1、Grid Integration of Electric VehiclesA manual for policy makers INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY The IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues including oil,gas and coal supply and demand,renewable energy technologies,electricity markets,energy efficiency,access to energy,demand side management and

2、 much more.Through its work,the IEA advocates policies that will enhance the reliability,affordability and sustainability of energy in its 31 member countries,11 association countries and beyond.This publication and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over a

3、ny territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Source:IEA.International Energy Agency Website:www.iea.org IEA member countries:Australia Austria Belgium Canada Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hunga

4、ry Ireland Italy Japan Korea Lithuania Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Norway Poland Portugal Slovak republic Spain Sweden Switzerland Republic of Trkiye United Kingdom United States The European Commission also participates in the work of the IEA IEA association countries:Argentina Brazil

5、 China Egypt India Indonesia Morocco Singapore South Africa Thailand Ukraine Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles Abstract A manual for policy makers PAGE|3 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Abstract This policy makers manual is prepared under the framework of the Global Environment Facility programme aimed at suppor

6、ting low-and middle-income economies in their transition to electric mobility.It aims to serve as a guide for policy makers to effectively integrate electric vehicle charging into the grid,thereby supporting road transport electrification and decarbonisation.The key steps can be summarised as prepar

7、ing institutions for the shift to electric mobility,assessing the impacts on the grid,deploying measures for grid integration and improving power system planning.Each of these steps is informed by insights from various studies and inputs from international stakeholders,with recommendations based on

8、best practices from around the world.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles Acknowledgements A manual for policy makers PAGE|4 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Acknowledgements,contributors and credits Luis Lopez is the lead author of this manual under the guidance of Jacques Warichet and Cesar Alejandro Hernandez Alv

9、a,former Head of the Renewable Integration and Secure Electricity Unit.IEA colleagues Juha Kykk and Julia Guyon also contributed to the analysis.Alejandra Bernal,Joerg Husar,Rebecca McKimm and Zhiyu Yang from the IEA Global Energy Relations Office,former IEA colleagues Woan Ho Park and Daniela Quiro

10、ga Vergara,and IEA-Latin America consultant Luiz de Oliveira also contributed to this report.Keisuke Sadamori,Director of the Energy Markets and Security Directorate,provided valuable feedback.Valuable comments and feedback were also provided by Pauline Henriot,Zoe Hungerford,Aditya Ramji,Cornelia S

11、chenk,Jacob Teter and Per-Anders Widell.Adam Majoe edited this report.Thanks go to the Communications and Digital Office especially to Jad Mouawad,Head of the Communications and Digital Office,Astrid Dumond and Therese Walsh for their help with production and for providing website materials.Anna Kal

12、ista also provided essential support.An online webinar on managing the grid integration of electric vehicles was held on 15 March 2022.The speakers and participants provided valuable inputs for this report.This report benefited greatly from comments and feedback from many external experts,including:

13、Doris Agbevivi(Energy Commission Ghana),Arina Anisie(IRENA),Molly Blatchly-Lewis(WBCSD),Victor Bonilla(EBRD),Karima Boukir(Enedis),Jaap Burger(Regulatory Assistance Project),Francisco Cabeza(Element),Francois Cuenot(UNECE),Shyamasis Das(Independent Consultant),Thomas Deloison(WBCSD),Michael Drtil(Hi

14、tachi Energy),Aaron Fishbone(Green Way),Nikos Hatziargyriou(National Technical University of Athens),Harini Hewa Dewage(4R Digital),Nishi Hidetaka(METI),Julia Hildermeier(RAP),Antonio Iliceto(ENTSO-E/Terna),Chaitanya Kanuri(WRI),Tarek Keskes(ESMAP World Bank),Yanchao Li(World Bank),Mattia Marinelli(

15、DTU),Indradip Mitra(GIZ),Sajid Mubashir(Bureau of Indian Standards),Hiten Parmar(uYilo eMobility Programme),Luis Felipe Quirama(UNEP),Chris Rimmer(Cenex),Sacha Scheffer(Rijkswaterstaat),Sudhendu Jyoti Sinha(NITI Aayog),Urska Skrt(WBCSD),Chris Vertgewall(RWTH Aachen),Lulu Xue(WRI)and Zifei Yang(ICCT)

16、.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles Acknowledgements A manual for policy makers PAGE|5 I EA.CC BY 4.0.The report was prepared by the International Energy Agency under the Global E-Mobility Programme funded by the Global Environment Facility.The work could not have been achieved without the financ

17、ial support provided by the Global Environment Facility and inputs from many of the partners and experts highlighted above.In particular,we would like to acknowledge the United Nations Environment Programme as the lead implementing agency under the programme and all their efforts in co-ordinating th

18、e preparations,planning and roll-out of its activities.Comments and questions on this report are welcome and should be addressed to:gef.emobility.wg4iea.org Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles Executive summary A manual for policy makers PAGE|6 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Executive summary The electrification

19、of road transport is a major driver of decarbonisation in the IEAs Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,and providing charging solutions will be crucial for supporting this transition.The power sector plays a key role in ensuring a secure supply of electricity for electric vehicle(EV)charging,and in

20、taking advantage of EV flexibility through seamless integration with the power system.This manual is intended to support policy makers in assessing and mitigating the impacts of electric mobility on the power sector and designing strategies to leverage the flexibility of EVs.It provides key recommen

21、dations in four main areas:the readiness of institutions,impact assessment of EV charging,design of operational measures to integrate EVs as an energy resource,and power system planning.Summary of policy recommendations to integrate EV charging into the grid IEA.CC BY 4.0.Prepare institutions for th

22、e electric mobility transition1.Engage electric mobility stakeholders2.Break silos in planning and policy making Assess the power system impacts1.Define an electric mobility strategy2.Gather data and develop insights3.Assess the grid impacts under mobility scenarios Deploy measures for grid integrat

23、ion1.Accommodate all charging solutions but encourage managed charging2.Facilitate aggregation by enforcing standards and interoperability3.Value the flexibility of EVs4.Co-ordinate EV charging with renewables5.Incentivise smart-readiness Improve planning practices1.Conduct proactive grid planning2.

