1、Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationImplemented bySupported bybased on a decision of the German BundestagImprintAs a federally owned enterprise,GIZ supports the German Government inachieving its objectives in the field of international cooperation for sustainabledeve

2、lopment.Published byDeutsche Gesellschaft frInternationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbHRegistered officesBonn and Eschborn,Germany AddressTayuan Diplomatic Office Building 2-514 Liangmahe South Street,Chaoyang District100600,Beijing,PR ChinaT+86-(0)10-8527 5589F+86-(0)10-8527 5591E transition-chinagiz.de

3、https:/transition-china.org/mobility ProjectSino-German Cooperation on Low Carbon Transport(CLCT)CLCT is part of the International Climate Initiative(IKI).IKI is workingunder the leadership of the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs andClimate Action,in close cooperation with its founder,the Feder

4、al Ministry ofEnvironment and the Federal Foreign Office.ResponsibleSebastian Ibold(GIZ)E transition-chinagiz.dehttps:/transition-china.org/mobility AuthorsChina Academy of Transportation Sciences Dr Zhifang YIN,Wandi ZHANG,Chao LI EditorsGIZ Sebastian Ibold,Chenzi YIYANG,Dr Marie Peters LayoutBeiji

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7、 from such content.Beijing,20222Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationExecutive Summary 31Introduction 51.1Background and Objective 61.2Methodology 72Global Development of Maas 82.1The MaaS Concept and Its Emergence into Transport Discourse 92.2MaaS Development Worldwi

8、de 112.3Policies,Regulations,and Standards Related to MaaS 133Development Status oF MoD Services in China 193.1The Development of MoD Services in China 203.2Policy Analysis 243.3Analysis of the Impact of MoD Services on Traditional Public Transportation 263.4Stakeholders of MoD Services in China 304

9、From MoD to Maas explorations by Chinese Cities 34 36 40 43 45 474.1Regional Integration through MaaS in the Greater Bay Area 4.2Shenzhen:Government Initiation in Data-Sharing 4.3Foshan:Transit Community as a Potential MaaS Platform 4.4Guangzhou:First Chinese City to Enable Payment Integration 4.5Be

10、ijing:Combination of MaaS Platform with Carbon Credit System 4.6Summary 505Identification of Key Factors of Maas 515.1Challenges for the Development of MaaS 525.2Survey Results 536Policy Recommendations 546.1Enable Effective Data Sharing 556.2Use MaaS as a Tool to Promote Sustainable Transportation

11、566.3Establish a Sustainable Business Model 57REFERENCES 63Content3Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationExecutive SummaryThe advancements in information and communication technologies(ICT)have unlocked new opportunities for innovative urban mobility services.Smartphon

12、e-based Mobility-on-Demand(MoD)services such as ride-hailing,dockless bike-sharing or car-sharing have exploded in China on a scale that is incomparable to any other country.For example,in 2019,the number of average ride-hailing orders in China was over 21 million per day and there were about 400 mi

13、llion registered shared bike users.With the aim to systematically analyze the status of MoD development in China and layout the institutional foundations for the creation of a sustainable and climate-friendly MaaS ecosystem,the Sino-German Cooperation on Low Carbon Transport(CLCT)project of the Deut

14、sche Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH and the China Academy of Transportation Sciences(CATS)of the Ministry of Transport of the Peoples Republic of China(MoT)conducted the study“From Mobility-on-demand to Mobility-as-a Service:Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Tra

15、nsport Integration”from 2020 to 2022.The study collected first-hand data through interviews and surveys with local transport authorities,public transport service providers,MoD Service provider in the Greater Bay Area(GBA)of China(including the urban agglomeration as well as the city of Guangzhou,She

16、nzhen,and Foshan)and the city of Beijing.While“MaaS”has appeared in central and local policies and regulations in China,it has not yet been clearly defined.In this study,MaaS is regarded as a mobility distribution service that integrates multiple modes of transport into a unified service system and

17、platform based on the understanding of customers travel needs.To provide benchmarking to Chinas MoD and MaaS development,the study refers to the six level of MaaS travel service integration(Jack Opiola,2018),summarises 25 MaaS programs worldwide,and analyses some of their main features in Chapter 2.

18、In the last decade,the MoD services including ride hailing and dockless bike sharing went through start-up period,high-speed development period,shuffling stage,and entered into a stage of consolidated development with several established players including Didi Chuxing,Meituan Dianing,Amap,and HelloB

19、ike.By the end of 2020,there are 365.28 million of registered ride-hailing users in China and over 400 million registered shared bike users.With fragmented management responsibilities at the central level and largely decentralized local decision-making,systematic integration between private MoD serv

20、ice provider and public transport operators with shared data is especially challenging.Chapter 3 analyses the market development of MoD,current policies and stakeholders for MoD and MaaS development in China.Based on field investigation,Chapter 4 analysed five cases of MaaS exploration in Chinese ci

21、ties:The GBA government encouraged third-party to develop“one-order”intermodal passenger transport services that covers the entire area of 11 cities,includes urban transport,intercity transport,and cross-border transport.Shenzhen actively led the sharing of government transport data to the MoD servi

22、ces to encourage fair competition and improve their service level.At the same time,it initiated an On-demand Bus Pilot project called Maishi Chuxing,a phonic translation of MaaS Mobility in Chinese.Foshan is unique due to its developed transit alliance which integrates the services of different bus

23、operators.Guangzhou provides an example of a region with an app that offers the option for users to create joint booking and integrated payment for buses and shared bikes.Beijing launched an official MaaS platform in collaboration with Amap and Baidu Map,aiming to provide residents with a one-stop t

24、ravel service that includes smart routing and full navigation services,and green incentives.The Beijing MaaS grants post-trip incentives for choosing low carbon travel including using public transport,walking,and biking.4Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationBased on O

25、piolas six level of MaaS integration,although with highly development MoD services,the investigated Chinese cities are still at the early phase of MaaS development where integration on travel booking,payment and collaboration between public and private operators are not well-developed.In supporting

26、Chinas development of a sustainable MaaS in the near future,the study provides the following recommendation:Enable effective data sharing a.Establish data sharing standards.b.Promote a data classification and hierarchical protection system.c.Establish a comprehensive data security supervision and ma

27、nagement system.d.Form a data sharing mechanism for MaaS systems.Use MaaS as a Tool to Promote Sustainable Transportationa.Advocate for municipal governments to follow the principle of sustainable development and establish MaaS in accordance with their citys target visions for carbon dioxide peaking

28、 and carbon neutrality.b.The allocation and use of public resources such as roads and parking spaces should be reconsidered.c.Carry out comprehensive impact assessment work on the development of MaaS.d.Provide equity for users with special needs,such as elderly,children,and disabled people.e.Using M

29、aaS as a platform for urban-rural mobility connection.Establish a Sustainable Business Modela.Encourage market innovation.b.Encourage flexible and diverse cooperation between public transportation companies and MaaS-related service providers.c.Encourage the application of blockchain technology to bu

30、ild a trust system.1INTRODUCTION6Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationIn recent years,global climate change and environmental pollution caused by energy consumption have put tremendous pressure on worldwide transport sectors to foster a transition to low carbon techno

31、logies.With the global trend of urbanization,a further rapid increase in the number of motor vehicles is expected,which again drives the need for a sustainable transport transition.Technologies such as the Internet of Things(IoT),Artificial Intelligence(AI),big data,cloud computing,and other innovat

32、ions provide potential for sustainable development by creating innovative transportation resources.The promotion of intelligent and shared urban travel methods has become a major trend in urban transportation in many countries around the world.Various new app-based Mobility-on-Demand(MoD)services ha

33、ve emerged in the last decade,and attempts to develop them towards Mobility-as-a-Service(MaaS)models are on the way.MoD services refer to customized,end to end travel services based on the needs of users,such as ride-hailing,bike-sharing or car-sharing,powered by the convenience and widespread avail

34、ability of smartphones.MaaS is a mobile distribution model that integrates different forms of transportation services into an online platform in which travellers can book travel services and obtain customized,point-to-point travel options.These new and thriving mobility solutions also come with chal

35、lenges.Due to a lack of integration with public systems,MoD services could actually compete with public transport and thus increase the number trips users make by car,further increasing congestion and leading to a further rise in emissions of carbon and other pollutants(Wang,et al,2022).The competit

36、ion between MoD services and traditional transport modes such as taxis,buses,docked bike sharing,etc.has increasingly become an issue.For example,taxi drivers in many countries protested the perceived unfair competition they face with online car-hailing services and demanded that governments Backgro

37、und and Objective1.11 China Smart Transport Association:China has over 400 million registered share-bike user,XinjingBao,8th September,2020,https:/ 2 Ride Hailing Operation Statistics,Ministry of Transport of the Peoples Republic of China,18th September,2021.https:/ For a summary and further discuss

38、ion of the policy outline,see Sebastian Ibold and Jingzhu Li,“Outline for Building Chinas Strength in Transport How China Wants to Become a Global Transport Superpower,”Sustainable Transport in China,11th October,2019,https:/transition-china.org/mobilityposts/outline-for-building-chinas-strength-in-

39、transport/implement stricter regulations for online ride-hailing in the early phase of the emergence of this industry1.Dealing with these conflicts and the resulting problems between MoD services and traditional public transport systems has become a major challenge for governments at all levels.In C

40、hina,the MoD services market is booming,with the scale of the industry being far ahead of that in other countries,and the services still have huge potential for further growth.As one example,looking at the dockless bike-sharing industry,Chinas MoD operators have provided a total of 19.5 million shar

41、ed bicycles to approximately 400 million users,who have taken an average number of over 47 million daily trips by 20201.Over the same timeline,China hosted 240 car-hailing companies,with a daily order volume of about 21 million trips2.As MoD services have further developed in China over recent years

42、,their conflicts with traditional transportation methods have become more prominent.Therefore,the effective regulation of MoD services and their integration with existing public transport systems is a key priority for policy makers in China.Furthermore,to mitigate urban traffic congestion,noise and

43、air pollution,and to make transport more seamless,inclusive,and eventually climate-friendly,transport integration between different mobility services is also key.One potential solution to achieve a higher degree of integration between services is MaaS.As MaaS offers a new paradigm by placing the use

