1、aAsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022AsiaPacific Employment and Social OutlookRethinking sectoral strategies for a human-centred future of work 2022AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022Rethinking sectoral strategies for a human-centred future of work Copyright International Labour

2、 Organization 2022First published 2022Publications of the International Labour Organization enjoy copyright under Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention.Nevertheless,short excerpts from them may be reproduced without authorization,on condition that the source is indicated.For rights of rep

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4、uction rights organization may make copies in accordance with the licences issued to them for this purpose.Visit www.ifrro.org to find the reproduction rights organization in your country.AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022:Rethinking sectoral strategies for a human-centred future of work

5、International Labour Office Geneva:ILO,2022.ISBN:9789220381472(web pdf);9789220381465(print)https:/doi.org/10.54394/EQNI6264 labour market analysis/economic sector/employment/decent work/future of work/Asia/Pacific/report13.01.1ILO Cataloguing in Publication DataThe designations employed in ILO publ

6、ications,which are in conformity with United Nations practice,and the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the ILO concerning the legal status of any country,area or territory or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its

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8、es not imply their endorsement by the ILO,and any failure to mention a particular firm,commercial product or process is not a sign of disapproval.Information on ILO publications and digital products can be found at:www.ilo.org/publns.Cover photo ILOPrinted in ThailandiiiAsiaPacific Employment and So

9、cial Outlook 2022Foreword There is a hustle and bustle in most areas of Asia and the Pacific again after two years of quiet streets and limited mobility.Tourists are back,restaurants and shops are open and traffic jams in urban areas have resumed,with cars,buses,taxis and motorbikes full of daily co

10、mmuters,school kids and deliveries.Look closer though and you will spot shops that remain boarded up,many“for sale”signs on buildings,more street sleepers than usual and an increased number of street protests all visible signs that the region has not yet fully bounced back from the blow of the COVID

11、-19 pandemic.The limited recovery is further reflected in the labour market statistics presented in this report.This third edition of the biennial AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook shows that the number of persons working in the region in 2021 had not yet surpassed the number of workers in 2

12、019.The number of persons remaining outside the labour market remained inflated as well.The COVID-19 crisis stands out in comparison to previous crises that impacted the region,namely the Asian financial crisis of 199798 and the global financial crisis of 200709,as the only one to disrupt the rising

13、 trend in employment numbers at the regional level.And let us not forget the loss in working hours and associated income losses experienced during the COVID-19 crisis that,added to the loss of jobs give a fuller depiction of the impact felt.The report discusses where labour markets are recovering,ev

14、en if now confronted by a barrage of new challenges like inflation and geopolitical tensions that have created headwinds to employment-friendly macroeconomic policies and enterprise resilience.It makes a first-time assessment of regional sectoral estimates to highlight which sectors are growing as s

15、ources of jobs,which are shrinking and which harbour opportunities for“decent work”.One thing that I find especially valuable about this edition of the Outlook is its reminder of the continued dominance of the“big”sources of labour income in the region,these being agriculture,manufacturing and whole

16、sale and retail trade,where 60 per cent of the regions workforce is engaged.On average,jobs in these sectors are more informal than formal,more low skill than high skill and more likely to see workers left without social protection or job security.The limited scope for decent work in these sectors r

17、eflects in part the constrained capacity of labour market institutions to cover enterprises and workers within all industrial sectors equally in the national framework of labour protection and employment policies.It also has to do with the challenges that workers and micro and small enterprises in t

18、hese sectors experience to organize themselves for effective collective bargaining.Knowing this gives us a clear starting point for action in pursuit of a human-centred recovery that is inclusive,sustainable and resilient in the Asia and Pacific region.The International Labour Organization stands re

19、ady to apply all the tools at our disposal to work with governments as well as workers and employers organizations to strengthen and expand labour market governance for targeted support to the workers and enterprises in the large sectors.Transforming work into decent work within all sectors,but espe

20、cially those showing the largest decent work deficits,will bring inclusive growth to Asia and the Pacific and set the region back on track to a human-centred future of work.Chihoko Asada-MiyakawaAssistant Director-General and Regional Director for Asia and the PacificInternational Labour Organizatio

21、nForewordvAsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022Contents XForeword iii XAcknowledgements ix XAbbreviations x XExecutive summary xi X1.Introduction 1 X2.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific 32.1 Macroeconomic context 42.2 Employment trends 112.3 Economic inactivity and unemploy

22、ment trends 162.3.1.Inactivity 172.3.2.Unemployment 202.4 Decent work trends 222.5 COVID-19 crisis and vulnerabilities:What have we learned?272.6 A hollow recovery 29 X3.Where people work and why it matters for inclusive growth 323.1 Sectoral distribution of employment 323.1.1 Distribution by 21 sec

23、tors 323.1.2 Manufacturing sector in focus 363.2 Measuring decent work by sectors 393.3 Changing patterns in employment by sector 443.3.1 Shrinking sectors 443.3.2 High-growth sectors 453.3.3 Sectoral shifts over time 473.4 Sectoral shifts,labour productivity and development 503.5 Sectoral employmen

24、t and COVID-19 impact 54 X4.A sectoral lens for the human-centred future of work 584.1 Towards decent work promotion 594.2 From decent work to inclusive growth 614.3 Policy recommendations for sectoral approaches to decent work and inclusive growth promotion 62 XReferences 67 XAnnex 1.Country and in

25、come groupings for Asia and the Pacific 71 XAnnex 2.Additional figures 72 XAnnex 3.Methodology for sectoral employment estimates 75ContentsviAsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022 XList of figures1.GDP estimates and projections,Asia and Pacific,201923 42.GDP growth,Asia and Pacific region an

26、d subregions,201923 53.Share of employed in countries with pandemic-related workplace closures,Asia and Pacific,January 2020September 2022 64.Annual inflation rates and inflation targets of central banks,selected Asian countries,September 202275.Prices of selected commodities in 2022,percentage chan

27、ge from 2019 86.Total energy supply,by source,Asia and Pacific,19902019 87.General government gross debt,Asia and Pacific region,subregions and economies,2019 and 2022 98.Monthly exports of goods from Asia and the Pacific,201422 109.Total employment and employment-to-population ratio,Asia and Pacifi

28、c,200522 1210.Employment change,by sex and age group,Asia and Pacific region and subregions,201922 1211.Working hour losses relative to the 2019 fourth quarter level,Asia and Pacific region and subregions,.Inactivity change,Asia and Pacific,201922 1713.Unemployment and unemployment rate,A

29、sia and Pacific2114.Working poverty rate and vulnerable employment rate,total and by income group,Asia and Pacific,2015212315.Informal and formal employment,Asia and Pacific,2019222416.Labour income share of the bottom 50 per cent,global regions and Asia and Pacific subregions,2009 and 2019 2717.Lab

30、our force participation rate of prime-age mothers and fathers of small children,Asia and Pacific subregions and global,2020 2818.Labour market status,actual estimates against hypothetical no-COVID-19 scenario,Asia and Pacific,201523 2919.Ten sectors with largest employment shares,by sex and age coho

31、rt,Asia and Pacific,2021 3320.Leading sectors in employment share,Asia and Pacific subregions,20213521.Employment in the manufacturing sector,Asia and Pacific3722.Spectrum of job quality,by sector of employment,Asia and Pacific4023.Top ten employment growth sectors(average annual rates)and female sh

32、are in employment growth,Asia and Pacific,4.Employment increase,top five sectors in nominal growth and top five sectors in percentage growth,Asia and Pacific,5.Employment,by broad sector,Asia and Pacific,6.Change in sectoral employment,Asia and Pacific subregions,199

33、12021 4827.Characteristics of employment indicators,by broad sector,Asia and Pacific,1991202149ContentsviiAsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 202228.Change in employment share,by broad sector,low-and high-growth economy groupings,201019 or nearest years 5129.Industrial employment share,middle-

34、income economies of Asia and the Pacific,20215230.Labour productivity growth,total and by broad sector,Asia and Pacific,200020 5331.Decomposition of labour productivity growth,Asia and Pacific,selected periods 5332.Change in employment in the manufacturing sector,economies in Asia and the Pacific,20

35、19215633.Change in employment in the agriculture sector,economies in Asia and the Pacific,19912019 and 20192157A1.Total employment and employment-to-population ratio,Asia and Pacific subregions,20052272A2.Employment-to-population ratio,by sex,Asia and Pacific region and subregions,2002 and 202273A3.

36、Employment,by broad sector,Asia and Pacific subregions,1991202174 XList of tables1.Distribution of employment by low-to medium-skill and high-skill occupational groupings(2021)and percentage change in employment by occupational grouping(201921),Asia and Pacific region and subregions 252.GDP growth a

37、nd employment,by formal,informal,wage and vulnerable status,Asia and Pacific,various periods263.Youth NEET rates,2022,and change in number of youth NEETs,201922,Asia and Pacific region and subregions284.Broad employment profiles,by selected sectors,Asia and Pacific415.Sectors with female share of em

38、ployment growth higher than 50 per cent,Asia and Pacific,.Employment change,Asia and Pacific,20192155 XBoxes1.Good news or data revisions?Understanding changes in the ILO November 2022 modelled estimates142.COVID-19 and telework in Asia and the Pacific163.How does the COVID-19 crisis comp

39、are to the Asian financial and global financial crises?184.Combining work and parenting in Asia and the Pacific195.Why the unemployment rate is a weak metric of decent work in Asia and the Pacific 206.What are labour market institutions?617.Promoting international labour standards in global supply c

40、hains in China63ContentsixAsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022AcknowledgementsThis report is an output of the Regional Economic and Social Analysis Unit of the International Labour Organizations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific,led by Sara Elder.The authors of the report are Sara E

41、lder and Christian Viegelahn.Phu Huynh and Richard Horne authored some of the Sectoral Labour Market Profiles that were prepared for release with this report.The foundation of the report is labour market information.We extend great appreciation to colleagues in the ILO Statistics Department and the

42、Research Department who diligently cull,standardize and disseminate country-level labour statistics and design and run the estimation models that generate subregional and regional estimates.Stefan Khn of the ILO Research Department,in coordination with Christian Viegelahn,was instrumental in the dev

