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1、Global Bioeconomy AssessmentiGlobal Bioeconomy AssessmentCoordinated Efforts of Policy,Innovation,and Sustainability for a Greener Future 2024 United Nations Environment ProgrammeISBN:Job number:DOI:This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit

2、services without special permission from the copyright holder,provided acknowledgement of the source is made.The United Nations Environment Programme would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.No use of this publication may be made for resale or any o

3、ther commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme.Applications for such permission,with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction,should be addressed to unep-communication-directorun.org.Disclaimers The designations e

4、mployed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory or city or area or its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its fr

5、ontiers or boundaries.Mention of a commercial company or product in this document does not imply endorsement by the United Nations Environment Programme or the authors.The use of information from this document for publicity or advertising is not permitted.Trademark names and symbols are used in an e

6、ditorial fashion with no intention on infringement of trademark or copyright laws.The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Environment Programme.We regret any errors or omissions that may have been unwittingly mad

7、e.Maps,photos and illustrations as specified Suggested citationUnited Nations Environment Programme(2024).Global Bioeconomy Assessment:Coordinated Efforts of Policy,Innovation,and Sustainability for a Greener Future.Nairobi.https:/doi.org/10.59117/20.500.11822/45332Production:Nairobi,Kenya.URL:978-9

8、2-807-4142-1DEP/2632/NAhttps:/doi.org/10.59117/20.500.11822/45332 https:/wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/45332Global Bioeconomy AssessmentiiiAcknowledgementsThe United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)would like to thank the authors and the project coordination team for their contribution to the deve

9、lopment of this report.Authors and reviewers have contributed in their individual capacities.Their affiliations are only mentioned for identification purposes.Authors Yutao Wang(Fudan University FDU)Mingxing Sun(Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research IGSNRR,Chinese Academy

10、 of Sciences CAS/UNEP-International Ecosystem Management Partnership UNEP-IEMP)Linxiu Zhang(UNEP-IEMP)Reviewers(listed in alphabetic order)Anthony Shun Fung Chiu (De La Salle University,Manila,Philippines)Bakhita Amondi Oduor (Ecosystem Division,UNEP)Bavelyne Mibei (Policy and Programme Division,UNE

11、P)Cecilia M.V.B.Almeida (Universidade Paulista,Brazil)Jane Muriithi (Early Warning and Assessment Division,UNEP)Jiashuo Li (Shandong University,China)Jing Meng (University College of London,United Kingdom)Mingzhou Jin (The University of Tennessee,USA)Raymond Brandes (Policy and Programme Division,UN

12、EP)Secretariat and project coordinationMingxing Sun(IGSNRR,CAS/UNEP-IEMP)Yutao Wang(FDU)Linxiu Zhang(UNEP-IEMP)Chao Fu(IGSNRR,CAS/UNEP-IEMP)Language editing Strategic Agenda(Xain Storey,Liyana Aini)Design and layout Strategic Agenda Thanks also to:Huajun Yu(FDU),Bin Chen(FDU),Sijing Wang(FDU),Meili

13、Xue(FDU),Huijing Deng(FDU),Ju Wang(FDU),Xinyi Long(FDU),Dingfan Zhang(FDU),Lin Sun(FDU),Zhixiu Han(FDU),Hongyi Xie(FDU),Yingfan Duan(FDU),Jingjing Zhang(FDU),Yixiang Gao(FDU),Juezhu Chen(FDU),Yixuan Bai(FDU),Yiru Song(FDU),Shiwen Gong(FDU).Financial and technical support This knowledge product is pr

14、epared in the context of the“Global Biomass Resource Sustainability and Climate Change Adaptation Management”project funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(72061147003).ivGlobal Bioeconomy AssessmentAcronyms and abbreviationsASTM American Society of Testing MaterialsATJ Alcohol-t

15、o-jetBMBF Federal Ministry of Education and ResearchEGD European Green DealEU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFDCA 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acidFT Fischer-TropschGHG Greenhouse gasHEFA Hydroprocessed esters and fatty acidsHEFA-SPK Hydroprocessed ester and fatty

16、acids synthetic paraffinic keroseneHMF 5-HydroxymethylfurfuralILUC Indirect land-use changeLAC Latin America and CaribbeanOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPA PolyamidePBAT Polybutylene adipate terephthalatePBS Polybutylene succinatePEF Polyethylene furanoatePET Polyethylene

17、 terephthalatePHA PolyhydroxyalkanoatesPLA Polylactic acidPP PolypropylenePPI Printing and publishing industryPTA Terephthalic acidPTT Polytrimethylene terephthalateRED Renewable Energy DirectiveRME Rapeseed methyl esterSDG Sustainable Development GoalSIP Synthesized iso-paraffinsUSA United States o

18、f AmericaGlobal Bioeconomy AssessmentvTable of contentsAcknowledgements iii Acronyms and abbreviations iv List of tables&List of Figures vi Executive summary viii1.Introduction 11.1 The concept and definition of bioeconomy 21.2 Different generations of biomass resources 31.3 Main categories of bio-b

19、ased products 52.Global bioeconomy policy overview and emerging trends 102.1 Historical evolution of key bioeconomy policies 112.2 Global bioeconomy policy frameworks 142.3 Emerging trends in global bioeconomy policies 182.4 Two examples of the impact of bioeconomy policies on livelihoods 203.Conver

20、sion technologies and prospects of bio-based products 253.1 Biomass energy products 263.2 Bio-based platform chemicals 313.3 Bio-based plastics 373.4 Natural fibre for textile 423.5 Pulp and paper products 444.Land use,biodiversity and bioeconomy 484.1 Indispensable impacts of bioeconomy on global l

21、and use 494.2 Bioeconomy and biodiversity 544.3 Paving the way for a circular bioeconomy 585.Climate change mitigation potential,risk assessment and adaptation strategies for bioeconomy 615.1 The bioeconomys contribution to climate change mitigation 625.2 Climate risks on sustainable supply chains o

22、f biomass resources 665.3 Climate risk mitigation and adaptation strategies for bio-based economy 706.Conclusions and recommendations 727.References 76viGlobal Bioeconomy AssessmentList of tablesTable 1.1 Bio-based platform chemicals classification 7Table 3.1 Steps involved in the manufacturing of p

23、ulp and paper 46List of figuresFig.1.1 Global production capacities of bioplastics 2022 8Fig.2.1 Bioeconomy policy timeline 13Fig.2.2 Indonesias palm oil exports value and its proportion of total exports value 22Fig.3.1 Pathways for the energy utilization of different biomass resources 26Fig.3.2 Gen

24、eral process flow FT pathway 29Fig.3.3 General process flow HEFA pathway 29Fig.3.4 General process flow SIP pathway 30Fig.3.5 General process flow ATJ pathway 30Fig.3.6 Bio-based platform chemicals flow chart for biomass feedstocks 32Fig.3.7 Lactic acid as a platform chemical 33Fig.3.8 Production of

25、 lactic acid from biomass 33Fig.3.9 Production of lactic acid from lignocellulosic biomass 33Fig.3.10 Production of grain ethanol and non-grain ethanol from biomass 34Fig.3.11 Production of cellulosic ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass 34Fig.3.12 FDCA as a platform chemical 35Fig.3.13 Production o

26、f FDCA from lignocellulosic biomass 35Fig.3.14 Isoprene as a platform chemical 36Fig.3.15 Production process of PET 37Fig.3.16 Production process of PEF 37Fig.3.17 Production process of polyethylene 38Fig.3.18 Production process of PP 38Fig.3.19 Production process of PTT 39Fig.3.20 Production proces

27、s of PLA 39Global Bioeconomy AssessmentviiFig.3.21 Production process of PBS 40Fig.3.22 Production process of PBAT 40Fig.3.23 Production process of cellulose films 41Fig.3.24 Production process of cotton textile 42Fig.3.25 Production process of silk textile 43Fig.3.26 Production process of flax and

28、hemp textile 43Fig.3.27 The process of pulp and paper production 45Fig.4.1 Impact mechanisms of bioeconomy on land use 50Fig.4.2 Impact mechanisms of bioeconomy on biodiversity 56Fig.4.3 Impact mechanisms of bioeconomy on biodiversity 57Fig.5.1 Carbon flow,removals and emissions in the atmosphere,bi

29、omass,and bio-based products systems 63Fig.5.2 Global primary energy consumption structure in 2022 65Fig.5.3 Sudden and slow events caused by climate change 67Fig.5.4 Illustration of biomass flows within and between countries 69viiiGlobal Bioeconomy AssessmentExecutive summary The bioeconomy,also kn

30、own as the bio-based economy,refers to the economic activity involving the use of biotechnology and biomass in producing goods,services or energy.It aims to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels in the energy and industrial sectors.Bioeconomy has been widely accepted by different countries and regio

31、ns as a critical strategy for coping with fossil fuel shortage and climate change,among other environmental problems.Bioeconomy mainly utilizes biomass resources to generate bio-based products.In terms of biomass resources,they can be divided into three generations.The first-generation biomass resou

32、rces,primarily edible biomass materials,present an issue of“competing with people for food/land.”The second-generation biomass resources are derived from non-edible sources,mainly lignocellulosic materials,which are accompanied by immature processes for their efficient conversion into valuable biofu

33、els and other high-value bioproducts.Third-generation biomass resources represent an emerging frontier in the world of sustainable bioenergy and bioproducts,primarily consisting of algae or rapidly synthesized biomass achieved through advanced cell engineering techniques.According to the utilization

34、 methods,bio-based products can be divided into five categories:energy,raw material,feed,base material and fertilizer.Specifically,energy use is the most universal type of utilization,and biomass energy utilization forms include solid fuel,liquid fuel and gas fuel.There are also many ways to use raw

35、 materials,such as bio-based chemicals,bio-based plastics and macromolecular materials.This report focuses on bioenergy,bio-based chemicals,bio-based plastics and bio-based macromolecular materials(textiles and paper)in technical conversion,highlighting the resources,dominating technical routes,chal

36、lenges and prospects.To promote bioeconomy,many countries have put forward diverse strategies.Throughout history,the United States of America(USA)took an early lead in bioeconomic strategy and policy,exemplified in 1999 by the issuance of the Executive Order 13134,titled“Developing and Promoting Bio

37、based Products and Bioenergy”.Following suit,the European Union(EU)swiftly released key policy documents in 2005,2007 and 2010,including“Bioeconomy in Europe:Achievements and Challenges”,emphasizing the central role of knowledge in the bioeconomy.After that,multiple policies have been issued,includi