44、rs needs at the centre of the transport system,it is considered a potential solution to urban transportation development problems(Barreto,et al.2018).The Chinese government is actively promoting the development of MaaS in national policies and guidelines.For example,in the Outline for Building China

45、s Strength in Transport,a top-level policy for the long-term development of Chinas transport sector released in September 2019,the integrated development of MaaS was emphasised.3This study aims at laying out the institutional foundations for the creation of a MaaS ecosystem,integrating MoD and tradi

46、tional transport modes with the goal 7Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integrationof contributing to more effective,seamless,inclusive,and climate-friendly transport systems in China.Policy recommendations at the institutional level are therefore provided,aimed at ensuring t

47、he sustainable promotion and regulation of MoD within an integrated framework.This study will serve to equip Chinese policy makers and relevant governmental authorities with effective and efficient implementation strategies to further develop a low carbon transport sector in China.With similar trans

48、itions required worldwide,this research also provides valuable examples and experiences beyond the study region.The overall objectives of the study are as follows:a.Identify the status of the integration of MoD and traditional transport services in China,and summarise their key aspects and the poten

49、tials of MoD and/or of the integration of MoD and traditional transport services;b.Identify and analyse the key elements and stakeholders required for establishing the basis for a MaaS ecosystem integrating MoD and traditional transport services in China;c.Identify the key drivers and barriers for t

50、he establishment of a MaaS ecosystem in China;d.Provide specific policy recommendations to facilitate the establishment of a MaaS ecosystem integrating MoD and traditional transport services in China,and;e.Facilitate experience and knowledge exchanges with regards to the integration of MoD and tradi

51、tional transport services into a MaaS ecosystem in China through Sino-German cooperation.The scope of this study is urban transportation,excluding intercity travel.It focuses on existing MoD services(namely ride-hailing,dockless bike-sharing,and car-sharing services,as these are the three most promi

52、nent forms of MoD in China).The research methods are:a.Literature review.Review and assess existing research,case studies,and other sources of information regarding MoD services and the integration of different transport services towards MaaS.b.Qualitative interviews.Select three cities at different

53、 levels of development as case studies,and interview local transport authorities,traditional public transport service providers,and MoD service providers to investigate local development policies and determine what kind of policy support is needed for promoting MaaS.c.Quantitative survey.Invite rele

54、vant experts to workshops to assess the results from the study and discuss the key elements that are promoting or hindering the realisation of MaaS in China.Following the workshops,design a Delphi survey for selected stakeholders to verify the key elements identified and defined,and then summarise t

55、he key findings,opportunities and challenges towards achieving MaaS in China.d.Policy recommendations.Based on the findings of the literature review,interviews and survey,provide concrete policy recommendations and a roadmap for the system setup of MaaS for national and city level policy makers rele

56、vant to pursuing the realisation of MaaS in China.Methodology1.22GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT OF MAAS9Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationThis chapter will clarify the key elements of a successful MaaS system,introduce international best practices,and identify effective polici

57、es and regulations aiming at developing MaaS in different regional environments and diverse contexts.The first vision of a MaaS-like system was introduced in 1996 at the ENTER Conference in Innsbruck by Nico Tschanz and Hans-Dieter Zimmermann from Austria,who envisioned an“intelligent information as

58、sistant”to be used as a platform for transportation providers and customers.3 In their vision,one could search,combine and book tickets on the platform,and use many other travel related services,such as booking hotels and buying insurance.This kind of concept was ahead of its time considering that s

59、ervices,such as online booking engines,were far from sufficiently developed.In 2014,the concept of MaaS was first explicitly proposed and defined by Sampo Hietanen,chairman of the Finnish Intelligent Transportation Association.In his 2014 article entitled“Mobility as a Service the new transport mode

60、l?”,4 Hietanen defined MaaS as“a mobility distribution model in which a customers major transportation needs are met over one interface and are offered by a service provider.”The concept of MaaS rapidly became an integral part of transportation discourse.Following this initial definition of MaaS,the

61、 Intelligent Transport System(ITS)World Congress in Bordeaux in October 2015 proposed the objective of creating“a common approach to MaaS,unlocking the economies of scale needed for successful implementation and take-up of MaaS in Europe and beyond.”2 Its more than 100 participants also reflected th

62、e interdisciplinary nature of MaaS;they included transport service providers and public transport operators,private MaaS operators and integrators,IT system providers,educational institutions,ministries,as well as municipal and regional governments.In a 2017 white paper,MaaS Alliance defined MaaS as

63、“the integration of various forms of transportation services into a single mobility service accessible on demand.”3 It effectively linked the conceptualisation of MaaS with a single integrated mobility service and stressed the role of mobile devices as“command centers for personalized mobility.”Mari

64、a Kamargianni and Melinda Matyas(2017)of MaaSLab at the UCL Energy Institute expanded this definition with an emphasis on the centrality of users and technology:“A user-centric,intelligent mobility distribution model in which all mobility service providers offerings are aggregated by a sole mobility

65、 provider,the MaaS provider,and supplied to users through a single digital platform.”4 Despite the relatively recent emergence of MaaS as a concept,the nascent body of research on the subject has grown rapidly in recent years.Pangbourne et al.,reflecting on the risks inherent in an overreliance on t

66、echnology,5 emphasized that,to ensure the economic and environmental potential of MaaS,relevant stakeholders needed to monitor planning,pricing,and consumer protection as critical elements of MaaS.At the 2018 MaaS Market conference in Atlanta,USA,Jack Opiola provided a categorisation of MaaS into si

67、x different levels of travel service integration(Table 1).This categorisation framed the levels of integration as different stages in a gradual development towards a fully integrated MaaS ecosystem:6The MaaS Concept and Its Emergence into Transport Discourse2.110Promoting Chinas Transition Towards S

68、ustainable Transport Integration Table 1:Levels of Integration of Mobility Services Leading to MaaSLevelDescriptionExplanation0This is the base level,relatable with today.There are account base systems in place,individual modes of transportation already have a digitised interface and thetraveller ha

69、s information available online for each.1There is one-to-one integration between some private services.Duets of services start to develop joint offering(e.g.tolling+carpark;private car+ferry;and,car park+ride bus services)2Integrated payment and ticketing across modes of limited public and private m

70、odes of transportation services.In this level,greater integration occurs but this time between aprivate operator and a public transport mode of operation.Integration shows promise but other PT modes skeptical and continue to stay aloof.3Unified interface for single account used in multiple modes of

71、transport services.Instead of having muitiple channels,interface is unified across modes,providers and services that the traveller finds necessary for joumeys are provided by a single meta-operator through a traveller account.4All modes are integrated,private and public,including routing,ticketing,a

72、nd payment.Open data and standards are defined and commonly used by all transportation providers and MaaS meta-operators to provide services for Travellers.5Active artificial intellgent choices are taken based on travels preferences and near real time data for ad-hoc changes to a joumey.Based on tra

73、veller specific behavior and profiling,minimal(to none)intervention is needed by the traveller for an end-to-end joumey based on the travellers preferences,past travel history,and filters.6MaaS connects beyond mobility,interfacing with loTs,smart building,and smart cities.As MaaS evolves,so do other

74、 systems involved in the travellers day,such as smart work spaces,smart-homes,smart-cities,and general services(e.g.food,groceries,entertainment,sport,culture)to provide convenient and seamless interface with the Travellers eco-system.Source:Opiola,Jack.“Levels of MaaS:a US-European comparison.”Pres

75、ented at MaaSMarket:Optimising Multi-Modal Mobility.Atlanta,United States(2018).https:/www.maas- different levels of MaaS integration outlined in Table 1 are a helpful tool for understanding the gradual path towards a fully integrated MaaS ecosystem,with Level 6 even implying that MaaS would itself

76、be ultimately integrated into a wider ecosystem of urban life.This categorisation also retains certain limitations,however.Firstly,findings outlined in the table are the result of Opiolas examination of MaaS at different levels of integration in US and Europe.Would the same levels be applicable to c

77、ontexts outside of these regions?For example,could technological innovation with AI(Level 5),as is increasingly prominent in China,occur before sufficient modal integration is achieved?Similarly,the bulk of MaaS-related research is focused on a European context 11Promoting Chinas Transition Towards

78、Sustainable Transport Integration2.2.1 International CasesThis section will introduce some most well-known MaaS initiatives around the world,such as Optymod(Lyon,France),Whim(Helsinki,Finland),UbiGo(Gothenburg,Sweden),and Moovel(Germany),whose interfaces MaaS Development Worldwide2.2or politically a

79、nd administratively comparable examples,such as Australia or,again,the US.There remains a gap in literature on MaaS ecosystems as they are being developed in East Asia,and most notably,a lack of research on Chinas experience.The distinct characteristics of Chinas mobility market,technological innova

80、tion,and related political administration warrant a closer examination of the countrys experience with MaaS development.This experience rests on a gaining momentum for achieving Chinas ambitious 2030 carbon dioxide emission peaking and 2060 carbon neutrality climate targets through innovative soluti

81、ons from the transport sector.In recent years,China has seen the emergence of such solutions in the form of MoD services and a flurry of transport-related policy incentives.To address the gap identified in the literature review of a lack of information on MaaS systems development in East Asia,this s

82、tudy aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of Chinas experience,from its development of MoD services to the existing and potential integration of MoD and public transport services into MaaS ecosystems.This study will cover multiple aspects of MaaS systems,including technology,public policy and go

83、vernance,business models,and public-private cooperation.Through field investigations,the study examines Beijings MaaS trial and its efforts on carbon emission reductions,and the regional transport integration of the MaaS system in the Greater Bay Area of Guangdong Province.In this study,MaaS is rega

84、rded as a mobility distribution service.Based on a deep understanding of customers travel needs,it integrates multiple modes of transport into a unified service system and platform.Operators draw on big data to schedule and allocate an optimal selection of transport resources,ultimately meeting the

85、travel demands of customers by providing the most convenient mobility services to serve their needs.integrate different travel modes,providers,and services,and are comprised of booking,execution,and payment services.7 Looking at the levels of MaaS outlined earlier in Table 1,these MaaS systems would

86、 fit into integration levels 2 and 3.In 2013,a Swedish government research project set up a virtual company to develop an innovative transport broker service in Gothenburg,Sweden,named UbiGo.It offered its users“one-stop”access to a range of travel services through a web-interface adapted to smartph

87、ones(subsequently referred to as an app)by combining access to public transport,car-sharing,car-rental,taxi,and bike-sharing services.The service was quickly discontinued after a lack of support from the government for third-party-selling of transport tickets.8,9 In 2015,Aisin,a global supplier of a

88、utomotive components,announced its cooperation with UbiGo and provided MaaS business services via the company in 2016.After several years of operation,UbiGo could be classified as having level 3 integration with its attainment of preference amongst users.Unlike UbiGo,which was born out of a governme

89、nt project,some MaaS platforms emerged through business expansions.The Transit App,launched in 2013,was initially a public transport query tool registered in Montreal,Canada.It could display real-time information on public transport services in the users area.Transit began its development by partner

90、ing with multiple transit agencies to aggregate their schedules,publishing frequency and service information so that the user could use Transit to secure transport options in any participating city across different forms of travel.In 2016,Transit first introduced payments for bike-sharing providers.