43、elopment of the model to produce the sectoral estimates.We also thank David Bescond,Roger Gomis,Tite Habiyakare,Steven Kapsos,Archival Mahajan,Quentin Mathys,Yves Perardel and Mabelin Villarreal-Fuentes for their tireless efforts in supporting the production of statistics.The team wishes to acknowle

44、dge the helpful comments and suggestions on the draft provided by two anonymous reviewers and ILO colleagues in the Employment Policy Department(Kee Beom Kim,Dorothea Schmidt-Klau and Yadong Wang),the Research Department(Stefan Khn,Catherine Saget and Miguel Sanchez Martinez),the Sectoral Policies D

45、epartment(Elisenda Estruch Puertas,Maren Hopfe,Yasuhiko Kamakura,Margherita Licata,Oliver Liang and Lucie Servoz)and the Statistics Department(Roger Gomis,Steven Kapsos,Yves Perardel and Marie-Claire Sodergren).The report also benefited from valuable feedback by the following regional technical spec

46、ialists:Nilim Baruah,Nuno Cunha,Phu Huynh,Bjorn Johannessen,Arun Kumar,Dong Eung Lee,Insaf Nizam,Tomas Stenstrom and Felix Weidenkaff.Karen Emmons edited the report,and Florian Saint-Aubin organized the graphic design and layout.Hatairat Thongprapai provided administrative support throughout the pro

47、cess.Finally,we extend our thanks to colleagues in the Regional Department of Communication and Public Information for their collaboration and support in the dissemination of the report.AcknowledgementsxAsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022AbbreviationsAPEC AsiaPacific Economic CooperationA

48、SEAN Association of Southeast Asian NationsCOVID-19 coronavirus disease GDP gross domestic productILO International Labour OrganizationLFS labour force surveyMSMEsmicro,small and medium-sized enterprisesNEET not in employment,education or trainingOECDOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Develo

49、pmentUNIDOUnited Nations Industrial Development OrganizationUnless specified,all$references refer to United States dollars.AbbreviationsxiAsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022Executive summary1 ILO constituents adopted the“Global call to action for a human-centred recovery from the COVID-19

50、 crisis that is inclusive,sustainable and resilient”at the 109th International Labour Conference in June 2021.2 Measured as value added per person employed.Labour markets in Asia and the Pacific have only partially recovered from the COVID-19 crisis.It has been a few rough years for governments,work

51、ers and enterprises in the AsiaPacific region.In the two years since the 2020 edition of this report,all countries in the region continued their struggle against the global pandemic and its related economic fallout.Some countries are also reeling from various political,social and environmental crise

52、s.In the reality of continuing socio-economic uncertainties,with high inflation rates threatening millions of livelihoods across the region,countries are facing an uphill battle in their endeavour to progress towards the“human-centred recovery that is inclusive,sustainable and resilient”,to which th

53、ey had pledged in their adoption of a 2021 Global Call to Action by the International Labour Organization(ILO).1 Labour market recovery in the region lags behind global levels.Job growth did occur in 2021 and 2022,recovering from the 3.1 per cent drop in employment in 2020.By 2022,employment numbers

54、 in the AsiaPacific region were 2.0 per cent above the pre-crisis level of 2019.On the surface,the employment trends look positive.Digging deeper,there remain numerous signs that the regions labour market is not yet back on its pre-crisis track.X First,while employment growth was again positive,the

55、employment-to-population ratio in 2022 remained still slightly below pre-crisis trend,at 56.2 per cent in 2022 from 56.9 per cent in 2019.X Second,compared to where job numbers would be in Asia and the Pacific had the disruption of the COVID-19 crisis never happened,there is a continued jobs gap of

56、22 million(1.1 per cent)in 2022.The jobs gap is projected to increase again to 26 million(1.4 per cent)in 2023 given the headwinds to growth foreseen in current geopolitical global and regional context.X Third,the aggregate hours of work in the region was not yet back to pre-crisis levels.The workin

57、g-hour losses in the first three quarters of 2022 compared to the fourth quarter of 2019 amounted to an estimated 1.5 per cent(1.9 per cent for men and 0.5 per cent for women).X Fourth,at nearly 105 million,the regional unemployment number was still 12 per cent higher in 2022 than in 2019 and the re

58、gional unemployment rate was still 0.5 percentage points above the 2019 rate,at 5.2 per cent.X Fifth,the number of persons outside the labour force remains inflated above the pre-crisis level for men and women,youth and adult and across all subregions.X Sixth,the gradual decline in the number of per

59、sons in informal employment at the regional level through 2019 was reversed during the crisis,as was the decline in vulnerable employment.As a result,the slow decline in the informal employment rate and vulnerable employment rate has stalled.The sectoral distribution of employment in the region high

60、lights the continued dominance of traditional sectors.The three largest sectors in terms of employment in the AsiaPacific region are agriculture,forestry and fishing;manufacturing;and wholesale and retail trade.These sectors together accounted for 1.1 billion workers in 2021,or 60 per cent of the re

61、gions 1.9 billion workforce.These sectors are where the majority of men and women workers earn their labour income(plus the construction sector for men).But they are also sectors in which labour productivity 2 often remains low and that typically do not offer decent wages,good working conditions or

62、job and income security.Most jobs Executive summaryxiiAsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022in the dominant employment sectors are also not covered by national social protection systems.In other words,these are not the sectors that generate positive decent work outcomes.Little has changed in

63、 terms of the dominant shares of work in low-productivity sectors and associated decent work deficits despite half a century of economic growth.In fact,where some progress was seen in increasing shares of formal employment,declining working poverty shares and other signals of decent work over the th

64、ree decades of data availability,such progress was seen to stall or even reverse during the COVID-19 crisis.The gap between the sectors with the largest number of workers and the sectors that experience the highest job growth rates over time is reminiscent of the regions labour market duality.Variou

65、s“modern”sectors that absorb higher-skilled workers,like information technology(IT)and business services,have expanded their workforces at a rapid pace over the past few decades.Regardless,as a share of total employment,employment in these so-called modern sectors remains low.As an example,the regio

66、ns fastest growing sector in terms of employment growth over time was the IT and other information services sector.Employment numbers in the sector grew 7.2 per cent annually between 1991 and 2021.Yet only 9.4 million persons worked in the sector in 2021,corresponding to 0.5 per cent of total employ

67、ment,and three quarters of the 8 million jobs gained over time went to men.Compare this to the wholesale and retail trade sector,which added 166 million workers over the 19912021 period and employed 277 million men and women in the region in 2021.The changing composition of sectoral employment favou

68、rs men over women in terms of decent work opportunities.Like the IT sector,most of the other sectors of high employment growth also benefited men workers over women workers.Only one of the top ten sectors of employment growth in the AsiaPacific region favoured employment of women,the accommodation a

69、nd food service activities,where 55 per cent of added jobs between 1991 and 2021 went to women.Among all sectors examined in the three-decade period of 19912021,only five experienced higher employment gains for women than men.3 With the segregation of men into sectors that offer higher wage potentia

70、l(like IT)and women remaining in lower-paying sectors(accommodation and food service activities,for example),progress on closing the gender wage gaps within many countries has been stalled.Making progress towards wage equity will require battling it from several fronts:(i)promoting pay equity at the

71、 enterprise level in all sectors;(ii)encouraging women to work in higher-paying sectors and occupations;(iii)educating women in fields with higher wage potential(like IT);and(iv)overcoming norms of discrimination on the hiring of women in the male-dominant sectors.The AsiaPacific region lags in its

72、achievement of decent work objectives;this is true in booming times and through crises.As economies and labour markets in all regions struggle to get back on track after experiencing the most significant setbacks since the Second World War,it is important to consider what“on track”means and whether

73、it is the right track for the longer-run transformation of countries.The decades preceding the COVID-19 crisis saw sizable economic growth rates in many Asian countries but shrinking labour income shares and only limited gains on decent work outcomes.Economic growth in the region has linked to the c

74、reation of formal jobs and,to a certain degree,wage employment.But it has not linked to the transformation of informal to formal employment for workers already in that status nor to the betterment of decent work outcomes for the majority of the regions workers.The challenge moving forward will be to

75、 increase and sustain public investment in labour market institutions to achieve decent work outcomes in all sectors,but especially those where the majority of people work.Continued fiscal support is required to put labour market recovery on more solid ground.The experience of the COVID-19 crisis ra

76、ised the red flag on many of the lingering deficiencies and shifted certain world-of-work issues towards the top of government priority lists for accelerated action.For instance,the crisis increased awareness of the importance of social protection systems and enterprise support and 3 Annex 3 explain

77、s the methodology for classification and analysis of sectoral employment.Executive summaryxiiiAsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022the critical role of workers safety and health in business continuity.Recognizing the lessons of the crisis response and sustaining the heightened investment in

78、 the policy areas needed to generate a human-centred recovery will be challenging for the region moving forward in the context of new crises and inflation that have come on the tail of COVID-19.Because consumers in all countries will need continuing fiscal support to offset the blow to their cost of

79、 living,the hope is that governments will continue to engage in targeted economic stimulus and fiscal supports.In situations in which demand cannot be boosted through increased government spending,progressive wage policies facilitated through social dialogue will take on added importance with their

80、capacity to sustain consumption levels.Beyond recovery,to transform inclusive growth in Asia and the Pacific,governments will need to elevate labour market institutions and empower workers and employers groups,especially in key sectors.The lingering decent work deficits,including gender gaps,the stu

81、bbornly high rates of informal employment and weak labour relations have dragged down the development trajectories of the regions developing economies.With more than one billion workers in the region in agriculture,manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade,strengthening the institutions to improv

82、e decent work outcomes in these three sectors alone could elevate living standards and the spending power of a sizable(if not the majority)share of the regions population.Yet,making labour market institutions more effective remains a serious challenge for many developing countries,given the investme

83、nt required,especially in the current context of global geopolitical and macroeconomic instability.Notwithstanding these difficulties,there are many recent innovations in areas of labour market governance that are being applied within particular sectors that can be scaled up in the longer term.The p

84、athway for a human-centred recovery in the short term and inclusive economic growth in the medium to long term is one whereby governments work together with workers and employers organizations to strengthen labour market institutions(the public institutions that set and enforce labour standards,that

85、 provide social protection,employment services and enterprise support and that facilitate social dialogue),particularly in the sectors with lower decent work outcomes.Specific recommendations to accelerate the achievement of decent work at sectoral levels in Asia and the Pacific,and in so doing,boos