38、ng the EU Bioeconomy Strategy in 2018 and the European Green Deal in 2019.Developing countries joined the bioeconomy movement.These policy documents delve deeper into the critical role of knowledge in the bioeconomy.In 2013,Malaysia introduced its“Bioeconomy Transformation Program,”signifying the re

39、cognition of the strategic importance of the bioeconomy in Asian developing nations.China advanced its bioeconomy development though five-year plans and specific policies on renewable energy development and non-food materials utilization.During the same period,South Africa unveiled its“Bioeconomy St

40、rategy”.Among developing countries,besides resource-rich nations which have formulated national bioeconomy strategies,over 30 countries have designed bioeconomic policies for specific sectors or domains.These emerging global bioeconomy policy trends incorporate life cycle carbon disclosure,trade,dig

41、ital transformation and carbon pricing and carbon credits into the framework.Global Bioeconomy AssessmentixThe bioeconomy,driven by the sustainable development of biological resources,impacts land-use patterns and biodiversity.The demand for bio-based products and biofuels is changing land-use pract

42、ices and agriculture,as they can compete with food production and affect natural ecosystems.To ensure sustainability,sustainable practices,regulatory frameworks and careful land-use planning are necessary,measures to mitigate the adverse effects on biodiversity should be taken,such as responsible la

43、nd planning and eco-friendly pesticides.Biodiversity protection and the bioeconomy can coexist and offer business opportunities,promoting economic growth and developing bio-based products.To achieve a sustainable bioeconomy and biodiversity conservation,practices that mitigate the negative impacts o

44、f economic development on biodiversity should be adopted.This includes improving land-use efficiency,reducing fertilizer use,avoiding large-scale deforestation and promoting other ecosystem services.Emphasizing the synergistic development of the economy and ecology can provide sustainable conditions

45、 for the bio-based economy and human survival.Bio-based products and bioenergy offer climate mitigation benefits in various industries,replacing non-renewable materials and fossil fuels while utilizing waste biomass.However,their climate impacts vary and are influenced by factors like feedstock sour

46、ce and product lifetime.Future efforts should focus on increasing long-lived bioproducts and waste biomass utilization to improve climate benefits.The bioeconomys sustainability may be threatened by sudden-event and slow-onset climate risks.Sudden events,such as hurricanes,floods,droughts and wildfi

47、res,have immediate and severe consequences on agriculture,forestry and fisheries,leading to biomass resource scarcity,damaged agricultural infrastructure and disrupted ecosystems.Slow-onset impacts,such as shifts in precipitation patterns and rising temperatures,alter crop growth,planting seasons an

48、d increase pest and disease risks,affecting fish distribution and forest growth cycles.Addressing these impacts is crucial for sustainable bioresource management in the face of climate change.Global Bioeconomy Assessment11IntroductionIntroduction21.1 The concept and definition of bioeconomyThe bioec

49、onomy,also known as the bio-based economy,is built on the research,development and application of life sciences and biotechnology.Its development aims to reduce dependence on fossil fuels in all sectors.As the global population grows and the available arable land per capita decreases,food scarcity i

50、s one of the main issues driving the development of the bio-based economy(Ladu and Quitzow 2017).Under the pressure of population growth and increasing food demand,the application of biotechnology can significantly increase crop yields and improve the nutritional quality of food.The emergence of the

51、 bioeconomy contributes to global economic growth and aligns with human needs for health,environmental sustainability,climate change mitigation and well-being beyond material comforts(Wang 2004;Philp 2018).Given the increasing pressures on resources and the environment,industrial development must ad

52、opt a new path characterized by low resource consumption,low pollutant emissions,high efficiency and high circularity.This includes the development of bioenergy,such as the production of bioethanol,biodiesel,bioelectricity,biohydrogen and other bioenergy sources as partial substitutes for depleting

53、fossil fuels,thereby increasing the worlds energy sustainability and security.The bioeconomy has been attracting more and more attention from the academic community worldwide.However,there still needs to be a precise,scientific and unified definition of what the bioeconomy is.The development of life

54、 sciences and biotechnology has played a crucial role in shaping and advancing the concept of the bioeconomy.In 1998,Juan Enriquez pointed out that discoveries and applications in genomics and other fields would lead to a molecular-genetic revolution.This revolution would result in the reorganizatio

55、n and integration of health care,agriculture,food,nutrition,energy and the environment,ultimately leading to profound changes in the global economy(Enriquez 1998).A significant milestone in the development of the bioeconomy concept came with the issuance of Executive Order 13134,which marked the int

56、roduction of the concept and initiatives related to the bio-based economy by the Government of the United States of America(USA).In the year 2000,the April issue of the Shanghai Economic Outlook magazine published a column titled“Bioeconomy:Where the Pouring Gold Coins Land”,which introduced the ter

57、m bioeconomy.In May of the same year,the USA-based Time Magazine published an article titled“What Will Replace the Technology Economy”,introducing bioeconomy as a concept,although it did not provide a specific definition(Davis and Meyer 2000).In November 2001,at the United Nations Conference on Trad

58、e and Development in Geneva,researchers C.Juma and V.Konde from Harvard University submitted a report titled“The New Bioeconomy”.This is the earliest known paper specifically discussing the bioeconomy.The report indicated that the new bioeconomy referred to the impact of modern biotechnology and the

59、 markets it occupied but did not provide a standardized definition(Joachim 2017).In 2002,Chinese scholars conducted research and published a standardized definition stating that the bioeconomy was an economy based on the research,development and application of life sciences and biotechnology;that it

60、 was built on biotechnology products and industries and represented a new economic form corresponding to agricultural,industrial and information economies(Deng 2002).This definition comprises both core connotations and extended explanations and remains one of the earliest published standardized defi

61、nitions of the bioeconomy discovered.In 2003,management professionals in the field of biotechnology in the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology proposed a definition of the bioeconomy,stating that it was an economy built on biological resources and biotechnology foundations,with its basis in t

62、he production,distribution and utilization of biotechnological products(Wang 2004).Global Bioeconomy Assessment3The standardized definition of the bioeconomy gained more momentum after the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD)proposed the following definition in its 2004 repor

63、t titled“Biotechnology for Sustainable Growth and Development”:“The bioeconomy is an economic form that utilizes renewable biological resources,efficient biological processes,and ecological industry clusters to produce sustainable bio-based products,create employment,and generate income.”Subsequentl

64、y,in its official documents,OECD adjusted the definition:“The bioeconomy is an economy built upon the utilization of biotechnology and renewable energy resources to produce ecological products and services.”(OECD 2011).In 2005,the European Union(EU)characterized the bioeconomy as the“knowledge-based

65、 bioeconomy”(European Commission 2005).In subsequent strategic reports,plans and documents,the EU adjusted the concept and definition of the bioeconomy.For example,in the 2011 policy paper titled“European Bioeconomy in 2030:A Vision and Action Plan”,the EU defined the bioeconomy as an economic form

66、encompassing a range of products,including food,health,fibres,industrial products and energy,obtained through the sustainable production and conversion of biomass(European Technology Platforms 2011).In February 2012,when releasing the“Innovation for Sustainable Growth:A Bioeconomy for Europe”strateg

67、y,the EU defined the bioeconomy in its official communications as an economy that utilizes biological resources from both land and sea,as well as waste materials as inputs for industrial and energy production.This definition covers using bio-based processes in the green industrial sector(European Co

68、mmission 2012).In 2012,the USA defined the bioeconomy in the“National Bioeconomy Blueprint”as an economic form based on applying biological science research and innovation,used to create economic activities and public benefits.This definition emphasizes the leading role of research and innovation(US

69、A,White House 2012).The German Bioeconomy Council suggested an official definition in 2016 that is not only highly representative but also concise and comprehensive.According to the German Bioeconomy Council(2018),the bioeconomy is the sustainable and innovative use of renewable biological resources

70、 to generate food,raw materials and industrial products with improved performance.In summary,the bioeconomy encompasses the bio-based economy and the development,utilization and production of food,feed,energy and related products.Most definitions directly or indirectly share the following common cha

71、racteristics:first,the bioeconomy originates from research and development in the life sciences and biotechnology,which drive its growth.Second,it involves the production of renewable and sustainable bio-based materials,energy and products through biological processes,with renewable biomass or resou

72、rces serving as a critical foundation for bioeconomy development.Third,the bioeconomy is closely associated with energy efficiency,emissions reduction,green and renewable practices,health and well-being,green product transformation and economical green transformation.1.2 Different generations of bio

73、mass resourcesAs the world population grows and living standards improve,so does the demand for energy,chemicals and materials.For now,most energy,chemicals and polymers come from fossil fuels,placing great pressure on fossil fuel supply and other environmental problems,climate change being prominen

74、t.Amid the dual pressure of resource shortage and environmental issues,there is considerable interest in using natural biomass as raw materials to develop energy,chemicals,polymers and materials,as natural biomass is considered renewable and carbon-neutral.Many sustainable polymeric materials also h

75、ave admirable biocompatibility,which may be advantageous in broader applications.Introduction4In the context of depleting fossil fuel resources and escalating greenhouse effects,biomass resources are the only organic carbon source in nature and have emerged as an ideal alternative to fossil fuels.Un

76、like fossil fuels,biomass resources are geographically distributed more evenly,offering a more secure and reliable supply chain.Domestic biomass utilization can also reduce transportation costs and create local and high-tech job opportunities.1.2.1 First generation:balancing food and fuelFirst-gener

77、ation biomass resources,mainly comprising edible biomass materials like corn,sugar cane,sorghum,soybean,rapeseed oil,palm oil and other oil crops,represent a critical component of the renewable energy landscape(Ben-Iwo et al.2016).These resources possess distinctive characteristics,primarily starch

78、or oil content,which can be transformed through well-established processes into valuable biofuels like bioethanol,biodiesel and other essential biomass products(Esmaeili et al.2020).However,utilizing first-generation biomass resources presents a complex and multifaceted set of challenges(Fu et al.20

79、22).One of the most prominent issues is the inherent conflict between using these resources for food production and diverting them for energy purposes.This dilemma is often called the“competing with people for food”conundrum,as these resources serve as primary food staples for communities worldwide(

80、Muscat 2020).Further,theres the issue of“competing with people for land”.Large-scale cultivation of first-generation biomass crops can result in land-use changes,including the deforestation and displacement of food crops,which can have adverse ecological and socioeconomic consequences(Popp et al.201

81、4).An illustrative example is the extensive deforestation in South-East Asia to make way for oil palm plantations to produce palm oil for biodiesel production in Europe(Corley 2009).In general,utilizing first-generation biomass resources presents a complex dilemma,as their conversion into bioproduct

82、s competes with food production and can have adverse environmental consequences.Striking a balance between addressing bioproducts needs and ensuring food security is a critical challenge that governments and organizations worldwide actively should address to promote sustainable development and meet

