1、CO2 Storage Resources and their DevelopmentAn IEA CCUS HandbookThe IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues including oil,gas and coal supply and demand,renewable energy technologies,electricity markets,energy efficiency,access to energy,demand side management and much more.Through its work,t

2、he IEA advocates policies that will enhance the reliability,affordability and sustainability of energy in its 31 member countries,11 association countries and beyond.This publication and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitat

3、ion of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Source:IEA.International Energy Agency Website:www.iea.org IEA member countries:Australia Austria Belgium Canada Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Japan Korea

4、LithuaniaLuxembourg Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Norway Poland Portugal Slovak Republic INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY Spain Sweden Switzerland Republic of TrkiyeUnited Kingdom United States The European Commission also participates in the work of the IEAIEA association countries:ArgentinaBrazilChina

5、EgyptIndiaIndonesiaMoroccoSingaporeSouth AfricaThailandUkraineCO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|3 Abstract IEA.CC BY 4.0.Abstract Carbon capture,utilisation and storage(CCUS)technologies are an important solution for the decarbonisation of the global energy system as it proceeds down

6、the path to net zero emissions.CCUS can contribute to the decarbonisation of the industrial and power generation sectors,and can also unlock technology-based carbon dioxide(CO2)removal.However,its successful deployment hinges on the availability of CO2 storage.For widespread CCUS deployment to occur

7、,CO2 storage infrastructure needs to develop at the same speed or faster than CO2 capture facilities.CO2 has been injected into the Earths subsurface since the 1970s and dedicated CO2 storage(where CO2 is injected for the purpose of its storage and not for CO2-based enhanced oil recovery)has been oc

8、curring since 1996.There are seven commercial-scale dedicated CO2 storage sites today,with more than 100 others in development.Lessons learned from these sites,along with research,pilot and demonstration projects,contribute to our understanding of CO2 storage resources,their assessment and their dev

9、elopment into CO2 storage sites.This IEA CCUS Handbook is an aid for energy sector stakeholders on CO2 storage resources and their development.It provides an overview of geological storage,its benefits,risks and socio-economic considerations.The handbook is supported by an extensive glossary of CO2

10、storage-related terminology found at the end of this report and complements the IEA CCUS Handbook on Legal and Regulatory Frameworks.PAGE|4 Table of contents IEA.CC BY 4.0.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development Table of contentsExecutive summary.6 CO2 storage enables net zero goals.7 Resource a

11、ssessment and development take time,but momentum is building.7 Storage-related risks are manageable.8 Commercialisation requires policy support.8 Getting started on CO2 storage resource assessment.9 Priority actions to develop CO2 storage resources.10 Introduction.12 Context of this IEA CCUS Handboo

12、k on CO2 storage.13 Structure of this handbook.15 CO2 storage resources.16 CO2 storage is an effective and secure way to permanently isolate emissions.18 Where CO2 is injected.19 Types of CO2 storage resources.20 Physical properties that influence CO2 injection.22 Mechanisms that trap injected CO2.2

13、3 CO2 storage projects.25 CO2 storage resources are a strategic asset for energy transitions.27 The stages of a CO2 storage project.28 Necessary expertise and competencies.29 Assessment and development frameworks.30 Resource assessment and site development.33 Sourcesink matching.35 CO2 storage wells

14、.37 Measurement,monitoring and verification.39 Site closure and post-closure.41 Site transfer.42 Assessment and development.43 The assessment and development process is usually phased.45 Overview and project framing.46 Assessment and development workflow.47 Regional and site screening.48 Site select

15、ion.50 Initial and detailed site characterisation.51 Site design and development.53 Technical assessment criteria.55 Technical criteria determine storage site performance and security.57 Timing of technical studies.58 Containment.59 Monitorability.60 Injectivity.61 Capacity.62 Methods to estimate ca

16、pacity.63 Constraints on matched capacity.64 Risk management.65 CO2 storage projects have unique risks that need to be managed.67 Risk management in CO2 storage.68 Risk assessment and analysis.69 Risk mitigation and remediation.71 Pressure management.72 CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PA

17、GE|5 Table of contents IEA.CC BY 4.0.Technical risks.74 There are five main categories of technical risks.76 Site performance risks.77 Health,safety and environmental risks.78 Containment risks.80 Induced seismicity risks.84 Resource interaction risks.86 Commercialisation of CO2 storage.87 CO2 stora

18、ge commercialisation requires business model development.89 Project type.91 Project costs.93 CO2 storage cost evolution.95 Project ownership and the role of specialised CO2 storage companies.96 Project financing.99 Revenue models.100 Financial risk management.101 CO2 storage liabilities.102 Stewards

19、hip funds and other mechanisms.103 Public perception.104 Actions to support deployment.105 Well-designed policies and private-sector support enable CO2 storage deployment.106 Identify CO2 storage resources and provide access to necessary data.108 Ensure legal and regulatory frameworks account for CO

20、2 storage-specific needs.108 Develop policies that support CO2 storage.109 Support early movers and boost investment in CO2 storage.110 Support the develop of CO2 storage competencies,expertise and technologies.110 Private-sector actions.111 General annex.112 Further reading.113 Abbreviations and ac

21、ronyms.116 Glossary.117 Acknowledgements,contributors and credits.125 CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|6 Executive summary IEA.CC BY 4.0.Executive summary CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|7 Executive summary IEA.CC BY 4.0.CO2 storage enables net zero goals CO2 storage

22、 is a proven and effective way to permanently isolate captured CO2 from the atmosphere.Currently,seven dedicated commercial-scale CO2 storage sites inject around 10 Mt of CO2 annually into deep geological formations.The piloting and demonstration of dedicated storage has been occurring since the 199

23、0s.Dedicated storage also builds upon 50 years of lessons learned from CO2 enhanced oil recovery(CO2-EOR)and over 150 years of subsurface activity by the oil and gas sector.Access to safe and secure geological CO2 storage is critical to CO2 management in the context of stabilising global temperature

24、 rise.In the IEAs Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,5.9 Gt of captured CO2 is stored annually in 2050.Enterprises may be hesitant to invest in CO2 capture if they are not confident that CO2 storage will be available to store captured emissions.Global CO2 storage development is currently lagging be

25、hind the development of CO2 capture.Targeted government intervention and expanding policy support to encompass CO2 storage development can help accelerate its progress.Technology-based CO2 removal requires CO2 storage.Direct air capture with CO2 storage(DACS)and bioenergy with carbon capture and sto

26、rage(BECCS)rely on geological storage to permanently remove captured CO2.Without CO2 storage,the potential for carbon removal offered by these technologies cannot be realised.Resource assessment and development take time,but momentum is building As of the middle of 2022,more than 130 CO2 storage sit

27、es are in development in 20 countries.Many of these sites have been in development for years,but plans for 60 new storage projects were announced in 2021.By 2030 annual dedicated injection capacity could increase to more than 110 Mt from some 10 Mt today.Ample CO2 storage resources may be available

28、globally,but further assessment is required.Globally,CO2 storage resources are under-appraised and only a small handful qualify as reserves that can be developed into sites.To support the development of resource management strategies,governments should assess CO2 storage potential and define reserve

29、s.It can take three to ten years to develop suitable resources into operating sites and not every resource will be developable.Government-led precompetitive resource assessment can reduce the financial risks of developing CO2 storage and accelerate the creation of new sites.Phasing the assessment an

30、d development process is efficient and effective.Assessment becomes increasingly detailed and costly as it proceeds.A phased process allows resources that do not meet project criteria to be excluded from further assessment.This reduces exploration risk and increases confidence in storage.Phasing als

31、o allows different actors to conduct different phases of assessment so,for example,the private sector can build on precompetitive assessments conducted by governments.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|8 Executive summary IEA.CC BY 4.0.Storage-related risks are manageable The technical

32、 risks associated with CO2 storage can be managed effectively.Regulatory oversight,robust site assessment and competent site operations support risk management and contribute to CO2 storage security.Measurement,monitoring and verification(MMV)programmes a mandatory part of CO2 storage operations und

33、erpin risk management processes and demonstrate effective CO2 storage.To date,pilot,demonstration and commercial CO2 storage projects have supported the development of MMV expertise and experience.Regulators should ensure that frameworks outline MMV requirements without being overly prescriptive as

34、to the types of technologies that need to be used.Business model development will support economic risk reduction.New business models are emerging as dedicated CO2 storage activity increases to support decarbonisation efforts.Business models from other sectors can provide guidance,but regionally inf

35、ormed,storage-specific business models are needed to support upscaling and widespread deployment.Such models have to account for the unique market and financial risks faced by the developing storage industry,be guided by local policies and regulation,and address risk sharing,long-term liability and

36、revenue models.Since CO2 storage sites are effectively providing a public service,both the public and private sectors should play a role in developing sustainable business models for CO2 storage activity.Commercialisation requires policy support Developing large,multi-source CO2 storage sites should

37、 be a top priority.Multi-source storage sites are the foundation of a hub model for deploying CO2 storage.They capitalise on economies of scale to reduce storage costs and support the deployment of CO2 capture at emitters where full-chain CCUS projects are not feasible,such as emitters that are smal

38、l or have no storage expertise.CO2 storage costs may increase with time due to resource availability and quality.Resources that have the most data,are the most accessible or are the largest or least complex are likely to be developed first.As a result,assessment,development,operating and monitoring

39、costs may increase due to the need to gather additional data,or due to increased complexity of injection operations,or both.Learning-related cost reductions can offset cost increases,while resource management can support the strategic development of resources,which can in turn reduce disruptive cost

40、 increases.Decarbonisation strategies should account for the location of storage resources.CO2 storage resources are immovable,so the benefits of siting new facilities that will capture CO2 alongside CO2 storage resources should be considered.Through economies of agglomeration,this could support CO2