86、ting the potential for inclusive growth in the region,include:X support social upgrading in sectors through the design and enforcement of labour standards;X support effective social dialogue;X take action towards formalization;X promote entrepreneurship and enterprise support for bottom-up growth;X

87、enforce good governance in labour migration;X match supply and demand;X target support to women-intensive sectors and increase opportunities for women to work in all sectors;and X support digitalization to transform livelihoods within sectors.Executive summary1AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlo

88、ok 2022 ILO11.Introduction2AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20221.Introduction4 See Annex 1 for the ILO regional grouping for Asia and the Pacific and its subregions.5 The ILO World Employment and Social Outlook:Trends report is published annually.The next edition will be released in Januar

89、y 2023,with regional estimates and projections that match what is presented in this report.This third edition of the International Labour Organizations(ILO)AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook presents the latest trends in employment and social conditions in the worlds most populous region.It p

90、rovides an update of the impact on workers and enterprises in the region since the COVID-19 pandemic began nearly three years prior.Beyond the crisis impact,the report examines the longer-term trends to generate a detailed picture of where and how people work in the region,focusing on the sectoral c

91、omposition of employment and its relation to decent work and development outcomes.The report asks the question of how to ease the inequalities in work quality between sectors so that all workers and enterprises can thrive through good times and bad.In the context of increasing economic,political and

92、 environmental uncertainties,the Outlook argues that only by transforming how labour market institutions function will countries make a breakthrough to a human-centred future of work that links to inclusive and sustainable growth.Structure of the reportSection 2 highlights the latest labour market t

93、rends in the region and the macroeconomic context in which such trends play out.The section examines key labour market indicators,such as employment,inactivity and unemployment at the regional and subregional levels,along with qualitative indicators that showcase continuing decent work deficits.It a

94、lso looks at the lingering impacts on labour markets due to the COVID-19 crisis,geopolitical tensions and fiscal challenges and how the current economic uncertainties conspire with longer-term structural issues to exacerbate the impact on vulnerable population groups.Section 3 makes use of new ILO s

95、ectoral employment estimates to generate a detailed picture of where workers in the AsiaPacific region are concentrated(section 3.1)and which sectors figure higher on the spectrum of decent work(section 3.2).It also examines the shifts that have occurred within and among sectors over time(section 3.

96、3)and how this relates to structural transformation(section 3.4).And it homes in on the COVID-19 impact at the sectoral level(section 3.5).Section 4 highlights the policies and practices that can be applied at the sectoral level to promote decent work.It emphasizes how integrating decent work object

97、ives into national development planning is essential for overcoming inequalities and for generating a human-centred recovery that is inclusive,sustainable and resilient.A caution on heterogeneity and aggregationThere is no one“Asia”or“Pacific”,and it is important to avoid the pitfalls of overgeneral

98、izing for a region that encompasses nearly 40 countries and territories,each of which has its own history,culture,social norms,geography,global ties,natural resources and political institutions that determine,as both cause and effect,the circumstances of national labour markets.4 Diversity prevails

99、across subregions,income levels,between the sexes and more.To the extent possible,this report highlights the continuing variations among labour markets in the region.Another caution is needed on the limitations of interpretation of the subregional and regional aggregates.Inevitably,the size of the e

100、conomies of China and India result in their dominance in the subregional aggregation of statistics for East Asia and South Asia,respectively.Similarly,the Pacific as an aggregate is dominated by the large economies of Australia and New Zealand.The analysis throughout the report relies heavily on ILO

101、 modelled estimates of key labour market indicators.For information on the methodology for their production,readers are invited to turn to Appendix B of the 2022 World Employment and Social Outlook(ILO 2022a).5 1.Introduction3AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022 ILO22.The labour market sit

102、uation in Asia and the Pacific4AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific2.1 Macroeconomic contextThe COVID-19 crisis has left its mark on the regional economy,and recovery will be difficult within the current global context.Nearly three years

103、 after the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic,the global economy continues in crisis mode,facing a volatile and highly uncertain environment.The consequences of the Ukraine war are being felt around the globe with rising commodity prices,including the prices of energy,food and fertilizers,and inflat

104、ion,affecting enterprises and consumers alike.The scarcity of energy in some regions of the world,such as Europe,may trigger a downward global economic spiral,depressing consumer demand and reducing trade,with ripple effects to other regions,including Asia and the Pacific.Beyond the geopolitical cha

105、llenges,the region is also strained by the rising global temperatures and sea levels and extreme weather events that are increasing the incidence of devastating natural disasters.Recent examples are the flooding in Pakistan and the heat wave that struck several provinces in China.The region is also

106、not spared by economic,political or humanitarian crises,as Afghanistan,Myanmar and Sri Lanka demonstrate.Economic activity in the region has not yet recovered from the shock brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic.The most recent International Monetary Fund projection for the regional gross domestic

107、product(GDP)in 2022 is nearly 6 per cent below pre-pandemic expectations(figure 1).This gap is expected to remain unchanged in 2023,suggesting that the accumulation of crises and lingering global uncertainties are having long-lasting impacts,including severe structural impacts on the regions economi

108、es.Figure 1.GDP estimates and projections,Asia and Pacific,201923Panel A.GDP growth(%)Panel B.GDP level(index,2019=100)765432%10-1-22002220230105100Index(2019=100)95200222023IMF WEO April 2022IMF WEO October 2019IMF WEO October 2022IMF WEO October 2021IMF WEO April 2

109、022IMF WEO October 2019IMF WEO October 2022IMF WEO October 2021Source:ILO calculations based on International Monetary Fund(IMF),World Economic Outlook(WEO)databases.2.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific5AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022While the economic challenges are

110、similar across all subregions of Asia and the Pacific,there are notable differences in the economic growth trajectories(figure 2).South Asia experienced the deepest dip in economic growth among all subregions in 2020;but it is also the subregion whose economic recovery has been strongest.East Asia w

111、as hit hard during the first weeks of the pandemic but did relatively well in the remainder of 2020 as well as in 2021.However,the locally concentrated but strict lockdown measures in China in response to COVID-19 cases in 2022 have contributed to a renewed low for economic growth in the subregion.S

112、outh-East Asia was hardest hit by the pandemic in 2021,but there has been a relatively strong recovery in 2022 that is expected to continue through 2023.The Pacific saw economic growth above the pre-crisis levels in 2021,but that growth has since been moderate.Despite some uncertainty about the futu

113、re of COVID-19,most countries in the region have lifted or significantly eased pandemic restrictions.Although COVID-19 infections continue,everyday life has largely normalized in most countries of the region and travel restrictions have eased,also owing to considerable progress with vaccinations.At

114、the end of September 2022,China was the only country in the region to again close all but essential workplaces in some of its provinces and municipalities in the face of new COVID-19 infections.China alone accounted for the 40 per cent of workers located in a country with closures of all but essenti

115、al workplaces in mid-2022(figure 3).The situation is hence very different when compared with the peak of the pandemic(at the end of March 2020),when the share was 82 per cent.Figure 2.GDP growth,Asia and Pacific region and subregions,201923 Panel A.Region and globalPanel B.Asia and Pacific subregion

116、s86420-2%-4-68106420-2%-4-6200222023200222023WorldAsia and the PacifcPacifcEast AsiaSouth AsiaSouth-East AsiaSource:ILO calculations based on IMF,World Economic Outlook,October 2022.2.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific6AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook

117、2022Rising inflation is the latest big challenge.While the COVID-19 situation appears to be largely under control in most countries of the region,high and increasing inflation rates undermine the purchasing power of consumers and enterprises,thereby threatening livelihoods and hampering economic rec

118、overy.The release of pent-up demand following the successful implementation of vaccination programmes collided with persistent supply bottlenecks,exerting upward pressure on prices.The problem was then exacerbated by the situation in terms of increased food and energy prices that followed from the w

119、ar in Ukraine.As central banks in some of the advanced economies try to contain inflation through strong monetary policy tightening,national currencies in the AsiaPacific region have been depreciating against the US dollar,leading to higher inflation through imports.In most of the major economies of

120、 the region,inflation has reached levels that exceed the target values or ranges set by the respective central banks by a considerable margin(figure 4).For example,Thailand recorded an inflation rate of 6.4 per cent in September 2022,which is far above the Bank of Thailands target range of 13 per ce

121、nt.Some governments in the region have put in place policy packages to help ease the cost-of-living pressures.Nonetheless,these packages cannot fully compensate for the increased cost of private consumption that households in the region are experiencing.Required closure for some sectors or categorie

122、s of workersRequired closure of all but essential workplacesNote:The share of workers in countries with required workplace closure for some sectors or categories of workers and countries with recommended workplace closure are stacked on top of the share of workers in countries with required workplac

123、e closure for all but essential workplaces.Source:ILO modelled estimates,November 2022;Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker.Figure 3.Share of employed in countries with pandemic-related workplace closures,Asia and Pacific,January 2020September 20228070302010%Recommended closure0Jan

124、uaryAprilJulyOctoberJanuaryAprilJulyOctoberJanuaryAprilJulyOctober2020202120222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific7AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022High inflation is of concern to both consumers and enterprises operating in the region.As enterprises confront higher expe

125、nditure for the inputs necessary for their production,those with sufficient market power,mainly large enterprises,may pass on these higher input prices to consumers and even increase their profit margins.Micro,small and medium-sized enterprises(MSMEs),however,have less leeway to increase prices but

126、face tighter credit constraints and fewer possibilities to diversify their activities.Energy and other commodities,such as metals,minerals and food,are inputs into the production of goods that enter the shopping basket of consumers.When commodity prices go up,consumer price inflation follows.Althoug

127、h pressure on the price of metals and minerals,such as nickel,aluminium or zinc,eased slightly in the third quarter of 2022,prices remained considerably higher relative to 2019(figure 5).The prices of rare earths are also likely to remain high because demand continues to exceed supply,given that gov

128、ernments worldwide are moving towards increased investment in digitalization and renewable energies,for which rare earths are an indispensable input.Even more concerning is the spike in energy prices,with the international price of natural gas more than six times as high in the third quarter of 2022