83、multiple United Nations Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs).1.2.2 Second generation:unlocking the power of non-edible biomassSecond-generation biomass resources represent a significant advancement in sustainable bioenergy.Unlike their first-generation counterparts,which primarily consist of edible c

84、rops,second-generation biomass resources are derived from non-edible sources,mainly lignocellulosic materials(Mujtaba et al.2023).These valuable resources encompass a wide range of materials,including agricultural and forestry wastes like crop stalks,dedicated energy crops such as switchgrass and mi

85、scanthus,urban and rural organic solid waste,waste oils and other discarded materials.One distinguishing feature of second-generation biomass resources is their predominance in the contemporary bioenergy landscape.These resources,primarily comprising lignocellulose components namely cellulose,hemice

86、llulose and lignin offer significant potential for resource utilization and energy production(Mujtaba et al.2023).However,the challenge lies in developing mature processes for efficient conversion into valuable biofuels and other high-value bioproducts(Carriquiry 2011).One notable advantage of secon

87、d-generation biomass resources is their ability to address the critical issue of“competing with people for food”.Since these resources are mainly agriculture and forest byproducts,they do not directly threaten food security.This key attribute has alleviated concerns about diverting food crops toward

88、s energy production,fostering a more sustainable and equitable approach to bioenergy.Nevertheless,cultivating dedicated energy crops,such as switchgrass and miscanthus,can raise the concern of“competing with people for land”.As land resources are finite,there is a need for responsible land managemen

89、t and allocation to ensure that the cultivation of energy crops does not encroach on essential food-producing areas nor exacerbate deforestation(Monti et al.2012).Global Bioeconomy Assessment5In conclusion,second-generation biomass resources hold immense promise in transitioning to a sustainable and

90、 bio-based economy.Their non-edible nature eliminates the“competing with people for food”challenge plaguing first-generation biomass,while the issue of“competing with people for land”necessitates careful land-use planning and sustainable agricultural practices.As we advance our understanding of lign

91、ocellulosic conversion technologies,second-generation biomass resources play a pivotal role in mitigating climate change,reducing reliance on fossil fuels and promoting a more balanced and sustainable use of our natural resources.Second-generation biomass also emphasizes responsible forest managemen

92、t and the development of technologies that enable efficient biomass conversion(Naik et al.2010).It highlights the importance of harnessing transformative biomass to minimize environmental impacts and maximize its contribution to a circular and sustainable economy(Velenturf and Purnell 2021).1.2.3 Th

93、ird generation:algae and advanced synthesisThird-generation biomass resources represent an exciting frontier in sustainable bioenergy and bioproducts.These resources primarily consist of algae or rapidly synthesized biomass achieved through advanced cell engineering techniques(Thanigaivel 2022;Li et

94、 al.2023).What sets third-generation biomass apart is its remarkable ability to grow rapidly and,in many cases,be tailored to synthesize specific target biomolecules(Ma et al.2019).These resources do not pose the challenges of“competing with people for food”or“competing with people for land”that hav

95、e plagued previous generations of biomass.Algae,a prime example of third-generation biomass,have garnered significant attention for their potential to revolutionize bioenergy and bioproduct production.They thrive in diverse aquatic environments,including oceans,lakes and wastewater treatment facilit

96、ies,and are known for their exceptionally rapid growth rates.Algae can be harnessed to produce an array of valuable products,including biofuels(such as biodiesel and bioethanol),high-value chemicals,nutritional supplements,and even pharmaceuticals(Behera et al.2015).Moreover,third-generation biomass

97、 resources often involve cutting-edge cell engineering techniques that allow for the precise control of biomass composition and the synthesis of desired molecules(Sikarwar et al.2017).This level of control is a game changer in the bioenergy and bioproducts industry,as it enables the production of sp

98、ecific compounds for various applications.However,it is important to note that,despite their immense potential,the commercialization and comprehensive utilization of third-generation biomass resources are still evolving.Challenges remain in optimizing cultivation and conversion processes,in ensuring

99、 economic feasibility and in scaling production to meet global demands(Ma et al.2019).Nonetheless,ongoing research and innovation propel third-generation biomass resources closer to becoming a commercially viable and environmentally sustainable solution(Khan et al.2018).In conclusion,third-generatio

100、n biomass resources,characterized by algae and advanced synthesis techniques,represent a promising leap forward in pursuing sustainable bioenergy and bioproducts.Their rapid growth,versatility and lack of competition with food crops or land resources position them as vital to our journey to a more s

101、ustainable and bio-based future.While commercialization challenges persist,the potential benefits of third-generation biomass make it an area of continued exploration and innovation in the field of renewable resources.1.3 Main categories of bio-based productsBiomass resource utilization methods can

102、be divided into five categories:energy,raw material,feed,base material and fertilizer(Wang et al.2022).Energy use is the conversion(or direct utilization)of biomass resources to produce energy,such as anaerobic fermentation and direct combustion power generation.Raw material use is the conversion of

103、 biomass into non-energy products,such as furniture products,paper products,textile products and rubber.Feed use refers to biomass used to feed livestock and poultry.Base material use means that biomass is used as a substrate for fungal culture.Introduction6Fertilizer use is the direct return of bio

104、mass to the field or the return of biomass after conversion.The utilization methods covered in this report are bioenergy(energy)and bio-based products(raw materials).Energy utilization is the most widely used type of utilization.Biomass energy utilization forms include solid fuel,liquid fuel and gas

105、 fuel.There are also many ways to use raw materials,and this report mainly analyzes bio-based chemicals,bio-based plastics and bio-based macromolecular materials(textiles and paper).Although bio-based building materials,furniture and so on have large output and huge carbon reduction benefits,owing t

106、o the relatively simple conversion process,their bio-based products conversion technology will not be discussed.1.3.1 BioenergyBiomass energy,as a renewable energy source,has advantages such as renewability,low-carbon emissions and abundant resource reserves,compared with non-renewable energy source

107、s like coal,oil and natural gas.After coal,petroleum and natural gas,bioenergy is the fourth-largest energy source in the world(Saxena et al.2009).The growing bioenergy industry not only helps address energy crises,protect the environment and promote rural economic development but also drives the de

108、velopment of related industries.Bioenergy utilization refers to the conversion(or direct use)of biomass resources as energy sources,such as anaerobic fermentation and direct combustion for power generation.In terms of biomass energy products,research mainly focuses on solid biofuels(biomass briquett

109、es,biomass direct power/heat generation),gas biofuels(biogas and methane for vehicles,biohydrogen),and liquid biofuels(fuel ethanol,biodiesel).The most mature and widely developed utilization methods for biomass energy globally include biomass direct combustion power generation(Overend 2009),bio-liq

110、uid fuels(Singh 2022),biogas(Scarlat 2018),and biomass briquettes(Ferronato 2022).Commercialized products mainly include biomass power generation/heat supply,biogas,methane for vehicles,fuel ethanol and its downstream products,and biodiesel.The EU has established a mature technical system and indust

111、rial model covering the entire industry chain from raw material collection,storage and preprocessing to fuel production,distribution and application.The technical systems of developed countries are also becoming increasingly perfect while developing countries still need to focus on technological bre

112、akthroughs in key areas(Yuan and Zhu 2018).1.3.2 Bio-based chemicalsBio-based chemicals refer to a category of chemicals produced using renewable biomass resources through physical,chemical,biological and other methods(Van Schoubroeck 2018).They offer advantages such as renewable feedstock,minimal e

113、nvironmental pollution and carbon emission reduction.In certain sectors,bio-based chemicals are gradually replacing traditional petroleum-based chemicals,serving as a new engine for advancing green and low-carbon economic development.Depending on their properties,bio-based chemicals can be categoriz

114、ed as biodegradable,non-biodegradable,monomers,polymers,platform compounds and derivative compounds.For instance,ethanol is a biodegradable monomeric platform compound,polylactic acid is a biodegradable polymer derivative compound,and 2,5 Furandicarboxylic acid(FCDA)is a non-biodegradable monomeric

115、platform compound.Platform compounds in particular can serve as chemical monomers for high-value polymer materials and other chemical products,such as acetylpropionic acid and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural(HMF).Through bio-based platform compounds,various high-value and more complex bio-based chemicals or

116、 materials can be derived,such as bioplastics and fibres.This represents a crucial pathway to replacing traditional petrochemical and coal chemical industries and transition towards green chemistry,offering vast prospects in future markets(Philp 2018).Global Bioeconomy Assessment7Table 1.1 Bio-based

117、 platform chemicals classification ClassificationBio-based platform chemicalsAcidsLactic acid,Succinic acid,Levulinic acid,Hydroxypropionic acid/aldehydeAlcoholsEthanol,Glycerol and derivatives,Sorbitol,XylitolFuransFurfural,HMF,FDCABiohydrocarbonsIsopreneAs early as 2004,the US Department of Energy

118、 proposed a list of 12 bio-based platform compounds with high added value that could be commercially produced on a large scale and converted to other chemicals and products(Werpy et al.2004).In 2010,Bozell and Petersen updated this list based on technological developments,including ethanol,furans(fu

119、rfural,HMF,FDCA),glycerol and derivatives,biohydrocarbons(e.g.isoprene),lactic acid,succinic acid,acetic acid,hydroxy propionic acid/aldehyde,sorbitol and xylitol(Bozell and Petersen 2010).These platform compounds can be categorized into four major classes:acids,alcohols,furans and olefins,as detail

120、ed in Table 1.1.1.3.3 Bio-based plasticsBio-based plastics are plastics whose raw materials are partially or wholly derived from biomass.Bio-based plastics can be categorized into degradable and non-degradable according to whether they are biodegradable.Microorganisms can degrade biodegradable bio-b

121、ased plastics in specific environments and completely transform them into environmentally sound substances such as carbon dioxide(CO2)and water(Gironi et al.2011).This kind of material has the property of complete degradation in the environment after disposal,which can eliminate“white pollution”and

122、protect the natural environment.Because of its biodegradability,the biodegradable bio-based plastics must keep dry and avoid light during storage and transportation.It has a wide range of applications,mainly including plastic packaging film,agricultural film,disposable plastic bags,disposable plasti

123、c tableware and so on.Non-biodegradable bio-based plastics denote plastics that cannot be degraded by microorganisms in the environment(Ferreira-Filipe et al.2021).The main target market for these materials is to supplement petroleum-based plastics and replace existing petroleum-based similar produc

124、ts to save petroleum resources and reduce carbon emissions.The main application areas are packaging,consumer goods,textiles,etc.(Altman 2023).According to European Bioplastics Association(European Bioplastics)data,global bio-based plastics account for about 1 per cent of the annual production of pla

125、stics.Global bio-based plastics production capacity reached 2.22 million tons in 2022,of which 1.08 million tons were non-biodegradable products.The common products include bio-based polyethylene terephthalate(PET),polyethylene furanoate(PEF),polyamide(PA),polyethylene,polypropylene(PP),polytrimethy

126、lene terephthalate(PTT).The capacity of biodegradable plastics is 1.14 million tons,and common products include bio-based polylactic acid(PLA),polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHA),polybutylene succinate(PBS),polybutylene adipate terephthalate(PBAT),starch blends and cellulose films.These 12 types of products

127、account for 99.9 per cent of the total output of bio-based plastics,as shown in Fig.1.1.Introduction8Fig.1.1 Global production capacities of bioplastics 2022PLAStarch blendsPBAT PHA Cellulous films2 PBS PEF1(0.00%)Other PP PET PA PTT PE Non-biodegradable 41.9%Biodegradable 58.1%20.70%17.90%14.80%13.