41、 storage hub development,CO2 transport cost reductions,and the strategic development of DACS and BECCS facilities in regions with both storage resources and high potential for renewable energy or bioenergy feedstock.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|9 Executive summary IEA.CC BY 4.0.G

42、etting started on CO2 storage resource assessmentMany industrial and power generation facilities in emerging market and developing economies(EMDEs)are relatively young,increasing the case for CCUS deployment in these countries in particular.Some of these countries have started to assess their CO2 st

43、orage resources,but many have not.The IEA has devised the following checklist for governments that are interested in developing an atlas or database of their CO2 storage resources.It predominantly targets EMDEs,but can be used by any country or region as a starting point.Not every step will be requi

44、red or relevant to every country or region.1.National CCUS focal pointAssess whether CO2 storage resources fall under the mandate ofany agency or agencies.Identify and nominate an organisation or agency to serve as anational CCUS focal point.Consider engaging the national geological survey or equiva

45、lent.2.International supportConsider engaging international expertise and support to assistwith the process,such as the IEA,IEAGHG and World Bank.3.CO2 storage assessment project teamDetermine which agency should co-ordinate/be involved in theresource assessment process.Define a project team to rean

46、alyse existing geological data withthe goal of identifying CO2 storage resources.Decide which internationally recognised storage assessmentmethodology should be used.4.Leverage national human capacityInitiate discussion on CO2 storage with stakeholders who may beable to assist in the assessment proc

47、ess,such as oil and gascompanies,local universities and research centres withsubsurface expertise,and other government agencies.5.DataIdentify owners and custodians of geological data,which may begovernment agencies,private-sector companies,researchorganisations,etc.Gather as much existing relevant

48、geological data as possible andmake it publicly available whenever possible.6.CO2 storage assessmentAssess the collated data.As a part of assessment,clearly definethe methodology and assumptions that were used.Make assessment results publicly available whenever possible.7.Next stepsDetermine if ther

49、e are specific resources that should be targeted at further assessment.Outline priorities for future CO2 storage-related work and consider defining a CCUS deployment work programme.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|10 Executive summary IEA.CC BY 4.0.Priority actions to develop CO2 sto

50、rage resourcesTo reduce the risk of CO2 storage becoming a bottleneck during energy transitions,the IEA has identified five categories of priority actions that governments can take to accelerate CO2 storage development.The private sector can support these actions through consultation during the deve

51、lopment of policies and regulation,improving data management practices,increasing innovation,and supporting the upskilling and reskilling of the oil and gas workforce.Additionally,the IEA has defined specific considerations for the private sector to support CO2 storage deployment.Identify CO2 storag

52、e resources and facilitate access to the data necessary for storage development Develop national CO2 storage resource atlases or databases using internationally agreed methodology,such as the Storage Resource Management System(SRMS),and existing subsurface data.Accelerate pre-commercial exploration

53、for CO2 storage in order to increase confidence in storage resource availability and performance.Support countries and regions without storage experience by encouraging knowledge transfer and data sharing.Improve data management,support digitisation of legacy records,and ensure data are accessible.E

54、nsure legal and regulatory frameworks enable effective and secure CO2 storage Outline characterisation,quantification and MMV requirements in regulatory frameworks.Address CO2 storage-specific liabilities.Define clear licensing and permitting processes and appropriately staff agencies to support eff

55、icient and timely permit issuing.Clearly define the ownership of,access to and management of subsurface pore space if it is not already defined.Consider the ownership of new subsurface data and if newly acquired subsurface data should be considered a public good after a set period of time.Develop po

56、licies and regulatory competencies that support CO2 storage Determine if CO2 storage,and by extension CCUS,should be integrated into national climate,energy,industrial and decarbonisation strategies.If yes,develop an appropriate resource management plan.Implement policies to encourage CO2 storage in

57、vestment,such as direct incentives or market-based policies like a carbon tax,takeback obligation or emissions trading system.Define methods of risk allocation and/or risk sharing between public and private sectors.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|11 Executive summary IEA.CC BY 4.0.I

58、ncentivise the development of CO2 transport and storage hubs to support the decarbonisation of industrial clusters and encourage the co-location of clean energy technologies with CO2 storage resources.Foster public support by developing robust communication channels and allowing for public engagemen

59、t opportunities.Support early movers,develop business models and boost investment in CO2 storage Develop dedicated incentives to support resource assessment and development.Provide early movers with access to targeted funding that is contingent on active resource assessment and knowledge/data sharin

60、g.For example,an exploration tax credit could encourage companies to perform resource assessments.Encourage publicprivate partnerships on storage development.Ensure ongoing development funding to support CCUS and storage development.Support the development of CO2 storage competencies,expertise and t

61、echnologies Engage in or support technology development that can improve resource assessment,site operations and MMV processes.1 This can also be done by state-owned enterprises and publicprivate partnerships.Support the reskilling and upskilling of oil and gas workforces so they are also able to wo

62、rk on CO2 storage.Encourage the development of CO2 storage and CCUS research,engineering and technology programmes at the university level and at national research centres.Incentivise private-sector companies with CCUS experience to invest in the national workforce,in the form of training and appren

63、ticeships,to truly build on the human capacity needed to deploy projects.Develop technology solutions that enable the co-location of different clean energy technology solutions.Private-sector considerations Consider creating a market for tradeable,regulatory compliant CO2 storage certificates.Incorp

64、orate CO2 management into corporate decarbonisation and environmental,sustainability and governance(ESG)strategies.As part of this,consider if CCUS should be included in current and future growth strategies.Develop and build CO2 storage infrastructure.1 Drive investment towards CO2 storage infrastru

65、cture by supporting CO2 management and insuring it is permissible within sustainable finance metrics.Create insurance products that cover CO2 storage activities.Recognise proven CO2 storage reserves as an asset.2 2 The Storage Resource Management System published by the Society of Petroleum Engineer

66、s provides a mechanism to assign a book value to CO2 storage resources.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|12 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1.Introduction Introduction CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|13 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1.Introduction Context of this IEA CCUS Handbook on C

67、O2 storage Carbon capture,utilisation and storage(CCUS)technologies provide significant decarbonisation potential and their widespread deployment is an integral part of a lower-cost and more attainable net zero future.In the IEA Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario(Net Zero Scenario),some 5.9 Gt of C

68、O2 are captured and stored in 2050.This requires significant expansion of dedicated CO2 storage capacity since today around 10 Mt of CO2 is injected annually into dedicated CO2 storage sites.For CCUS technologies to achieve their CO2 management potential,a significant and expedient scale-up of CO2 s

69、torage from the megatonne to gigatonne scale is required.Access to effective and secure CO2 storage enables widespread deployment of CO2 capture technologies during energy transitions,making it the most pivotal component of the CO2 management value chain.Without confidence in CO2 storage availabilit

70、y,the decarbonisation potential of CCUS technologies is significantly reduced.Additionally,technology-based CO2 removals bioenergy with carbon capture and storage(BECCS)and direct air capture with storage(DACS)require CO2 storage.A gap is developing between ambitions to develop CO2 capture and ambit

71、ions to develop CO2 storage.Without urgent and concerted action by the public and private sectors to accelerate CO2 storage assessment and development,this gap may continue to grow,risking negative final investment decisions(FIDs)on capture facilities or inefficient investment.To deploy CO2 storage

72、on a gigatonne scale,storage resources need to be assessed and developed,storage activities need to be regulated,a market for CO2 storage needs to be built,and policy needs to be designed to support this.The energy sector should consider the role CO2 storage will play in its decarbonisation.Storage

73、deployment can be supported by stakeholders across the energy sector and both the public and private sectors can play a role.To that end,the IEA has identified several major technical,economic,policy,and legal and regulatory considerations that feed into the deployment of CO2 storage infrastructure.

74、Info point:About the IEA CCUS Handbook series Meeting net zero goals will require a rapid scale-up of CCUS globally,from tens of millions of tonnes of CO2 captured today to billions of tonnes by 2030 and beyond.The IEA CCUS Handbook series aims to support the accelerated development and deployment o

75、f CCUS by sharing global good practice and experience.The handbooks provide a practical resource for policy makers and stakeholders across the energy industry to navigate a range of technical,economic,policy,legal and social issues for CCUS implementation.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development

76、PAGE|14 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1.Introduction Schematic of a potential CO2 management value chain IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:CO2 transport can also include barges,trains and tank trucks.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|15 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1.Introduction Structure of this handbookThis IEA

77、 CCUS Handbook aims to be a resource on CO2 storage that can be used by stakeholders across the energy industry to better understand CO2 storage,from resource assessment onwards.The handbook is structured as follows:Chapter 1.Introduction outlines the structure of this handbook and introduces the im

78、portance of CO2 storage in energy transitions.Chapter 2.CO2 storage resources provides a general introduction to what CO2 storage resources are,how much CO2 can be injected and how it is trapped in a geological formation.Chapter 3.CO2 storage projects presents the lifecycle of a CO2 storage project,

79、the skills and competencies that support CO2 storage projects,and frameworks that can be used to develop projects.Chapter 4.Assessment and development breaks down the resource assessment and development process into its component phases and defines key considerations for each phase.Chapter 5.Technic

80、al assessment criteria goes through the four main technical criteria that are evaluated during resource assessment and development.Chapter 6.Risk management outlines the role risk management has in CO2 storage activities.It goes through the main risk management processes.Chapter 7.Technical risks pr

81、ovides an overview of the five main categories of technical risks that must be managed by a CO2 storage project.Chapter 8.Commercialisation of CO2 storage addresses the socio-economic aspects of CO2 storage projects,including business models and long-term liability.Chapter 9.Actions to support deplo