129、 as in 2019 and the price for coal and oil also having increased considerably.Overall,the high dependence of the region on energy supplied from coal,oil and natural gas is presenting tougher challenges due to environmental and economic considerations(figure 6).The countries in the region that are co

130、mmodity exporters for example,Australia and Malaysia in the case of natural gas are likely to be in a stronger position to cushion the adverse impacts of inflation than the commodity importers,such as Japan,the Republic of Korea and Thailand in the case of natural gas.Figure 4.Annual inflation rates

131、 and inflation targets of central banks,selected Asian countries,September 2022658743210%Source:Trading Economics(September 2022 infation rates)and websites of central banks(target value or range).September 2022Central bank target value/rangeIndiaPhilippinesThailandIndonesiaRepublic ofKoreaViet NamJ

132、apanChina2.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific8AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022Figure 5.Prices of selected commodities in 2022,percentage change from 205002001000%change from 2019 averageSource:World Bank Commodities Price Data,The Pink Sheet,4 October 2022.2

133、022 Q12022 Q22022 Q3Natural gas(average)Coal(South Africa)Crude oil(average)NickelAluminiumCopperZincIron oreGoldPlatinumWheatMetals/mineralsEnergyPrecious metalsGrainsFigure 6.Total energy supply,by source,Asia and Pacific,8000EJNote:EJ=exajoule.Source:International Energy Age

134、ncy,World Energy Balances,2021 edition.Natural gasCoalNuclearHydroWind,solar,etc.Biofuels and wasteOil0200520.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific9AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022Greater government debt across the region may limit the scope for furt

135、her fiscal policy.Fiscal policy has been a central tool for governments during the COVID-19 crisis to support their economies and to prevent even harsher economic and social impacts.Although this was undoubtedly necessary to also save jobs and support the labour market,it has led to budget deficits

136、and increased government debt throughout the region.In the case of Sri Lanka,it contributed in part to the current crisis.Only seven countries in the region have improved their general government debt-to-GDP ratio since 2019(figure 7).That ratio for the whole of the AsiaPacific region increased from

137、 73 per cent in 2019 to more than 87 per cent in 2022.East Asia has had the largest increase in percentage points of the general government debt-to-GDP ratio,followed by South-East Asia,the Pacific,East Asia and South Asia.Even though many observers consider the current debt situation sustainable fo

138、r most countries(see,for example,Ferrarini et al.2022),the deterioration,when compared with pre-pandemic levels,raises debt and financial stability concerns in the event of more crises forthcoming.2.The labour market situation in Asia and the PacificFigure 7.General government gross debt,Asia and Pa

139、cific region,subregions and economies,2019 and 2022(percentage of GDP)Source:IMF,World Economic Outlook,October 2022.20192022Asia and the PacifcEast AsiaSouth AsiaSouth-East AsiaPacifcJapanSingaporeBhutanSri LankaMaldivesLao PDRFijiMongoliaIndiaPakistanChinaMalaysiaMyanmarThailandPhilippinesAustrali

140、aNew ZealandRepublic of KoreaVanuatuPapua New GuineaNepalSamoaIndonesiaViet NamBangladeshCambodiaIslamic Republic of IranNauruKiribatiTaiwan,ChinaSolomon IslandsMicronesiaTimor-LesteTuvaluHong Kong,ChinaBrunei Darussalam050100150%of GDP20025030010AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022Interna

141、tional trade has more recently been supportive of the recovery in the region.The pandemic exposed vulnerabilities related to international trade and,more specifically,the lack of diversification in some economies.More recently,trade has been supportive of the recovery in economies of the region.As c

142、onsumer demand at the global level began to increase again from early 2021,the region benefited from its strong manufacturing base.Its monthly export of goods now stands at$726 billion,which is 32 per cent above the pre-pandemic December 2019 level(figure 8).There remains,however,a great deal of unc

143、ertainty regarding the future of global consumer demand.The weakening of global economic growth in the aftermath of the Ukraine war will undoubtedly hurt demand for exports from Asia and the Pacific,with consequences for enterprises and workers.It is thus an uncertain macroeconomic environment for t

144、he regions labour markets at the moment and in the near future.Fiscal pressures are mounting and threaten the continuity of support measures.With the health aspects of the COVID-19 crisis ebbing and borders mostly reopened,countries by mid-2022 were being pressured to ease the heightened levels of f

145、iscal expenditure that had helped to support some enterprises,safeguard jobs and shore up household income through the difficult times.Some countries will have no choice but to do so as public debt reaches a dangerous level.Yet,as new crises and inflation that have come on the tail of COVID-19 contr

146、ibute to keeping the economic and labour market recovery at bay,the need for economic stimulus,including labour market policies,continues even as the capacity to sustain the level of support wanes.Because consumers in all countries will need continuing fiscal support to offset the blow to their cost

147、 of living,governments are likely to engage in targeted economic stimulus and fiscal supports in the near future while reeling back the expanded level of fiscal expenditure seen at the height of the pandemic.In situations in which demand cannot be boosted through increased government spending,progre

148、ssive wage policies facilitated through social dialogue will take on added importance with their capacity to sustain consumption levels.Figure 8.Monthly exports of goods from Asia and the Pacific,2050700550500450350300400Billion US$Source:ILO calculations based on IMF,Direction of Trade S

149、tatistics,accessed 26 October 2022.200020202120222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific11AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific2.2 Employment trends X Highlights Between 2019 and 2020,employment dropped

150、 by 3.1 per cent,with 58 million fewer persons in employment.Compared with the pre-crisis expectations of the employment trajectory,the actual jobs gap was 79 million.Jobs recovery in the region in 2022 lagged behind the global level.Job growth started again in 2021 and the number of persons employe

151、d exceeded the 2019 levels by a small amount(6 million).Employment growth gained traction so that by 2022,employment in the AsiaPacific region was 2.0 per cent above the pre-crisis level of 2019.Global job recovery was higher at 2.7 per cent.Compared with the pre-crisis expectations of the employmen

152、t trajectory,a jobs gap of 22 million for the whole region remained in 2022.By subregion,the decline in jobs in 2020 was largest in South Asia(3.7 per cent below the 2019 level),followed by East Asia(3.2 per cent),South-East Asia(1.6 per cent)and the Pacific(0.5 per cent).By 2022,all subregions had

153、regained the employment losses of 2020 and were showing again positive employment growth over 2019.Yet,only in the Pacific was the employment-to-population ratio in 2022 above that of 2019.Initial job losses in 2020 were worse for women than men,and job recovery for women in 2021 lagged behind that

154、of men.In 2022,the number of men in employment was 2.0 per cent more than the pre-crisis 2019 level compared to 1.9 per cent for employment of women.By 2022,the employment-to-population ratio partially recovered to pre-pandemic levels but remained 0.6 percentage points below 2019 levels,at 56.2 per

155、cent.The employment-to-population ratio of women was 28 percentage points less than that of men(ratio of 42.3 for women and 69.9 for men).Working-hour losses in the first three quarters of 2022 amounted to an estimated 1.5 per cent(1.9 per cent for men and 0.5 per cent for women)compared to the four

156、th quarter of 2019.This is a considerable improvement from the 8.1 per cent of working hours lost in the region in 2020.Job growth is slowly getting back on track,but not yet keeping pace to population growth.The COVID-19 pandemic began in 2020 and endured over the course of 2021 and 2022.Virus outb

157、reaks continue in the region,albeit with lesser economic fallout due to most governments opening their borders and adjusting to the circumstances of“living with COVID”.The employment impact was the most severe in 2020,when mobility lockdowns were at their strictest in all countries.Between 2019 and

158、2020,employment dropped by 3.1 per cent,with a loss of nearly 58 million jobs and a considerable decline in the employment-to-population ratio,from 56.9 per cent to 54.5 per cent(figure 9).Employment increased again in 2021 and surpassed the 2019 figure,albeit by a small number(adding 6 million jobs

159、).Overall,employment in the AsiaPacific region in 2022 surpassed the 2019 level by 2.0 per cent(37 million),which falls behind the global job recovery rate of 2.7 per cent.Comparing to the pre-COVID days,the employment-to-population ratio remained low at 55.8 per cent in 2021 but is estimated to inc

160、rease again to 56.2 per cent in 2022,which is,however,still 0.6 percentage points below 2019 levels.12AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022Panel A.By sex and age group(2019=100)Panel B.By subregion(%change)9694Index(2019=100)929086420-2%change-4-6-820022East AsiaSouth-

161、EastAsiaPacifcSouth AsiaYouthTotalAdultWorldMaleFemaleSource:ILO modelled estimates,November 2022,available in ILOSTAT.Figure 10.Employment change,by sex and age group,Asia and Pacific region and subregions,201922 TotalMaleFemaleYouthFigure 9.Total employment and employment-to-population ratio,Asia

162、and Pacific,200522Note:See also Annex 2,fgure A1 for the time series of employment and employment-to-population ratio for each subregion.Source:ILO modelled estimates,November 2022,available in ILOSTAT.1.851.801.951.901.751.701.651.601.551.5058654Billion%Total employment(billion-left-hand

163、 axis)2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022Total employment-to-population ratio(%-right-hand axis)2.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific13AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pac

164、ificNot only were initial job losses in 2020 worse for women but their job gain through 2022 lagged behind the gain for men.Male employment declined by 2.9 per cent in 2020 compared to 3.3 per cent for female employment.The earlier job losses(in 2020 over 2019)were worse for men than women in all su

165、bregions except the Pacific,where the difference was marginal(not shown).An important reason for the stronger losses in womens employment is that many of the sectors where women workers are concentrated are those hardest hit by the crisis.Five of the ten sectors that experienced the sharpest job los

166、ses were those with high concentrations of women workers(see section 3.5).In terms of recovery,in 2022,the number of men in employment was 2.0 per cent more than the pre-crisis 2019 level.Employment of women grew by 1.9 per cent.Overall,the crisis impact has had little impact on the persistent gende

167、r gap in employment in the AsiaPacific region.In 2022,the employment-to-population ratio of women was 28 percentage points less than that of men(ratio of 42.3 for women and 69.9 for men).This represented an improvement of only 1 percentage point from the gender gap two decades prior,in 2002(see Anne