91、In 2018,it also integrated public transport ticketing into the app and steadily added more payment options in partnership with mobile ticketing platforms including Token Transit4 and Masabi5.Today,the app also includes ride hailing services like Uber,and Lyft,as well as rail services through VIA.It

92、can be classified as having level 3 integration,in accordance with the standards of Table 1.Another way toward MaaS implementation is Public Private Cooperation(PPP).One such example of a service developed through PPP is Mobility,operated in Parma,Italy.Mobility is the result of cooperation between

93、Parmas mobility sector and the urban bus operators EMT and SMAP6.Mobility provides real-time information and travel plans for buses and public bicycles,as well as on current 12Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration4 Token Transit is an app where users can buy tickets a

94、nd passes for public transit and get digital tickets via mobile phone in United States and Canada.5 Masabi is a London based technology company that develops and markets fare collection services for public transport companies.6 EMT and SMAP are Madrids public transport operators.7 Kllinger,C.2018:Ho

95、w Helsinki became a Mobility as a Service leader.Eltis.The Urban Mobility Observatory.https:/www.eltis.org/discover/news/how-helsinki-became-mobility-service-leader 8 For a summary table of various MaaS schemes in operation,please see Annex 1.and predicted traffic conditions and available parking sp

96、aces,effectively acting as a multimodal transport route planner.The platform aims to increase the attractiveness of sustainable mobility options through the provision of real-time information and the adoption of new technologies.Since Mobility combines most public modes of transport,as well as car-s

97、haring,taxis,and even regional train transit options,it can be classified as having level 3 integration status.Another case of MaaS development through government-enterprise cooperation is Whim.MaaS Global started operating Whim in 2016,making Helsinki the first city in the world with a dedicated Ma

98、aS operator7.Through its open interface,MaaS Globals Whim platform has successively connected independent travel service platforms,such as taxi companies,public transport companies,bike-sharing and car-sharing service providers.It has developed from a single service access point to a comprehensive a

99、ccess platform for independent travel services.Whim is easy to use and has a wide range of transportation options.Users can pick a corresponding package with content and payment standards that are formulated according to their different needs.For example,users can pay for travel by binding their ban

100、k or credit cards,or instead choose to buy Whim credits to settle travel expenses on a monthly basis.With a unified interface,and ticketing and payment integration for a wide range of modes,the platform corresponds to level 3 integration.The commercial application of MaaS is widely developing rapidl

101、y worldwide.In addition to the above-mentioned applications,there are also Optymod in France,Smile in Austria,Jelbi in Germany,and My Cicero in Italy.Jelbi,for example,offers access to all transport modes available in Berlin,and may therefore also be classified as having a level 3 of travel service

102、integration.However,at present,most of these platforms8 still only serve one city,or a few cities separately.2.2.2 ImpactEven though MaaS platforms worldwide have not yet advanced into higher integration levels according to the aforementioned levels of integration outlined in Table 1,they have had p

103、ositive impacts on urban transportation,increasing the modal share of public transport and reducing the use of private vehicles.According to the International Transport Forum(ITF),the introduction of MaaS systems has reduced congestion by 37%in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area.10 According to a study

104、of Juniper Research,commuters travelling via MaaS will save,on average,37%of their baseline journey time,calculated at 67 minutes per day for drivers and 61 minutes per day across all modes.The reduction in the amounts was made through the improved route planning available with the use of MaaS platf

105、orms,and travel options provision across different mobility modes,including the accurate location and route planning of bike-sharing solutions.A person only using MaaS on weekends can already save up to an estimated 13 hours of travel time per year.11 If 33%of the total recovered travel time was use

106、d for productive business purposes,the simple implementation of MaaS could generate$733 billion in additional income worldwide.12 13Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration2.3.1 International Policies,Regulations and Standards In the EU,the European Commission ensures co

107、mpatibility,interoperability,and continuity in the Intelligent Transport System(ITS)policies of its member countries.A delegated regulation concerning the provision of EU-wide multimodal travel information services was established in 2017.This regulation made it mandatory for every member state to p

108、articipate in the National Access Point,a digital interface through which static and dynamic travel and traffic data with full compatibility and interoperability can be accessed.Member states are required to feed such data into the interface through entities such as transport providers.13 Through th

109、ese measures,policy-level support has been provided to boost the development of infrastructure for data sharing to enable the development of MaaS platforms in the EU.One example of a non-regulated market is Sweden.Even though MaaS has been developed in Sweden since 2013 and the Swedish government ha

110、s a positive attitude towards it,there are currently no special laws and regulations in place for its development.Sweden is currently drawing a roadmap for transport services for the next generation in the national infrastructure planning of 2018-2029.Planning initiatives include the development of

111、new technologies for transportation systems,the improvement of digital services,the development of door-to-door transportation chains under the use of multiple transport modes,and the combination of automated driving and electric vehicles to promote the development of MaaS.Finland,another early adop

112、ter of MaaS,opted for an approach that deregulates the market to allow access to new technologies.Finland took this approach through the establishment of the Act on Transport Services,which combined relevant transport market legislations and created the preconditions for the digitalization of transp

113、ort and new business models.14 Based on this policy,Finland realized a user-oriented mobility service by promoting the digitization of transport services and effective use of data.In January 2018,regulations related to providing open access to relevant data and the ITS Directive were issued.In July

114、2018,the various regulations related to MaaS-related transport were unified,ensuring the interoperability of data.In addition to road transport,the required qualifications for aviation,shipping,and railway services to participate in MaaS were relaxed,which was perceived as a step towards deregulatio

115、n and increased market orientation to further support the integration of these modes of transport into MaaS platforms.The core requirements of MaaS systems are digitalized transport management and data interconnection,and examples of how different countries in the EU have promoted these steps have b

116、een outlined here.In particular,the Swedish approach reflects the efforts required to provide a legislative foundation for the digitization of transport.On the other hand,as shown in the Finnish approach,deregulated markets have relatively low requirements that need to be met to access systems relat

117、ing to the transport industry,which has been beneficial to their development of MaaS.This demonstrates that though countries may pursue different paths to MaaS development,they may still end up with similarly effective systems.2.3.2 Chinese Policies,Regulations and StandardsChinas transportation sec

118、tor is strictly regulated,setting it apart from the deregulation of the industry that has occurred in other countries.The country is still taking efficient steps however,to develop MaaS systems,in its own specific context.In July 2015,the State Council issued the Guiding Opinion on Actively Promotin

119、g the“Internet Plus9”Action Plan.In regards to transportation,the Plan encouraged apps and internet platforms to provide real-time public traffic information to answer queries,support route planning,allow online ticket purchases,provide intelligent parking services for users,and promote the overall

120、compatibility and interconnectivity of data from multiple sources and realize“one-stop”services based on an internet platform.The Plan includes a statement 9 “Internet Plus”(Hulianwang Jia 互联网+)mean the integration of the Internet of Things and traditional industry.Policies,Regulations,and Standards

121、 Related to MaaS2.314Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integrationon promoting“the compatibility and interconnection of data from multiple data sources”,which is similar to EU measures,requiring member states entities to provide compatibility data.This Plan can be regarded as

122、 the first official step towards MaaS development in China,even though the term“MaaS”does not yet appear in the document.In August 2019,the General Office of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China issued the Guiding Opinions on Promoting the Healthy Development of Platform Economy,which

123、provides policy support for regulating the influx of digital information technology,social capital and innovative ideas into the transport industry,and further supports the development of MaaS platforms.Five measures can be summarized from this policy:1.Simplify administrative processes and provide

124、clear policy guidance on establishing a platform economy;2.Issue inclusive and prudent regulations on the platform economy;3.Encourage platform development;4.Optimize the development environment,and;5.Enhance legal guarantees of stockholders.The first two measures intend to deregulate the transport

125、sector,which is conducive to the development of MaaS.On July 25,2019,the Ministry of Transport of the Peoples Republic of China(MoT)issued the Outline of Digital Transport Development Planning,to define the next stage of MaaS.The policy envisages to take advantage of existing internet platforms as t

126、he starting point,deepen multi-source data collection,integrate online and offline resources,encourage open access to all passenger ticketing systems,and create digital travel assistance,to provide“end to end”customized travel services for passengers.MaaS is clearly advocated in this policy as the l

127、ink between travel demand and transport services to provide instant and articulate solutions.Even though the elaborations on the development of MaaS platforms is only discussed in a small section of this policy,it is still a milestone document for MaaS in China as,for the first time,MaaS appears as

128、an explicitly proposed system in an official policy of the MoT.Building on this milestone inclusion,the Outline of Digital Transport Development Planning aims to create an“intelligent mobile space”in which passengers travel,business,shopping,and entertainment plans are mutually integrated to create

129、a new travel experience.The document also promotes digitalization and encourages and standardizes the development of customized city buses,intelligent parking and public transport systems,car maintenance solutions,online ride hailing,bicycle sharing,and car-sharing and other new urban travel service

130、s.Also in 2019,a high-level strategy,the Outline for Building Chinas Strength in Transportation was published by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council.In this strategy,MaaS is again clearly mentioned as a measure to“accelerate the development of new business for

131、ms and new models.”In conclusion,existing Chinese policies demonstrate positive attitudes towards the development of MaaS systems in China.However,to further develop MaaS systems effectively,systematic regulation and guidelines are needed to clearly define how these systems would function,what would

