D I G ITAL TRAD EHandbook on Measuring Digital Trade27Digital intermediation services Digital intermediation services,which are provided by DIPs to the buyers and sellers whose transactions the DIP inte
326、rmediates,are recorded in digitally ordered and digitally delivered services trade when the DIP is resident in a different economy to the buyer/seller(including if the buyer and seller are resident in the same economy as one another).This Handbook recommends that these services be recorded in the Ex
327、tended Balance of Payments Services Classification 2010(EBOPS 2010)under trade-related services(SJ34),a subcomponent of other business services(SJ).122.4 Actors(Who)Any economic actor can engage in digital trade.In particular,the possibility to buy and sell online,and for many services to be deliver
328、ed online,has lowered,and has the potential to lower further,barriers to exports and imports.These developments impact different groups of actors in varied ways,and the separate identification of the different actors involved in digital trade can provide important policy-relevant insights.While the
329、proposed reporting template does not incorporate a breakdown according to the actors involved(see Section 2.7),compilers are encouraged to explore the breakdowns that are most relevant for their statistical users.2.4.1 CORPORATIONSCorporations exist to produce and sell products.Digital ordering and
330、delivery offer efficient ways to reach customers as well as to purchase productive inputs.In particular,this has made it easier for smaller firms to market their products abroad,while also facilitating access to productivity-enhancing digital inputs that can increase their competitiveness.Businesses
331、 undertake the majority of international trade and,in general,can be expected to account for the bulk of digital export and import flows.Besides DIPs,a number of other online operators play an important role in digital trade:131.Etailers:Electronic retailers or“e-tailers”are defined as“retail and wh
332、olesale businesses engaged in purchasing and reselling goods,14 which receive a majority of their orders digitally”(OECD,2023).E-tailers own the products being sold,and so provide margin based distribution services,as opposed to digital intermediation services,as defined above.It should be noted tha
333、t DIP and e-tailing business models may co-exist within the same enterprise.For example,Amazon Marketplace,a digital intermediation platform,is part of the same firm,and largely indistinguishable from,Amazons online retail activities,as they both operate through the same online interface(A).Notwithstanding the possible compilation challenges arising from this,in the context of digital trade measur