168、x 2,figure A2).The employment-to-population ratio remains especially low for women in South Asia,at only 22.9 per cent in 2022.Hence the subregions very large gender gap of 46 percentage points.But there is also a substantial gender gap in employment ratios South-East Asia(at 22 percentage points).I

169、n 2022,53.7 per cent of women were working compared to 75.3 per cent of men.Youth employment suffered the greatest shock with the number of young workers falling by nearly 10 per cent in 2020 and remaining still 3 per cent below the 2019 level in 2022(figure 10,panel A).The largest hit to youth empl

170、oyment over the entirety of the COVID-19 crisis(2019 to 2022)was in East Asia and South-East Asia,both at a negative 7.2 per cent(figure 10,panel B).In the Pacific and South Asia,the number of young persons in employment had recovered from the crisis drop by 2022.By subregion,the decline in jobs in

171、2020 was largest in South Asia(at 3.7 per cent below the 2019 level),followed by East Asia(at 3.2 per cent),South-East Asia(at 1.6 per cent)and the Pacific(at 0.5 per cent).By 2022,all subregions had regained the employment losses of 2020 and were showing again positive employment growth over 2019(f

172、igure 10,panel B and Annex 2,figure A1).Emerging from the COVID-19 crisis,the jobs recovery through 2022 was strongest in the Pacific and South Asia,followed by South-East Asia.In East Asia,employment numbers in 2022 were only 0.4 per cent above those of 2019.It is important to note that even if the

173、 number of jobs surpass the 2019 level,still employment gains are not keeping pace with population growth.Only in the Pacific was the employment-to-population ratio in 2022 above that of 2019(not shown).14AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022The number of jobs has recovered in Asia and the

174、Pacific,but working hours are still fewer than the pre-COVID-19 period.The crisis impact on jobs is underestimated when looking at employment numbers alone because it ignores the significant impact on the number of hours that people worked during the pandemic.By latest estimates,the number of workin

175、g hours adjusted for population in the AsiaPacific region declined in 2020 by 8.1 per cent(8.2 per cent for men and 7.8 per cent for women)when compared to the pre-crisis situation in the fourth quarter of 2019(figure 11).6 This was equivalent to the working time of approximately 143 million full-ti

176、me jobs(96 million for men and 47 million for women),assuming a 48-hour working week.In 2021,working hours remained below the level of fourth quarter 2019,at 3.2 per cent(3.4 per cent for men and 2.8 per cent for women).This was equivalent to a loss of 57 million full-time jobs(40 million for men an

177、d 17 million for women).Also in 2022(first three quarters),total working hours in the region remained below the pre-crisis level.Working-hour losses in the first three quarters of 2022 amounted to an estimated 1.5 per cent(1.9 per cent for men and 0.5 per cent for women).The greatest loss of working

178、 hours in 2020 was experienced in South Asia(at 13.6 per cent),followed by South-East Asia(at 7.4 per cent),East Asia(at 4.1 per cent)and the Pacific(at 3.7 per cent).The pattern shifted 6 Population adjustment is necessary to provide a comprehensive and internationally comparable measure of work ac

179、tivity.The figures represent the relative difference in the ratio of hours worked to population aged 1564 between the period of reporting and the fourth quarter of 2019.2.The labour market situation in Asia and the PacificThe source of global and regional labour market estimates produced by the ILO

180、and analysed here and in ILO major publications like the World Employment and Social Outlook:Trends(WESO Trends)and ILO Monitor on the World of Work is the ILO modelled estimates from the ILOSTAT database.These estimates are based mainly on labour force survey data.The estimation and projection meth

181、odology is described annually in Appendix B of the WESO Trends reports and in the ILOSTAT methodological note on the ILO modelled estimates.This AsiaPacific report mostly relies on the latest ILO modelled estimates dated November 2022,which are the same estimates that will serve as the basis for the

182、 next WESO Trends report,forthcoming in January 2023.Over the course of 2022,important changes to the input files of the ILO modelled estimates were included that resulted in some significant changes in the AsiaPacific regional aggregates compared to what was published in earlier versions.Changes in

183、 the historical series are made with every model update for reasons elaborated on in Appendix B of ILO(2022a).In this update,the main reasons for revisions in some of the historical data are:the substantial number of new input data,with most added observations coming from emerging and developing eco

184、nomies;a change in the historical data series for India;and a slight adjustment in the modelling methodology.The adjustment of the data source for India has an impact on employment estimates for South Asia and AsiaPacific as a whole.It is,to a large extent,responsible for the 201819 jump in regional

185、 employment and the employment-to-population ratio(figure 9).These data may look like“good news”,showcasing a positive trend in employment creation in that year,but the reality is that the trend reflects a sharp increase in female self-employment in rural areas of India,as captured in the Periodic L

186、abour Force Survey of 2019-20.Some of the reasons behind the substantially different results could be methodological,such as an improvement in the sequencing of survey questions to better capture the own production activities of women in rural areas.Regardless,such“good news”should be carefully qual

187、ified with an understanding of the lower tiers of employment quality that the employment gains reflect.Source:S.Chakraborty,P.Chatterjee and M.Nikore,“Why the Rise in Workforce Participation During the Pandemic Points to Distress Employment”,The Wire,undated.XBox 1.Good news or data revisions?Unders

188、tanding changes in the ILO November 2022 modelled estimates15AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacificin 2021,when the on againoff again lockdowns with ensuing infection waves impacted South-East Asia to the greatest extent and resulted in a

189、loss of 6.8 per cent of working hours.This was followed by South Asia(at 6.5 per cent).Also in the first three quarters of 2022,the continued impact on working hour losses was strongest in South-East Asia(at 2.5 per cent),followed by South Asia(at 2.4 per cent).Working hour losses were influenced by

190、 workplace closures but also by the amenability of jobs and those performing such jobs to working remotely(see box 2).At the country level,the mean weekly hours worked per employed person in 2020 was 2.2 hours less in the Islamic Republic of Iran,2.9 hours less in Mongolia,2 hours less in Thailand b

191、ut 6.1 hours less in the Philippines.The drop in working hours during the pandemic was primarily driven by underemployment but was also influenced by the stoppage of overtime hours,with implications for low-wage workers who often rely on overtime premium payments as part of their income.Figure 11.Wo

192、rking hour losses relative to the 2019 fourth quarter level,Asia and Pacific region and subregions,202022(percentage)20-2%Note:Adjusted for population aged 1564.Figures for the frst three quarters of 2022 represent an average of the quarterly estimates for the respectivequarters.For metho

193、dological details,see the technical annex in ILO 2022c and Gomis et al.2022.Source:ILO modelled estimates,November 2022,available in ILOSTAT.WorldAsia and thePacifcEast AsiaSouth-EastAsiaPacifcSouth Asia20202021Q1-Q3 202216AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022The ability to work remotely du

194、ring the pandemic preserved millions of jobs and enabled business continuity for many enterprises.One study indicated that telework was used by 40 per cent of the workforce in Malaysia,the Philippines and the Republic of Korea during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.1 Another study found that

195、 at least 200 million workers in China were working remotely by the end of the lunar New Year holiday in 2020.2 The teleworking rate reached 28 per cent in Japan in May 2020 and 47 per cent in Australia in 2020(OECD 2021).Through various studies,workers in the region have expressed their appreciatio

196、n for the flexibility of telework over the course of the pandemic,in particular,the time gained by avoiding the daily commute.3 There is an evident expectation that working arrangements should adapt to a“new normal”in a post-pandemic setting,with increased flexibility to work remotely or in hybrid w

197、ork arrangements.Adrjan et al.(2021)presents evidence that the easing of the pandemic has not significantly reduced the advertising of teleworking in new job postings,hinting that the increased prevalence of teleworking is a trend that is here to stay.4There are negative ramifications of telework,in

198、cluding the blurring of boundaries between work and personal life,the possibility of working excessive hours and the fact that it is not an option for all occupations and sectors(ILO 2021a).The governance of remote telework has taken on increased importance as a result of the crisis and with the inc

199、reased recognition of the need to ensure safe and healthy working environments in relation to physical and mental well-being(WHO and ILO 2021a).A few countries in the region have issued guidelines on remote telework or policies for specific sectors5 and are applying new practices within the realm of

200、 the public sector.But official changes in normative frameworks on working time arrangements have not yet occurred in the region,although this is a space to watch for future reforms.61 Raul Dancel,“Coronavirus:Asia Not Yet Ready to Work from Home”,The Straits Times,14 June 2020.2 Raphael Bick,Michae

201、l Change,Kevin Wei Wang and Tainwen Yu,“A Blueprint for Remote Working:Lessons from China”.McKinsey Digital,23 March 2020.3 For instance,EY,“Majority of Surveyed Southeast Asia(SEA)Employees Prefer Not to Return to Pre-COVID-19 Ways of Working”,press release,13 July 2021.4 Australia,Japan and New Ze

202、aland are the only countries in the AsiaPacific region included in the analysis,while Mexico is the only country among the 20 countries analysed that qualifies as a developing country.See also APEC 2021.5 The Indian Government,for example,announced a nationwide policy for work-from-home practices wi

203、thin special economic zones,where much of the countrys IT work is based.Rule 43A,Work from Home in Special Economic Zones Rules 2006,was issued in July 2022.See the Government of India,Ministry of Commerce press release.In Japan,the Ministry of Health,Labour and Welfare published a guideline titled“

204、Guideline to Promote the Appropriate Introduction and Implementation of Telework”in March 2021.See“MHLWs Guidelines for Promoting and Establishing High-quality Telework”,Japan Labor Issues 5(34),OctoberNovember 2021.6 Perhaps most imminent is the Amendment to the Employment Act 1955 of Malaysia that

205、 will make explicit provisions on flexible work arrangements.The Amendment was meant to go into effect in September 2022 but was postponed to January 2023 to allow further preparation time on the part of employers.See Act A1651,Government of Malaysia,Federal Legislation.2.The labour market situation

206、 in Asia and the Pacific XBox 2.COVID-19 and telework in Asia and the Pacific2.3 Economic inactivity and unemployment trends X Highlights Economic inactivity increased by 55 million persons(a 4.1 per cent increase)between 2019 and 2022,compared to a 11 million increase in unemployment.That means the

207、re were five newly inactive persons for every one additional unemployed person.In 2022,the female economic inactivity rate in the AsiaPacific region was 55.7 per cent,more than double the rate for men(at 25.9 per cent).Unemployment in the AsiaPacific region surged in 2020,adding nearly 25 million pe