82、yment looks at how CO2 storage deployment can be accelerated and provides concrete actions that can be taken by policy makers and the private sector.The handbook is supported by an extensive glossary of CO2 storage-related terminology found at the end of this report.It complements the IEA CCUS Handb

83、ook on Legal and Regulatory Frameworks.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|16 Chapter 2.Storage resources IEA.CC BY 4.0.CO2 storage resources CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|17 Chapter 2.Storage resources IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter summary CO2 storage resources are porous su

84、bsurface rocks that can trap injected CO2.They can be broadly divided into three types:saline formations(or saline aquifers),depleted oil and gas fields,and unconventional resources(igneous rocks,unmineable coal seams and organic shales).Storage resources can be found globally,but like other natural

85、 resources they are not evenly distributed.How much CO2 can be injected will depend on the physical properties of the resource along with site engineering and regulation(see Chapter 5 for more detailed discussion).Once injected,CO2 becomes trapped by physical and chemical processes allowing it to re

86、main safely stored for thousands of years.The four main mechanisms structural/stratigraphic,residual,solubility/dissolution,and mineral trapping occur on different timescales and at different ratios depending on reservoir characteristics and injection type.Policy actions:Determine the type of storag

87、e resources available in a region or country.Assess CO2 storage resources on a national or regional level.Identify countries and regions where storage resources are likely to be present,but have not been assessed.Support storage resource assessments in emerging market and developing economies.CO2 St

88、orage Resources and their Development PAGE|18 Chapter 2.Storage resources IEA.CC BY 4.0.CO2 storage is an effective and secure way to permanently isolate emissionsGeological storage involves injecting captured CO2 deep into the subsurface where it is trapped.Since the 1970s CO2 has been injected int

89、o the subsurface for the purpose of enhanced oil recovery(EOR).In 1996 the first dedicated CO2 storage project(i.e.not using the CO2 for EOR,but to reduce emissions)was commissioned at the Sleipner gas fields in Norway.Decades of safe CO2 injection into the subsurface and more than 150 years of subs

90、urface activity,engineering and innovation support the wide deployment of CO2 storage.Like oil and natural gas,CO2 deposits can be found in the subsurface.The Bravo Dome CO2 gas field in the United States is one such example,where natural processes have trapped CO2 for over 1 million years.These sam

91、e natural processes can be exploited to trap and immobilise injected CO2.This is the foundation of geological CO2 storage.In appropriately characterised,developed and operated storage sites,CO2 can be expected to remain trapped permanently.A place where fluid or gas collects in the subsurface is kno

92、wn as a reservoir.Reservoirs are permeable and porous rock formations found deep underground both on and offshore.When reservoirs are found in proximity to one another the resulting area is called a field.3 Storage in basalts,a type of igneous rock,has been piloted in Iceland and the United States;h

93、owever,additional demonstration is needed to ascertain the viability of widespread deployment and scale-up of this type of storage.Reservoirs can contain oil and gas,naturally occurring CO2,freshwater,saltwater(commonly called brine)and other fluids.Reservoirs suitable for geological storage of CO2

94、are found in sedimentary basins regions where accumulated sediment has been compacted into rock.However,some igneous rock formations may also be suitable for CO2 storage.3 In order to contain CO2,reservoirs generally should be capped by an impermeable layer of rock known as a caprock or seal.These s

95、eals directly contribute to storage security and should have sufficient lateral extent that CO2 cannot spread beyond their boundaries and migrate to the surface.During the storage process,CO2 is injected into a suitable geological reservoir where it will remain trapped in a defined area.For injectio

96、n to be successful,CO2 needs to be at a slightly higher pressure than the targeted reservoir.Typically,CO2 is injected in its dense phase at high pressure(100 bar)to depths below 800 m,where subsurface pressure allows the CO2 to remain in its densest and most compressed phase.Inside the reservoir,CO

97、2 often becomes a supercritical fluid dense like a liquid,but with low viscosity like a gas as it warms to reservoir temperature and remains under high pressure.This allows for the efficient use of storage space.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|19 Chapter 2.Storage resources IEA.CC B

98、Y 4.0.Where CO2 is injected Schematic of onshore and offshore CO2 storage reservoirs IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:As with oil and gas wells,CO2 injection wells can be vertical,horizontal or deviated.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|20 Chapter 2.Storage resources IEA.CC BY 4.0.Types of CO2 stor

99、age resourcesCO2 storage resources are permeable rock formations with pores small holes and voids between mineral grains that can be filled with CO2.These resources can be divided into three main categories:saline formations,depleted oil and gas fields(areas with one or more reservoirs),and unconven

100、tional storage resources.Saline formations Saline formations,also known as saline aquifers,are porous and permeable sedimentary rocks that contain salty,non-potable water commonly known as brine.They are a common geological feature with wide geographic distribution.Some 98%of the worlds estimated CO

101、2 storage resources are in the form of saline aquifers and they offer significant theoretical storage capacity.However,on a global scale,the usable capacity of these resources is unknown because there is insufficient site-specific data to characterise them.To date in the absence of a strong climate

102、imperative the lack of an economic driver means that the process of assessing these resources potential has not substantially progressed.Typically,saline aquifers near to,or in the same geological unit as,oil and gas reservoirs are better characterised than greenfield saline aquifers since they bene

103、fit from data collected during oil and gas activities.Examples of operating projects in saline aquifers include:Gorgon CCS in Australia,Quest CCUS in Canada,Illinois Industrial CCS in the United States and the Sleipner and Snhvit projects in Norway.Depleted oil and gas fields Oil and gas fields are

104、made up of one or more reservoirs where brine has been replaced by hydrocarbons.When it is no longer possible to extract hydrocarbons,a reservoir is considered depleted.While the processes and seals that trap hydrocarbons in oil and gas reservoirs can also trap CO2,not every depleted reservoir will

105、be suitable or available for CO2 storage.In addition to technical considerations,many jurisdictions restrict CO2 injection other than for the purpose of CO2-EOR in fields where some reservoirs are still being used for hydrocarbon extraction,in order to minimise the risk of negative interactions betw

106、een the resource and CO2.In the near term,this could constrain the number of depleted oil and gas reservoirs available for dedicated CO2 storage.Reservoirs with ongoing oil and gas extraction are not suitable for dedicated CO2 storage,but they may be a target for CO2-EOR or hybrid approaches.Repurpo

107、sing depleted oil and gas reservoirs into CO2 storage sites offers several benefits.Due to extraction activities,these reservoirs usually have lower than natural reservoir pressure,are well characterised and have extensive existing infrastructure.Lower than natural reservoir pressure may make it eas

108、ier to inject CO2 into a reservoir,but needs to be evaluated on a site-by-site basis.Existing data can be reused,thereby reducing data acquisition costs.Existing infrastructure(platforms,wells,pumping stations,CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|21 Chapter 2.Storage resources IEA.CC BY

109、4.0.etc.)could potentially be reused or repurposed,leading to reduced decommissioning costs at the end of oil or gas extraction and reduced construction costs for the storage site.Existing infrastructure should be assessed to ensure that it is fit for purpose before a depleted reservoir is repurpose

110、d.As part of this,all legacy(i.e.pre-existing)wells will need to be assessed to ensure that they cannot become a pathway from which CO2 could leak.As of 2022,no dedicated CO2 storage is occurring in depleted fields.However,a number of projects are in development,including the Acorn project and the H

111、yNet North West storage site,both off the United Kingdom,Project Greensand off Denmark,Porthos and Aramis,both off the Netherlands,the offshore Bayu-Undan project in Timor-Leste,the Ravenna hub off Italy,and the Moomba CCS project in the Australian outback.Unconventional storage resources Basalts an

112、d peridotites are igneous rocks and are reactive to CO2.When CO2 is injected,some of the rock dissolves and chemical reactions convert a proportion of the injected CO2 into solid minerals.Carbfix in Iceland operates the only active storage project in basalts and injected around 80 kt of CO2 between

113、2014 and the middle of 2022.The company aims to expand operations with the Coda Terminal,a project that will inject 300 kt CO2 per year starting in 2025.CO2 storage in basalts was also piloted in the United States during the Wallula Basalt Sequestration Pilot Project.Unmineable coal seams can absorb

114、 CO2;however,methane is often released when CO2 is injected into them.Ongoing research is examining how effectively these deposits can store CO2.Organic shales are a type of sedimentary rock rich in organic matter.Organic matter can absorb CO2 in a manner similar to coal.Limited work has been done t

115、o date on the technical and economic feasibility of using these resources for storage.Info point:CO2 use for the extraction of oil,gas and water CO2 can be used as a working fluid in many underground applications,including for enhanced oil recovery(EOR),enhanced gas recovery(EGR),and enhanced water

116、recovery(EWR).The primary objective of CO2 injection in these applications is to enhance extraction.As a by-product,some CO2 remains trapped in the subsurface.In the case of CO2-EOR,over the lifetime of the project a significant proportion of the injected CO2 is retained underground.CO2-EOR can be o

117、ptimised for CO2 storage,also known as CO2-EOR+.At least four additional activities to occur for conventional EOR operations to qualify.These include:Additional site characterisation and risk assessment to evaluate the storage capability of a site.Additional monitoring of vented and fugitive emissio

118、ns.Additional subsurface monitoring.Changes to field abandonment practices.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|22 Chapter 2.Storage resources IEA.CC BY 4.0.Physical properties that influence CO2 injectionThree physical properties permeability,pressure and porosity influence how much CO2

119、 can be injected into a reservoir,at what rate and for how long.Permeability measures how easily a fluid can pass through a rock.While related to porosity,permeability is influenced by how pores are shaped and connected.It can either be measured directly or estimated during well logging.Dynamic flow