24、Reflect the full value of EV chargingGrid Integration of Electric Vehicles Executive summary A manual for policy makers PAGE|7 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Preparing institutions for the shift to electric mobility While electric mobility is accelerating in many locations around the world,preparing institutions ca

25、n help ensure that the shift to electric mobility happens efficiently by taking advantage of various synergies.Electric mobility is cross-sectoral and requires institutions to engage with a wide variety of stakeholders from the mobility and power sectors as well as the building and real estate secto

26、rs.To engage efficiently across sectors and support planning,silos in ministries as well as in the industry need to be broken down.Policy makers can start preparing institutions by engaging electric mobility stakeholders by creating multidisciplinary working groups.Working groups serve as focal poin

27、ts where stakeholders can learn about the concerns and motivations of others,and where common frameworks can be developed to help push electric mobility forward.Policy makers can break silos by establishing co-operation at the policy-making level and designating contact persons to be in charge of cr

28、oss-sectoral co-ordination so they can maximise synergies.Assessing the impacts of electric mobility on the power sector Like any other electric load,EVs will impact the power system based on their power and energy requirements and on the grids from which they are charging.Depending on the degree of

29、 uptake,line or transformer loading or power quality problems may not be encountered when EVs charge simultaneously or fast charge in commercial or industrial areas but may be encountered in residential areas.Moreover,even with sufficient network capacity,the coincidence of EV charging with peak ele

30、ctricity consumption will increase marginal generation requirements and result in additional system costs.The vehicle segments electrified and their corresponding charging solutions,along with user preferences and local mobility patterns,determine how and where these impacts take place.Regular commu

31、ters with personal EVs mainly recharge in the evening at home or during the day at work if the charging infrastructure is available.Meanwhile,e-buses and e-trucks require high charging power for overnight charging at depots and even higher power for mid-travel stops.Hence,it is important for policy

32、makers to develop an electric mobility strategy to consider all of these factors and determine the vehicle electrification priorities and the charging solutions that accompany them.Obtaining data on travel needs and charging patterns through travel surveys,global positioning system(GPS)technologies

33、and charging databases can provide insights for policy makers and aid in modelling EV uptake and charging profiles.To account for forecasting uncertainties,policy makers can use mobility scenarios when assessing the impacts on the grid to ensure that decisions on grid investments can adapt to possib

34、le changes in the landscape.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles Executive summary A manual for policy makers PAGE|8 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Due to variations in local mobility and power system contexts,dedicated studies are necessary to adequately assess the grid impacts and deploy comprehensive plans.In t

35、his respect,an upcoming interactive tool on EV charging under the Global Environment Facilitys electric mobility programme,along with this policy manual,aims to support policy makers in these endeavours.Deploying measures for the grid integration of EVs While electric mobility can have significant i

36、mpacts on the grid,several measures exist to mitigate the impacts and turn them instead into opportunities for flexibility.This manual provides a simple framework for EV grid integration to help policy makers prioritise charging strategies according to the conditions of their EV uptake and power sys

37、tem needs.The framework is structured around four phases corresponding to increasing volumes of flexible EV load and increasing system demand for flexibility.Framework for grid integration of electric vehicles IEA.CC BY 4.0.The main strategy is to maximise the amount of managed charging,as opposed t

38、o unmanaged charging.Cost-effective charging solutions that help accelerate the shift to electric mobility should be accommodated by the grid,but opportunities to maximise the share of managed charging should be pursued when possible.Deploy active measures:unidirectional V1GDeploy active measures,bi

39、directional charging:V2GHourly metering or sub-hourly meteringReducing or eliminating two-way taxation for storageEnable data exchange platforms for grid operators,EMSPs,OEMs,CPOs and EV usersEnable platforms for decentralised power tradingTime-of-use or critical peak tariffsReal-time advanced meter

40、ing and communications infrastructurePHASE 1:No noticeable impactNo significant impact yet.Encourage higher EV uptake through incentives and public EVSE deployment.Database for EV registrations and charging pointsFrameworks to incentivise demand response Separate metering for EVs or onboard charging

41、 measurement devicesContracts and markets for flexibilityBattery state-of-health considerations for V2G cyclingEV-EVSE-grid standardisation of communication protocolsEV-EVSE interface standardisation and interoperability measuresBidirectional protocols:ISO-15118-20:2022,CHAdeMOMarket access for aggr

42、egatorsGrid code definition for V1GSelf-consumption policiesPassive measures:time-of-use tariffs,vehicle-based charging time delaysCo-ordinate charging station deployment in areas beneficial to the gridForecasting of EV availability,electricity prices,VRE generation and grid constraintsData collecti

43、on of travel and charging patternsBattery state-of-health measurementsCharging strategyTechnology requirementsSystem operationsRegulation and market designGrid code definition for V2GReal-time tariffsPHASE 2:EV load noticeable with low flexibility demandDistinct variability observed caused by EV cha

44、rging but demand for flexibility is low enough that simple flexibility measures would suffice.PHASE 3:Flexible EV load is significant with high flexibility demandDemand for flexibility is high,matching the availability of flexible EV load and paving the way for aggregated smart charging.PHASE 4:Flex

45、ible EV load is highly available with high flexibility demandHigh flexibility demand along with highly available flexible EV load can provide energy back to the system in periods of deficit.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles Executive summary A manual for policy makers PAGE|9 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Measu

46、res to mitigate unmanaged charging and encourage managed charging include providing locational signals,making connections non-firm at certain power levels or at certain times of the day,requiring storage or storage fees,and making the connection fee dependent on power demand or the controllability o

47、f the connected EV charger.In order to unlock the technology and business models necessary to provide flexibility through managed charging,the flexibility needs to be valued and remunerated.Policy makers can use tools such as tariff design,contracts and markets for flexibilities,and participation in

48、 wholesale markets to reward managed charging.Individual EVs may be too small to participate in most power markets,but this can be resolved through standardisation and interoperability measures,thereby aggregating sufficient numbers of vehicles.Electric mobility is also an unprecedented opportunity