208、rsons(a 26 per cent increase).In 2022,the number of persons in unemployment was still 12 per cent higher than in 2019.17AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific The regional unemployment rate increased by 1.3 percentage points,to 6.1 per cen

209、t in 2020(over 2019).In 2022,the unemployment rate was 5.2 per cent,which was still 0.5 percentage points above the 2019 rate.The unemployment rate in Asia and the Pacific remained below the global average in all years.2.3.1 InactivityMost people who lost their job moved outside the labour force.Eco

210、nomic inactivity7 increased by 55 million(a 4.1 per cent increase)between 2019 and 2022,compared to a 11 million increase in unemployment.That means there were five newly inactive persons for every one additional unemployed person.The economic inactivity between 2019 and 2022 increased more for men

211、than women at the regional level and for all subregions except South Asia(figure 12,panels A and B).The results reflect in part the significantly lower starting points in the male inactivity rates.In 2022,the female economic inactivity rate in the AsiaPacific region was 55.7 per cent,more than doubl

212、e the rate for men(at 25.9 per cent).The wide gender disparity in employment and inactivity reflects the uneven burden of unpaid domestic care work shouldered by women and is influenced by gender stereotypes,discrimination and other factors.See box 4 on the influence of parenthood on labour force pa

213、rticipation.Any increase to the already large shares of inactive women thus represents a painful loss in the progress women in the region have made in the labour market and a regression on the objectives of gender equality and womens empowerment.The number of persons outside the labour force remaine

214、d inflated above the pre-crisis level for men and women,youth and adult and across all subregions(figure 12,panels A and B).The increase in inactivity was largest in the 201922 period in South-East Asia(at 7.0 per cent),followed by South Asia(4.6 per cent),the Pacific(4.5 per cent)and East Asia(2.4

215、per cent).Only in South Asia was the increase larger for women than men.7 The term“economic inactivity”is interchangeable with the term“persons outside the labour force”.Panel A.By sex and age group(2019=100)Panel B.By subregion(%change)7106105Index(2019=100)20-2%cha

216、nge20022East AsiaSouth-EastAsiaPacifcSouth AsiaYouthTotalAdultWorldMaleFemaleSource:ILO modelled estimates,November 2022,available in ILOSTAT.TotalMaleFemaleYouthFigure 12.Inactivity change,Asia and Pacific,201922 18AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022 XBox 3.How does the COVID-

217、19 crisis compare to the Asian financial and global financial crises?The Asian financial crisis began in July 1997 and impacted mainly countries in East Asia and South-East Asia(Indonesia,Malaysia,the Philippines,Republic of Korea and Thailand).The crisis was primarily fiscal in nature,marked by slu

218、mping currencies,devalued stock markets and rapid rises in private debt.The global financial crisis of 200708 started in the United States but quickly spread to the rest of the world.The impact of both crises on the Asian economies was transmitted through falls in trade,commodity prices and investme

219、nts.The COVID-19 crisis began as a health pandemic in early 2020 but solidified into an economic crisis affecting every country in the world as international borders closed,thus severely disrupting mobility and trade patterns.The national lockdowns of varying strictness led to the closing of busines

220、ses and the limiting of consumption.The varying degrees of impact of these three crises on labour markets in Asia and the Pacific can be compared through the core indicators for employment,unemployment and inactivity.The extreme nature of the labour market impact due to the COVID-19 crisis,compared

221、to the previous two crises,is immediately visible in the box figure.Of the three crises,only the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in an aggregate decline in employment and a rate of increase in unemployment,which was threefold of what was seen with the Asian financial crisis.The COVID-19 crisis also prove

222、d to be unprecedented in the breadth of its impact across all broad economic sectors.Employment losses at the regional level were incurred in all sectors agriculture,industry,market services and non-market services(not shown).By comparison,the Asian financial crisis brought about employment losses i

223、n the industrial sector only,and the global financial crisis led to losses only in the agriculture sector,which was a continuation of the existing trend.By country,the Asian financial crisis resulted in employment losses(199798)in five countries,based on the ILO modelled estimates.During the global

224、financial crisis(200809),seven countries in the region recorded employment losses.Between 2019 and 2020,30 countries in the region experienced employment losses,and the number of unemployed persons jumped at least 20 per cent in 19 countries,compared with nine countries during the other two crises.X

225、 Change in unemployment,inactivity and employment during three crises periods,Asia and Pacific(percentage,year on year)201530251050-5%Source:ILO modelled estimates,November 2022,available in ILOSTAT.Asian fnancial crisis(1998)Global fnancialcrisis(2009)COVID-19crisis(2020)UnemploymentInactivityEmplo

226、yment2.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific19AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific X Difference in labour force participation rates of prime-age women and men with small children and all households,Asia and Pacific and subr

227、egions,2019(percentage point)Note:LFPR=labour force participation rate.Persons of prime age are aged 2554 years.With children means they have at least one child younger than 6 years at home.Source:Unpublished data based on ILO modelled estimates,November 2020.MaleFemale-6-4-202468101214Asia and the

228、PacifcEast AsiaSouth-East AsiaPacifcSouth AsiaPercentage point XBox 4.Combining work and parenting in Asia and the PacificIn all subregions of the AsiaPacific region,the aggregate picture shows parenthood pushing fathers into work and mothers out of work.The labour force participation rate of a prim

229、e-age father(aged between 25 and 54 years)with small children at home in 2019 was 3 percentage points less than that of all prime-aged men.This reflects societies in which fathers are expected to take on the household provider role(“breadwinner”).For women,in contrast,the tendency is to withdraw fro

230、m the labour market upon motherhood.This is reflected in the 8-percentage point gap in labour force participation of women with children against women in all households.The parenthood labour force participation gap is greatest for women in South-East Asia(at 12 percentage points).The limited drop in

231、 number of inactive persons between 2020 and 2022 and slight uptick in the latter year among the adult cohort(figure 12,panel A)underlines the stickiness of inactivity as a residual category(ILO 2021b).Transitions in and out of inactivity are less frequent than transitions in and out of employment a

232、nd unemployment,especially for adult women.One reason has to do with care responsibilities,which is a principal reason for many persons to remain outside the labour force,especially women.When formal education classes moved online during the COVID-19 lockdown periods,many parents gave up work to sta

233、y at home to care for their children and household.In many countries of Asia,the closure of education establishments,sporadic or in full,continued throughout 2021 and even into 2022.More frequently than not,it was mothers leaving jobs to provide needed unpaid care at home.8 See also section 2.5.The

234、presence of labour market slack in the recovery of the AsiaPacific region can be seen to partially contradict the evidence of labour shortages confronting certain sectors.Such labour shortages were exacerbated during the pandemic when many labour migrants returned to their home country,with only som

235、e of them eventually going back to their overseas employment.The shortage of foreign labour is affecting various sectors,including agriculture,fishing,construction,tourism and manufacturing in some South-East Asian countries(Suwannarat 2022).Labour shortages are also reported in certain higher-skill

236、 sectors,driven by such factors as the outmigration of skilled workers,an ageing workforce and/or the lack of training capacity.8 “Fallout of COVID-19:Working Moms Are Being Squeezed Out of the Labour Force”,ILO Blog,November 2020.20AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20222.3.2 UnemploymentWhi

237、le the main holding status of persons who lost work during the crisis was inactivity,many persons still searched for work and were thus classified as unemployed.Unemployment in the AsiaPacific region surged in 2020,adding nearly 25 million persons(a 26 per cent increase).The increase in adult unempl

238、oyment was sharp,at 32 per cent in 2020,before recovering slightly to 17 per cent over the 2019 level in 2022(figure 13,panel A).The number of young people joining unemployment was much less pronounced than adults because most of the young labour market entrants remained inactive.As in previous cris

239、es,recovery in the labour market situation for young people is expected to lag that of older workers(ILO 2022d).Young labour market entrants will continue to encounter the challenge of being“first out”in economic downturns and“last in”during economic recovery.At the same time,the lost years of work

240、experience can limit their future earnings and career pathways,when compared to youth entering labour markets in non-crises periods(ILO and ADB 2020).The regional unemployment rate increased by 1.3 percentage points,to 6.1 per cent in 201920(figure 13,panel C).In 2022,the unemployment rate decreased

241、 to 5.2 per cent,still 0.5 points above the 2019 rate.The unemployment rate in Asia and the Pacific has remained below the global average since 1991.Box 5 discusses why this is and remarks on the muted relevance of the indicator to the regional context.Panel A.Unemployment,by sex and age group,20192

242、2(2019=100)Panel B.Unemployment,by subregion,sex and youth cohort,201922(%change)0115110Index(2019=100)1051009590%change20022East AsiaSouth-EastAsiaPacifcSouth AsiaYouthTotalAdultWorldMaleFemaleSource:ILO modelled estimates,November 2022,available in ILOSTAT.TotalMaleFemaleYout

243、hFemaleWorldTotalMale2022 Male2022 Female2019 Male2019 FemaleFigure 13.Unemployment and unemployment rate,Asia and Pacific2520151050-5-10-15-20-25Panel C.Unemployment rate,by sex,201522(%)Panel D.Unemployment rate,by subregion and sex,2019 and 2022(%)7.57.06.56.05.55.0%4.54.03.53.0%East AsiaSouth-Ea

244、stAsiaPacifcSouth Asia87654320020202120222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific21AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20222.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific XBox 5.Why the unemployment rate is a weak metric of decent work in Asia and the P

245、acific The unemployment rate is probably the most widely used measure to assess the performance of a countrys labour market.Yet,it has considerable limitations as a signal of an economys health in the AsiaPacific region.The unemployment rate should be assessed among a broader array of indicators to

246、generate an accurate picture of the labour market situation at the country level.Many countries in the region are characterized by an unemployment rate*that is low by international comparison.At the regional level,the unemployment rate of 5.2 per cent in 2022 remains considerably lower than the glob

247、al unemployment rate of 5.7 per cent.However,the unemployment rate gives only a partial idea of how the labour market is doing in a country and is at times even misleading.The following discussion summarizes why.First,the unemployment rate does not give any indication of the quality of jobs in a lab

248、our market.Having a low unemployment rate when the majority of workers work in jobs with high decent work deficits does not mean economies are functioning well.Most countries in the AsiaPacific region are characterized by weak social protection systems that do not provide any unemployment insurance.