120、 tests with water or CO2 are the most accurate way to assess reservoir permeability for CO2 storage.Relative permeability quantifies how injected CO2 and reservoir fluids interfere with one another as they both move through the reservoir.It measures the ability of two or more fluids to pass through

121、a rock and can be measured in a lab,modelled using simulations or calculated from field performance data.Pressure controls how easily CO2 can be injected and how much CO2 can be safely stored.Reservoir pressure is the pressure of fluid within the pores of the reservoir.It can be measured using botto

122、m-hole pressure gauges and during well tests.Reservoir pressure changes with subsurface activity.Extraction removes fluids and usually causes pressure to decrease.Injection adds fluids and usually causes pressure to increase.Fracture pressure is the pressure required to fracture a reservoir or its s

123、eal.It can be calculated or modelled.CO2 injections should not bring the reservoir above its fracture pressure or the fracture pressure of its seal.Porosity is the volume of rock pores as a proportion of the total rock volume.Porosity can be measured directly from core samples or it can be derived d

124、uring well logging the process of recording the geological and geophysical characteristics of a well.CO2 is injected into a reservoir via a well at a pressure higher than that of the fluids within the target rock formation.Once CO2 is injected,it forms a plume that migrates through the reservoir,pus

125、hing pre-existing reservoir fluids away from the injection zone.The CO2 migrates within a network of interconnected pores where it mixes with or displaces pre-existing reservoir fluids.Fluid displacement and CO2 injection cause pressure to build within the reservoir.Elevated pressure from around the

126、 injection zone will disperse through the reservoir and potentially into surrounding rock formations,travelling faster and further than the CO2 plume or displaced fluids.In certain cases,increased subsurface pressure might be observed more than 100 km from the injection zone.Pressure build-up is an

127、expected part of large-scale operations,and different techniques have been developed to manage it.The volume of CO2 that can be stored is determined by the pressure limits of a reservoir and how reservoir pressure responds to injection,as influenced by its porosity and permeability.A high-quality re

128、servoir can have a porosity of 25%or more,be very permeable and be at or below its natural hydrostatic pressure.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|23 Chapter 2.Storage resources IEA.CC BY 4.0.Mechanisms that trap injected CO2Four main mechanisms trap CO2 inside a reservoir.Each contrib

129、utes to storage site performance and long-term security.They occur over different timescales and at different ratios depending on reservoir characteristics and injection type.CO2 can be injected directly(as a gas,liquid or in supercritical form)or it can be injected in dissolved form.Each provides a

130、 different level of long-term security and immobilisation.Structural or stratigraphic trapping is an immediate mechanism,trapping CO2 in a reservoir via an impermeable upper boundary or caprock.Since CO2 is usually less dense than reservoir fluids,it rises through the reservoir after injection.It st

131、ops once it reaches an impermeable boundary where it then spreads laterally.Its security is a function of the security of the seal.Seal penetration via wells or geological features(e.g.faults)could contribute to leakage risk.Residual trapping can occur as the CO2 plume moves through reservoir and di

132、splaces formation fluids.It is the trapping of CO2 in small pores by physical forces(capillary action).This mechanism contributes to the long-term security of injected CO2 and is a trapping mechanism that continues to work even if a seal fails.Dissolution or solubility trapping occurs when CO2 disso

133、lves into formation fluids causing it to be trapped by geochemical means.CO2-enriched formation fluids are denser than those that are non-enriched and over time they slowly sink through the formation until they reach an impermeable layer.Mineral trapping occurs when dissolved CO2 reacts with mineral

134、s in the reservoir to form solid carbonate minerals.This trapping mechanism stores CO2 by incorporating it chemically into minerals.Depending on injection parameters and resource type,mineral trapping occurs on timescales ranging from minutes to millennia.CO2 trapping mechanisms and storage security

135、 Source:Reproduced from Figure 5.9 in S.Benson et al.(2005),Underground geological storage,in B.Metz et al.(eds.),IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage,Prepared by Working Group III of the IPCC,Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,United Kingdom and New York,NY.CO2 Storage Resour

136、ces and their Development PAGE|24 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2.Storage resources CO2 trapping within a reservoir on a microscopic scale IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:The scale and distance between mineral grains will vary between reservoirs.Source:Adapted from S.Flude and J.Alcade(2020),Carbon capture and storage h

137、as stalled needlessly three reasons why fears of CO leakage are overblown,The Conversation(accessed 16 May 2022).CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|25 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects CO2 storage projectsCO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|26 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter

138、3.Storage projects Chapter summary CO2 storage resources are a finite and strategic resource that countries should consider as they look to CO2 management to support their decarbonisation strategies and energy transitions.Like most large infrastructure projects,it takes time,experience and skills to

139、 develop CO2 storage sites.Storage site development can take anywhere from about three years to more than ten depending on how well assessed the targeted storage resource is.The lifecycle of a CO2 storage site can be divided into six phases,each of which will require different levels of investment.S

140、everal resource assessment and development frameworks exist.Project developers should consider using the Storage Resource Management System(SRMS),which is based on the Petroleum Resource Management System(PRMS).The SRMS is project based and excludes certain types of storage resources,namely unconven

141、tional resources and those found in oil or gas fields with ongoing active extraction.The SRMS can be adapted to support assessments at a national or regional level,or assessments of resources that fall outside the framework.Alternatively,other frameworks can be used.Source-sink matching can support

142、the strategic roll-out of CO2 storage sites and optimal resource development.Policy actions:Consider the role CO2 management and by extension CO2 storage may have during regional or national energy transitions.Encourage the development of CO2 storage-related expertise and competencies this can inclu

143、de reskilling or upskilling the existing oil and gas labour pool.Determine if CO2 storage resources should be considered strategic resources.Create a resource development plan and define synergies between existing natural resource development and CO2 storage resource development.Use source-sink matc

144、hing to identify links between existing emitting assets and CO2 storage resources.Ensure regulation supports CO2 storage development.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|27 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects CO2 storage resources are a strategic asset for energy transitions Natural

145、 resources such as water,minerals,energy resources and soil underpin strategies for economic development and national security.Energy transitions require large-scale CO2 management,underpinned by extensive CO2 storage infrastructure.Since CO2 storage resources are finite,non-renewable and support en

146、ergy transitions,they represent a new type of economic resource.An argument can be made for storage resources to be considered strategic assets and for CO2 storage sites to be considered critical infrastructure in the quest for net zero emissions.Countries without an overview of their storage resour

147、ces should consider their energy transition pathway and determine if it would be relevant to assess their CO2 storage resources.Some countries and regions,mainly those with CCUS experience,have already performed initial precompetitive assessments.Governments that decide to treat storage resources as

148、 a strategic natural resource should ensure that they are managed appropriately.This often includes creating a storage resources management plan,performing precompetitive resource assessments and supporting resource development through subsidies,knowledge sharing and other incentives.A defined proce

149、ss for issuing exploration licences and permitting storage sites is also needed.To support CO2 storage development,governments may consider establishing preferential pathways for permitting,creating infrastructure development funds,or having state-owned enterprises manage storage assessment and site

150、 operations.National storage assessments and CCUS deployment level Country or region National resource assessment level CO2 storage experience Australia Brazil Canada Peoples Republic of China*European Union to Japan Korea Mexico Norway South Africa United Kingdom United States =Assessed to effectiv

151、e capacity;=Assessed to theoretical capacity;=Moderately assessed;=At least one operating dedicated storage site;=At least one dedicated storage demonstration project;=Limited piloting experience or experience restricted to CO2-EOR.*Hereafter,“China”.Note:In the European Union CO2 storage experience

152、 is country dependent.Source:Based on IEA analysis and C.Consoli and N.Wildgust(2017).CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|28 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects The stages of a CO2 storage project Resource assessment Design and development Construction Operation Closure Post closur

153、e Timeframe(year)2-6 1-5 1-3 20-50 Variable 10+*Investment level Medium to high Medium High Low Moderate Very low SRMS category Prospective Contingent to capacity Capacity On injection Stored Stored Description Process to identify and study CO2 storage resources.Investment carries exploration risk s

154、ince not every resource will be developable.Project planning and design including FEED activities and permitting in advance of FID.Post-FID activities,including site construction,connection to transport lines,expansion of MMV instrumentation and drilling of additional wells.Period of time during whi

155、ch CO2 is actively injected into the subsurface.This is commonly referred to as“on injection”.Period between cessation of injection activities and the granting of a closure authorisation.Period of time after injection ceases where the CO2 plume is still actively being monitored.Time during which sit

156、e responsibility is transferred if applicable.Policy considerations Support resource assessment.Create a management strategy for storage resources.Define fit-for-purpose legal and regulatory frameworks.Consider whether existing infrastructure nearing end of its life could be repurposed.Ensure that r

157、esources are in place to support licensing and permitting.Define safety criteria including MMV.Outline site inspection requirements.Consider providing subsidies to support early movers.Ensure regulatory framework allows for storage operations.Define well abandonment and surface remediation requireme

158、nts.Define the requirements for issuance of a closure certificate or equivalent.Define length of time required for post-closure monitoring.Consider mechanism to transfer liability to the state after a period of post-closure monitoring.*Post-closure timeframes are jurisdictionally dependent and range

159、 from being unspecified to being over 50 years.Notes:FEED=front-end engineering design;SRMS=Storage Resource Management System.Assessment and development activities carry exploration risk and assessed resources may be defined as undevelopable or not commercially viable.Investment needs are relative

160、to overall costs.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|29 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Necessary expertise and competencies Interdisciplinary teams will support CO2 storage sites all the way from assessment through to post-closure monitoring.Teams will need to include subsurfa

161、ce experts geoscientists,engineers and modellers along with other specialists who have business,economic,risk,legal and regulatory,social and environmental assessment expertise.To support storage development,regulators will need to have the necessary regulatory and institutional capacity to allow fo