128、30%11.10%Total:2.22 million tons4.20%3.90%3.90%4.50%1.10%0.90%3.60%1PEF is currently in development and predicted to be available at commercial scale in 2023.2Regenerated cellulose films.0.00%1.3.4 Natural fibres for textileNatural fibres are the fibres obtained directly from the original or artific

129、ially cultivated plants and artificially bred animals in nature,represented by cotton,flax,silk and wool,which are important sources of materials for the textile industry(Kozlowski and Mackiewicz-Talarczyk eds.2020).Natural fibres were once essential textile fibre raw materials for human daily life;

130、but this situation has changed dramatically following the emergence of chemical fibres.In the early twentieth century,with the development of chemical synthesis technology,there were many new artificial fibres and synthetic fibres,such as viscose fibre,polyamide and polyester.Compared with natural f

131、ibres,these chemical fibres have higher strength,heat resistance,corrosion resistance,and other advantages,but also have a lower cost and a more comprehensive range of applications.As a result,chemical fibres have formed an intense competition and substitution for natural fibres.In the mid-to-late t

132、wentieth century,chemical fibres occupied most of the global textile market,while natural fibres were gradually relegated to a secondary position(Nayak et al.2023).In the twenty-first century,with the continuous development of the economy and society,peoples living standards have increasingly improv

133、ed,and the pursuit of environmental protection and health has also grown.People recognize the environmental pollution and potential health risks that the production process of chemical fibres may cause,and the demand for sustainable textiles continues to grow,while natural fibres are regaining favou

134、r with consumers because of their renewable and biodegradable characteristics(Kozlowski and Muzyczek 2023).This report focuses on three main types of natural fibres,cotton,silk and hemp,as a reflection of the role of natural fibres in the bio-based circular economy.1.3.5 Pulp and paper productsPulp

135、and paper products are typical biomass-derived products that mainly use the cellulose component of wood and agricultural straw.The pulp and paper industry displays a high degree of diversity across various facets,including product range,source materials,quality variations,distribution channels and e

136、nd applications.Cellulosic fibres and other botanical materials serve as the foundational elements for crafting pulp and paper,occasionally supplemented by synthetic materials to confer distinct characteristics on the final output.While most paper production relies on wood fibres,alternative sources

137、 like rags,flax,cotton linters and bagasse(a residual by-product of sugar cane)find application in specific paper types(Sun,Wang and Shi Global Bioeconomy Assessment92018).Recycling is a key practice in the industry,with used paper undergoing purification and sometimes deinking before being amalgama

138、ted with fresh fibres and reconstituted into new paper.Additionally,wood pulp(cellulose)forms the basis for a range of other products,including diapers,rayon,cellulose acetate and cellulose esters,employed in creating textiles,packaging films and explosives.Pulps created through various methods poss

139、ess distinct properties that make them suitable for particular products.Most pulp is generated to be further processed into paper or paperboard,but a portion of it is earmarked for alternative uses like robust fibreboard or textile items crafted from dissolved cellulose.Global bioeconomy policy over

140、view and emerging trends102Global bioeconomy policy overview and emerging trendsGlobal Bioeconomy Assessment112.1 Historical evolution of key bioeconomy policiesBioeconomy strategies and policies began in 1999 with the USA issuing Executive Order 13134.This marked the formal introduction of the conc

141、ept in August 1999.In 2000,the Biomass Research and Development Board,a federal inter-agency body,published a report titled“Advancing the Bioeconomy:Bio-Based Products and Bioenergy”.This report underscored the US Governments recognition of biotechnologys importance,offering policy recommendations t

142、o promote biotechnology for economic growth and sustainability.Following closely,the EU implemented policies in subsequent years.In 2005,2007 and 2010,the EU released reports titled“Knowledge-Based Bioeconomy:A New Challenge”,“Towards a Knowledge-Based Bio-Economy”and“European Knowledge-Based Bioeco

143、nomy:Achievements and Challenges”,respectively.These policy documents further emphasize the crucial role of knowledge in the bioeconomy.They propose measures such as establishing specialized investment platforms for the circular bioeconomy and developing sustainable biorefineries to drive the develo

144、pment of a new bioeconomy.This reflects the idea that,in the bioeconomy,knowledge and sustainability are key elements for achieving success.In 2010,Germany unveiled the“National Bioeconomy Research Strategy 2030:Pathways to a Bioeconomy”.Aimed at developing a sustainable bioeconomy that follows natu

145、ral material cycles,the strategy ensures diverse diets and enhances national competitiveness through high-value renewable products.In 2011,Finland released the report“Sustainable Bioeconomy:Potential,Challenges,and Opportunities in Finland”,which highlights the potential of Finlands bioeconomy and i

146、dentifies challenges such as resource management,environmental sustainability and technological innovation.This helps other countries understand the potential issues they may encounter in bioeconomy development and provides strategies to address these challenges.In 2012,the EU released“Innovation fo

147、r Sustainable Growth:A Bioeconomy for Europe”,positioning the bioeconomy as a key driver for implementing the Europe 2020 strategy,achieving smart and green growth and promoting the transition to economic forms that make greater use of renewable resources.During the same period,the US Government int

148、roduced the“National Bioeconomy Blueprint”,highlighting the bioeconomy as a critical factor in driving technology-driven economic growth in human health and medicine,bioenergy,agriculture,environmental protection and biomanufacturing.Technological innovation was emphasized as a significant driver of

149、 economic growth.In 2013,Germany published its“National Bioeconomy Policy Strategy”,aiming to promote food security,environmental protection and the utilization of renewable resources.This strategy sought economic and social transformation through bioeconomy development,reduced reliance on petroleum

150、 energy,created employment opportunities and enhanced Germanys global competitiveness in economics and research(Germany,Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture 2014).In 2014,Finland continued its efforts with the“Finnish Bioeconomy Strategy”,aimed at advancing technology in crucial areas like biote

151、chnology and clean technology,creating new job opportunities and leading Finland toward a sustainable,low-carbon and resource-efficient society(Finland 2014).In 2013,Malaysia also released its“Bioeconomy Transformation Programme”,signalling that those Asian developing nations had recognized the stra

152、tegic importance of the bioeconomy.The bioeconomy encompasses various fields such as agriculture,biotechnology,forestry,fisheries,food production and biomedicine and is considered a future driver of economic growth.During the same period,South Africa introduced its“Bioeconomy Strategy”.Among develop

153、ing nations,some countries with relatively abundant biological resources,such as Malaysia,South Africa,Thailand and others,have formulated national strategic policies for the bioeconomy.Additionally,more than 30 other countries have developed bioeconomy strategic policies focusing on specific sector

154、s or industries.However,countries that have not yet formulated national,sectoral or departmental bioeconomy strategies are primarily in Eastern Europe,Western Asia,South Asia,Africa,and Central and South America.Global bioeconomy policy overview and emerging trends12In 2016,the USA published The Bil

155、lion Ton Bioeconomy Initiative:Challenges and Opportunities,describing the policy actions taken by eight federal departments to promote the development of the bioeconomy(USA,Biomass Research and Development Board 2016).In 2018,the EU released a new bioeconomy strategy,outlining three key action plan

156、s and policy measures:strengthening bio-based industry development,establishing a dedicated investment platform for circular bioeconomy and promoting the development of new sustainable biorefineries.It also includes establishing an EU bioeconomy policy support mechanism within the“Horizon 2020”progr

157、amme to drive regional and member States policy development.Bioeconomy development pilot projects are also being conducted in rural,coastal and urban areas.The European Commission is implementing ecological and environmental policies,including establishing a monitoring and assessment system across t

158、he EU to track progress in sustainable and circular bioeconomy,utilizing platforms like the Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy to collect and access relevant data and information,enhancing public awareness and understanding,and providing guidance and examples for operating the bioeconomy system within

159、ecological safety limits(European Commission 2018a).In 2019,the US Office of Science and Technology Policy hosted the Summit on Americas Bioeconomy,proposing the construction of a future bioeconomy workforce,promoting and protecting critical bioeconomy infrastructure and data,and strengthening the U

160、SAs innovation ecosystem to prioritize bioeconomy development in critical research and development budgets(USA,White House,Office of Science and Technology Policy 2019).In 2020,the US National Academies of Sciences,Engineering and Medicine(2020)published the report“Safeguarding the Bioeconomy”,outli

161、ning the risks faced by the USAs bioeconomy and strategic measures to maintain its leadership position.During the same period,Germany released a new“National Bioeconomy Strategy”,outlining guiding principles,strategic goals and priority areas for Germanys future bioeconomy development.13USA“Developm

162、ent and Promotion of Bio-Based Producs and Bioenergy”5200720001820192020USA“Advancing the Bioeconomy:Bio-Based Products and Bioenergy”EU“Knowledge-Based Bioeconomy:A New Challenge”EU“Towards a Knowledge-Based Bioeconomy”EU“European Knowledge-Based Bioeconomy:Achievem

163、ents and Challenges”Germany“National Bioeconomy“Research Strategy 2030:Pathways to a Bioeconomy”Finland“Sustainable Bioeconomy:Potential,Challenges,and Opportunities in Finland”EU“Innovation for Sustainable Growth:A Bioeconomy for Europe”USA“National Bioeconomy Blueprint”Germany“National Bioeconomy

164、Policy Strategy”Malaysia“Bioeconomy Transformation Program”Finland“Finnish Bioeconomy Strategy”South Africa“Bioeconomy Strategy”USA“Federal Action Plan for the Bioeconomy”EU“A new bioeconomy strategy”USA Bioeconomy SummitUSA“Safeguarding the Bioeconomy”Germany“National Bioeconomy Strategy”Fig.2.1 Bi