132、 legitimately make them MaaS systems,and what their strategic potential is to the overall transport industry.Furthermore.more details on the rights and responsibilities of various stakeholders and specific regulations on the establishment of necessary integrated payment systems,information and data

133、sharing options,and the actual operation of digitalized interfaces are needed.Such policies should not only touch upon technological needs,but also on consumer rights and benefits,as well as safety issues.To achieve this,cross cutting policies in relation to social-economic planning,urban and transp

134、ort planning,and climate change and carbon neutrality planning are needed.15Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Table 2:Transit App,Optymod,Mobility 2.9 Services.SHIFT-Project 100,UbiGo,Mobility ShopScheme(Area)TransitApp(USA,UK,Canada,Europe,Australia)Optymod(Lyon,

135、France)Mobility 2.0 Services(Palma,Spain)SHIFTProject 100(Las Vegas,USA)UbiGo(Gothenburg,Sweden)Mobility Shop(Hannover,Germany)Status&Starting TimeOperational(2012)Operational(2012)Pilot(2013)Operational(20132015)Pilot(20132014)Operational(2014)Transport Modes|&ServicesPublic Transport(PT)(Inc.local

136、 ferry)Bike sharingCar sharingTaxiRide-hailingPTBike sharingRegional trainParkingPTBike sharingTaxiBike sharingCar sharingTaxiShared shuttlePTBike sharingCar sharingCar rentalTaxiPTCar sharingTaxiRegional trainsTariff OptionPay-per-useNonePay-per-useMonthlytariffMonthlytariffFixed monthlymembershipt

137、o accessdiscounted tariffInterfaceApp/WebAppApp/WebAppAppAppFunctionsReal time info.Trip planningBooking(shared modes/Taxi)Payment(bikesharing)Service alertsDeparture alarmsStop notificationsReal time info.congestionPredictionTrip planningBooking(bike sharing)Service alertsPlanes arrival-departure t

138、ime infoReal time info.Trip planningService alertsReal time congestion monitorTrip planningBookingPaymentInvoicingTrip planningBookingTicketingPaymentInvoicing24hr customer service phonelineReal time info.BookingTicketingPaymentInvoicingService alertsStakeholders&Service AggregatorPublic and private

139、 actors3rd partyPublic actorsLocalauthorityPublic and private actorsLocal authorityPrivate actor 3rd partyPublic and private actors3rd partyPublic and private actorsPT providerTechnologiesGPS/ePay(bikesharing only)GPSGPSGPS/ePayGPS/SmartcardGPS/ePay/Smart cardDemand orientationYesYesYesYesYesYesRegi

140、strationrequirementYes,for booking andcustomisationYes,for customisationYes,for booking andcustomisationNAYes,for usageand customisationYes,for usage and customisationPersonalizationStore regular and preferredRoutes Saved locationInput personal address,Preferable modes,andownership of bicycleStore f

141、avourite tripsAutomatically optimisedtrip plannerNAStore favouritetrips and recallprevious tripCustomizationMinimised walking option Disabled certain service/modes Link withcalendar and personal contactSelect service subscription for newsEnable certain mapsections and accessibility map people with s

142、pecialneedsMobility budget with Top-upMobility budget withTop-up and roll overPossibility to create individual mix of transportation Booking and paymentcancelationSummary Tables of MaaS Cases Worldwide16Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Table 3:Smile,Tuup,My Cicer

143、o,Moovel,Whim,WienMobile LabScheme(Area)Smile(Vienna,Austria)Tuup(Turku Region,Finland)My Cicero(Italy)Moovel(Germany)Whim(Helsinki,Finland)WienMobil Lab(Vienna,Austria)Status&Starting TimePilot(20142015)Operational(2015)Operational(2015)Operational(2016)Operational(2016)Based on Smileproject(201520

144、16)Transport Modes&ServicesPT(e-)Bike sharing(e-)Car sharingTaxiParking garagesCharging stationsRegional trainsand ferryPTBike sharingCar sharingCar rentalP-2-P car rentTaxi and sharedtaxiParking rentFreight service*PTTaxi*Parking spacesPermit forurbancongestioncharging zoneRegional railand busPTBik

145、e sharingCar sharingTaxiFerryRegional railPTRental carTaxiRegional railBike sharing*Car sharing*PTBike-sharingCar-sharingTaxiParking garagesTariff OptionPay-per-usePay-per-usePay-per-usePay-per-useThree monthlypackages andpay-per-usePay-per-useInterfaceAppAppAppAppAppAppFunctionsReal time info.Trip

146、planningBooking(sharedmodes/Taxi/Regional train)TicketingPaymentInvoicingService alertsReal time info.Trip planningBookingTicketingPayment(for PT,taxi,and sharedtaxi)Real time info.Trip planningBookingTicketingPaymentInvoicingMunicipalityservicesReal time infoTrip planningBookingTicketingPaymentInvo

147、icingReal time info.Trip planningBookingTicketingPaymentInvoicingReal time info.Trip planningBookingPaymentInvoicingStakeholders&Service AggregatorPublic andprivate actorsPT providerPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andpri

148、vate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate actorsPT providerTechnologiesGPS/ePayGPS/ePay(PayiQ)GPS/ePay/e-WalletGPS/ePayGPS/ePayGPS/ePayDemand orientationYesYesYesYesYesYesRegistrationrequirementYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcusto

149、misationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,forbooking andcustomisationPersonalizationOptimised tripplan to usersprofile(i.e.annual ticket,subscription andmembership)Optimisedtravel planbased on usersdaily agendaStore typesof ticketRecord andshare journeyStore favouritesroutesPersonalisednotification o

150、ndisruptionsCalendarsynchronizationPersonal infosharingSocialinteractionSave personalmobility profileStore car&bikesharingmembershipCustomizationEnable modefiltering basedon cost,time,and CO2 footprintPreferredmodes,basedon cost andCO2 footprintPreferredmodes andpaymentTop-upLink with socialmedia ac

151、countsBookingcancellationCancelationChange ofsubscriptionTop-upPreferredmodes,basedon cost,time,and CO2footprint17Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Table 4:Navigogo,EMMA,HelloGo,Shail,Zipster,JelbiScheme(Area)Navigogo(Scotland)EMMA(Montreal,France)HelloGo(Utrecht,

152、The Netherlands)Shail(Dubai,United Arab Emir-ates)Zipster(Singapore)Jelbi(Berlin,Germany)Status&Starting TimePilot(20172018)Operational(2014)Pilot(2017)Operational(2017)Operational(2019)Operational(2015Current)Transport Modes&ServicesPTTaxiCar sharingBike sharingTrainPTBike sharingCar sharingParking

153、 rentPTTrain TaxiBike sharingCar rentPTCar sharingTaxiRide-hailingCar rentPT(Metro and bus)TaxiBike sharingE-scooterPT(Bus)TrainMotor ScooterE-kick scooterBike sharingCar sharing Taxi Ride hailingShuttlesFreight serviceTariff OptionPay-per-use and weekly packagePay-per-usePay-per-usePay-per-usepay-p

154、er-use/Zipster card for post-paid public transport/monthly pack-agePay-per-use/credit card,PayPal and debit in JelbiInterfaceAppAppAppAppAppAppFunctionsTrip planningTicketingPayment(for PT,taxi,and sharedtaxi)-Real time info.Trip planningBookingTicketingPaymentService alertsReal time info.Trip plann

155、ingBookingTicketingPaymentInsuranceReal time info.Trip planningBookingPaymentStakeholders&Service AggregatorPublic andprivate actorsPT providerPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate

156、 actorsPT providerTechnologiesGPSGPS/ePayGPS/ePayGPS/ePayGPS/ePayGPS/ePayDemand orientationYesYesYesYesYesYesRegistrationrequirementYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,forbooking andcusto

157、misationPersonalization-plan the journey based on traveler preferencesCalendarsynchronizationPersonal infosharingSocialinteractionSave personalmobility profileStore car&bikesharingmembershipCustomization-Link with socialmedia accountsBookingcancellationPreferredmodes,basedon costPreferredmodes18Prom

158、oting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Table 5:Qixxit,Hannovemobil 2.0,Incen Trip,MaaS Madrid,MinREjseplanScheme(Area)Qixxit(Germany)Hannovemobil 2.0(Hannover,Germany)IncenTrip(Washington,US)MaaS Madrid(Madrid,Spain)MinRejseplan(Copenhagen,Denmark)Status&Starting TimeOpera

159、tional(2013)Operational(2014)Operational(2018)Operational(2018)Operational(2018)Transport Modes&ServicesPTRental carBike sharingCar sharingTaxiTrainPlaneLong distance busPTCar sharingBike SharingTaxiParkingPTBike sharingCar sharingDesignated driverPTBike sharingCar sharingTaxiPT(Bus and Metro)TrainT

160、axiRide hailingRental carBike sharingTariff OptionPay-per-usePay-per-usePay-per-usePay-per-usepay-per-useInterfaceAppAppAppAppAppFunctionsReal time info.Trip planningBooking(sharedmodes/Taxi/Regional train)TicketingPaymentInvoicingService alerts-Real time info.Trip planningBookingTicketingPaymentRea

161、l time infoTrip planningTicketingPaymentReal time info.Trip planningBookingTicketingPaymentStakeholders&Service AggregatorPublic andprivate actorsPT providerPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate actorsThird partyPublic andprivate actorsThird partyTec

162、hnologiesGPS/ePayGPS/ePay(PayiQ)GPS/ePay/e-WalletGPS/ePayGPS/ePayDemand orientationYesYesYesYesYesRegistrationrequirementYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationYes,for usageandcustomisationPersonalizationOptimised tripplan

163、to usersprofile-Implement green points to induce travel-CalendarsynchronizationPersonal infosharingSocialinteractionCustomization-Preferredmodes,basedon cost and CO2-Preferredmodes,basedon cost,departure time and travel duration3DEVELOPMENT STATUS OF MoD SERVICES IN CHINA20Promoting Chinas Transitio

164、n Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationThis section will introduce the development of the main MoD services,including ride-hailing,dockless bike sharing,and car sharing services now existing in China.Milestones in the development process of these services are shown in Figure 2.3.1.1 Ride hailing