162、r efficient licensing and permitting.While there is significant overlap between the knowledge and expertise required for CO2 storage and that used by the oil and gas industry,CO2 storage requires certain specific expertise as well.Currently,CO2 storage-specific expertise is limited globally,and ther

163、efore there is a strong need to develop it across disciplines.Specialists need,inter alia,the following knowledge and expertise:CO2-specific well engineering,completion and injection technologies.Understanding and managing the reactivity and phases of CO2 in a storage-specific context.CO2 storage-re

164、lated dynamic modelling.Environmental measurement,monitoring and verification.CO2 containment and containment risk assessment.To create a pipeline of future talent and support development of CO2 storage competencies,university programmes related to petroleum geology or engineering could add modules

165、related to CO2 storage.Many universities are already renaming programmes and some are adding modules related to CO2 storage(or CCUS).Case study:Supporting the acquisition of CO2 storage expertise CO2 storage-related knowledge and expertise can be developed through collaboration between government,in

166、dustry,communities,educational organisations and other participants.This is especially relevant in regions with oil and gas activity,where the labour pool will already have many skills that support CO2 storage and where employment may decline in the future due to a shift away from fossil fuels towar

167、ds other sources of energy.Both HyNet NorthWest in the United Kingdom and Ravenna CCS in Italy are examples of CO2 storage hubs in development that will support continued employment in regions facing imminent closure of upstream activities due to depleted reservoirs.In addition to the private sector

168、 transitioning their workers from extraction to injection,postgraduate programmes such as Edinburghs Carbon Management MSc,educational programmes such as the IEAGHGs Summer School and the US Department of Energys Research Experience in Carbon Sequestration,and geoscience and engineering programmes a

169、t universities all support the acquisition of specific expertise and competencies.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|30 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Assessment and development frameworks Existing national or regional storage resource atlases rarely share a common approach o

170、r classification framework,so it is usually not possible to compare resource availability between regions or countries.Depending on the methodology,the estimated volume of available storage resources can vary by two to five orders of magnitude for the same geological formation,and resource capacity

171、is often reported as a range(refer to Chapter 5 for more information on how capacity is assessed).One study estimated that global capacity is between 8 000 Gt and 55 000 Gt.The quantification of CO2 storage resources on all levels from local to global can be improved with better data,more detailed a

172、ssessments focused on dynamic considerations,and a consistent classification methodology.The assessment and development of storage resources need to comply with applicable local,regional and national regulations.They can be guided by international standards such as ISO TC 265 27914:2017,4 best or re

173、commended practices(e.g.DOE/NETL-2017/1844,DNVGL-RP-J203),or classification systems.Individual classification frameworks provide a common method that can be used to assess and categorise resources based on specific criteria.Those focused on primary resource identification(e.g.UN Framework Classifica

174、tion,CSLF Resources-Reserves Pyramid,US-4 ISO TC 265 27914:2017 is due to be revised in 2022.Readers should refer to the most up-to-date version of the standard.DOE method,Boston square analysis)may be suitable for the development of national or regional atlases and databases.These approaches,at lea

175、st initially,usually focus on the potential volume that can be stored rather than the rate and duration of CO2 injection.While volume-based assessments are valuable for primary resource identification,they do not represent actual CO2 storage capacity since injection rate and duration are more of a c

176、onstraint than volume.An internationally consistent approach to resource classification could help mature storage resource frameworks and support commercial investment.To that end,the Society of Petroleum Engineers(SPE)developed the Storage Resource Management System(SRMS).It is a project-specific a

177、pproach that incorporates commercial and technical considerations.For saline aquifers and deleted oil or gas fields,it can be used to identify the size of a resource and how advanced a project is.It can also be adapted to other resource types.The SRMS functions in a similar manner to the Petroleum R

178、esource Management System(PRMS)which is used by the petroleum industry.As a result,its methodology may be familiar to investors and lenders involved in hydrocarbon extraction and it can be used to assign a book value to a CO2 storage resource,allowing it to be treated as an asset.CO2 Storage Resourc

179、es and their Development PAGE|31 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Info point:The Storage Resource Management System The SRMS was completed and adopted by SPE in 2017.The system is designed to classify CO2 storage projects by their maturity and aims to provide a set of definitions that can be

180、 used internationally to compare projects and track progress on maturing storage resources.The SRMS is project-based,with resources classified according to their commerciality and the level to which they have been assessed.If a resource that is being assessed is not clearly associated with a planned

181、 commercial project,the SRMS can still by applied by defining a nominal or theoretical project in effect by identifying a technically and commercially realistic development concept.As a resource moves up the classification framework,the chance that that project will develop into a commercial storage

182、 site increase.Similar to the PRMS,the SRMS includes a range of uncertainty in each class of project maturity.Uncertainty in the storable quantity of CO2 increases from left to right.Where the suitability for storage has not been determined for a specific subsurface storage formation,storage resourc

183、es are classified as Undiscovered.Meanwhile,where the potential for storage within a specific subsurface formation has been quantified,storage resources are classified as Discovered.In both classes,resources can be defined as Inaccessible if they are not to be developed for storage at the current ti

184、me.An example of an inaccessible resource would be one found in a jurisdiction where regulatory regimes prohibit storage.The prospective,contingent and capacity maturity classes can be further divided into subclasses.The SRMS resource classification framework Source:Reproduced with modifications fro

185、m Society of Petroleum Engineers(2017),CO2 Storage Resources Management System.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|32 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Case study:Applying the SRMS methodology globally A Global CO2 Storage Resource Catalogue,funded by the Oil and Gas Climate Init

186、iative(OGCI),is being created over six 12-month cycles.During the process,existing data on CO2 storage resources is reassessed using the SRMS methodology.This work aims to provide a centralised publicly available database of CO2 storage resources in key regions.It uses the SRMS methodology to compar

187、e resources across regions and to define the degree of global commercial readiness of CO2 storage resources.In line with SRMS methodology,storage resources are classified as Undiscovered or Discovered based on technical and regulatory aspects.Only resources assessed by the SRMS methodology are inclu

188、ded in the catalogue.Therefore,unconventional storage resources(such as basalts,coal seams and organic-rich shales),operating CO2-EOR projects,and oil and gas reservoirs that are not fully depleted(with ongoing extraction activity)have been excluded.At the end of the third assessment cycle,852 sites

189、 had been assessed across 30 countries or regions.Nearly 14 000 Gt of storage resources were found across all SRMS maturity classes.More than 95%of those resources were classified as Undiscovered(Prospective)following the SRMS methodology.Only 96.6 Gt or 0.7%of resources assessed globally were part

190、of defined projects.These results suggest that global storage potential is substantial.However,SRMS-classified commercial resources continue to be found only in four countries Australia,Canada,Norway and the United States which demonstrates the clear need for further resource assessment in order to

191、identify global reserves.Those countries have regulatory and legal frameworks that allow for CO2 storage,but still lack widespread investment and deployment.The assessors also found that most storage resource assessments are not aligned with SRMS methodology and that it can be difficult to reassess

192、resources with the SRMS methodology using only published information.For example,the resources associated with the Moomba project are not included in the catalogue even though Santos assigned them a book value in their 2021 reserves statement.Storage catalogue results for selected countries Source:R

193、eproduced with modifications from OGCI(2022)CO2 Storage Resource Catalogue.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|33 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Resource assessment and site development The goal of the resource assessment process is to determine where,in what quantity,at what

194、rate and for how long CO2 can be injected.CO2 storage projects generally have longer lead times than capture or transport due to substantial subsurface uncertainties and related study requirements.As a result,resource assessment needs to begin well in advance of capture project development.Countrywi

195、de assessment of CO2 storage resources can take two to five years depending on the targeted level of detail and the amount of data collection required.It can take a further three to ten years to develop a CO2 storage site from a countrywide or regional assessment.Site development is included in the

196、resource assessment process and takes an assessed resource through permitting and the FID.Governments can accelerate a regions level of storage readiness by conducting precompetitive resource assessments.As part of this,dedicated data acquisition programmes can include drilling,geochemical and hydro

197、geological studies,seismic campaigns and regional mapping.Depending on the level of detail,costs can be in the order of USD 10-100 million.Country or regional assessments may successfully end with the development of a resource atlas or a portfolio of resources earmarked for further assessment.Projec

198、t-specific assessments will aim to develop one or more CO2 storage sites.Resource assessment may end without identifying any commercially viable resources and capital expended during assessment activities carries exploration risk.Case study:Financing storage assessments in emerging market and develo

199、ping economies National or regional assessment of CO2 storage resources supports the deployment of CCUS.Storage resources have been assessed only in a limited number of emerging market and developing economies(EMDEs),mainly in Southeast Asia,and significant improvements can be made.Multilateral fina

200、nce institutions have played a key role in supporting storage resource assessments in EMDEs.The Asian Development Banks CCS Fund is a multi-partner trust fund,established in 2009 and set to close in 2022.The fund has supported storage resource assessments,CCUS piloting and demonstration in Southeast

201、 Asia and the China.The World Bank CCS Trust Fund,funded by the United Kingdom and Norway,was established in 2009 and is set to close in 2023.It has allocated more than USD 55 million to CCUS programmes in ten EMDEs,including support for high-level storage assessment and data input into storage atla

202、ses in Botswana,Egypt,Jordan,Mexico,Nigeria and South Africa.Given that both of these trust funds are set to close in the near future,alternative ways to support CO2 storage assessments in EMDEs are needed.Both banks are open to working with donor countries to develop new ways to support CCUS includ

203、ing CO2 storage.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|34 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Case study:CCUS centres of excellence support storage development CCUS centres of excellence,or their equivalent,can serve as a national focal point for CCUS research and development and cont