165、oeconomy policy timeline Global Bioeconomy Assessment ReportGlobal bioeconomy policy overview and emerging trends142.2 Global bioeconomy policy frameworks2.2.1 EuropeIn Europe,the EU plays a key role in developing national bioeconomy policy strategies.One of the core objectives of the EU strategy is

166、 to adapt to a policy environment that has changed significantly,especially concerning the EU circular economy,the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.Germany was the first country to publish a dedicated national bioeconomy research strategy in 2010.In addition,the bioeco

167、nomy in European countries has often been implemented in the context of green or blue growth strategies with a focus on the circular economy over the last few years.The EU The cross-sectoral nature of the bioeconomy and its diversity within Europe is largely due to the rich multidimensional and mult

168、ilevel policy landscape resulting from the EUs biophysical characteristics and industrial specialization.Thus,the European bioeconomy is shaped by policies with different approaches at different levels,including at the EU level,the dedicated European Bioeconomy Strategy,overarching policies such as

169、the European Green Deal(EGD);cross-cutting policies and related programmes such as Research and Innovation,Regional Development,Climate Change,Environmental Protection,Circular Economy and Blue Economy;as well as sectoral programmatic policies focusing on specific bioeconomy sectors including biomas

170、s-producing sectors and those that primarily utilize biomass.The EU Bioeconomy Strategy was first published in 2012,reviewed in 2017 and updated in 2018.The strategy aims to achieve five distinct objectives and thus provides a coherent framework that favours synergies and addresses trade-offs betwee

171、n sectors and objectives(European Commission 2012).In 2019,the European Commission launched EGD,which aims to transform the EU into a modern,resource-efficient and competitive economy with net-zero greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions by 2050 and decouple economic growth from resource use(Fetting 2020).To a

172、chieve these goals,EGD triggers a series of initiatives across the EU policy spectrum for 20202022.The latest Global Bioeconomy Policy Report(IV),released in 2020,mentioned that in recent years,the EU had been placing greater emphasis on leveraging advances in life sciences and biotechnology to mode

173、rnize and strengthen traditional industries in Europe.GermanyIn 2010,Germany published a dedicated National Bioeconomy Research Strategy(Germany,Federal Ministry of Education and Research 2011)and a dedicated National Bioeconomy Policy Strategy three years later(Germany,Federal Ministry of Food and

174、Agriculture 2014),making Germany one of the world leaders in bioeconomy policy.In 2017,the High-Tech Forums recommendations on German innovation policy listed the bioeconomy as one of the six new themes for the future(Germany,Federal Ministry of Education and Research n.d.).The 2018 coalition agreem

175、ent reaffirms that the bioeconomy can help drive the transition to a renewable resource-based economy(Germany 2018).It further emphasizes the cross-sectoral agenda“From Biology to Innovation”led by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research(BMBF)and the Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and E

176、nergy,which has been developed in conjunction with industry,the scientific community and civil society to integrate biological knowledge,biotechnology and biomimetic processes more strongly into the realm of life and business(BMBF 2018).The German Government,following its presidency of the Council o

177、f the EU,published Global Bioeconomy Assessment15in July 2020 the Plan for the German Presidency of the Council of the EU in the fields of education and research and innovation,which identifies the bioeconomy as a key area of action and a critical area(BMBF 2020).United KingdomAs a country poor in b

178、iomass resources,the United Kingdom(UK)has sought to capitalize on its strengths in adding value to by-products and waste solid and build a strong knowledge base closely linked to industry.In 2011,the Natural Environment White Paper set out a sustainable agricultural vision over the next 50 years(UK

179、,Department for Environment and Rural Affairs 2011).This will give rise to“green food”projects that will work towards the sustainable intensification of the agricultural and food supply chain.It saw the publication of the Anaerobic Digestion Strategy and Action Plan in 2020,which aims to help divert

180、 waste from landfills,reduce GHG emissions and produce renewable energy.In 2012,a specific United Kingdom Bioenergy Strategy was adopted,envisaging the mandatory use of biomass to meet the its goal of decarbonization by 2050 and emphasizing the use of a wide range of waste materials and perennial en

181、ergy crops(UK,Department of Energy and Climate Change 2012).In a 2015 parliamentary-driven policy report on“Building a high-value bioeconomy:opportunities from waste”(UK 2015),the UK Government sought to develop a national bioeconomy strategy and utilize biological remains and wastes as a resource f

182、or high-value products,thereby promoting a circular economy.After high hopes from academia and industry and more than two years of development,the United Kingdom launched its dedicated bioeconomy strategy in 2018,“Growing the Bioeconomy:Improving lives and strengthening our economy:A national bioeco

183、nomy strategy to 2030”(UK 2018),aiming to double the scale of the bioeconomys impact.Previous road maps and strategies were updated and bundled under the leadership of the Department for Business,Energy and Industrial Strategy(2017)to form an industrial strategy focused on leveraging world-class res

184、earch and development and scaling up investment.2.2.2 Asia-PacificSome of the Asia-Pacific regions emerging economies have been rated as among the most innovative in the world,with bioeconomy development in Asia generally being more oriented towards high-tech and industrial innovation.Some countries

185、(e.g.Japan and Thailand)have adopted specialized bioeconomy strategies,while others related to the bioeconomy reflect the regions high-tech vision and focus on biotechnology(e.g.China,India and Republic of Korea).Innovation in the bioeconomy is considered particularly important for improving human h

186、ealth in the health-care sector,which works closely with the bio-industry.Large industrial economies such as Chinas and Indias see biotechnology as an emerging area of innovation in which they can compete quickly.ChinaChina is a large agricultural country,rich in biomass resources.Bioeconomy has alw

187、ays been one of its industrys key concerns,from its Tenth Five-Year Plan to the Fourteenth Five-Year Plan.During the Twelfth Five-Year Plan period,the Government of China put forward the strategic requirements of promoting the integration of urban and rural development and building an ecological civ

188、ilization,clarified the tasks of promoting the revolution of energy production and consumption,and committed to the international community to achieving Chinas non-fossil energy development goals in 2020 and 2030.The development of Chinas biomass industry has encountered a good strategic opportunity

189、.The Twelfth Five-Year Plan for the development of national strategic emerging industries clearly puts forward the orderly development of biomass direct-fired power generation;actively promotes biomass gasification and power generation,biomass moulding fuels,biogas and other distributed biomass ener

190、gy applications;strengthens the development of next-Global bioeconomy policy overview and emerging trends16generation biofuel technology;and promotes the industrialization of cellulose-based ethanol and microalgae biodiesel.Since the Twelfth Five-Year Plan,Chinas biomass energy utilization technolog

191、y diversification,biomass power generation,liquid fuels,gas,moulded fuels and other technologies continue to progress.The formulation of the Fourteenth Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and the Visionary Goals for 2035 explicitly propose promoting clean,low-carbon,safe and

192、efficient energy utilization.The Fourteenth Five-Year Plan for the Development of Renewable Energy,issued in 2022,and the“three-year action plan to accelerate the innovative development of non-food bio-based materials”,issued in 2023,both aim to promote bioenergy use and bio-based product developmen

193、t(China,Ministry of Industry and Information Technology et al.2023).The“Accelerate the development of plastic to bamboo”Three-Year Action Plan highlights the multiple usability of bamboo materials to substitute petroleum-based plastics(China,National Development and Reform Commission et al.2023).Jap

194、anJapan has a long history of promoting biomass production and industrial utilization.The“Biomass Japan Strategy”was first created in 2002 to build a sustainable economy by efficiently using biological resources.It was revised in 2006 to emphasize bioenergy and“biomass towns”,eco-friendly and disast

195、er-resistant communities using integrated biomass.In terms of biotechnology promotion,Japan launched the Biotechnology Strategy Committee in 2002,chaired by its Prime Minister,as well as a comprehensive set of biotechnology strategy guidelines containing 200 detailed action plans for developing the

196、Japanese biotechnology industry(Japan,Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet n.d.).The Japanese Government then established the Government-Industry Biotechnology Strategy Promotion Committee in 2008 and issued a new strategy,“Dream BT Japan”(Japan 2008).In 2010,the National Biomass Utilization Prom

197、otion Plan set quantitative utilization targets(e.g.fixed quotas for biofuels)for 2020 at the national,local and district levels.The plan considers the entire value-added chain from residue recovery to biorefining.In June 2019,Japan adopted its first dedicated bioeconomy strategy,based on the Bio St

198、rategy Working Group report,and updated it in June 2020(Japan 2018).With a strong bio-industry and research background,the strategy focuses on the high-tech aspects of the bioeconomy.2.2.3 AmericasIn recent years,the bioeconomy concept has gained significant political importance in Latin America and

199、 the Caribbean.The Latin America and Caribbean region has also made important progress in areas such as bioenergy,agricultural biotechnology,low-carbon agriculture,biodiversity use and ecosystem services.Countries such as Argentina,Brazil and Colombia have been working for years to develop dedicated

200、 strategies,but progress has been slow.In August 2020,Costa Rica became the first and only country to publish a dedicated national strategy in Latin America.In North America,the USA is at the forefront with a comprehensive,dedicated bioeconomy strategy that uniquely emphasizes the role of biotechnol

201、ogy,the importance of biomedicine and its application to national defence.Since then,a more agricultural and bioresource-based vision has evolved,driven by various federal agencies.On the other hand,Canada has taken a different path in developing its bioeconomy in the form of an industry-driven nati

202、onal strategy focusing primarily on access to agricultural biomass.Global Bioeconomy Assessment17Costa RicaCosta Rica is at the forefront of sustainable development.In the 1980s,further policies were introduced to open up trade and diversify production.Internationally recognized measures have been t

203、aken in areas related to the bioeconomy,such as biodiversity,forestry,climate change,sustainable agriculture,clean energy and sustainable tourism.For instance,in 2008,the Costa Rican Government approved the National Biofuels Plan to gradually replace fossil fuels with renewable energy sources(Costa

204、Rica,Ministry of the Environment and Energy,Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock 2008),aiming to enhance social development and contribute to GHG reduction.In 2020,the Government unveiled the National Bioeconomy Strategy,Costa Rica 20202030,during a launch event attended by the President(Costa Rica

205、 2020).This made Costa Rica the first country in Latin America and the Caribbean to adopt a dedicated national bioeconomy strategy.The bioeconomy represents an opportunity for Costa Rica to integrate production development policies and environmental policies established over the past seven decades.I

206、t aims to harmonize the goals of production development with the conservation,knowledge and sustainable utilization of national biological wealth.United StatesIn 2012,the White House released a dedicated US bioeconomy strategy,the“National Bioeconomy Blueprint”(USA,White House 2012),covering the ent