165、Ride hailing services connect cars and drivers with passengers.Users can forward their travel demands to drivers through an online service platform.A nearby driver will accept the order,pick up the passenger(s),and drive them to their desired destination.Inquiry,matching,and payment requests are all

166、 processed within one system.The development of online car-hailing services in China can be divided into three periods:The exploration period(2010-2014),the market start-up period(2015-2016),and the high-speed development period(2017-present).The boom of MoD services in China provides a timely oppor

167、tunity for the development of MaaS systems.With the goal to provide shared and personalized mobility services,MoD service providers have already established the conceptual bases,user bases,and technical bases,which lay an excellent foundation for the development of MaaS systems.Therefore,before furt

168、her discussing MaaS systems in China,this chapter mainly analyzes Chinas MoD development,current policy environment and key stakeholders.(1)Exploration period(2010-2014)In 2012,the KuaiDi DaChe service and DiDi DaChe service were launched successively,after which other various kinds of ride hailing

169、apps began to appear.During this period,car-hailing software was mostly limited to calling taxis.In May 2013,there were more than 40 kinds of car-hailing online platforms operating in China,and the vicious competition in their pricing policies and the absence of supervision of their services caught

170、the attention of policy makers.(2)Start-up period(2015-2016)On July 28,2016,the policy Interim Measures for the Management of Online Car-hailing Business Service10 was issued by the MoT and five other national departments,which legalized online car-hailing services,making China the first country in

171、the world to recognize the legality of online car-hailing services.After the acquisition of Uber China in August 2016,DiDi Chuxings(renamed from“DiDi DaChe”)market share for car-hailing services in China exceeded 90%,underscoring its dominant position in the domestic market.(3)High-speed development

172、 period(2017-present)Since 2017,the number of car-hailing users in China has been growing steadily.On February 14,2017,Meituan DianPing,a lifestyle e-commerce platform,launched a pilot online car-hailing service in Nanjing,Jiangsu Province.In July 2018,Amap,an online navigation provider,aggregated o

173、nline car-hailing services into its app.In 2019,automobile OEMs(Original Equipment Manufacturers)have also successively launched travel platforms.As shown in Figure 1,by December 2020,China had 365.28 million ride-hailing users15.10 网络预约出租汽车经营服务管理暂行办法公布 http:/ Development of MoD Services in China3.1

174、21Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Figure 1:Growth of Online Ride hailing Users from .08343.46389.47404.26365.2805003003504004502016.122017.122018.122019.122020.12millionSource:China Internet Network Information Center.The 47th Statistical

175、Report on Internet Development in ChinaR.Beijing,2021.11 2018 年共享单车用户规模增长至 2.35 亿人，有效改善居民出行结构 Shared bicycle users increased to 235 million to improve mobility,产业信息网 Chanye Xinxi Website(2019,November 4th)https:/ 12 北京市鼓励规范发展共享自行车的指导意见(行)/Instruction on Encouraging the Orderly Development of Shared

176、Bikes in Beijing,北京市人民政府网站/Website of Beijing Municipality http:/ Dockless Bike-sharing Dockless bike-sharing is a mode of bike-sharing in which bicycles are not bound to a fixed location but can be parked and unlocked anywhere within their service area.Such service areas are generally limited to ci

177、ty boundaries.The development of dockless bike-sharing in China can be divided into four stages:The embryonic stage,the rapid development stage,the shuffling stage,and the standardized development stage.(1)Embryonic stage(2014-2016)The embryonic stage was the birth period of two bicycle sharing comp

178、anies,ofo and Mobike.In this period,other brands of dockless bike-sharing had not yet appeared,and there were concerns on whether the business model of dockless bike-sharing could be successful in China.At this stage,no regulation on dockless bike-sharing had been issued by the bicycle providers,as

179、the providing companies management departments maintained an inclusive and prudent attitude towards the new business form and hoped to give dockless bike-sharing enough space for development.(2)Rapid development stage(2017-March 2018)On August 3,2017,the MoT and 10 other ministries and commissions j

180、ointly issued the Guidance on Encouraging and Standardizing the Development of Internet Bicycle Rental,which affirmed the positive role of dockless bike-sharing in facilitating short-distance travel and building a green and low-carbon transportation system.It also clarified the positioning of online

181、 bike-sharing within overall urban comprehensive transportation systems.Due to the support generated from this policy,the market scale of dockless bike-sharing further expanded.Before 2018,dockless bike-sharing operations were in 235 cities in China,with the number of bicycles put into operation nat

182、ionwide reaching 23 million,and the total number of registered users in China exceeding 400 million individuals11.However,the rapid growth of the industry caused problems,such as significant bicycle oversupplies in some areas,and the indiscriminate parking of bicycles.As a result,cities including Be

183、ijing,Shanghai,Guangzhou,Shenzhen,and 8 second tier cities issued notices to suspend adding new shared bicycles into circulation12.22Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration(3)Shuffling stage(March 2018-2019)Following the rapid development of dockless bike-sharing operat

184、ions,further problems emerged,such as financing,deposit security,urban management,and security issues.Driven by capital,companies were still attracting users and increasing their market shares through various preferential means,such as the provision of free rides,cheap monthly cards,and coupons.Mark

185、ed by the provider company Xiaomin Danches bankruptcy in March 2018,the shuffling stage of the industry saw the focus of enterprise operations shifting to compete for users through unreasonable price reductions,rather than optimizing operation efficiency and business models.Malicious competition pra

186、ctices pushed the vast majority of enterprises to withdraw from the market in 2018,as they could not attract the further investment which would have been necessary to sustain development.(4)Consolidation stage(2019-present)In 2019,bike-sharing gradually entered a period of standardized development.W

187、ith a clear market structure and declining investments,industry competition slowed down,and with stronger regulation in various cities,the main operating companies gradually refined their operations by improving bike redistribution to decrease the blocking of roads and pathways,and by moving away fr

188、om low-price competition practices to establishing more sustainable business models.Since 2020,some operators partly shifted their focus towards e-bike sharing,as they offer better revenue than bicycles,.The providers HelloBike,Meituan DianPing and Qingju have begun to provide shared e-bikes,and the

189、 number of operating e-bikes has now reached 4 million.However,since the MoT has not clearly indicated whether it supports the development of e-bike sharing,most cities are holding a conservative attitude towards the further development of e-bike sharing programs,with some cities even already moving

190、 to ban their operation.3.1.3 Car sharingCar sharing services began to develop in the Chinese market after 2010,just as new energy vehicles(NEVs)were becoming commercially viable.Due to significantly lower charging and maintenance costs,NEVs are more economical than fuel cars.Additionally,auto compa

191、nies hope to promote their NEV models through car sharing.As a result,NEVs have become the dominant vehicle type in Chinas car sharing market.In August 2017,the MoT and the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development(MoHURD)jointly issued the Guidance on Promoting the Healthy Development of Smal

192、l and Micro Car Rental,encouraging NEVs to be used in car sharing service models,and providing charging infrastructure support.With the support of this policy,the industrys development started to accelerate.At the end of 2017,there were 294 car-sharing companies active in China 16.In 2018,due to fie

193、rce competition,several small and medium-sized operation platforms withdrew from the market.The majority of remaining operators gradually became concentrated within a few market-leading companies.In 2019,the development of the car sharing industry further slowed down,particularly in first-tier citie

194、s,where the development of these enterprises was restricted by vehicle number restriction policies13 and a shortage of parking spaces.13 The vehicle number restriction policy means that residents can buy a motor vehicle only after they have obtained the qualification of buying a car through lottery

195、or auction.The aim of this policy is to control the total number of cars in the city to ease traffic congestion.Getting the qualification to buy a car can be difficult,especially in densely populated first-tier cities.Taking Beijing as an example,the probability of winning the car plate lottery in 2

196、020 was 0.000325.23Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Figure 2:Milestones in the Development of MoD ServicesSource:CATS24Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationThis section will analyze national level policies relating to MoD services

197、in China.An overview of all MoD-related national policies can be found in Table 4.According to the released policies,the national government encourages the development of MoD services,Table 4:National Policies and Regulations on MoD Services TimeName of Policy Issuing DepartmentObjectiveJuly 2016Gui

198、dance on Deepening Reform and Promoting Healthy Development of Taxi IndustryGeneral Office of the State CouncilBring car-hailing into the scope of taxi management.August 2017Guidance on Encouraging and Standardizing the Development of dockless bike-sharingMinistry of Transport,Publicity Department o

199、f the CPC Central Committee,Cyberspace Administration of the CPC Central Committee,National Development and Reform Commission,Ministry of Industry and Information Technology,Ministry of Public Security,Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development,Peoples Bank of China,General Administration of Qu

200、ality Supervision,National Tourism AdministrationEncourage the development of dockless bike-sharing,as it plays a positive role in building a green and low-carbon transportation system.August 2017Guidance Opinion on Promoting the Healthy Development of small and micro car RentalMinistry of Transport

201、,Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural DevelopmentEncourage the use of NEVs in the car-sharing industry and the construction of charging facilities.May 2019Measures for the Management of Users Funds in New Transportation Formats(for Trial Implementation)Ministry of Transport,Peoples Bank of China,Nati

202、onal Development and Reform Commission,Public Security Commission,General Administration of Market Regulation,Banking and Insurance Regulatory CommissionMake specific provisions on the management of deposit and prepayment funds for users of new transportation formats(including online car-hailing,car

203、-sharing and internet bicycle rental,etc.).Policy Analysis3.2such as dockless bike-sharing,car sharing and online car-hailing services,and hopes to achieve the development of MoD services in a way that is harmonized with the further development of traditional public travel services,such as bus and s

204、ubway lines,which also provide public welfare services.In particular,the national government hopes to avoid excessive competition between emerging MoD services and traditional modes of public travel.25Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationTimeName of Policy Issuing Dep

205、artmentObjectiveMay 2019Green Travel Action Plan(2019-2022)The Ministry of Transport,Publicity Department of the CPC Central Committee,National Development and Reform Commission,Ministry of Industry and Information Technology,Ministry of Public Security,Ministry of Finance,Ministry of Ecology and En

206、vironment,Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development,State Administration for Market Regulation,National Government Offices Administration,All-China Federation of Trade Unions,China Railway CorporationPromote the integrated development of MoD services.Transport enterprises are encouraged to pro