204、ribute to the development of government strategies.This is especially valuable for EMDEs looking to deploy CCUS,since a centre of excellence can support this work.The Indonesia Center for Excellence for CCS and CCUS is supported by the governments University Center of Excellences Program and the Min

205、istry of Research,Technology and Higher Education.The centre was opened in 2017 and serves as a learning facility for CCUS.The centre aims to:Deliver a co-ordinated programme of CCUS research.Pilot CCUS in Indonesia and identify opportunities for CCUS deployment.Formulate policies,strategies and reg

206、ulations that support implementation.Develop effective communication on CCUS.Provide educational and informational materials on CCUS.The centre has led Indonesias work on CCUS,including supporting the development of CCUS activities.In collaboration with industry and international partners it has cre

207、ated the Indonesia CO2 SourceSinks Mapping and Spatial Database and is conducting multiple CCUS-related feasibility studies.Case study:Atlas on geological storage of carbon dioxide in South Africa Since 2007,CCUS has been included in South Africas long-term strategy for CO2 emissions reduction.Given

208、 the countrys energy mix,coal resources and coal-based petrochemical activities,CCUS technologies can allow for continued development while still decarbonising certain activities.The first atlas on geological storage resources in South Africa was published in 2010.Prepared by the Council of Geoscien

209、ces and the Petroleum Agency of South Africa,it covers depleted oil and gas reservoirs,unextractable coal seams and deep saline aquifers.The agencies used existing data from seismic surveys and historic drill cores to estimate the on and offshore storage potential of each resource type.Generally,the

210、re was higher confidence in offshore resource estimations due to the presence of significant data sets stemming from oil and gas activities.The Atlas on Geological Storage of Carbon Dioxide in South Africa estimates the theoretical capacity of South Africas storage resources to be around 150 Gt,with

211、 more than 98%of that capacity located offshore.Subsequent assessment work has mainly focused on the Zululand,Algoa and Durban basins,and more recently on basalts in the Klipriversberg Group,where a pilot storage project is under development.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|35 IEA.CC

212、 BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Source-sink matchingCO2 storage resources are not evenly distributed globally.Desktop analysis can be used to estimate whether storage resources within a region are likely to be limited,sufficient or abundant in comparison with current and projected emissions.Follo

213、wing that,source-sink matching can be used to associate emission points(sources)with storage resources(sinks)based on a number of criteria.Source-sink matching exercises underpin the development of CO2 storage resources in two main ways:From a policy perspective,they allow for the association of emi

214、ssion points with potential sinks as a precursor to assessing whether CO2 storage resources within a region are sufficient and developing decarbonisation strategies.From a technical perspective,they ensure the effective development of rate-matched CO2 capture and injection.Location and distance can

215、be used to produce a rough overview of the geographic distribution of emission points and storage resources and hence to match one with the other.Such analysis can support the development of resource management strategies,but more refined analysis is likely required to develop concrete deployment st

216、rategies.Analysis can be refined by including estimated storage capacity,capture rates,injection rates,injection duration,transport pathways and project information(development timelines,lifetimes,operating projects,etc.).If the export or import of CO2 is planned,these volumes and rates also should

217、be accounted for.CO2 injection capacity ideally needs to increase faster than CO2 capture capacity,or at a minimum at the same rate.Confidence in storage should drive capture deployment and can be increased by phasing the deployment of capture and storage.Phased deployment can increase confidence in

218、 a sites future performance by decreasing dynamic uncertainties.To promote the effective development and use of storage resources,sustainable injection rates and their duration should determine capture rates.Rate mismatch between capture and injection should be minimised.This is an important conside

219、ration for multi-source storage sites that are likely to receive CO2 from sources with different capture rates.Source-sink matching can also be used to develop rate-matched contingency plans to reduce the risk of unplanned emissions due to injection interruptions.In order for storage sites to be abl

220、e to ensure that they can consistently inject captured CO2,site operators should consider site-specific contingencies such as maintaining an injection rate margin.Regional co-operation agreements could also act as a contingency mechanism.Licence agreements and contracts need to outline how unplanned

221、 emissions are managed,but ultimately the aim is to reduce the risk of unplanned emissions as much as possible.Without adequate risk management,venting could be required.This would reduce the effectiveness of CO2 management and present a risk to any capture facility operating in a jurisdiction with

222、carbon penalties or caps.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|36 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Schematic of source-sink matching analysis IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Line weights are used to represent different volumes of CO2 from capture to storage.CO2 Storage Resources and their Dev

223、elopment PAGE|37 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects CO2 storage wellsWells are designed to be fit for purpose for a specific activity.There are notable differences between CO2 storage wells and other well types.CO2 mixed with water is corrosive,so storage wells are sometimes constructed using

224、corrosion-resistant materials,including special types of steel.Portland cement reacts chemically with CO2,which can lead to dissolution;however,research shows that wells sealed with sufficient amounts of well-bonded cement can maintain their integrity when exposed to CO2.Nevertheless,some projects c

225、hoose to employ specialised cement.Special care should be taken during the well completion process preparation of a well for activity to ensure that neither reservoir nor well integrity are compromised.CO2 storage relies on four main types of wells,each with its own purpose and design,size and cost

226、considerations.Exploration(and appraisal)wells are used to characterise storage resources,including their injectivity,containing features and performance.The orientation,design and depth of the exploration wells will determine whether they can be reused during site operations for another purpose.If

227、they are to be reused,conversion usually occurs after site characterisation or site development.Data from both legacy(i.e.pre-existing)wells and the wells themselves may be used for exploration purposes,depending on well/data ownership,local regulation and design specifications.Injection wells,often

228、 called injectors,are used to inject CO2.Generally,injectors are purpose built or dual-purpose for exploration and injection.Legacy wells can be reused as injectors if they pass stringent requalification for the purpose of CO2 storage.Monitoring wells are outfitted with equipment to monitor the stor

229、age complex and CO2 plume.Their depth and location,and the equipment they contain,will be dictated by their specific aim.Brine extraction wells are used to extract reservoir fluids for pressure management.Not every site has this well type.Info point:Well terminology Some jurisdictions provide legal

230、definitions for the terms:“legacy”,“orphan”and“abandon/abandonment”.This handbook uses the following definitions for these terms:Abandoned wells are wells that are no longer in production and have been closed following plug and abandon procedures.Legacy wells are previously drilled wells in a region

231、 or area.They can be actively producing,abandoned,suspended,orphaned or in an unknown state.Orphaned wells are wells whose ownership cannot be determined.They may not be plugged or sealed properly.Well abandonment,also known in some jurisdictions as decommissioning,is the process during which a well

232、 is cleaned and sealed,and its surface footprint removed.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|38 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Schematic of open and closed CO2 storage wells IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Figure not to scale.Casing requirements and cementing standards,along with decommis

233、sioning or plug and abandon standards,are jurisdictionally determined.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|39 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Measurement,monitoring and verification Measurement,monitoring and verification(MMV)entails verifying the containment of injected CO2,con

234、firming the conformance of the site and increasing confidence in CO2 storage operations.MMV programmes are a critical part of storage site operations.While they qualify and quantify the plume of CO2,they do not detect every injected CO2 molecule.Instead,overlapping and complementary techniques are u

235、sed to observe site performance,detect early warning signs of CO2 migration and verify that CO2 is securely stored underground with minimal risk to human health or the environment.This provides confidence that injected CO2 is located and behaving as expected.Verification of stored emissions is based

236、 on matched trends between measured and modelled behaviour.It is particularly important for sites that are affiliated to a carbon removal scheme or operating in a jurisdiction with emission reduction regulations.In the unlikely event of leakage,MMV results can be used to hold site owners accountable

237、.MMV activities include baseline measurements during site characterisation,followed by active monitoring during site operations,through to site closure.Post-closure monitoring aims to confirm effective site closure and complements the MMV activities that occur during operations.Typically,post-closur

238、e monitoring requirements are different from those during injection.MMV work plans should be site-specific and must meet or exceed regulatory requirements.To provide technical flexibility and to future-proof regulatory frameworks,policy makers should ensure that regulation addressing monitoring is t

239、echnology neutral and risk-based.It should focus on the aims of monitoring rather than how to achieve those aims and should outline MMV reporting requirements.Each jurisdiction is likely to have slightly different MMV requirements.Data collected by MMV programmes inform risk assessment,management an

240、d mitigation processes.These data are used to calibrate and validate predictive models and simulations.There is a feedback loop between MMV programmes and risk assessments.Since both need to be reviewed periodically,their review timelines should be synchronised.MMV programmes need to be flexible eno

241、ugh to allow for periodic updates,as new technologies are integrated to follow best practice and regulatory change and as the understanding of the storage site matures.Over 50 different monitoring technologies are currently in use at CO2 storage projects around the globe.No project will deploy every

242、 monitoring technique or technology.Risk-based MMV,such as that of the Quest project,provides safety assurances while promoting cost-effective deployment of monitoring technologies and optimised site operations.Equipment should be selected according to the MMV needs of a site,regulatory requirements

243、,and cost.Lessons learned from ongoing or previous CO2 storage activities suggest that monitoring pressure and temperature is a cost-effective way to reduce and manage multiple risk categories.Groundwater,surface and atmospheric monitoring can be valuable for risk reduction.CO2 Storage Resources and

244、 their Development PAGE|40 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Components of an MMV programme IEA.CC BY 4.0.Source:Adapted from the IEAGHG Monitoring Selection Tool.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|41 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Site closure and post-closure The res

245、ource assessment process followed by MMV during operations is designed to demonstrate secure CO2 storage.Post-closure monitoring demonstrates that closure of the site is effective.It also allows operators or owners of the site to confirm to stakeholders that there have been no emergent events,which