249、This implies that large parts of the population cannot afford to be unemployed and,in the case of job loss,they take on the next best job available for them instead.Typically,these are jobs in the informal labour market,characterized by low and volatile labour incomes,a lack of social protection and

250、 lack of access to social dialogue.Second,during the recent COVID-19 crisis,millions of workers who lost their job became inactive and not unemployed.Some workers managed to keep their job but had to reduce working hours,with associated labour income loss.Changes in the unemployment rate hence provi

251、ded an incomplete picture of the overall labour market impact during the crisis.Third,the unemployment rate technically decreases whenever an unemployed worker is leaving the labour market and moving into inactivity.There are various reasons that can explain transitions from unemployment into inacti

252、vity.One potential reason for an unemployed worker to move into inactivity is the lack of prospects to find a job and the resulting discouragement,leading the worker to give up the job search.A decrease of the unemployment rate through this channel is not an indication of a favourable labour market

253、development.Note:*=Measured as the share of persons of working-age who are without work,currently available for work and actively seeking work(the unemployed)in the total labour force(the sum of the unemployed and the employed)(ICLS 2013).Unemployment increased more for men than women at the regiona

254、l level and in South-East Asia and South Asia between 2019 and 2022(figure 13,panel B).In East Asia,the increase in female unemployment was slightly higher and,in the Pacific,unemployment fell below the 2019 level for both men and women.Unemployment rates in the region were higher for men than women

255、 in 2022 regionally and in all subregions except South Asia(figure 13,panels C and D).In South Asia,the surge in unemployment among men in 2020 pushed the male unemployment rate above the female unemployment rate for the first time(since the estimates first availability in 1991)(not shown).The rever

256、sal was short lived,however,and already in 2021,the female unemployment rate in South Asia was again higher than the male rate.South Asia is the only of the subregions where the unemployment rate of women falls above that of men.22AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 20222.4 Decent work trends

257、X Highlights The number of working women and men living in extreme or moderate poverty(in households with cumulative income of less than$3.20 per person a day)increased by 8.3 million,to reach 303 million persons in 2020(16.7 per cent of total employment).In 2021,the combined extreme and moderate wo

258、rking poverty rate fell again to 15.3 per cent.The vulnerable employment rate remained above 60 per cent in the low-income and lower-middle-income grouping of AsiaPacific economies in 2021.At the regional level(all income groups),the slow decline in the vulnerable employment rate over time stalled d

259、uring the years of the COVID-19 crisis.In 2021,still one in two workers(50.1 per cent)was in vulnerable employment.Informal employment rates have decreased in the region over time but at a pace that is out of step with the regions record of economic growth.The informal employment elasticity in the h

260、igh GDP growth period of 201215 was close to zero,meaning that informal employment rises and falls largely independent of GDP growth.Informal employment in Asia and the Pacific declined by 3.5 per cent in 2020,compared with 2.2 per cent for formal employment.Recovery occurred in both the number of i

261、nformal and formal jobs.In 2022,formal employment is estimated to surpass the 2019 level by 3.0 per cent and informal employment by 1.4 per cent.The jobs recovery from the COVID-19 crisis seen so far has largely been a recovery of jobs in high-skill occupations,raising additional concerns about incr

262、eased inequality.In 2019,the share of total labour income that accrued to the bottom 50 per cent of earners in the AsiaPacific region was only 10 per cent.While this was an improvement over 2009,the region remained the worlds second-highest in terms of unequal labour income distribution.Progress tow

263、ards the elimination of working poverty has stalled.Working poverty in the AsiaPacific region increased for the first time in 2020 after having trended downwards for decades.In the absence of effective institutionalized support,including social protection,households relied on limited savings to meet

264、 basic needs or went into debt.The number of working women and men living in extreme or moderate poverty(in households with cumulative income of less than$3.20 per person a day)increased by 8.3 million,to reach 303 million persons in 2020(16.7 per cent of total employment).9 The increase in working

265、poverty was entirely confined to the low-income and lower-middle-income economies.In fact,working poverty(extreme and moderate combined)in developing economies increased by 2 per cent while it continued to fall in the regions upper-middle-income and high-income economies.The working poverty rate dec

266、lined again in the low-income and lower-middle-income grouping in 2021 to 29.6 per cent and to 15.3 per cent overall.10 The increasing gap in working poverty rates between the two income groups is evident in figure 14,panel A.In 2015,the share of workers living in extreme or moderate poverty in deve

267、loping AsianPacific economies(low-income and lower-middle-income economies)was six times that of advanced economies.The gap between working poverty shares in the two income groups has increased significantly since then as working poverty in advanced economies neared elimination while it hovered arou

268、nd 30 per cent in developing economies.The growing income disparity across the region was influenced by the stronger social protection systems and larger fiscal capacities of advanced economies that they were able to call upon for quicker and more effective policy responses(ILO 2022e).9 Based on ILO

269、 modelled estimates,November 2022.10 Data were not yet available for 2022.2.The labour market situation in Asia and the Pacific23AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022Vulnerable employment and informal employment remain the dominant statuses of work in the AsiaPacific region.The developing e

270、conomies of the region have also made very little progress in increasing the share of jobs that are not vulnerable.The share of workers in own-account work and contributing family work together categorized as vulnerable employment11 remained above 60 per cent in the low-income and lower-middle-incom

271、e grouping of the AsianPacific economies in 2021(figure 14,panel B).This was 1.7 times greater than the share in the grouping of upper-middle-and high-income economies.At the regional level(all income groupings),the figure shows clearly that the slow decline in the vulnerable employment rate over ti

272、me had stalled during the years of the COVID-19 crisis.The informal economy is ever present in the Asia and Pacific region,with at least 1.2 billion workers earning a livelihood within its realm.More than two in three of the regions workers(68 per cent)were working informally in 2018,according to th

273、e ILOs most recent estimates(ILO 2018a).12 The share of informal employment is,on average,more than three times greater in the developing and emerging economies of Asia than in the advanced economies(71 per cent compared with 22 per cent,respectively).13 The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the precarity o

274、f the regions informal workers.While the jobs of many formal workers were sustained through labour laws and expanded government wage subsidy programmes,most informal workers were left to their own devices to sustain themselves and their family.The precarity of informal work is evident in the sharper

275、 loss of informal jobs,at 3.5 per cent in 2020,when compared to formal jobs,which declined by 2.2 per cent(figure 15,panel A).Informal employment among women declined by 5.4 per cent,while male informal employment declined by only 2.5 per cent(figure 15,panel B).For men,losses were larger in formal

276、jobs than informal jobs in 2020,while the opposite was true for women.11 The concept of“vulnerable employment”dates back to the Millennium Development Goals target 1b.Own-account workers and contributing family workers are assumed to be less secure in their jobs and more vulnerable to poverty,althou

277、gh it is true that persons in paid employment and even employers(categories of non-vulnerable employment)can also lack economic security,especially given the rise of digital platform work and increased uses of temporary labour.12 Forthcoming ILO estimates show a regional informal employment rate of

278、around 66 per cent in 2021.13 ILO,“More Than 68 Per Cent of the Employed Population in AsiaPacific are in the Informal Economy”,Press release,2 May 2018.Panel A.Working poverty rate(extreme and moderate,100Lost 3.8 million jobs(biggest loser by%change)NoPrimarily informal,paid work and with low payS

279、ource of jobs for low-skilled women workers,but precarity of work in crisesIT and other information services27th(9 million)25.7High growth(highest of all sectors)25.0Added 300 000 jobsYesPrimarily formal,paid employment;majority with relatively high payHigh-growth sector with job opportunities for m

280、en,but limited job creationNote:In the size column,comparisons are made across 36 sectors;see Annex 3 table,column 3.High-growth sectors are those with employment growth greater than 4 per cent per year between 2010 and 2019.Source:ILO modelled sectoral estimates,November 2022.3.Where people work an

281、d why it matters for inclusive growth42AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022The sectoral profiles look at employment trends over time and examine the qualitative aspects of work that impact on the livelihoods and well-being of workers and the sustainability of enterprises in the focus secto

282、rs.The remainder of this section addresses a selection of work-quality issues that are further discussed in the separate profiles.Safety and health at work27Incidence of occupational accidents and work-related diseases is high in the agriculture,construction,manufacturing and transport sectors.A rec

283、ent global study(WHO and ILO 2021b)found that a disproportionately large number of work-related deaths,most attributed to respiratory and cardiovascular disease,occurred in workers in South-East Asia and the Pacific.The high incidence of occupational-related injuries and deaths in the region relates

284、 to the large number of people working in high-risk sectors.The identification of risk factors,including long working hours and rising temperatures,28 and agreement on application of labour standards and guidelines to reduce or eliminate them through changes in organization and systems in the riskie

285、r sectors can bring improvements.Yet,few countries provide universal coverage of occupational safety and health services.As the COVID-19 pandemic unfolded,workers in the health and social work sector found themselves on the front line of the battle to save lives and safeguard public health.Designate

286、d“essential workers”,many in the sector saw their working hours and their work stress increase significantly.29 Doctors,nurses and long-term caregivers put their own lives at risk and compromised the safety of their families to provide care through intensely stressful circumstances.Although acknowle

287、dged as heroes over the course of the pandemic,many of these workers continue to face decent work challenges,including low pay,gender pay gaps(WHO and ILO 2022),long hours,violence and harassment at work and above-average levels of work-related mental stress and anxiety(Koinis et al.2015).Climate ch

288、ange and environmental fragilitiesClimate change and environmental fragilities are taking a heavy toll on the AsiaPacific region.In 2021,the region accounted for 190 natural disasters,which was more than half of all disasters worldwide that occurred in that year.China,Indonesia,India,Malaysia,Philip

289、pines and Viet Nam were among the top ten countries worldwide with heavy incidence of disasters(CRED 2022).Countries in the region continue to suffer from major natural disasters,including the devastating floods in Pakistan and the record-breaking heat wave affecting some provinces of China.Environm

290、ental hazards can take an especially heavy toll on labour markets in particular sectors.Extreme drought or flooding events destroy crops and hence have disastrous impacts on the livelihood of persons working in agriculture.Rising sea levels and extreme weather events are major risks for the garment