49、to grow the share of variable renewables in the power system.EV charging can be co-ordinated with variable renewable energy generation through incentives and measures to allow the contracting of renewables capacities.Finally,with all of the potential benefits of managed charging,policy makers should

50、 incentivise the smart-readiness of ecosystems through minimum communication and control requirements.Improving power system planning The rate of electrification of transport and other loads,and the potential cost savings they provide,calls for a fundamental improvement in planning practices to ensu

51、re the power system is ready to accommodate and take advantage of them as distributed energy resources.Co-ordinated and integrated planning practices are becoming essential.These ensure that power sector plans are well co-ordinated within the power sector and with other sectors.In particular,grid pl

52、anning needs to be proactive and anticipate various needs for expansion rather than respond to new requests for connection.Mandated time windows of interconnection and the publication of hosting capacity maps can help streamline interconnection processes.Meanwhile,capacity building to develop modell

53、ing capabilities and regulatory incentives tied to supporting electric mobility can help grid operators proactively plan for EV charging demand.Finally,the scenarios and plans for the power sector need to properly reflect the full value of EV charging.Revisiting regulatory design to reduce bias on c

54、apacity expenditure helps grid operators put more focus on leveraging available flexibility and reducing costs for everyone.Likewise,revisiting criteria for grid expansion and system planning can help ensure that the cost savings from EV charging flexibility are recognised and accounted for when dev

55、eloping grids.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles Introduction A manual for policy makers PAGE|10 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Introduction Context The electrification of road transport is a key pillar of the IEAs Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario for reducing transport emissions.Emissions could be reduced by

56、 around 94%if electric mobility were ramped up from 11 million vehicles today to 2 billion in 2050.1 By eliminating tailpipe emissions,EVs would also improve local air quality and result in health improvements for cities and communities.Electric mobility can also be a tool for energy security.By 203

57、0,the global uptake of EVs could displace oil demand from 2 million barrels per day in the IEAs Stated Policies Scenario to about 4.6 million barrels per day in the IEAs Announced Pledges Scenario.2 For many countries that are highly dependent on oil imports,electrifying transport could allow them t

58、o diversify and use domestic primary energy resources,such as hydro,solar and wind.The energy demand on the power systems would be significant but would only constitute a minor share of the countries electricity consumption.According to the Stated Policies Scenario,approximately 709 TWh of final ele

59、ctricity demand globally would be needed in 2030,equivalent to the total power generation of Canada and the Netherlands in 2019,but on average would only constitute 2.7%of individual countries total electricity generated.On the other hand,local constraints on grid capacity are expected to be the mai

60、n challenge due to the high power levels associated with the simultaneous charging of EVs.For example,in the Netherlands,about 3 000 neighbourhoods with at least 100 EVs are expected to exceed network capacity by 2025 due to faster-than-expected growth in EV uptake.In California,a local distribution

61、 system would need to upgrade five times more feeders than originally planned to accommodate EVs by 2030.Moreover,the concurrent electrification of heating and acquisition of air conditioning and distributed PV could pose challenges to network capacities,in some cases exacerbating or exceeding the i

62、mpact of EVs.Despite these challenges,electric mobility offers opportunities for flexibility due to its storage capabilities.Total battery capacity from EVs could be as high as 29 TWh by 2030 and 186 TWh by 2050 in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,providing a high potential for flexibility wh

63、ile the EVs are charging.Taking advantage 1 A comparison of the life cycle emissions of EVs and internal combustion engine vehicles is relevant for policy discussions,especially when considering battery extraction,manufacturing and recycling.However,this is not within the scope of this report.For mo

64、re details,see the International Council on Clean Transportations(ICCT)report on the life cycle emissions of combustion engines and electric passenger cars.2 The Announced Pledges Scenario is based on the different countries announcements of their 2030 targets and longer-term net zero pledges,regard

65、less of whether they are anchored in legislation or in updated nationally determined contributions.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles Introduction A manual for policy makers PAGE|11 I EA.CC BY 4.0.of this opportunity would require investments in communications and digital infrastructure as well a

66、s changes in market design and regulation.Policy makers hence need to ensure that their power systems are ready,and the preparation must be done immediately and proactively.Electric mobility is already becoming mainstream,representing 5%,16%and 17%of total light-duty vehicle sales in 2021 in the Uni

67、ted States,the Peoples Republic of China(hereafter,China)and Europe and up to 30%of LDV sales in the Netherlands.It is also taking hold in emerging economies,such as India,where electric three-wheelers constituted 46%of total sales between April 2021 and March 2022.One key aspect of policy intervent

68、ion relates to EV charging.While adapting EV charging to the demands of EV users can help accelerate the uptake of electric mobility,shaping its deployment to minimise impacts on the grid can reduce costs and contribute to sustainability goals.Co-ordinating the planning and deployment of charging in

69、frastructure with the planning of the power system grids can help ensure the timely delivery of charging solutions to support the shift to electric mobility.Purpose Given the increasing role of electric mobility in many countries,the IEA,as one of the implementing agencies of the Global Environment

70、Facility-funded Global Programme to Support Countries with the Shift to Electric Mobility,has produced this manual for policy makers to help facilitate the grid integration of EV charging and renewables and outline important considerations for a secure,clean and affordable energy system.It is also a

71、 deliverable under the Clean Energy Ministerials Electric Vehicles Initiative.This manual is primarily targeted at policy makers in the power sector,highlighting the key intersections with other stakeholders,especially those in the transport and building sectors.It aims to serve as a guide for polic

72、y makers on how to prepare for the shift to electric mobility and effectively take advantage of the opportunities from EVs.The manual organises the technical and policy insights from grid integration practices around the world and is arranged in four chapters corresponding to the key steps recommend

73、ed to policy makers:Step/Chapter 1 is about preparing institutions for the shift towards electric mobility.It introduces the key stakeholders who need to be rallied to support this shift and the need to break silos between sectors,in particular between mobility,the power sector and buildings/real es

74、tate.Step/Chapter 2 is about understanding and assessing the grid impacts of electric mobility.It introduces the dynamics of EV charging and explains how vehicle electrification patterns and local conditions affect the power system.It highlights the need to develop robust scenarios for grid planning