207、vide high-quality travel services through internet technology.Se p t e m b e r 2019Outline for Building a Leading Transportation NationThe CPC Central Committee,the State Council Vigorously develop shared transportation,build a service system based on mobile internet technology,and develop MaaS.July

208、 2020Opinions on Supporting the Healthy Development of New Business Forms and New Models,Activating the Consumer Market and Driving the Employment ExpansionNational Development and Reform Commission,Office of Cyberspace Affairs,Ministry of Industry and Information Technology,Ministry of Education,Mi

209、nistry of Human Resources and Social Security,Ministry of Transport,Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,Ministry of Commerce,Ministry of Culture and Tourism,Ministry of Health and Health Commission,State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission,General Administration of Market Re

210、gulation,Medical Insurance BureauExpand the emerging sharing economy,encourage intelligent product upgrading and business model innovation in areas such as car-sharing,food-delivery,group buying,online drug purchasing,accommodation sharing,cultural tourism,and other fields.Se p t e m b e r 2020Opini

211、ons of the General Office of the State Council on Accelerating the Development of New Consumption with New Formats and New ModelsGeneral Office of the State CouncilFurther support the development of web-based services such as food-delivery,online car-hailing and accommodation sharing.26Promoting Chi

212、nas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationAt the national level,policies for MoD services are concentrated on encouraging and standardizing the development of these initiatives.From the perspective of urban transportation,it is planned to vigorously develop MoD services to meet persona

213、lized travel needs of individuals.The Guiding Opinions on Deepening Reform and Promoting the Healthy Development of the Taxi Industry issued by the General Office of the State Council in July 2016 was Chinas first policy involving MoD services.As a result,China became the first country in the world

214、to give legal status to car-hailing services.The policy proposed to include car-hailing into the scope of taxi management,and noted that car-hailing is beneficial to alleviating traffic congestion and reducing air pollution and that municipal governments should encourage and regulate its development

215、.In addition,the policy clearly stated that it was necessary to prioritize the development of urban public transportation,moderately develop taxis,and orderly develop car-hailing businesses in accordance with the principles of high-quality service and differentiated operation with taxis,to avoid com

216、petition or conflicts between these modes of transit.In September 2019,the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council promulgated the Outline for Building Chinas Strength in Transportation,which proposed to“accelerate the development of new business forms and new models,

217、realize Mobility as a Service(MaaS)”.According to the national government,MaaS comprised the future development direction of MoD services.MaaS was covered in the 2019 Outline in Section 4,entitled“Convenient and Comfortable Transportation Services-Cost-effective and Efficient”,rather than in the Out

218、lines Section 7 on“Green Development-Saving and Intensive-Low-carbon Emissions and Environmental Protection”.This demonstrated that the national government first recognized MaaS as an opportunity to provide the public with higher-quality mobility services,rather than considering it initially as bene

219、ficial in promoting environmental and climate protection.Current policies of China reflect the attitude of the government towards MoD.However,there are no specific implementation measures for MaaS mentioned in existing policies.For example,guidance is needed on how to provide the necessary infrastru

220、cture,technology and capital for the development of MaaS.Therefore,more detailed policy content is needed for the future development of MaaS,especially when it comes to data sharing,benefit distribution and other issues that need management support.The development of MoD services poses challenges to

221、 traditional transportation modes,but also offers synergies that can contribute to the attractiveness of traditional services such as bus and train networks.The root of competition between MoD and traditional transport services is the overlapping of service distances.For example,the average service

222、distance of bicycle sharing operations is 3km,which is just within the average service distance of buses(see Figure 3),thus creating competition.Because of the same service mode,competition issues between taxi and online car-hailing operations are even more obvious.In contrast,one example of positiv

223、e synergies between different transport services is the solution that dockless bicycle-sharing offers to the“Last-Mile”issue,rendering public transport to be more attractive to those that need an additional publicly available transport option to complete their personal transit route.The following re

224、port section will analyze the impact of MoD services on traditional transportation operations.Car-hailing services have a significant impact on public transport networks in China.In a 2018 survey among car-hailing users in China,around 50%of ride hailing passengers switched from using public transpo

225、rt to car-hailing options(CATS,2022).Ride hailing services have also had a significant impact on taxis.Since the introduction of online car-hailing,the annual passenger volume of taxis has continuously declined(see Figure 4),and the number of taxis has also decreased year by year(see Figure 5).In ea

226、rly 2017,after entering the Nanjing market,the ride hailing service Meituan DaChe competed fiercely with the ride hailing service of DiDi Chuxing,Analysis of the Impact of MoD Services on Traditional Public Transportation3.327Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Figu

227、re 3:Comparison of Travel Mode Service Scopes3-20kmMetro0-2kmBikesharing3-10knonline car-hailingTaxi10-50kmCar sharingBusPrivate CarSource:CATS Figure 4:Annual Passenger Volume of Taxis in China17406.06396.74377.35365.4351.671-2.3-4.9-3.2-3.8-6-5-4-3-2-4035036037038039040040162

228、0172018Volume of passenger transport(100 million)Year-on-year growth rate(%)Source:CATSseizing the market by subsidizing drivers and passengers.In that year,the average number of daily orders of taxis in Nanjing decreased by half compared with the previous year.The decline of income for drivers led

229、a decrease in the number of those choosing that profession.The Nanjing Transportation Bureau informed the research team of this study that more than 2,000 vehicles had been withdrawn by traditional taxi companies by the end of 2017,and more than 1000 vehicles were out of service by the first quarter

230、 of 2018.Interestingly,after 2018,with the start of cooperation between traditional taxi companies and ride hailing apps,traditional taxi services became available from car-hailing apps,and as a result,from 2018-2020,the number of taxis in operation has been steadily increasing,although the absolute

231、 number is still lower than it was in 2017 and previous years.28Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationThere are two main reasons why ride hailing operations have had such a strong impact on taxis in China.First,users found online car-hailing to be more convenient than

232、taxis.Passengers know how long they need to wait,allowing them to accurately arrange their trip.Second,car-hailing services provide more passenger-oriented services than taxis.Before the emergence of online car-hailing,the traditional taxi industry was monopolistic and often received complaints by p

233、assengers,for instance,about refusals to accept passengers,detours taken on selected routes,or poor attitudes of drivers.During bad weather,such as rain and snow,cases occurred where taxi drivers chose to maliciously raise their prices.Online car-hailing has clear regulations on travel prices,passen

234、ger and routing management,and nation-wide customer service networks.Passengers can choose their travel route on their mobile phones to avoid detours.Furthermore,the operation model of online car-hailing is completely market-oriented,which can protect the rights and interests of passengers and promp

235、t drivers to improve their service levels,leaving the overall industry to provide win-win situations for both drivers and passengers.However,the MoT does not want taxis to be completely replaced by online car-hailing,as taxis do have a certain degree of public welfare.For example,during public holid

236、ays,the administration can order taxi companies to increase their capacity at train stations and airports.However,car-hailing enterprises are purely private enterprises,reducing the influence the administration has on their operations.The administration therefore hopes that the competition between r

237、ide hailing platforms and taxis can make the taxi industry develop higher quality services,while still remaining operational and not being completely replaced by online platforms.Bicycle sharing services are meeting the end needs of consumers,in particular the“Last Mile”problem.Dockless bicycle-shar

238、ing is quickly establishing itself in the travel market,with consumers choosing to use bicycles for short distance trips within 3 km.In Shanghai,for example,the average trip distance of bicycle sharing is 1.84km,and about 82%of the trips are within 3.5km19.In some areas,dockless bicycle-sharing sche

239、mes have expanded the service area of subway and bus stations(Cao,et al.,2019).However,rather than using them to complete their journeys,some users have switched from taking buses to only using shared bikes,which has resulted in a negative impact on the ridership of public buses(Yang,et al.,2017)(Fi

240、gure 6).Though some users do use shared bicycles for the entirety of their trip(see Figure 7),bicycle sharing services are primarily combined by users with subway and bus routes to complete their journeys“Last Mile”which they would have previously covered by using an additional bus route or walking.

241、Figure 5:Annual Number of Operating Taxis in China18137.01139.25140.4139.58138.892.21.60.8-0.6-0.5-1-0.500.511.522.580172018Number of operating vehicles(10,000)Year-on-year growth rate(%)Source:CATS29Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integrati

242、on Figure 6:Annual passenger volume of urban buses in China,in 100 millions2076569766068070072074076078020152018Volume of passenger transport(100 million/person time)Source:CATS Figure 7:Proportions of combining dockless bicycle sharing with other travel modes in China48.20%38.55%13.25%bus+dockless

243、bike sharingsubway+dockless bike sharingdockless bike sharingSource:CATSIn order to maintain their competitiveness,the public transport and taxi industries are undergoing transformations in some cities in China.In August 2019,the public transport provider Zhenqing Bus and the private company DiDi Ch

244、uxing cooperated to try an on-demand responsive public transport service in Huangdao District of Qingdao City.Shenzhen,Nantong and other cities were also planning to provide customized public transport services after 2020,although the projects were delayed due to Covid-19 restrictions.To reduce the

245、impact of online car-hailing operations on taxis,the MoT has been working on adjusting taxi pricing methods and increasing the income of taxi drivers.While the price of taxi fares is fixed,the price of online car-hailing fares is flexible and can be adjusted according to different periods and road c

246、ongestion.At the Second Seminar on Reform and Development Policies of Cruising Taxis on August 31,2019,representatives from the MoT encouraged cities to explore the government-guided pricing of taxis according to local conditions.Adjusting pricing mechanisms can increase the drivers profits and incr

247、ease the competitiveness of the taxi industry,particularly where car-hailing enterprises are also operating.30Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationMaaS incorporates different modes of transportation into a unified platform.This integration allows users to complete the

248、 entire process of their desired journey namely the steps of registration,planning,reservation,ticketing,payment,and fare clearing within one system,which as well provides travel information to users and operators,and access to customer service.To be effective,this process poses considerable require

249、ments on existing transportation modes and their management systems,such as the integration of planning,linkage,operation,and customer service stages for different modes of transportation,as well as the coordination of different mechanisms of relevant departments,and operation and management entitie