207、ire bioeconomy portfolio with an emphasis on biotechnology and biomedicine.With the release of its strategy,the USA became the first country to describe biotechnology as a key driver of the bioeconomy.The agricultural strategies and updates to the Agricultural Act,formulated by the US Department of

208、Agriculture from 2014 to 2018,did not specifically address the bioeconomy but played a crucial role in advancing key subsectors in agriculture,bioenergy and food.These initiatives expanded efforts related to bio-based product procurement(BioPreferred Program)and biorefining assistance programmes(ren

209、amed the Biorefinery,Renewable Chemical,and Biobased Product Manufacturing Assistance Program),as well as biomass crop assistance programmes(USA,Department of Agriculture n.d.).Additionally,the BioPreferred Program,through federal procurement initiatives and voluntary certification and labelling pro

210、grammes,has become a significant supporter of the US bioeconomy.Since the voluntary certification programmes launch in 2011,over 3,000 bio-based products have received certification and labelling(National Academies of Sciences,Engineering and Medicine 2020).The USA is leading in many biotechnology f

211、ields and has been actively modernizing its regulatory framework in recent years.In 2017,the Department of Agriculture issued a report from an inter-agency working group outlining the need to enhance public acceptance,modernize and simplify federal regulation of biotechnology products and accelerate

212、 the commercialization of biotechnology products.The White House also released an“Update to the Coordinated Framework for the Regulation of Biotechnology”,aimed at streamlining regulatory processes and expediting the market entry of biotech innovations.In 2022,the White House launched a National Bio

213、technology and Biomanufacturing initiative to accelerate biotechnology innovation and grow the US bioeconomy across multiple sectors,including health,agriculture and energy.CanadaCanada holds some of the wealthiest and most sustainable biomass resources in the world,and this wealth of natural resour

214、ces has shaped the countrys entire coast.Historically,Canadas traditional industries(forestry,agriculture,fishing,mining,etc.)have been the primary economic drivers that have created the fabric of Canadian commerce and culture.Science and technology are playing an increasingly important role in maxi

215、mizing the value and economic contribution of Canadas natural resources.By combining technological advances with Canadas traditional economic sectors,we can see the foundation of Canadas industrial bioeconomy.As the landscape of Canadian agriculture continues to change in the twenty-first century,ne

216、w policies need to reflect flexible responses to these changes.For example,the signing of the Paris Agreement in Global bioeconomy policy overview and emerging trends182015 and the Vancouver Declaration on Clean Growth and Climate Change at the national level in early 2016 attest to Canadas growing

217、need for sustainable agriculture and climate change mitigation.Trends in Canadas sustainable agriculture and agrifood systems also provide opportunities to strengthen and diversify the industry by converting agricultural outputs,residues and wastes into high-value bioproducts,developing new and stre

218、ss-tolerant crops and improving long-term environmental sustainability2.2.4 AfricaBioeconomy initiatives in Africa are growing rapidly.The continent is recognized as one of the regions with the greatest potential for bio-based economic development because of its rich biomass resources.South Africa r

219、eleased a dedicated bioeconomy strategy in 2013 and the“Southern Africa Regional Strategy 20202024”in 2020,the first dedicated bioeconomy strategy on the continent.Seven East African countries,supported by the East African Innovation Network for the Development of Bioresources,have come together to

220、develop aregional innovation-driven bioeconomy strategy to facilitate technology transfer and business development.South AfricaSouth Africa stands out with a dedicated bioeconomy strategy among all African countries.In 2013,the Government released the“South African Bioeconomy Strategy”(South Africa,

221、Department of Science and Technology 2013)to facilitate the transition to a knowledge-based bioeconomy.As a country with one of the highest levels of biodiversity in the world,South Africa is endowed with abundant natural resources,giving the South African Government an early focus on biodiversity a

222、nd uniquely integrating health and medical aspects into its strategy.Building on the experience of two previous initiatives,the National Biotechnology Strategy(2001)(South Africa 2001)and the Ten-Year Innovation Plan(2008),the Government issued a bioeconomy strategy aimed at guiding investment in bi

223、oscience research and innovation as well as policymaking.South Africas vision is that,by 2030,the South African bioeconomy will significantly contribute to the countrys economy in terms of GDP.In addition,the South African Government is actively engaged in international cooperation,in partnership wi

224、th the Departments of Science,Technology and Innovation in Botswana,Namibia,Tanzania and Zambia,as well as the secretariat of the Southern African Development Community.2.3 Emerging trends in global bioeconomy policiesThe economic policies about bio-based products have made significant strides,ensur

225、ing that global SDGs could be realized.We will delve further into emerging trends in global bio-based economy policies,encompassing four pivotal dimensions that will play a crucial role in shaping the future of the bio-based products sector:life cycle carbon disclosure policies,trade policies,digita

226、l transformation policies,and carbon pricing policies and carbon credit policies.2.3.1 Disclosure of the life cycle emissions of products Before specific energy resources,chemicals and other products derived from biomass enter the market,a life cycle cost,resource utilization and environmental impac

227、t assessment should be conducted(Cascione et al.2022).The assessment results should be compared with the life cycle analysis of traditional energy and chemical production processes to evaluate their respective costs and benefits.The life cycle stages should extend from resource production to transpo

228、rtation,processing,conversion,end-use and waste disposal/recycling.This will provide a balanced and meaningful comparison of bio-based and similar processes regarding internal and external costs and benefits.The life cycle analysis results Global Bioeconomy Assessment19should be used to identify whe

229、re cost reduction and negative environmental impacts can be minimized and then to monitor these areas to find cost reduction methods.Further,biomass-based technologies life cycle cost and benefits should form a component of public education.When conducting economic and life cycle assessments,conside

230、ration should be given to GHG emission offsets.In recent years,disclosing carbon labels for bio-based products has become a new trend(Liu,Wang and Su 2016).A carbon label informs consumers in the form of a label about the CO2 and other GHG emissions released during the production process.To some ext

231、ent,a carbon label serves as a“green passport”for products.From the perspective of a green supply chain,publicly disclosing the carbon footprint of finished products in the form of carbon labels will make more companies pay attention to the carbon emission information of products when making purchas

232、es.They will prefer collaborators with carbon reduction awareness,thereby reducing the carbon emissions of the entire value chain of products.For consumers,carbon labelling is a guide for daily consumption and the first threshold for consumers to understand carbon neutrality.Consumer low-carbon purc

233、hasing behaviour will further drive corporate decarbonization actions.For businesses,carbon labelling is a scientific quantitative tool and an important means to explore emission reduction potential.2.3.2 Trade policy focusing on environmental,ecological,health and climatic impactsAn increasing numb

234、er of countries and international organizations consider biodiversity conservation as a crucial objective.Policymakers are taking measures to ensure that trade does not threaten biodiversity while promoting sustainable utilization(Ji et al.2020).To prevent illegal logging and wildlife trafficking,mo

235、re and more countries are requiring importers to provide information on the origin and compliance of products.This helps ensure that products are obtained through legal channels while reducing the likelihood of illegal trade.The advancement of biotechnology has expanded the use of biological resourc

236、es in producing medicines,chemicals and other products.International cooperation policies typically encourage sustainable utilization and sharing benefits from biological resources while ensuring their fair and equitable distribution.Emerging biosecurity issues such as bioterrorism and disease outbr

237、eaks drive international communities to enhance cooperation.International policymakers strive to implement measures to prevent the misuse or abuse of biological resources,thereby maintaining global security.An increasing number of international companies and government agencies are focusing on susta

238、inable supply chains and eco-friendly products.These policies encourage adopting sustainable production and procurement practices to reduce the consumption of biological resources and environmental impacts.New trends in bio-based trade and international cooperation policies primarily revolve around

239、ecological conservation,health and human well-being,sustainable development,biological resource management and international security.Countries should leverage their comparative advantages in the vast potential market,actively establish strategic alliances with large multinational corporations in ac

240、cordance with international conventions,establish joint ventures for domestic cooperation,collaborate in developing new products and jointly explore international markets.Further,it is crucial to encourage and support research institutions,especially enterprises,in establishing international collabo

241、rative networks to facilitate better communication and sharing advanced technologies and management experiences.Policymakers must pay more attention to carbon leakage,pollution transfer and ecological displacement caused by trade(Das and Gundimeda 2022).2.3.3 Policy safeguards for digitalization The

242、 significant advancements in the Internet have given rise to the digital economy,transforming our modes of operation and daily lives.Consequently,this progress has engendered a digital economy and shifted the traditional bioeconomy into a platform economy.This transformation is intricately linked no

243、t only to natural resources and technology but also to the complex trajectories of society,businesses and individuals.Driven by digital solutions,the bioeconomy has made substantial strides in Global bioeconomy policy overview and emerging trends20recent years,aiming to achieve the long-term goal of

244、 transitioning from a traditional fossil-based economy to a bio-circular economy(Eastwood et al.2023).Consumer preferences have increasingly leaned towards super-functionality,surpassing basic economic values and encompassing social,cultural and emotional values.In this context,the circular economy

245、ultimately seeks to decouple global economic development from infinite resource consumption.Hence,the convergence of the digital and the bioeconomic,resulting in the emergence of a digital bioeconomy,caters to downstream shifts in consumer preferences.As well,these preferences lead to upstream linka

246、ges in the value chain.Therefore,the coupled evolution of the bioeconomy with digitalization and the upstream-downstream synergy constitutes the transformation of the bioeconomy into a digital platform industry.This co-evolution-driven restructuring enables it to integrate new functionalities and tr

247、ansition towards new development trajectories aligned with the circular economy.This transformation corresponds to long-term shifts in societal preferences,leading to a resurgence in emerging economies.Their planned obsolescence management strategies also make this metabolic shift possible.Therefore

248、,the planned elimination-driven circular economy trajectory achieved through coupling the bioeconomy with digitalization and co-evolution in upstream-downstream operations can be regarded as a structural source of the digital economys revival.2.3.4 Carbon pricing and carbon credit policiesThe carbon

249、 pricing policy,primarily based on carbon trading mechanisms and taxation systems,constitutes a significant economic instrument for achieving GHG emission control objectives.It promises to become a cornerstone for cost advantages in the bio-based industry(Memari et al.2018).Carbon trading policies m

250、andate cost increases in the production and utilization of fossil fuels and products through market mechanisms and legal regulations,thereby creating cost advantages for bio-based products and guiding industrial transformation.Governments impose GHG emission caps through policy regulations on petroc

251、hemical companies.Companies exceeding these caps must purchase emission allowances from the carbon trading market.The higher the carbon price in the trading region,the larger the emission cap deficit and,consequently,the higher the production costs.In contrast,biomanufacturing companies exhibit lowe