75、 and operations.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles Introduction A manual for policy makers PAGE|12 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Step/Chapter 3 is about deploying measures for grid integration.It explains the policies,standards and regulations that aim to reduce the impact of EV charging and even turn them into

76、 an opportunity for the power system,helping balance the system and integrate more renewables.Step/Chapter 4 is about improved planning practices.It explains how proactive grid planning can help accommodate future charging needs,and the need to reflect the full value of EV charging flexibility in pl

77、anning.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 1.Prepare institutions for the electric mobility transitionA manual for policy makers PAGE|13 I EA.CC BY 4.0.1.Prepare institutions for theelectric mobility transitionAuthorities can play a significant role in the shift to electric mobility through polici

78、es that enable and accelerate the uptake of electric vehicles(EVs).Therefore,the shift to electric mobility starts from the institutions.1.1 Engage electric mobility stakeholders The electric mobility ecosystem involves a wide range of stakeholders,some of which may have had limited interactions amo

79、ng themselves until recently.Given the imperative of maintaining the power systems supply-demand balance at all times,providing charging solutions for EVs entails a high degree of co-ordination among stakeholders.To do so,understanding their concerns and motivations is important.From the perspective

80、 of the power system,stakeholders can be classified into operational stakeholders those directly involved in the charging operations and planning stakeholders those involved in planning and enabling the conditions for vehicle-grid integration to happen.The engagement of operational stakeholders focu

81、ses on accelerating EV uptake by addressing prospective users range anxiety.3 Original equipment manufacturers(OEMs)provide portable chargers and charging point operators(CPOs)install public charging infrastructure in collaboration with network operators and retailers to ensure that energy can be su

82、fficiently supplied.Charging programmes may exist,provided by electric mobility service providers(EMSPs)to help reduce costs for EV users by co-operating with aggregators or network operators.3 Range anxiety is the drivers concern that there will not be enough battery storage in the EV to cover the

83、distance required to reach the destination or to find the next charging station.Range anxiety poses as a barrier in the shift from conventional internal combustion engine vehicles to EVs.“Charger confidence”is a term used to demonstrate the ability to address range anxiety.Grid Integration of Electr

84、ic Vehicles 1.Prepare institutions for the electric mobility transition A manual for policy makers PAGE|14 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Operational stakeholders for vehicle-grid integration Operational stakeholders Typical concerns and motivations EV users Vehicle drivers Fleet managers Concerns:finding an availa

85、ble and functional charger and having enough autonomy for the next trip;privacy and security Motivation:charging convenience and lower energy bills Programmes to manage EV charging are welcome,but the ability to opt out of the programmes is necessary EV manufacturer or vehicle original equipment man

86、ufacturer(OEM)Manufactures vehicles and provides warranties for components(batteries may be manufactured by a separate entity)Dimensions the maximum charging capacities of the vehicles to ensure safety Can install basic control and communication functionalities in the vehicle Concerns:handling warra

87、nty claims;charging convenience of clients May engage in some programmes to support charger deployment Motivation:sales and market share Charge point operator(CPOs)or battery-swap station operator Operates and often also owns the charging infrastructure Concerns:securing grid interconnection and lan

88、d acquisition;network tariffs Motivation:business model to increase charge point utilisation and revenue streams Electric mobility service provider(EMSP)As the interface between the EV user and the CPOs,ensuring accessibility to electricity recharging EMSPs may be associated with a CPO or have arran

89、gements with several CPOs to expand access for the user Some original equipment manufacturers may have extended services similar to that of an EMSP Concern:interoperability of charge points for users Motivation:business model to maximise share of subscribers Network/system operators Regulated monopo

90、lies operating the transmission grid(transmission system operators,transmission network operators or transmission network service providers)and the distribution grid(distribution system operators,distribution network operators or distribution network service providers);distribution companies are als

91、o in charge of metering Concerns:maintaining grid security and quality of electricity supply Motivation:obtaining revenue from public service provision under regulatory constraints Electricity suppliers and retailers*Companies supplying electrical power systems;suppliers offer electricity to the who

92、lesale market while retailers in turn buy the offered energy and sell electricity directly to the consumers Concerns:retailers have concerns about balancing their portfolios and ensuring that retail rates pay for the purchased energy;suppliers,especially of variable renewable energy,have concerns ab

93、out securing a buyer/off-taker to help reduce financial risk Aggregators Third-party entities that help aggregate various distributed resources,through EMSPs or CPOs,to act as middlemen to provide services to the power system;some retailers can also act as aggregators Motivation:obtaining access to

94、services where they can offer their contracted resources *In most advanced economies,the power sector is unbundled and restructured,and companies such as generators and retailers compete in the market.In other countries or subnational systems,regulated vertically integrated monopolies remain the nor

95、m.These vertically integrated markets conduct similar activities of generation,transmission,distribution and retail but may be organised in a different manner within a company.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 1.Prepare institutions for the electric mobility transition A manual for policy makers

96、 PAGE|15 I EA.CC BY 4.0.For planning stakeholders,a main focus on co-ordination is needed.Given that most EVs are recharged while they are fully parked,the planning of locations for public charging infrastructure will involve local authorities,urban and transport planners,and the building sector.Mor

97、eover,charging programmes that shift charging to more favourable times in a 24-hour period to reduce the peak load or increase the consumption of renewables will require the co-operation of electric vehicle supply equipment(EVSE)manufacturers,battery manufacturers,researchers and regulators to estab

98、lish technical requirements.Planning stakeholders for vehicle-grid integration Planning stakeholders Typical concerns and motivations National and local authorities Deploy policies to enable and support the shift to electric mobility Facilitate access to public spaces for charging in municipalities

99、or at highways,and to private spaces through building regulations for charging provision Can serve as focal points for co-ordination with network operators,urban and transport planners,and charge point operators Local authorities may not always have expertise in EV charging Energy regulators Agencie

100、s tasked with regulating network monopolies and ensuring competition in non-monopolistic activities;even though independence is preferred,these can exist as functions under the energy ministry Motivation:ensuring consumer welfare through fair tariffs and service reliability Battery manufacturers Dev