250、s of various transit services.Figure 8:Stakeholder Model of MaaSNatural resources bureauTransport bureauUrban administration Development and reform commissionGovernment departmentsFinancial departmentPublic security and trafc Life service platformUsersMaaSPlatform operatorsMobile payment platformBus

251、 SubwayTaxi Public bicycleTransport operatorsTraditional Transport operatorInsurance service providersMap operatorMoD sercive operatorDockless bike sahringCar sharingOnline car hailingSupervisionTravel demandTechnical supportService agreementProvide travel servicesRespond to demandCompetitionService

252、 agreementService agreementInsuranceSource:CATSStakeholders of MoD Services in China3.4During the initial phase of development,MaaS requires subsidies and support from governments in terms of fund supervision,credit supervision,and information security assurance.MaaS platform construction requires c

253、oordination among different stakeholders and their interests and ultimately the establishment of a MaaS system comprising these stakeholders,which specifies the relationship and responsibilities of all relevant stakeholders in the system(see Figure 8).3.4.1 Macro-level StakeholdersBased on an analys

254、is of the development of MoD towards MaaS systems in China,the main stakeholders involved in MaaS systems include platform operators,government departments,transport operators,insurance service providers,and end users.The responsibilities and interests of different MaaS stakeholders in China are sum

255、marized in Table 5.31Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration3.4.2 Stakeholders at the City LevelAt the municipal level,the government departments,transport operators and platform operators involved in MaaS may be analyzed in a more detailed manner.(1)Government manageme

256、nt departments Government departments mainly include the local transport planning authority under the national MoT(Transport Bureau),the public security and traffic management bureaus,urban administration bureaus,development and reform commissions,natural resources bureaus,and financial departments.

257、Their respective responsibilities are displayed in Table 6.(2)Transport operatorsTransport operators can mainly be divided into operators of traditional transport modes and operators of MoD services.Operators of traditional transport modes and MoD services differ significantly in the way that they o

258、perate(see Table 7).Bus,subway and taxi enterprises are limited to the city they operate in and do not compete with operators in other cities,whereas MoD service providers expand nation-wide without being limited by urban boundaries and compete with other providers on a national level(see Table 8 fo

259、r a list of MoD enterprises currently in China).Table 5:MaaS StakeholdersStakeholdersResponsibilitiesAspirationInternet-basedMoD operatorsDesigning and providing MaaS products in response to customer demands;having the capability of integration of real-time information,travel planning,payment,and ti

260、cketing;having the license approved by the administrative department;having the capability of platform operation and maintenance Owning the platform and related travel dataGovernment departmentsFormulating laws,rules,policies and guaranteeing measures related to service license,credit system,data ex

261、change,information security and privacy protectionCoordinating the development between different transport operators,enhancing industrial vigor,and improving transportation efficiencyTransport operatorsProviding travel services,covering different transport modes including(electric)buses,subways,bike

262、s,taxis,Ride Hailing,car-sharing and dockless bicycle sharingAttracting new customers,maintaining old customers,increasing operating revenue and striving for maximum benefitsInsurance service providersProviding insurance for personnel,passengers,and vehiclesSpecifying the responsibilities of all par

263、ticipants in the travel process,and developing innovative insurance modelsUsersProviding necessary personal information and travel requests to transport operators Enjoying customized service with lower travel costs,higher comfort and better protection of personal privacy32Promoting Chinas Transition

264、 Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Table 7:Classification and Characteristics of Urban Transport OperatorsCategory of operatorsBusiness natureCharacteristics Operators of traditional traffic modesBus companiesState-owned enterprise1.Requiring financial subsidies from the government for publi

265、c benefit;2.As state-owned enterprises,bus and subway enterprises lack momentum to attract users;3.Profitmaking is not the primary task of enterprise development(taxis excepted);4.Mastering travel data of passengers;5.Enterprise development is guided by government departments.Subway operatorsState-o

266、wned enterpriseTaxisPrivate enterprisePublic bikesPrivate enterpriseOperators of MoD ServicesRide hailingPrivate enterprise1.Operators are private enterprises and market-oriented;2.Actively exploring customers travel demands and accordingly providing travel services;3.Strong technical capability in

267、data analysis and platform operation;4.With advanced development concepts,enterprises advocate the development of MaaS.Dockless bike-sharingPrivate enterpriseCar sharingPrivate enterprise Table 8:Representative Enterprises of MoD in China Ride hailing Online leased bikesCar sharingDiDi ChuxingQingju

268、 BikeGoFun TravelHellobikeMeituan BikeGlobal CarsharingMeituan HellobikePanda TravelCaocaoLocal small-brand enterprisesShouqi Limousine&ChauffeurLocal small-brand enterprises Table 6:Urban Administrative Departments and ResponsibilitiesName of departmentsResponsibilitiesTransport bureausFormulating

269、traffic policies and systems,coordinating the positioning of different modes of travel,and preparing development frameworks Public security and traffic management bureausMaintaining traffic order through law enforcement management Urban administration bureausIn some cities,taking charge of operation

270、 management of dockless bike-sharing Development and reform commissions Formulating guiding policies and opinions on infrastructureNatural resources bureausFormulating land use planning on public transport and slow-moving traffic from the urban level Financial departmentsRaising funds for traffic de

271、velopment,supervising payment institutions and guaranteeing payment security33Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration(3)Platform operatorsOnline platform operators include digital map service providers such as Baidu and Amap(Gaode Maps),mobile payment platforms such as

272、Alipay and WeChat,and life service platforms,such as Meituan DianPing(see Table 9).These platforms are characterized by having efficient operational technology and a large number of users.Having access to position-based travel data,Baidu and Amap platforms enjoy advantages for the development of Maa

273、S.Table 9:Classification of Platform Operators in ChinaPlatform OperatorsCharacteristics Common PointsMap operatorsBaidu MapPosition-based travel data1.Having large user bases2.Enterprises have abundant funds and strong technical R&D capacity AMAPTencent MapMobile payment platformsAlipayA payment pl

274、atform that started with online shopping but has gradually transformed into a lifestyle service platform.WeChatA software application that provides instant messaging services for users,with more than 1.2 billion active users per month.21 Life service platformsMeituan This platform has formed an ecos

275、ystem including travel,accommodation,entertainment,shopping and takeout services.The fact that Chinas mobility sector involves such diverse stakeholders means that it will be challenging to promote MaaS in China.Because the demands of various stakeholders are different,cooperation is possible only w

276、hen a mode satisfactory to all parties is found.The next chapter of this report will introduce MaaS programs in China and their current and prospective development models.4FROM MoD TO MAAS EXPLORATIONS BY CHINESE CITIES35Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationBoth Chine

277、se public and private stakeholders have made efforts to date in developing MaaS.Chinese public transport services providers,mostly State-owned Enterprises(SOEs)in monopolistic positions,lack the required motivation to develop MaaS.The difficulties they face mainly lie in the fragmented governance sy

278、stem of the transport sector,since public urban passenger transport methods(including urban rail,buses,water transport and other sectors),urban rural transport,and inter-city transport all fall under different governance systems.Thus,the integration of all of these systems would require high-level a

279、nd systematic approaches to alter management methods.Though there are some degrees of integration of different types ofurban transport via unified mobile ticketing platforms,such as the Beijing Yikatong14 app,these public examples are currently limited in nature.On the other hand,MoD service provide

280、rs such as Didi Chuxing and navigation apps such as Amap or Baidu are keen on developing MaaS and already have the management potential to provide nationwide operation.However,it is still extremely difficult for such platforms to integrate public transport sectors with private sector transport optio

281、ns,as initiated in MaaS platforms.This chapter introduces several local initiatives that aim at developing a MaaS systems now,or potentially in the future.Each of the case cities discussed here as already achieved certain degrees of integration of different modes of transport,including between publi

282、c transport options and new public and private mobility services.Based on the varied levels of MaaS travel integration15 referred to in chapter 2,cases discussed in this section of the study are still considered to be at very early phases of MaaS.Although all the initiatives are called“MaaS”by local

283、 authorities,the actual MaaS phase that each of these transport initiatives has reached greatly varies.The slow development and high variety of these initiatives show that MaaS systems are still being developed in China in a decentralized manner,and that local transport authorities play a guiding ro

284、le in their development.The case cities and regions covered here include the Greater Bay Area as a whole,the city of Shenzhen,Guangzhou and Foshan,and the city of Beijing.14 Beijing Yikatong（北京一卡通）:A card issued by the transport authority of Beijing.Users of Beijing can take public transport includi

285、ng buses and rail transit within the Jing-jin-ji area and enjoys some discount on fares while using these centralized cards in Beijing.15 October 2017，Source:https:/www.itf-oecd.org/new-shared-mobility-study-helsinki-confirms-ground-breaking-lisbon-results36Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustai

286、nable Transport Integration Figure 9:The Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area24Source:CATS16 The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China is the core power organ of the Communist Party of China elected by the National Congress of the Communist Party of China.The State Council is the h

287、ighest state administrative organ.17 OThis group is formed by officials in the provincial government.Its main task is to formulate development plans in Guangdong Province in accordance with the requirements of the central government.4.1.1 Overview of the Greater Bay Area The Guangdong-Hong Kong-Maca

288、o Greater Bay Area(generally referred to as the Greater Bay Area)is an urban agglomeration consisting of eleven cities in South Chinas Guangdong Province(see Figure 9).These cities include the two special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau as well as the cities of Guangzhou,Shenzhen,Zhuha

289、i,Foshan,Zhongshan,Dongguan,Zhaoqing,Jiangmen,and Huizhou.The integration of the entire region as an economic and business hub is a major governmental scheme.The Greater Bay Area covers an area of 56,000km2 and has a population of over 70 million,making it the worlds largest urban agglomeration.Its

290、total Gross Domestic Product(GDP)exceeded 12.6 trillion yuan(1.8 trillion euro)in 2021.Prior to the establishment of the Greater Bay Area as a jurisdictional entity,some of the cities,such as Guangzhou and Foshan,had already developed strong intercity transportation linkages.The development of a Maa

291、S system for the region could benefit the regions further infrastructure and socio-economic integration and increase its economic viability.The Outline Development Plan for the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area22 issued by the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the State Council o