246、can in turn increase confidence in storage.A storage site can be closed after a period of post-injection monitoring.As part of site closure,any wells not needed for long-term monitoring should be plugged and abandoned in compliance with existing regulation and best practice.Given the limited number

247、of closed CO2 storage sites,it is expected that closure and post-closure best practices and regulatory requirements will continue to evolve.Legal and regulatory considerations are outlined further in the IEA CCUS Handbook on Legal and Regulatory Frameworks for CCUS.Well abandonment will be governed

248、by region-or country-specific regulation,but the fundamental principle is that functional barriers are in place to prevent CO2 leakage or unintended migration.Cement is used at specific intervals such as at the end of casings,in sealing units and at the surface to isolate specific geological interva

249、ls and prevent fluid exchange.In some cases,the entire injection casing may need to be cemented to the surface.Well records,including their abandonment procedures,should be made accessible in a public database.Once demonstrated that a CO2 storage project is properly decommissioned and poses no unacc

250、eptable risk to health,safety or the environment,it can be certified as closed.Certification of site closure is usually a prerequisite for transferring liability.In most jurisdictions,monitoring will continue beyond closure.Case study:Closure of the Ketzin pilot site The Ketzin pilot site,Germany,wa

251、s the first onshore CO2 storage site to be operated and closed in Germany.The project had a two-stage abandonment procedure to confirm that closure techniques were suitable to trap the 67 kt of injected CO2.In 2013 the reservoir and caprock section of one well were plugged with specialised CO2-resis

252、tant cement.Pressure and gas sensors remained in the cement plug for two years and detected no anomalies.In 2015 a core sample was taken from the cement plug to confirm that it had not lost its integrity due to interactions with stored CO2.Site operators were able to prove that the cementing procedu

253、re was fit for purpose and the first well was then fully abandoned.This included removing any well casing above the cement plugs and backfilling the well with standard cement.The other three deep wells at the Ketzin site were abandoned using the same procedure in 2017.Liability was formally handed o

254、ver to the competent authority in 2018.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|42 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 3.Storage projects Site transfer After a site is certified as closed,the owner,operator or both typically remain legally responsible for stewardship and liability until such time that tit

255、le may be transferred to another entity(typically the state).Stewardship responsibilities include site remediation,post-closure monitoring and associated activities such as routine maintenance on the MMV instruments.These responsibilities make up a small portion of CO2 storage project costs.However,

256、they represent continuing long-term liability that may be unacceptable to the private sector if it does not have a defined termination point.The private sector may be more attracted to developing CO2 storage sites if it is possible to transfer long-term liabilities and stewardship obligations to the

257、 state after site closure and a period of successful monitoring.Compared with sovereign states,CO2 storage operators may have limited lifespans that prevent indefinite stewardship or financial assurance of liability.A regulated performance-based transfer process would provide storage operators and t

258、he state with a measure of confidence regarding the management of financial risks associated with decommissioned storage sites.A competent authority could be one way for the public sector to manage long-term liability and stewardship.Such an authority could take over post-closure monitoring and cert

259、ain liabilities associated with the site after title is transferred to it from the site owner.Conditions for transfer vary between jurisdictions with established mechanisms,but transfer is usually contingent on successful site closure and decommissioning.Both time-based and performance-based criteri

260、a can be considered when defining title transfer conditions.After the point of transfer to another entity,project operators are generally no longer responsible for the site or its liabilities.This may vary slightly between jurisdictions and is usually contingent on no malfeasance on the part of the

261、operator.Policy makers should ensure the following are included in a regulatory framework that allows for liability transfer:How,when and to whom title and liabilities can be transferred.Which liabilities are transferable and which,if any,must be borne by the operator post-transfer.The conditions to

262、 be fulfilled,or performance criteria to be met,in advance of transfer.How long post-closure monitoring is required.Funding mechanisms and financial requirements for post-transfer stewardship and post-transfer monitoring.After site transfer,monitoring and stewardship needs may continue.These can be

263、funded by insurance instruments,royalties or other schemes.In many jurisdictions,site operators or owners will be required to make financial provisions for post-closure stewardship responsibility and compensatory liabilities.Existing oil,gas and mining regulations could provide a model for how those

264、 provisions are structured in jurisdictions without existing regulation.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|43 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.Assessment phases Assessment and development CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|44 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.Assessment phases Chapter summa

265、ry Storage resource assessment is often phased,allowing different actors to be involved at different points.A CO2 storage resource atlas or database can provide a first assessment of resources and thereby supports the development of CO2 storage.Atlases can often be compiled from existing data and ge

266、ological maps.Both policy makers and project developers can use this kind of regional or national inventory of resources.Similar to the use of geological surveys for other natural resource assessment,countries can conduct pre-commercial assessments to gain a better understanding of CO2 storage resou

267、rces.This is particularly effective at the regional level.Each phase of the process is designed to build upon earlier work,but not every storage project will start assessment at the level of regional screening.Projects can build upon previously collected information or previous resource assessments.

268、Some resources such as those in depleted oil and gas fields may already have been extensively studied.In such cases,drilling campaigns may not be necessary,though it will be necessary to reanalyse the data with CO2 storage in mind.Policy actions:Develop a national storage atlas or database using exi

269、sting data.Develop and undertake regional and national data acquisition programmes.Provide financial and/or technical support to resource assessment.Ensure clear regulatory regimes exist for issuing exploration licences(or equivalent),permitting,environmental impact assessment,and monitoring and ver

270、ification.Consider the value of digitisation of legacy data to support CO2 storage resource assessment and development.Sources include:legacy well data(location,abandonment protocol,depth,etc.),geological maps,surveys,seismic data,and historical exploration permits and production licences for natura

271、l resources.Consider the value of having geological data publicly available and searchable in common data formats.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|45 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.Assessment phases The assessment and development process is usually phased The assessment and development proc

272、ess including data and modelling requirements Regional screening Site screening Site selection Initial characterisation Detailed characterisation Design and development SRMS category Undiscovered to prospective resource Play to lead Lead to prospect Prospect Prospect to contingent Contingent to capa

273、city CSLF capacity Theoretical Effective Practical Practical Matched Matched Number of potential sites Hundreds 30-50 20 5 3-5 1*Description Examination of storage resources on a regional(geologic basin)scale.Includes preliminary data gathering to identify promising regions.Sub-regional analysis of

274、resource potential based on existing data.Sub-regions should be evaluated using criteria defined during project framing.Evaluation of selected sites based on predefined technical and non-technical requirements to produce preliminary development plans.Site-specific assessment based on existing data l

275、eading to an up-to-date and costed site development plan for each viable site.Site-specific assessment with technical studies to produce the data required to update reservoir modelling and for permitting.Preparation of the site and site studies for permitting and FID.Data requirements Additive to ea

276、rlier phases Existing geological data to identify subsurface resources and their characteristics Geographic data Social and demographic data Existing seismic data,well logs,stratigraphic records Data purchases may be needed Existing geochemical and hydrogeological data New reservoir and well data re

277、quired to characterise storage performance and containment Baseline monitoring data collection Any additional data needed for permitting or FID Modelling Sedimentary basin atlas or CO2 storage resource atlas Screening assessment based on existing data Simplified models using existing data First-gene

278、ration detailed models Second-generation detailed models Detailed models and development plans*Multiple sites can be developed in parallel depending on the goals of a developer or project.Notes:CSLF=Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum;SRMS=Storage Resource Management System.Specific projects will

279、start this process at different phases depending on the level of previous work in a country or region or on a specific storage resource.Investment needs are relative to overall cost of an individual project and may vary significantly according to the amount of data available.CO2 Storage Resources an

280、d their Development PAGE|46 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.Assessment phases Overview and project framingProject development kicks off with project framing.This involves defining the boundaries of a project and the criteria that will be used for resource and site assessment.Following project framing,storag

281、e resources are assessed using technical and non-technical criteria.As a resource moves through the process,increasingly detailed development planning and engineering studies occur.Similar to oil,gas and mineral exploration,not all storage resources will be developable.This can be due to many factor

282、s,such as their location,the rate and duration of injection they can support or their development cost.For that reason,multiple sites should be assessed.At the end of each phase,sites which do not meet evaluation criteria are deselected,and only resources that fulfil the technical and non-technical

283、criteria defined during project framing advance.This reduces exploration risk the risk of sinking too much investment in an undevelopable resource since technical studies become increasingly more detailed and costly as the process proceeds.It also enhances storage confidence.Usually,regional screeni

284、ng,site screening,site selection and initial characterisation are considered precompetitive exploration,since these phases often do not require new data and may not require licences or permitting.The detailed characterisation step includes dedicated exploration and appraisal with the associated perm

285、itting or licensing requirements.Developers certain of where they want to locate their project may be able to bypass certain phases of the assessment process.This can be the case for projects developed in conjunction with oil or gas activities,or for projects which benefit from previously conducted

286、site screening or site selection.Categories to address during project framing Category Aspects to consider Scope Define overall project including objectives and project evaluation criteria Describe site screening,selection and characterisation processes CO2 strategy Develop a strategy for sourcing a

287、nd injecting CO2 Outline implementation options along with risks and mitigation Evaluation criteria Outline the technical,economic and social criteria that will be assessed during screening,selection and characterisation Define how different criteria will be weighted when ranking sites Define the st

288、orage confidence and injection rate needed to support resource development Project resources Identify the expertise required during the site assessment process Create a resource allocation plan that includes financial thresholds,contingencies and other resourcing risks Schedule Create project schedu

289、le that includes milestones and contingency plans Risk assessment Perform a project-specific risk assessment Define a project implementation plan that includes decision gates at key stages Source:Based on DOE/NETL-2017/1844.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|47 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.