101、elop and innovate on battery technology;they possess expertise in battery handling and safety,power limits and degradation dynamics Concern:availability of materials,especially for lithium-ion batteries Motivation:battery sales to vehicle original equipment manufacturers or subscriptions via battery

102、-as-a-service EV supply equipment manufacturers Provide the equipment for charging:portable or fixed electric vehicle supply equipment to EV users and charge point operators Concern:compatibility of electrical and communications features with vehicles,charge point operators,electric mobility service

103、 providers and the power system Urban and transport planners Identify mobility needs for people and goods and routes to efficiently fulfil these needs;may have the expertise to determine locations for installing charging points from the user perspective Motivation:providing efficient solutions for t

104、ransporting people and goods that may go beyond electric mobility Building sector Real estate Construction Similar to local authorities,may be instrumental in giving access to spaces for EV charging to complement the current role of providing space for vehicle parking Concern:determining electrical

105、connection requirements for EV charging that may exceed their typical allocated capacity or increase their typical network tariff Research institutes and think tanks Conduct research on key technological and business aspects of electric mobility Can conduct pilot studies and demonstrations to help i

106、nform policy and business models Can develop expertise in modelling EV uptake and determining system impacts Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 1.Prepare institutions for the electric mobility transition A manual for policy makers PAGE|16 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Create multidisciplinary working groups on

107、electric mobility The first step for policy makers is to create working groups on electric mobility to bring together different stakeholders to arrive at common objectives,such as supporting EV uptake or minimising the total energy system cost.For example,supporting EV uptake by developing right-to-

108、charge laws that allow tenants in multi-unit-dwelling households to install charging points,or the expansion of rights-to-connection that can allow parking lots to request connections from the grid,will require engagement with these different stakeholders.Working groups help gather working-level off

109、icials from the sectors involved and create a focal point for knowledge sharing and capacity building,as well as identifying the relevant contact persons.The development of robust EV uptake scenarios can also take place,along with assessments of alternative solutions under commonly agreed holistic e

110、conomic frameworks.Specific working groups related to vehicle-grid integration,such as in California,can also provide further insights into effective ways of obtaining value from EV flexibility.1.2 Break silos in planning and policy making In addition to engaging stakeholders,policy makers also need

111、 to co-ordinate planning and policy making across different sectors of the government.There are several opportunities for synergies,especially in the transport and energy sectors:Synchronising the increase in targets for EV uptake and variable renewable energy generation.Variable renewable energy ge

112、neration can be increased if additional flexibility from EV batteries is leveraged.Likewise,EV uptake can be accelerated if revenue sources exist when providing flexibility for the power system.Co-ordinating the roll-out of charging infrastructure with transmission expansions to support the high-pow

113、ered charging expected along highways.Transmission expansion along highways could also be linked to local variable renewable energy generation to reduce grid losses.Anticipating potential land use issues from grid extension by co-ordinating planning for grids and bus or truck depot electrification.F

114、or example,a depot of 90 electric buses requires about 4 MW of charging power and entails co-ordination between e-bus procurement and infrastructure planning,especially for additional substation needs due to the high costs of financing and risk.Alignment and rationalisation of incentives.Co-ordinati

115、ng the taxation of internal combustion engine vehicles or fuels with electricity taxation and electric mobility incentives or charging programmes can improve the overall cost of ownership for users and accelerate the shift to electric mobility.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 1.Prepare institut

116、ions for the electric mobility transition A manual for policy makers PAGE|17 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Alignment to be pursued among policy-making silos IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:End users include consumers,self-generation and storage.Source:Reproduced from Clean Energy Ministerial(2020),Electric Vehicle and Power Sy

117、stem Integration:Key Insights and Policy Messages from CEM Initiatives.Establish co-operation at the policy-making level Co-ordination on setting high-level targets for power system and transport development by senior policy makers in government departments and ministries can help set the precedent

118、for co-ordinated planning in their respective sectors.Co-operation can also be formalised at the institutional level.For example,the Joint Office on Energy and Transportation in the United States has been created to co-ordinate planning between the energy and transport departments to ramp up electri

119、c mobility.It was created as part of the countrys Bipartisan Infrastructure Law in 2021 to boost investment in infrastructure.By utilising the transport departments rights-of-way,4 the necessary grid expansions to power charging corridors could be accelerated through streamlined permitting and const

120、ruction.Designate contact persons in charge of cross-sectoral co-ordination In situations where formal co-operation may not be possible,policy makers can designate contact persons to facilitate co-ordination among the different sectors.Training can ensure that these contact persons have an understan

121、ding of the 4 A right-of-way is a right to establish and use a pathway over a piece of land for transport purposes without necessarily owning the land itself.Transport and infrastructure stakeholdersOverarching policiesEV uptake targetsTransport emission reductionsEnergy efficiency targetsOverarchin

122、g policiesVariable renewable energy penetration targetsEnd-use electrification targetsEnergy efficiency targetsCountrywide infrastructureCharging infrastructure roll-out programmesAccepted charging standardsRoaming and long-haul travel arrangementsBulk power system and transmission networkNeed to re

123、duce peak-demand increaseBalancing variable renewable energy Rising transmission costMobility,land use and urban planningCharging depot requirementsLocal mobility plans(e.g.public and active transport)Distribution network and local utilitiesLocal network reinforcementSubstation or city-level infrast

124、ructureEnd usersFuel prices including taxes and leviesEnd usersEnd-user electricity rates including taxes and leviesSmart energy offeringsEnergy and power sector stakeholdersGrid Integration of Electric Vehicles 1.Prepare institutions for the electric mobility transition A manual for policy makers P

125、AGE|18 I EA.CC BY 4.0.planning and policy-making practices of the other sectors and can leverage the synergies in their own sectors.Joint Office on Energy and Transportation,United States The United States has established an institutional means to break the silo between the Department of Transportat

126、ion and the Department of Energy.With a USD 300 million budget,the joint office is expected to carry out work within nine focus areas:technical assistance on the deployment,operation and maintenance of zero emissions charging and refuelling infrastructure;renewable energy generation;and vehicle-to-g