291、industry,given that a large number of suppliers and factories are located in areas that are vulnerable to sea-level rise(ILO 2021d;Judd and Jackson 2021).Natural disasters can have major adverse impacts on the inflows of tourists,thereby causing damage to the tourism sector,which employs millions of

292、 workers in accommodation and food service activities and other tourism-related sectors in the region(ILO 2021e;Rossell et al.2020).Exposure to environmental risks can lead to job losses,often affecting the informal sector disproportionately,which tends to have an important presence in those sectors

293、 that are environmentally sensitive and resource dependent.Enterprises in the informal sector in turn often fail to comply with standards of occupational safety and health,exposing their workers to greater risk,including in cases of natural disasters and environmental degradation.Often it is those p

294、eople and workers who are already marginalized within societies,who are particularly vulnerable to the effects of environmental degradation including climate change(ILO 2022k).27 At the 110th International Labour Conference in June 2022,a resolution was adopted to add the principle of a safe and hea

295、lthy working environment to the ILOs fundamental principles and rights at work.The two Conventions now added to the list of core Conventions are the Occupational Safety and Health Convention,1981(No.155)and the Promotional Framework for Occupational Safety and Health Convention,2006(No.187).28 The I

296、LO(2019b)estimates that by 2030,2 per cent of total working hours worldwide could be lost every year due to the impact of heat stress.29 The 2023 edition of the ILO World Employment and Social Outlook will focus on essential workers and the means of action to improve conditions of work on par with t

297、he social value of occupations that are integral to a well-functioning society.3.Where people work and why it matters for inclusive growth43AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022Labour migration and demand shocksAgriculture,the garment sector,manufacturing,construction,accommodation and food

298、 service activities and private household(including domestic)work among the focus sectors are those that absorb large numbers of labour migrants in the AsiaPacific region.In Malaysia,for example,migrant workers accounted for around a third of total employment in the agriculture sector(ILO forthcomin

299、g_a).30 This includes work on plantations,including palm oil and rubber.In Brunei Darussalam,for instance,migrant workers accounted for nearly 80 per cent of total employment in construction in 2019(57 per cent for industry overall).Where production within certain sectors depends on the flow of migr

300、ant workers,the treatment of such workers and the governance of labour migration within host countries has taken on great importance,especially with the surge of labour demand stemming from the reopening of international borders.The private households with employed persons sector is unique in the In

301、ternational Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities(ISIC)framework as the only category to link to an employment relationship and place of work.Types of workers that might fall into this category are maids,cooks,babysitters,tutors,gardeners and drivers.This is the sector in whi

302、ch nearly all domestic workers will be counted.31 Domestic workers provide essential services yet are frequently without access to rights and protections(ILO 2021f).Many of them endure strenuous working conditions and are vulnerable to violence and harassment and even restriction of movement.In the

303、AsiaPacific region,the share of job losses among domestic workers during the COVID-19 pandemic was larger than for all other sectors(section 3.5).Many migrant domestic workers were left stranded without work or social assistance in foreign countries.The COVID-19 crisis was also especially difficult

304、on workers in the tourism sector,including persons working in accommodation and food service activities.The ILO(2021e)found that job losses in tourism-related sectors were four times greater than in non-tourism sectors.Because many workers in the sector are labour migrants,32 they fell outside the s

305、cope of any pandemic-related government assistance granted to enterprises and workers in the sector.With scores of migrants pushed outside their host countries during the pandemic and finding the return pathway difficult,many tourism establishments now report labour shortages as an added burden in t

306、heir struggle to return to normal.Gender-based discrimination and occupational segregationOccupational gender segregation,whereby men and women tend to work in different professions and sectors,is obvious in several of the focus sectors.IT and other information services,construction and transport re

307、main firmly in the domain of men,while health and social work and private household work are female domains(with other sectors falling in between).With construction and transport being outlets for low-skilled workers,one can argue that low-skilled female workers have opportunities in other sectors a

308、nd are therefore not necessarily overly penalized by their lack of access to these two domains.But when access is denied in a high-skill sector that offers opportunities for formal,better paid jobs,such as the IT and other information services sector,then the occupational gender segregation is clear

309、ly problematic.The IT industry has been a boon for jobs in all subregions,but especially in South Asia,where employment growth was greater than a thousandfold between 2001 and 2021.Both men and women benefited from the job opportunities in the new sector.Yet,in 2021,women held only 19 per cent of IT

310、 jobs in South Asia.Even though this is a larger female share than in other non-public service sectors,it is not nearly large enough,given the numbers of women now engaging in engineering education and emerging in larger numbers than men with tertiary degree(Raghuram et al.2017).Improvements over ti

311、me are reported,but barriers to entry remain for women in the IT sector and career pathways in the sector are limited for women when compared to men.Subcontracting and gig workThe emergence of a variety of digital innovations over recent years has allowed consumers and enterprises to access the supp

312、ly of certain services in a new way.Gig work,including digital platform work,has been on 30 The numbers are likely underestimated,given the difficulty of counting irregular migrants,who are among the thousands in many Asian countries.31 Domestic workers employed through a service agency are not capt

313、ured in the industrial classification.Still,approximating the measure of domestic work through the ISIC is considered the best means(see ILO 2011 for more information).32 ILO(forthcoming_a)reports that 66.5 per cent of workers in the accommodation and food service activities in Brunei Darussalam are

314、 migrants.3.Where people work and why it matters for inclusive growth44AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022the rise in the region.During the COVID-19 pandemic,an increasing number of workers resorted to digital platform work in the absence of employment opportunities elsewhere(ILO 2021g).T

315、he transport sector is a prominent example of a sector in which some of the services specifically taxi and delivery have been increasingly accessed through digital platforms.Workers who work for the digital platforms are formally categorized as self-employed or independent contractors by the platfor

316、m in almost all countries(ILO 2021g).In practice,however,their work often closely resembles the work of employees of an enterprise,especially in cases where platforms control the task distribution and provide limited options for workers to reject the task at hand.The blurriness of employment relatio

317、nships creates some gaps in regulation for decent work because many relevant labour law provisions are applicable only to employees.Countries in the region have started,to work on closing these gaps.The Singapore Ministry of Manpower,for example,recently introduced an Advisory Committee on Platform

318、Workers,which is expected to publish recommendations on the improvement of platform workers working conditions,with labour legislation to possibly ensue.33 Practices of multilayer contracting and resulting triangular employment relationships,whereby workers are separated from their ultimate employer

319、 by contractors or labour agents,exacerbate the vulnerability of those workers in many sectors.In such arrangements,workers are typically not granted the same protections under the labour laws and find it difficult to challenge employers in disputes on wage payment or other abuses.Such practices are

320、 especially common in the construction sector but also in various production jobs within the manufacturing sector and domestic work(Huang 2022;ILO 2016a).34 3.3 Changing patterns in employment by sector X Highlights The three sectors with highest employment growth rates over the three decades betwee

321、n 1991 and 2021 in the AsiaPacific region were IT and other information services,other business sector services and real estate activities.Most of the sectors with high employment growth(in percentage change)in the region absorbed mainly male workers.For instance,in the regions highest growth sector

322、,IT and information services,only one in four jobs(25 per cent)added between 1991 and 2021 went to women.The top five sectors of employment growth in volume(numbers of additional workers)from 1991 to 2021 were wholesale and retail trade(adding 166 million workers),construction(adding 125 million wor

323、kers),manufacturing(adding 92 million),accommodation and food service activities(adding 54 million workers)and education(adding 44 million workers).In total,these five sectors added 481 million workers over the three-decade period,while the five high-growth sectors(in percentage change)added slightl

324、y more than 70 million jobs.3.3.1 Shrinking sectorsAt the aggregate level,the declining sectors those with a long-term contraction in employment(from 1991 to 2021)are agriculture and the manufacturing of textiles,wearing apparel and leather(garments).Since 1991,175 million workers have moved out of

325、the agriculture sector.The garment sector saw employment shrink by 2.4 million.This loss of jobs in the garment sector has been specific to women:Jobs of women in the sector shrank by 11 per cent from 1991 to 2021(a decrease of 5 million)while male employment in the sector grew by 9 per cent(adding

326、2.6 million jobs).This shift in the gender balance of jobs in the garment sector is to a large extent driven by subregional shifts within the sector,as South Asia(where the share of women in garment employment is relatively low)increased its share of garment employment in the region(ILO 2022h).33 Ch

327、arles Chau,“Gig Workers in Singapore to Receive More Protection,”hrmasia,14 October 2022.34 A survey of the garment and construction sectors in three cities in India found that three quarters of the factories covered had recruited workers through unlicensed contractors.Less than 2 per cent of worker

328、s surveyed had a written contract(ILO 2016a,box 2.7).3.Where people work and why it matters for inclusive growth45AsiaPacific Employment and Social Outlook 2022The garment sector has been an important source of economic growth for many countries and has opened up first-time paid employment opportuni

329、ties for millions of women,especially in South Asia,with some positive gains to womens economic empowerment(Al Mamun and Hoque 2022).The negative employment growth in the sector is to a large extent driven by East Asia,where garment employment nearly halved during the past three decades.The garment

330、sector in South Asia and South-East Asia has been growing over time,with important employment gains for women(ILO 2022h).Both the agriculture and garment sectors continue to be significant in their employment share.In 2021,the agriculture sector in the AsiaPacific region had a 30 per cent employment

331、 share(with 563 million workers)and the garment sector maintained 3.8 per cent of total employment(with 71 million workers)(see also the discussion on manufacturing subsectors in section 3.1.2).3.3.2 High-growth sectorsThe ten sectors of highest employment growth over the three decades of 1991 to 20

332、21 in the AsiaPacific region are,in descending order of average annual growth rate:IT and other information services;other business services;real estate activities;publishing,audio-visual and broadcasting activities;warehousing;accommodation and food service activities;construction;telecommunication

333、s;financial activities;and repair and postal and courier activities(figure 23).In these sectors,the average growth rate per annum ranged from 7.2 per cent(IT and other information services)to 3.4 per cent(postal and courier activities).By comparison,the annual growth rate for employment on the whole in the region was 1.2 per cent.3.Where people work and why it matters for inclusive growthAnnual av