290、Assessment phases Assessment and development workflow Flowchart of the assessment and development process IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Dev.=developmentCO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|48 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.Assessment phases Regional and site screening The screening phase of the assessmen

291、t and development process is designed to identify CO2 storage resources in a region(regional screening)and then eliminate sites,locations or resources that are unsuitable for further development(site screening)at that point in time.Resources are eliminated according to the criteria defined in the pr

292、oject management plan.The expected outcome of screening is a portfolio of promising leads that can advance to the site selection phase.Regional screening is performed over a large area,typically a geological basin.An area of interest is defined and then an inventory of the CO2 storage resources pres

293、ent in that area is made using existing data and information.This phase of the assessment process is primarily focused on gathering existing data,which are then analysed during the next part of the screening process.Dynamic data are especially valuable since they inform injection rates and can be us

294、ed to identify pressure constraints.Site screening is used to identify sub-regions(leads)within a large area of interest that are potentially suitable for CO2 storage.During this phase,promising sub-regions are identified and unsuitable sub-regions are eliminated based on the screening criteria defi

295、ned during project framing.Technical criteria are assessed and understanding of storage resources is refined from the basin level to the sequence level using the data gathered during regional screening.Considerations In countries with national or regional CO2 storage resource atlases or databases,re

296、gional screening or site screening may have already been performed.However,resource atlases and databases typically only include geological characteristics and may not include technical,socio-economic or regulatory considerations.As a result,more refined site screening may still be required.Four mai

297、n types of data should be collected and evaluated during screening:Geological data Assessment of subsurface data focused on identifying the type of storage resource,along with its depth,seals and capacity.Legacy well records Data relating to the status,location and technical properties(depth,orienta

298、tion,etc.)of legacy wells can support rough assessments of seal integrity.Regional geographic data Regional geographic data are important because they can determine site access.Protected and sensitive zones,urban centres,existing resource exploitation and existing pipelines can influence the suitabi

299、lity of a sub-region for storage development.Social and demographic data Demographic trends and land use can influence the public perception of industrial activities and future CO2 storage projects.These data should be assessed early since they will feed into project communication strategies.CO2 Sto

300、rage Resources and their Development PAGE|49 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.Assessment phases Case study:Countrywide storage resource appraisal The UK Storage Appraisal project was initiated in 2011 with USD 6.6 million(GBP 4 million)in funding from the Department of Energy and Climate Change.It was dedica

301、ted to assessing the United Kingdoms CO2 storage resources.Its goal was to produce a resource assessment that was publicly available,robust and realistic.The results of the assessment are available in the CO2 Stored database.Regional screening:579 storage resources were analysed.Site screening:37 si

302、tes qualified as“potentially strategic storage sites”.Those sites were then ranked using six factors capacity,injectivity,engineered containment risk,geological containment risk,development cost factor,and upside potential to produce an inventory of 20 sites.Site selection:Seismic data from the 20 s

303、elected sites were reviewed,and preliminary reservoir assessments were made using available well information.Sites were then reviewed and five were selected based on the goals of the assessment programme.The portfolio of five sites was then reviewed externally.Site characterisation:The five selected

304、 sites proceeded to initial characterisation and are currently in various stages of characterisation and development.Each site was studied in detail during the Strategic UK CCS Storage Appraisal and it was determined that they have the ability to sustainably inject CO2 at a commercial rate and for a

305、 commercial duration.UK CO2 Storage Appraisal programme portfolio of sites IEA.CC BY 4.0.Source:Cost data from Summary of results from the strategic UK CO2 Storage Appraisal Project(2016).CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|50 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.Assessment phases Site selectionSite

306、 selection is a continuation of the screening process.During this phase,sub-regions,also known as leads,within the portfolio are evaluated using the predefined assessment criteria and those that are not suitable are eliminated.Data gathered during the screening phase are analysed more thoroughly.Thi

307、s phase can include the purchase of additional data if they are available.The expected outcome of site selection is a portfolio of storage resources that can advance to site characterisation.To enhance storage confidence,each site should have a preliminary field development plan and initial economic

308、 analysis to document their suitability for characterisation.If the preliminary field development plan can demonstrate that it may be possible to develop the resource and achieve the desired injection rate,then it can support the development of CO2 capture facilities and transport pathways.In the SR

309、MS classification,the selected sites will be characterised as“prospects”,meaning that they represent a drilling target.Considerations Six technical and non-technical aspects should be evaluated during site selection.Geological data Assessment of subsurface data,including seismic data,course stratigr

310、aphic and structure frameworks,core data and well records in order to identify storage reservoirs and injection zones.It uses existing data to characterise seals,trapping mechanisms,injectivity properties and resource capacity.Legacy well records Assessment of legacy wells and the potential risks th

311、ey pose using existing records.Well inventories should identify whether a legacy well is accessible or inaccessible.Regulatory requirements Assessment of regulatory requirements for exploration,appraisal and site development.This can include mineral rights,pore space ownership,access conditions and

312、operational requirements.Any regulation-dictated operational requirements such as maximum injection pressure,liability and containment should be integrated into the site selection criteria and the project management plan as required.Models and modelling Modelling requirements and parameters should b

313、e identified.This should include boundary conditions and uncertainties.Developed models should incorporate existing seismic and geological data.Data gaps should be identified and a costbenefit analysis should be made to determine the most cost-effective way to acquire new data that address data gaps

314、.Site suitability The geographic assessment made during screening should be refined during site selection and sites should be assessed to determine infrastructure requirements and monitoring needs.Additionally,the overall footprint(sometimes called area of review)for each site should be estimated us

315、ing modelling results and any access constraints further investigated.Social and demographic data Stakeholder outreach should begin with key stakeholders and communication strategies should be tested.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|51 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.Assessment phases Initia

316、l and detailed site characterisation Site characterisation is a continuous and interactive process during which one or more highly ranked potential sites are evaluated.It is divided into two parts,reflecting data acquisition requirements.Initial site characterisation consists of an in-depth site-spe

317、cific technical and non-technical assessment performed using existing data.If a site fulfils the assessment criteria,it can progress to detailed characterisation.Progression is usually contingent on a site having reservoir characteristics that support CO2 storage,modelling that demonstrates a viable

318、 site,and up-to-date plans for public outreach,site development and site operations.Detailed characterisation involves the acquisition of new,site-specific data and information through a dedicated exploration and appraisal programme.A detailed characterisation plan will be created for sites that adv

319、ance into this phase to ensure that public outreach,data acquisition,reservoir modelling and site permitting are performed in a cost-effective and timely manner.Depending on the jurisdiction,certain exploration and appraisal activities may require a licence or permit,or equivalent.Considerations for

320、 initial characterisation Six main aspects of each potential site should be evaluated:Public outreach A site-specific outreach strategy should be developed to ensure that targeted public engagement occurs as required.Since not all exploration will result in development,it is important to manage stak

321、eholder expectations during the characterisation phase.If a viable outreach strategy or plan cannot be developed,then the site may not be viable.Regulatory requirements This should build on the regulatory review completed during site selection.Dialogue with regulatory agencies to confirm the timelin

322、es and requirements for the permitting process should be entered into,and any project plans or definitions should be updated as required.Regulatory requirements relating to operations should be reassessed on a site-specific basis,with a focus on ensuring site viability and preparing for permitting.R

323、eservoir characteristics Building on the subsurface data assessments made in earlier phases,the geological,geochemical,geomechanical and hydrogeological characteristics of each targeted reservoir should be assessed using existing datasets.Developers may choose to purchase data sets to support assess

324、ment.Legacy well assessment Building on the legacy well assessments in earlier phases,each legacy well should be individually assessed to determine the level of risk it may pose,whether it may require remediation,and if remediation is potentially feasible.Modelling Reservoir characteristics will be

325、integrated into models designed to characterise reservoir behaviour.Both static models and dynamic simulations will be used to design and optimise injection plans and to support risk analysis.CO2 Storage Resources and their Development PAGE|52 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 4.Assessment phases Site developme

326、nt The initial site development plan from site selection should be updated during evaluation of each aspect outlined here.If a potential site is found to be viable on the basis of public outreach,regulatory requirements,reservoir characteristics,modelling results and the up-to-date site development

327、plan,then it may be recommended to advance to detailed characterisation.Considerations for detailed characterisation Outreach plan The public outreach plan or strategy developed during initial site characterisation should be assessed and modified to ensure that it accounts for any new activities tha

328、t may occur during the detailed characterisation phase.Stakeholder dialogue and other outreach activities related to site design and development will also commence during this phase in preparation for environmental impact assessment and other requirements.Data acquisition campaigns New geological,ge

329、ophysical and geochemical data will be acquired and analysed.They can include 2D or 3D seismic surveys,the drilling of new wells,re-entry of legacy wells,and flow or injection tests.It should also include a detailed assessment of legacy wells.The purpose of data acquisition is to map and characteris

330、e the reservoir,its seals,and the geochemical,geomechanical and geophysical characteristics of the storage resource.This serves a dual purpose:to both determine site suitability and to establish pre-injection baselines.Update models and simulations Geological models and reservoir simulations will be

331、 updated and refined using newly collected data.Assemble necessary data for site development Assuming the site is found to be viable,it can move forward to permitting.All necessary documents,data and information should be gathered and prepared in line with jurisdictional requirements.Case study:Simu

332、ltaneous assessment of sites The Carbon Storage Assurance Facility Enterprise(CarbonSAFE)Initiative,funded by the US Department of Energy(DOE),provides substantial support to carbon storage projects.It focuses on sites that will be able to store 50 Mt of CO2 or more over their lifetime and aims to d

333、evelop storage projects that will support integrated deployment of CCUS between 2025 and 2030.It is divided into four phases:Phase I broadly aligns with site screening;13 projects received a share of USD 15 million.Phase II aligns with site selection;USD 60 million worth of funding was divided among six projects.Phase III aligns with site characterisation and site design and development.Five proje