127、rid integration data sharing of installation,maintenance and utilisation for the charging and refuelling network build-out national and regional study on charging and refuelling needs and deployment factors for community resilience and EV integration training and certification programmes programmes

128、to promote renewable energy generation,storage and grid integration high voltage and medium voltage transmission pilots in the rights-of-way of the interstate highway system research,strategies and actions to further reduce transport emissions development of streamlined utility accommodations policy

129、 for high voltage and medium voltage transmission rights-of-way other areas that the Department of Energy and Department of Transportation may jointly deem as necessary.Source:Joint Office of Energy and Transportation.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 2.Assess the power system impacts A manual f

130、or policy makers PAGE|19 I EA.CC BY 4.0.2.Assess the power system impacts Electric vehicles(EVs)interact with the power system whenever they are connected to a charging point.Like many other electrical loads,EV charging can cause operational challenges and require upgrades based on the power drawn f

131、rom the system and the specific location from which the power is drawn.The impacts can be classified as those affecting the capacity limits of the different components of the network,those that affect the power quality for the end users and those that affect the larger power system.Line,transformer,

132、and feeder loading:sustained loading beyond the physical capacity of the components of the grid can lead to premature ageing or permanent damage.Operating limits on current,voltage,frequency,temperature and losses are placed in order to reduce the likelihood of this problem.The components must be up

133、graded or reinforced if loading is expected to regularly exceed these limits.Power quality:the current drawn for EV charging may lead to imbalances5 in the network voltage if EV charging is done on a single phase and may also lead to harmonic distortions.Lower power quality could lead to the eventua

134、l damage of other nearby electrical appliances,and hence distribution utilities are subject to power quality indicators,such as contractual voltage limits and harmonic distortion limits.6 Systemwide impacts:charging during peak periods can exaggerate the peak demand and the subsequent need for peak

135、generation capacity.The extent to which these grid impacts manifest depends on the charging use cases that develop and where they occur,which in turn are based on the electrification of vehicles.Defining an electric mobility strategy is the first step in assessing the grid impacts resulting from tra

136、nsport electrification.2.1 Define an electric mobility strategy Vehicle segments provide insights into charging needs Countries have differing existing vehicle types due to a complex set of factors involving their geography,structures,purchasing power,local economic activities 5 To maximise the effi

137、cient use of the equipment,power systems are made of three symmetrical phases.The network operator ensures that the phases remain more or less symmetrical by avoiding the current drawn from one phase significantly exceeding that of the others.6 Recommendations to resolve power quality issues are inc

138、reasingly being addressed in international technical standards that policy makers can directly implement.The policy manual would focus on the wider techno-economic impacts of EV charging that involve decisions on network and generation capacity.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 2.Assess the powe

139、r system impacts A manual for policy makers PAGE|20 I EA.CC BY 4.0.and local mobility preferences,among other factors.Policy makers can conduct a first-level classification based on the broad vehicle type to understand the expected power system impacts of charging.Two-wheelers and three-wheelers gen

140、erally have small battery capacities(0.5-20 kWh).They can be charged using a regular socket through a portable charger,or their batteries can be swapped.They usually do not have active cooling systems,so high-power charging is limited.The power demand is comparable to washing machines(0.5-1.5 kW)and

141、 room air conditioners(3-4 kW).Light-duty vehicles have a wide range of battery capacities(10-100 kWh)and comprise different sub-classes,such as plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and full-battery electric vehicles.Light commercial vehicles are vans and small pickup trucks with battery capacities in a

142、 similar range as light-duty vehicles(35-76 kWh).Buses have a range of battery capacities(50-550 kWh)depending on the specific vehicle use,with smaller batteries being associated with trolleybuses where certain sections can be connected by catenary wiring.Trucks have high battery capacities(100-800

143、kWh)due to the long distances and high power requirements.Stock share of all vehicles(left)and EVs(right)by vehicle type in selected countries IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:Four-wheelers or quadricycles are small car-like vehicles.They are grouped with three-wheelers and separated from larger-volume passenger

144、light-duty vehicles or sedans.Source:IEA analysis from IEA Mobility Model.0%20%40%60%80%100%United StatesFranceMexicoBrazilSouth AfricaJapanChinaIndiaViet NamStock shareAll vehiclesTwo-wheelersThree-and four-wheelersPassenger light-duty vehiclesBuses and minibusesLight commercial vehiclesMedium truc

145、ksHeavy trucks0%20%40%60%80%100%Stock shareEVs onlyGrid Integration of Electric Vehicles 2.Assess the power system impactsA manual for policy makers PAGE|21 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Note that there can be considerable variation across markets in battery capacity,vehicle power and energy efficiency that can ch

146、ange the power and energy requirements of different vehicle classes.However,a more significant factor to consider is the vehicle use case.Classifying vehicles according to the vehicle use case or vehicle segments can reveal route patterns and dwelling times.These are used as guides for battery sizin

147、g and charging infrastructure planning,with the aim of minimising total system costs.The resulting charging roll-out plans provide an idea of the location and charging profile of the surrounding connected load,which then inform about the impact on the grids.Typical charging solutions for selected ve

148、hicle segments Vehicle class Vehicle segment Driving patterns Charging solutions Two-wheelers Personal Regular patterns of home to workplace with occasional travel for leisure Home charging and destination charging(0.5-3.3 kW),battery swapping Taxi or ride-hailing Diverse routes with high daily mile

149、age and off-shift charging at depot or home Public charging(0.5-3.3 kW),battery swapping Three-wheelers Taxi Diverse routes with high daily mileage and off-shift charging at depot or home Depot,home and public charging(0.5-3.3 kW)Last-mile delivery Light-duty vehicles Personal Regular patterns of ho

150、me/roadside to destination(workplace or leisure)with occasional long-distance travel Home charging(1.9-7 kW),destination(workplace or leisure)charging,public charging(22kW),en route/highway fast charging(50-350 kW)Taxi or ride-hailing Diverse routes with high daily mileage and off-shift charging at

151、depot or home En route fast charging(50-350 kW),depot charging(22-350 kW)and home charging Car sharing Diverse routes with regular stops at planned locations Public charging(22 kW)Light commercial vehicles Last-mile delivery Diverse routes with stops at depots Depot charging(22 kW)Buses Intracity or