292、f China16 in 2019,laid the foundation for the further integration of the transport systems of the region.The Outline aims at connecting the mainland with Hong Kong and Macau,the east and west coasts of the Pearl River Estuary,and thus achieve“one hour access”for any location within the region.These

293、goals will be achieved by building an intercity rapid traffic network of high-speed railways,intercity railways,and high-grade highways.In July 2019,the government advisory board Guangdong Provincial Leading Group for Promoting the Construction of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area23,17

294、issued the Three-year Action Plan for Guangdong Province to Promote the Construction of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area(2018-2020)to encourage third-party service providers to develop“one-order”and“one-ticket”intermodal passenger transport services with“access to the entire Greater Ba

295、y Area.”Regional Integration through MaaS in the Greater Bay Area4.137Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport IntegrationAlthough not specifically mentioning the development of a MaaS system,the Action Plan proposes the innovative and integrated application of information technolog

296、ies,such as the Internet of Things,cloud computing,and big data for the transportation field.The development of MaaS in the Greater Bay Area has unique advantages.First,the Greater Bay Area has the infrastructure to develop into a world-class transportation region.Guangdong,Hong Kong and Macao Dawan

297、 District have airports and ports connecting China and the world,as well as railway hubs connecting the Pan Pearl River Delta18 and Southeast Asia.It has more than 2,500 kilometers of railways and intercity rail transit,and nearly 1,000 kilometers of urban rail transit.The highway mileage of the Gre

298、ater Bay Area is about 65,000 kilometers,and the density of the expressway network has reached 7.96 kilometers/100 km2.The density of the road network in the core area has exceeded that of the three bay areas of New York,Tokyo and San Francisco.Secondly,urban agglomeration in the Greater Bay Area ha

299、s considerable scale,and economic and urban-rural integration have reached a profound stage in this area.Daily intercity travel within the Greater Bay Area has become the norm for residents.For example,the number of average daily cross-city commuters between Shenzhen,Dongguan and Huizhou has exceede

300、d one million.With the dense distribution of the eleven cities in the region,the close linkage of intercity public transportation infrastructure and services,and the high-density urban design of each city19,the Greater Bay Area poses a strong basis to develop the first cross-city MaaS system in Chin

301、a.Furthermore,as one of the urban agglomerations with the highest GDP globally,the Greater Bay Area,has a solid economic foundation for developing a MaaS system.Besides the Greater Bay Areas broad endeavor to establish a joint MaaS platform for the region,public and private actors in the regions cit

302、ies are also exploring the development of MaaS platforms for the individual city areas.The status of development in Shenzhen,Foshan,and Guangzhou are summarized further below.Shenzhen is a forerunner region for data sharing and management.Foshan is unique due to its developed transit alliance which

303、integrates the services of different bus operators,and Guangzhou provides an example of a region with an app that offers the option for users to create joint booking for buses and shared bikes.These are all relevant case study examples that can be together seen as first steps towards the development

304、 of a broader MaaS platform for China.4.1.2 Status and ChallengesTransport methods in the Greater Bay Area includes urban transport,intercity transport,and cross-border transport options with a high variety of transportation modes and services available,as shown in Figure 10.This variety of transpor

305、tation modes is managed by public and private operators.The Greater Bay Area has begun to explore integrated transportation plans,including across travel methods and city boundaries.At the end of 2018,the Guangzhou-Foshan subway line was put into operation.With 15 stops in Foshan and 10 in Guangzhou

306、,the subway is a combination of intercity and urban rail transit.It is the first subway line to cross prefecture level administrative boundaries in China,and an important corridor connecting Guangzhou and Foshan.Guangzhou has launched a trial of a“One Code Pass”for public transport in the Greater Ba

307、y Area.The public transport group Yangcheng Tong Limited from Guangzhou cooperates with Alipay to enable Hong Kong residents to take Guangzhous public transport by paying with Hongkong Dollar in the AlipayHK app.However,these efforts are not enough to make a coordinated system function smoothly,and

308、there are still many problems in the Greater Bay Areas transport integration efforts.18 The Pan-Pearl River Delta,which consists of 9 provinces,Fujian,Jiangxi,Hunan,Guangdong,Guangxi,Hainan,Sichuan,Guizhou,Yunan and 2 Special Administrative Regions of the Peoples Republic of China,Hong Kong and Maca

309、o,is also commonly known as“9+2”.19 BA high density city refers to a city with a high population and building density.High density cities provide a certain basis for the development of MaaS.38Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Figure 10:The transportation modes and

310、 services of each type of traffic in the Greater Bay Area Customized busPublic transportationTaxiCar rentalBicycle sharingMetro BusBRTVaporettiCruise taxiCar-hailingBicycle sharingParkingChargingRepairTraditional car rentalCar sharingRailwayHighwayAviationShippingTraditional passenger transportTouri

311、st charterCustomized intercity transport(Commuting)Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao cross-border road trafcGuangzhou-Shenzhen-Hong Kong High Speed RailHong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge Shuttle BusshippingAviationPrivate carUrban trafcCross-border trafcIntercity trafcRail transitSource:CATSThe key challenges to

312、 develop a MaaS system in the Greater Bay Area are as follows:Integration of ticketing services for intermodal travel:There is no service platform integrating all travel modes.Each travel service currently has a separate app for ticket purchasing;Transfer between travel modes:Since travel services a

313、re operated independently,options to transfer between different modes have not been considered during the construction and operational management stages of current existing services.This disconnection in planning for linked services leads to inconveniences,for example,long transfer distances between

314、 subway and bus stations,not enough bicycle parking spaces around bus stations,and repeated security inspections when transferring between subway and railway stations;Data management:There is a general lack in data on traffic demand or user preferences and profiles.This gap is rooted in missing coor

315、dinated data management and data sharing between different providers,as well as a lack of transport surveys of users.This shortcoming results in non-personalized transport planning and provision,for example,a lack of data on preferred travel modes of cross-city passengers or demands for travel effic

316、iency and comfort means that transport authorities do not have the information they need to effectively formulate appropriate and relevant development plans for cross-city travel.4.1.2 Analysis of Causes for ChallengesThe causes of the aforementioned challenges include:the lack of centralised coordi

317、nation and management of infrastructure and transport service planning and operation,nonuniform standards,differing methods of governance,and varied monetary systems used in transit services in the region.(Challenge 1)There is a lack of coordinated intercity and interdepartmental planning and operat

318、ion of different transport services.39Promoting Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration The development of intermodal passenger transport and MaaS in the Greater Bay Area requires the involvement of multiple authorities.Currently,there is no cooperation mechanism between these au

319、thorities in place.The authorities show a lack of management over intercity transport options.Under the governance principle of“One Country,Two Systems”25,it is particularly difficult to coordinate between Hong Kong,Macau,and cities in the Guangdong Province.For example,differences in data protectio

320、n under different local systems causes difficulties in travel data sharing.Due to the lack of a centralized operating institution,each travel service provider operates with its own independent network,technology and management systems,making it difficult to align these services.(Challenge 2)The foun

321、dation for the integration of ticketing services for intermodal passenger transport in the Greater Bay Area is weak.This is due to the lack of data sharing mechanisms and a lack of coordination between the management of these services,leaving to a lack of compatibility or mutual recognition of ticke

322、ting service criteria.For example,the types of tickets,criteria for ticket payment,clearing and settlement,as well as standards for ticket inspection and security checks are different for various types of transport in the region.Each city has its own passenger transport management system and mechani

323、sms.The standards and structures of databases used in various transportation modes are different,and data availability is uneven across different cities.There are considerable differences in ticket service industry standards and business norms among Hong Kong,Macau,and other cities in Guangdong Prov

324、ince,as well as between different modes of transportation within single cities.For example,each city has its own unique rules and preferential policies for public transport fares.The coordination of rules for fares and benefits will be a major challenge for the integration of different travel modes

325、both within and between cities.(Challenge 3)Differences in currencies and subsidies lead to a lack of interconnection and interoperability between travel services.There are three independent currencies in circulation in the Greater Bay Area:the Renminbi,Hong Kong Dollar,and Macau Pataca.Each locatio

326、n that uses different currencies also have their own currency regulatory policies,and are exposed to risks of foreign exchange control and exchange rate fluctuations,making a harmonization of fares even more challenging.Different cities use different subsidy systems and pricing policies for public t

327、ransportation.This situation results in different subsidy allocation and amounts both between different services and between and within varying locations.(Challenge 4)A lack of coordination of safety supervision systems demands a new coordinated,mutual recognition of security inspection methods both

328、 between cities and across transportation modes.There are differences in the laws,regulations,and policies related to passenger safety and data security across locations and travel modes.This variance complicates the construction of an effective MaaS system,as they require unified standards for the

329、collection,protection and use of user travel data.Security inspection standards differ between transportation modes and cities.Subways,high-speed trains and urban and rural passenger transport modes all have their own security inspection systems.Currently,passengers are required to repeat security i

330、nspection every time they transfer between different modes of transport.A coordinated,mutual recognition of security inspection systems between all modes of transportation in the Greater Bay Area would reduce the number of security checks faced by users,and thereby improve travel efficiency.40Promot

331、ing Chinas Transition Towards Sustainable Transport Integration Table 10:Scale of transportation modes in Shenzhen,2021Transportation ModeAverage daily passenger volume (Unit:1000)ScaleOperatorsPublic bus4,355,000 passengers933 bus linesShenzhen Western Bus Co.,Ltd.Shenzhen East Public Transport Co.

332、,LtdShenzhen bus groupSubway5,538,000passengers11 subway linesShenzhen Metro Group Co.,LtdTaxi1,133,000passengers20,609 taxis64 companiesDockless bicylce sharing900,000users480,000 bicyclesHello BikeDiDi bikeMeituan bikeRide-hailing699,000passengers64,144 cars27 companies:DiDiCaoOn Time4.2.1 MoD in

333、ShenzhenLocated on the south coast of Guangdong Province,Shenzhen is one of the most important economic hubs in China.At the end of 2020,the city had a total area of 1,997.47km2,a built-up area of 927.96km2 and a permanent population of 17.56 million residents.In 2020,the GDP of Shenzhen reached 2,767 billion yuan(395.7 billion euro).Shenzhen has 933 bus lines and 11 subway lines,ranking fifth in