252、r emissions while contributing to GHG reduction.They can offset their production emissions by exchanging carbon credits and selling them in the market,translating this into a cost advantage.With higher production capacity and greater GHG reductions,economies of scale reduce costs,resulting in a comp

253、etitive advantage.Carbon credits,which are traded in the carbon credit market,are reductions in carbon emissions through voluntarily implemented mitigation activities.Buying carbon credits is a way for companies to address emissions they cannot eliminate.Many countries are combining local carbon cre

254、dit mechanisms with carbon emissions trading systems or carbon taxes as offsets,which will be an important source of demand for carbon credits in the future.The bio-based product itself could be used as potential carbon credits.The imposition of carbon taxes similarly signifies increased production

255、costs for fossil-based products,which benefits the bio-based industry.In terms of the form of carbon taxation,some countries introduce it as an independent tax category,while others incorporate it into existing energy or consumption tax structures.In some cases,it replaces previous fuel taxes.Carbon

256、 taxes are typically levied on fossil fuels.Some EU countries enforce strict measures,such as Germanys imposing a consumption tax of 47.04 cents per litre on diesel,while the biodiesel tax,after tax reductions,is only 18.60 euro cents per litre.2.4 Two examples of the impact of bioeconomy policies o

257、n livelihoodsThe bioeconomy,a new economic paradigm,spans the agriculture,food,health care,energy and industrial sectors.National bioeconomy policies can significantly impact human livelihoods and transform lifestyles.In most cases,biotechnology and bio-Global Bioeconomy Assessment21industry develop

258、ment foster economic growth,employment and poverty reduction.Some bio-based projects support ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation.However,immoderate bioeconomy expansion can harm local livelihoods.This subsection discusses local bioeconomy policies benefits and risks,elucidating their me

259、chanisms.It aims to inform future policy development and improvement for human livelihoods.2.4.1 Palm oil:the gold oil that maintains Indonesias trade balanceAccording to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO),global biodiesel production more than doubled between 2010 and 2

260、020,reflecting a worldwide shift in energy consumption from fossil oil to biodiesel.Countries including Brazil,Colombia,France,Indonesia,Malaysia and the USA actively pursue biodiesel blending policies with higher targets.This has driven an expansion of oil palm cultivation in South-East Asia,primar

261、ily Indonesia and Malaysia.Indonesia,a leading palm oil producer,possesses significant palm oil resources for biodiesel production.In response to fossil energy depletion and climate change,the Indonesian Government focuses on diversification to enhance national energy security,particularly by increa

262、sing renewable energy use.In 2006,Indonesia issued several key policies,including Presidential Instruction No.1/2006,to promote biofuel development.These measures significantly boosted domestic palm oil and palm biodiesel production.The EUs 2020 Renewable Energy Directive mandates higher renewable e

263、nergy use in the transport sector,driving European demand for biodiesel.Europe imports substantial quantities of low-cost raw materials like palm oil from countries such as Indonesia because of insufficient local vegetable oil resources.As the worlds largest palm oil exporter,Indonesia benefits econ

264、omically from palm oil exports.Biodiesels rise stimulates the palm oil industry and creates employment opportunities for Indonesians.Promoting economic development:Palm oil,as Indonesias second-largest export product,contributes significantly to Indonesias GDP.Relying on Indonesias implementation of

265、 the B30 programme(biodiesel 30 per cent blend)greatly reduced the dependence on imported fossil fuels,which is significant for Indonesia to maintain the countrys trade balance and current account deficit.Fig.2.2 Indonesias palm oil exports value and its proportion of total exports valueIndonesia pa

266、lm oil exports value(million dollars)Proportion of exports value05,00010,00015,00025,00030,00020,000Palm oil exports valueProportion of total exports value200620092002110,36817,60215,38516,52826,6654,8180.0%2.0%4.0%6.0%8.0%10.0%12.0%14.0%Note:Data adapted from United Nations Comtrade(2023

267、)using HS principles,including Total modes of transport and Total customs procedure codes.Global bioeconomy policy overview and emerging trends22Generating employment opportunities:The palm oil industry chain expansion enhances sectors such as edible oil,soap and cosmetics,contributing to rural pove

268、rty reduction.Such has been the case in Indonesia,with its poverty alleviation goals in rural areas being reduced,including for migrant workers and all household categories(FAO 2021).And the proportion of employment in rural areas is very high.In Riau Province,the direct employment ratio of the indu

269、stry is about 17 per cent.In Siak County,the ratio is about 38 per cent(Ngadi 2013).It also substantially contributes to state revenues,with the Palm Oil Plantation Fund Management Agency generating USD 105 million in 2020(Nurfatriani et al.2018).Supporting quality education:Palm oil cultivation inc

270、reases the income level of households,enabling them to increase their consumption expenditure,especially on non-food and education(Euler et al.2017).As a result,the dropout rate of palm oil families is relatively lower.Also,as fewer units of labour are required in the cultivation of palm oil compare

271、d with other crops(Chrisendo,Siregar and Qaim 2021),more children are freed from labour on family farms to pursue schooling instead.Overall,the development of the bioeconomy in Indonesia is seen as an important means of achieving medium-and long-term development goals,focusing on the use of biomass

272、resources such as palm oil to increase energy diversification and self-sufficiency(SDG 7)as well as promoting the modernization of agriculture and the transformation and upgrading of industry(SDGs 2,9 and 12).The palm oil and biodiesel industry chain are central to supporting lives and livelihoods i

273、n Indonesia,especially in rebuilding the rural economy after major disasters such as epidemics.2.4.2 Soybeans:driving domestic demand growth and ecological conservation in BrazilSoybean is another important crop in the bioeconomy era.According to the Global Agricultural Supply and Demand Report rele

274、ased by the US Department of Agriculture,the worlds soybean production in 2021/2022 was 385.52 million tons,primarily supplied by Brazil,the USA and Argentina.Approximately 94 per cent of global soybeans are dedicated to industrial processing,with 1820 per cent used for edible oil,biodiesel and chem

275、icals(Karp et al.2022).The FAO Statistical Yearbook notes that 130 million hectares were planted with soybeans in 2021/2022,with Brazil cultivating 36.95 million hectares at an average yield of 3.38 tons per hectare and the USA planting 30.33 million hectares with an average yield of 3.19 tons per h

276、ectare(Embrapa 2020).Promoting rural development:Soybeans agricultural production demands the application of modern technologies.Consequently,the majority of its production occurs in large estates equipped with substantial machinery,primarily situated in the central-west region in Brazil.In order to

277、 stimulate the development of the least developed regions characterized by small-scale production,managerial deficiencies and technological limitations in this country,the National Plan for Biodiesel was introduced in 2004.According to the programme,measures were taken to enhance the efficiency of s

278、mallholders,including creating provincial and municipal biofuel firms,providing technical support to cooperatives,and promoting intercropping.From 2008 to 2010,smallholder participation increased fourfold,exceeding 100,000(Zapata,Vazquez-Brust and Plaza-beda 2010).This had empowered small-scale prod

279、ucers with more employment opportunities and income(Schaffel et al.2012;Bergmann et al.2013;da Silva Csar et al.2015;De Oliveira and Coelho 2017).Maintaining food security:Since 2016,Brazils soybean and biodiesel industry has shifted to larger,more efficient farms and businesses,growing to 27 per ce

280、nt of the agricultural GDP and 7 per cent of the overall economy.Advanced breeding and transgenic technologies have improved soybean resilience and oil content,addressing food security and global edible oil and feed demands.Double-cropping of soybean and maize has also saved arable land,reducing lan

281、d pressure in other pan-tropical countries experiencing rising food demand(Xu et al.2021).Maintaining energy security:Soybean biodiesel development reduces Brazils dependence on fossil fuels,enhancing energy supply diversity.Modern agricultural methods,such as precision farming and mechanized harves

282、ting,boost production efficiency Global Bioeconomy Assessment23and reduce energy waste.Soybean cultivation by-products,such as soybean straw,support biomass energy production,in turn advancing renewable energy use.In contrast to Indonesia,Brazils economic growth hinges on domestic demand,with foreig

283、n trade making up a smaller GDP share.Brazils biodiesel policy prioritizes domestic market needs social welfare and regional development.The“Bioeconomy in Brazil”strategy aims to boost rural employment and income(SDGs 1,2 and 8),leveraging biodiversity and biological resources to innovate products a

284、nd services,enhance energy security and cut GHG emissions(SDGs 7 and 13).2.4.3 Womens empowermentThe bioeconomy vision not only impacts technology and productivity but also fosters social change and reduces economic disparities.It significantly enhances gender equality by providing opportunities for

285、 underrepresented groups including women and minorities in STEM fields,as well as challenging stereotypes and career barriers.Bioeconomy projects,often linked to community and rural development,empower women in decision-making and project planning,elevating their social status and confidence.By offe

286、ring economic participation for women,the bioeconomy fosters their financial independence,reducing household dependence and enhancing their role in decision-making and resource allocation.Women also face challenges in accessing resources such as land,credit and technology(United Nations Environment

287、Programme et al.2013).In bioeconomy,where agriculture and natural resource management are important,addressing gender disparities in access to resources is essential to promoting equitable participation and benefits(FAO 2022).2.4.4 Conclusions and prospectsBioeconomy policies aim to drive biomass in

288、novation,recycling and the coordinated development of bio-based industries.The sustainable bioeconomys status and national strategies differ across countries,shaped by their unique circumstances.InArgentina,the bioeconomy focuses on sustainable development,particularly climate change mitigation(SDG

289、13)and poverty reduction(SDG 1)(Bracco et al.2018).Germany prioritizes food security(SDG 3),transitioning to a renewable-based economy,biodiversity preservation and innovation(SDGs 6,7 and 9).Malaysia sees the bioeconomy as a key driver of economic growth,emphasizing agricultural productivity,health

290、-care innovation and sustainable industrial processes(SDGs 3,9 and 15).However,some potential threats still cannot be ignored.Questions about its increasing expansion have resurfaced along with the overall rise of the bioeconomy agenda.Experience has shown that environmental impacts,such as air and

291、water pollution,are not the only problems but that political,economic and social issues cannot be ignored.Food and fuel competition:Economic expansion can allow agricultural land to grow,with projected crop yields increasing by 1.4 per cent annually by 2030.However,diverting food crops or arable lan

292、d for biofuel production may cause food scarcity,price hikes and increased hunger and malnutrition among people experiencing poverty.For instance,transforming grasslands or natural areas into oil palm plantations disrupts local livelihoods(Santika et al.2019).Human rights undermining:Palm oil cultiv