152、 transit bus Fixed routes with pre-determined schedules and short stops during the day Opportunity(bus stop)charging(150 kW or more)and depot charging(22-50 kW)School bus Semi-fixed routes with daytime parking at the school Destination(school)charging(19-50 kW)Regional bus Fixed long routes along hi

153、ghways with fewer stops En route fast charging and depot charging(50-350 kW)Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 2.Assess the power system impacts A manual for policy makers PAGE|22 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Vehicle class Vehicle segment Driving patterns Charging solutions Trucks Local distribution Diverse ro

154、utes with stops at depots Depot(19-125 kW)Regional or long-haul delivery Semi-fixed long routes on highways with mid-shift stops and off-shift charging at depots Depot(1 000 kW500-1 000 kW 500 kWAnalysis pendingEV hosting capacityGrid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integ

155、ration A manual for policy makers PAGE|36 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Consider using buffer storage requirements or storage fees to smooth peak demand Stationary storage can be used in charging stations to limit the impact of high power requirements on the grid,especially during critical periods.The buffer stora

156、ge supplements the grid capacity that the charging stations need and may be more cost-effective and faster than grid upgrades.Depending on the charging stations business case,CPOs can use buffer storage as a tool to avoid high peak demand charges and as a way to participate in other power system ope

157、rations to obtain additional revenue from the investment.The buffer storage may be located in a more optimal location for the grid,and the connection fees for charging stations and other users may simply incorporate the costs of the common storage component to reduce the cost burden on each user.The

158、 use of second-life batteries can also be explored as they can reduce the levelised cost of electricity by 12-41%.Provide signals to shift towards managed charging Network charges can also be varied based on controllability and the maximum power of EV charging.CPOs without sufficient communication w

159、ith the grid could be initially charged as if they would contribute the maximum rated power during peak periods.Likewise,the fee could be lowered if flexibility could be demonstrated by the CPO.These conditions would allow the charging point installer to make an economic assessment of the cost of in

160、vesting in intelligent communication capabilities and incentivise power control.It is important to note,though,that these measures impose costs on the CPO that will eventually be passed down to the EV user.The additional costs could act as a barrier to charging infrastructure deployment and EV uptak

161、e.Balancing the cost allocation between the CPO(eventually paid by EV users only)and the grid(eventually paid by all electricity consumers)is therefore important and must be assessed carefully by policy makers and regulators.Connections that encourage flexible smart charging can improve the utilisat

162、ion of the grid.This is a net benefit for electricity users,and hence a larger portion of the costs could be covered by the grid.Consider alternative methods to mitigate high power and energy demand Beyond the options discussed above,there are also other proposals that can help mitigate power and en

163、ergy demand when network capacity is unavailable and connection is urgent.Collective charging.Collective charging aims to gather fleet operators or fast-charging CPOs to request connection to a higher voltage level that might be prohibitive to individual connections due to its higher cost.Adjusting

164、the scheduling of charging,especially for bus fleet operators,can help lower the Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|37 I EA.CC BY 4.0.connection capacity required.The higher connection cost for inflexible en route charging cou

165、ld entail higher charging costs for users.Charging hubs.Similar to collective charging,charging hubs can be created to provide charging services to meet the demands of vehicles whose current allocated grid capacity might not be sufficient.The strategy is more applicable to fleet operations where cha

166、rging can be organised and scheduled around the available capacity of the hub.Companies can also co-operate to invest in stationary storage to expand collective capacity without having to request a higher voltage connection.Temporary local generation.Local generation can also be used to help supply

167、the charging needs of charging stations while waiting for the expansion of the network capacity.Local renewable generation paired with storage can also help reduce the carbon content of the electricity but may incur additional costs.Hosting capacity of a distribution grid The hosting capacity is the

168、 amount of new energy-generating or energy-consuming technologies that can be connected to the grid without compromising reliability or power quality for the other connected users.Hosting capacity studies have been commonly used by grid operators to assess and communicate the impacts of distributed

169、PV on performance indices and acceptable limits.Typical metrics used are the kW of load or generation connected in relation to performance metrics of the voltage level,safety and reliability,line loading and/or transformer loading.The input values are often represented based on the technology adopti

170、on rate(e.g.EV penetration or rooftop PV per household).Several methodologies exist with varying levels of complexity that grid operators can consider to conduct hosting capacity analyses for EVs and to convey the capacity of the grid and the implications on performance for the rest of the users.3.2

171、 Facilitate aggregation through standards and interoperability The larger the number of EVs available for aggregation,the larger the flexibility potential from which the power system can draw.Supporting transport electrification and ensuring that EVs,EVSEs,and the power system use common communicati

172、on protocols are,therefore,in the interest of the power system stakeholders.Standardisation and interoperability are commonly thought to improve electric mobility uptake by allowing EV users who purchase different models to maintain access to various charging points.However,this could also be extend

173、ed to improving consumer choice by providing access to managed charging and bill Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|38 I EA.CC BY 4.0.reduction regardless of the vehicle model choice.Likewise,for the power system,this helps en

174、sure a larger degree of aggregation for providing services to the grid.Facilitating interoperability would require the use of common communication protocols.Protocols help standardise data flow and commands.The following are some of the main protocols needed for vehicle-grid integration:ISO/IEC 1511

175、8 facilitates communication between the EV and the EVSE.It sends charging parameters based on user needs and the charging profiles from the CPO.The latest update includes protocols for bidirectional charging.CHAdeMO is a protocol originally developed in Japan that accompanies its specific CHAdeMO pl

176、ug that physically allows bidirectional DC charging.IEC 61850 is a group of standards defining communication protocols for intelligent electronic devices at substations.It is a foundational standard for smart grids.Open Charge Point Protocol(OCPP)communicates smart charging features,such as grid cap

177、acity,energy prices,local supply of sustainable energy,and user preferences.It is currently being incorporated into IEC 63110 to establish a regular international technical standard.Open Charge Point Interface(OCPI)supports connections between electric mobility service providers and CPOs to allow EV