293、ation and processing often entail significant land,water and labour requirements,resulting in social issues.Some countries and companies use forced land expropriation,deforestation and eviction of local residents to expand palm oil cultivation,violating the rights of Indigenous and Afro-descendant c

294、ommunities(Rulli et al.2019).Inadequate regulation and standards in the palm oil industry have led to labour exploitation,environmental pollution and tax evasion,negatively impacting the industry(Tang and Al Qahtani 2020).Equity concerns:Developed regions like Europe,with strong GHG reduction needs,

295、may drive biofuel crop growth in Asia,Africa and Latin America,potentially straining land and resources in those regions while enhancing their economies.For example,the global palm oil market is dominated by Indonesia and Malaysia,generating substantial economic benefits.Global bioeconomy policy ove

296、rview and emerging trends24In contrast,some African countries face challenges with participating in the palm oil trade because of a lack of technical,financial and policy support,leading to imbalances in development and wealth disparities(Jha and Schmidt 2021).Deforestation:Rising bioeconomy interes

297、t increases demand for wood biomass,potentially resulting in intensive forest management,monoculture planting,chemical use and forest clearing.Tropical countries face sustainability challenges,experiencing a net loss of approximately 7.6 million hectares of forest annually from 2010 to 2015(FAO 2011

298、a).Biodiversity:The impacts of the bioeconomy on biodiversity are complicated.On the one hand,the bioeconomy can incentivize biodiversity conservation and restoration.Replacing fossil fuels with renewable bioresources reduces GHG emissions,mitigating climate changes threat to biodiversity.Utilizing

299、high-value native and indigenous species enhances local community incomes,promotes biodiversity awareness and action and improves biodiversity monitoring with biotechnology and digital technologies.On the other hand,the bioeconomy can negatively impact biodiversity.Meeting biomass demand may overexp

300、loit land,water and natural resources,resulting in ecosystem degradation,pollution and destruction.Enhanced crop or animal yields may standardize genetic resources,reducing diversity.Using novel biological resources or technologies may introduce invasive species or genetically modified components th

301、at disrupt natural balances and evolutionary processes.Balancing these aspects is vital when formulating policies for a sustainable environment.In summary,the bioeconomy offers economic growth,social welfare and environmental benefits but poses risks regarding food security,public health,social just

302、ice,cultural diversity and biodiversity.These effects are often unevenly distributed,requiring policy trade-offs for environmental sustainability.Global Bioeconomy Assessment253Conversion technologies and prospects of bio-based productsConversion technologies and prospects of bio-based products26Wit

303、h the continuous introduction of bio-based products,bio-based products production and conversion technologies is constantly innovative.This chapter analyzes the typical conversion technology of bio-based products(bio-based energy,bio-based chemicals,bio-based plastics,textiles and pulp products)and

304、their development prospects.3.1 Biomass energy products3.1.1 Biomass energy products conversion routesBased on physical properties,biomass energy can be divided into solid fuels,liquid fuels and other fuels.The main biomass feedstocks,conversion technologies and products are shown in Fig.3.1.Solid f

305、uel technologies mainly include biomass briquette technology and biochar technology.Biochar refers to a highly aromatic and non-melting carbon-rich substance produced from biomass through high-temperature decomposition under complete or partial anaerobic conditions(Pelaez-Samaniego et al.2022).Fig.3

306、.1 Pathways for the energy utilization of different biomass resourcesProductBiomass feedstockCropsOilseedsOrganic waste from urban and rural areasAlgae Agricultural residues Forest residues Energy plantLivestock manureWaste oilGasificationFermentationAcetificationCombustionHydro-genation of oilCompr

307、ession moldingThermal decom-positionAnaerobic digestionFuel gasBio-ethanolBiodieselMethaneBio-jet fuelSolid fuelsPyrolysis gasBio-oilElectricityConversion technologyGlobal Bioeconomy Assessment27Solid fuel technologies in Europe and the USA are at the forefront,with well-established standards system

308、s.Germany,Sweden and other countries have solid fuel production capacities exceeding 20 million tons per year.China has made significant progress in producing and applying biomass solid fuels.However,in recent years,the development of the shaped fuel industry in China has shown a trend of initial gr

309、owth followed by a decline.This has mainly resulted from the controversial environmental benefits of direct biomass combustion for power generation;and some provinces have even restricted biomass co-firing power generation projects(Ma et al.2019).Liquid biofuels,including fuel ethanol,biodiesel and

310、bio-jet fuel,are the main biofuels,having an average compound annual growth rate of 4.1 per cent.According to current EU regulations,biofuels are divided into two categories.The first category is conventional biofuels,mainly produced from food crops such as rapeseed methyl ester,soy methyl ester and

311、 palm methyl ester.Conventional biofuels are still the primary type of biodiesel production.The second category is advanced biofuels,which are produced from non-food crops.There are two types in this category,namely PART A and PART B.PART A mainly uses non-edible parts of various crops as raw materi

312、als,producing bioethanol and hydrogenated vegetable oil.PART B mainly utilizes waste oils and fats,including animal fats,to produce used cooking oil methyl ester(Renewable Energy Directive and Renewable Energy Directive II).Currently,global bioethanol production mostly comes from starch biomass,whil

313、e cellulosic raw materials have advantages since they do not directly compete with food.Compared with crops,cellulosic raw materials require less inputs(such as water,nutrients and land).However,due to immature technologies,the production cost remains high and is not suitable for large-scale industr

314、ial production.Biogas technology has reached maturity and achieved industrialization.The biomass gasification process generates CO2,carbon and high-calorific value gases such as hydrogen,methane,and ethane from biomass at high temperatures.Gasification aims to produce syngas from biomass,with carbon

315、 and hydrogen as the primary components.Syngas can be used as a hydrogen source in various applications,including fuel cells and ammonia production.Syngas can be converted via Fischer-Tropsch(FT)synthesis into liquid hydrocarbons.Further,syngas can be easily used to produce high-value chemicals.In s

316、ummary,the gasification process provides an alternative approach to utilizing sustainable and renewable resources(Tezer et al.2022).Europe is the most advanced region in biogas technology.Germany has the highest number of rural biogas projects in the world.Sweden is the leading country in biogas pur

317、ification for vehicle use.Denmark is known for its distinctive centralized biogas project(Pavii et al.2022).Large-scale biogas projects have seen rapid development in China,with heat and power cogeneration becoming common models.3.1.2 BiodieselLiquid biofuel has become the most promising alternative

318、 fuel.In transportation,liquid biofuels offer valuable zero-carbon solutions,of which biodiesel and bio-jet fuel are the focus of research.The first generation of biodiesel is the esterification of animal and plant oils(fatty acid triglycerides)and alcohols under the catalysis and chemical reactions

319、 to obtain fatty acid methyl esters.However,due to the low combustion value and high freezing point of the first-generation biodiesel,the use scenario is limited and it can only be added and used in a particular proportion(usually 20 per cent).Currently,ester-based biodiesel is mainly used in land t

320、ransportation and mixed with fossil diesel.In addition,it is also the raw material for a variety of bio-based chemical raw material products.Hydrocarbon-based biodiesel,known as the second generation of biodiesel,takes animal fats extracted from used cooking oils and non-edible corn oil as raw mater

321、ials and is produced by hydrogenation,isomerization and fractionation.Hydrocarbon-based biodiesel is an actual hydrocarbon,meeting the American Society of Testing Materials(ASTM)International Diesel Fuel Oil Standard(D975),and is known as the“low-carbon twin of petroleum diesel”,able to reduce GHG e

322、missions by 80 per cent.The third generation of biodiesel is to broaden the selection of raw materials,usually using lipids from microorganisms,especially Conversion technologies and prospects of bio-based products28microalgae and yeast.Still,because of the difficulty of extraction and separation,th

323、e current technology is under development,accounting for less than 2 per cent of the world.However,it has a higher carbon emission reduction effect,the raw materials do not occupy arable land,there are no scale restrictions and it is a preparation process with long-term development potential(Pydimal

324、la et al.2023).Biodiesel has no advantage over traditional petrochemical diesel in the combustion stage,but plants absorb CO2 through photosynthesis during the growth process in the production stage,which significantly reduces the CO2 emissions of biodiesel in the whole life cycle.However,scientists

325、 have found that the carbon reduction effect of some plant-based biodiesel is worse than expected and that the carbon emissions of the entire life cycle will even exceed that of petrochemical diesel.The carbon emission calculation of plant-based biodiesel mentioned above only considers the carbon em

326、issions directly related to production during the life cycle(planting,transportation,preparation,usage)and does not take indirect carbon emissions into account(land-use change,chemicals).For example,when demand for plant-based biodiesel increases,farmers cut down more of their forests for arable lan

327、d,a process known in the EU as indirect land-use change(ILUC).ILUC releases CO2 in the form of forest carbon sinks into the atmosphere,greatly increasing the carbon emissions in the whole life cycle of biodiesel.In the case of ILUC,the life cycle carbon emissions of vegetable oil-based oils will exc

328、eed those of traditional petrochemical diesel,which is one of the major reasons why the EU is preparing to restrict vegetable oil-based biodiesel(Overmars et al.2011).In addition,the cost of biodiesel is higher than conventional petrochemical diesel,which will further hinder the development of biodi

329、esel without subsidy in the current circumstance(Gebremariam and Marchetti 2018).3.1.3 Bio-jet fuelWith the rapid development of the aviation industry and the continuous increase in air traffic,the global demand for jet fuel is growing rapidly.Also,the electrification of the aviation industry does n

330、ot seem techno-economically feasible.Using bio-jet fuel produced from biomass can alleviate the pressure of fossil energy and reduce GHG emissions.Bio-jet fuel refers to the jet fuel formed directly or indirectly by using biomass raw materials,and most of the bio-jet fuel is mixed with fossil jet fu

331、el in a volume fraction of less than 50 per cent.Compared with fossil jet fuel,bio-jet fuel has low sulfur content,high thermal stability and good low-temperature fluidity.It is compatible with the fuel system of conventional engines and can be used directly in aircraft engines without modification.

332、Australia,the USA and many European countries are actively promoting the application of bio-jet fuel.China,Japan,the United Arab Emirates and other countries are also piloting or planning the development of bio-jet fuel(Wei et al.2019).ASTM first proposed the certification for sustainable aviation f

333、uel for testing and materials.In 2009,ASTM-approved fuels produced by the FT process as the first biofuel for commercial flight use.There are also some other pathways being certified to complete the specification.At present,the main technologies include FT,hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids(HEFA),synthesized iso-paraffins(SIP)and alcohol-to-jet(ATJ).Global Bioeconomy Assessment29The FT pathway