178、 users to access different charging points and streamline payments across jurisdictional borders,helping support EV uptake through roaming.Among different roaming protocols7 OCPI supports the most functionalities including smart charging.It is commonly used in the European Union.Open Automated Deman

179、d Response(OpenADR)communicates price and event messages between the utility and connected distributed energy resources for the purpose of demand-side management.It is more focused on exchanging information,whereas OCPP has more emphasis on control.It has a wide adoption across the globe.IEEE 2030.5

180、 enables utility management of the distributed energy resources such as electric vehicles through demand response,load control and time-of-day pricing.It is commonly used in California.Open Smart Charging Protocol(OSCP)communicates predictions of locally available capacity to charging station operat

181、ors.The current version contains use cases with more generic terms to allow integration of solar PVs,batteries and other devices.Currently,the use of OSCP is still limited.7 Other common roaming protocols are Open Intercharge Protocol(OICP),Open Clearing House Protocol(OCHP)and eMobility Interoperat

182、ion Protocol(eMIP).Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|39 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Vehicle-grid integration ecosystem and communication protocols IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:CPO=charge point operator,EMSP=electric mobility service provider,eMIP=

183、eMobility Interoperation Protocol,EVSE=electric vehicle supply equipment(charging infrastructure),OpenADR=Open Automated Demand Response,OCHP=Open Clearing House Protocol,OCPI=Open Charge Point Interface,OCPP=Open Charge Point Protocol,OEM=original equipment(EV)manufacturer,OICP=Open Intercharge Pro

184、tocol,OSCP=Open Smart Charging Protocol.Sources:IEA analysis from Neaimeh and Andersen(2020),Mind the Gap-Open Communication Protocols for Vehicle Grid Integration;Element Energy(2019),Implementing Open Smart Charging;Klapwijk,P.(2018),EV Related Protocols;NAL(2021),Tendering Guidelines for Open Mar

185、ket and Open Protocols.It is important to have a common communication protocol between the EVSE and the power system that is facilitated by managed charging actors.Currently,efforts are being made towards the global harmonisation of communication protocols,including those between EVs and EVSE,to aid

186、 in interoperability when crossing international borders.Standardised communication protocols bring about systemwide benefits but can also carry risks.Using insecure protocols that lack authentication and encryption can create entry points for cyberattacks.While it is not in the scope of this manual

187、,policy makers should conduct a cybersecurity assessment and plan for mitigation measures for charging operations.Use incentives and regulations to set standards and interoperability Policy makers can use a mix of incentives and regulations to disseminate key smart features.For example,in Belgium,ta

188、x deductions apply to publicly accessible charging points,and there is a EUR 1 500 incentive for residential charging points if they can be digitally connected and managed through standard protocols.Meanwhile,in Luxembourg,a EUR 1 200 incentive is given to OCPP-compliant smart charging stations.In t

189、he Netherlands,OCPP and OCPI are used as de facto standards for publicly accessible charging points based on tendering guidelines.EVEVSECPODistributionTransmissionEMSPOEMOCPIOCPPISO 15118ProprietaryOSCPOpenADRIEC 61850CHAdeMOProprietaryEnergy supplierPower systemOpenADRIEEE 2030.5IEEE 2030.5Roaming

190、PlatformOICPeMIPOCHPOpenADRIEEE 2030.5OpenADRIEEE 2030.5OpenADRIEEE 2030.5OpenADRIEEE 2030.5Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|40 I EA.CC BY 4.0.On the other hand,the United Kingdoms EV(Smart Charge Points)Regulations 2021 man

191、dated that all home and workplace charging points from Q2 2022 would be required to have smart functionalities.8 The regulations included a key rationale explaining that the market would not be expected to arrive at establishing smart interoperable standards on its own and that customers must be pro

192、tected and given access to smart charging regardless of their choice of EMSP or EVSE.Likewise,in Indias draft battery-swapping policy,stations are required to adopt open standard communication protocols,such as OCPP.Legal authority on standardisation and interoperability varies by country.They can b

193、e enforced by the transport policy makers or by the economic and trade authorities.It is important to note that the minimum standards for charging points and vehicles must make them ready to conduct smart charging but not necessarily oblige smart charging.EV users must still have the final choice to

194、 participate in managed charging schemes based on their specific needs.Develop open vehicle-grid integration platforms as a supplementary measure Open vehicle-grid integration platforms allow electric utilities to gain visibility and communicate demand response events to EVSEs through communication

195、protocols and to EVs directly through vehicle telematics systems installed by OEMs.Where homes remain the preferred location for charging,a significant portion of charging profiles may not be visible to the local utility especially if the EVSE that an EV driver uses does not have communication capab

196、ilities.In these cases,facilitating communication and control through vehicle telematics can help aggregate more vehicles to participate in the power system.Open vehicle-grid integration platforms also allow OEMs to provide managed charging programmes as the communications go through their systems.F

197、or example,utilities in the United States,such as DTE Energy and Xcel Energy have adopted open vehicle-grid integration platforms and partnered with OEMs to use OpenADR as the common communication protocol.3.3 Value the flexibility of electric vehicles In order to enable the technology investments a

198、nd business models that facilitate flexibility from EVs,the cost savings enabled by flexibility must be passed on to its providers.From operational requirements,such as frequency regulation,to capital expenditure savings,such as network capacity deferral,several mechanisms can be used to allow the p

199、ower system to turn the cost savings into remuneration for 8 Smart functionalities are defined in the regulations as the ability to send and receive information and respond to signals by increasing or decreasing the rate of electricity flow through the charging point,shift the time at which electric

200、ity flows,and provide demand-side response services.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|41 I EA.CC BY 4.0.the flexibility providers.This will,in turn,allow the EV users and managed charging actors to make the necessary investme

201、nts to activate grid-interactive charging.There are several mechanisms in the market that can be used to transmit the remuneration to the EV user providing flexibility.The policy maker does not need to activate all these options,but the more they are made available,the more they can help the EV user

202、 to stack revenue from providing these services.Market mechanisms to remunerate EV charging flexibility Domain Service requirement Market mechanism Distribution Phase imbalance N/A enforced by grid code compliance Voltage regulation No mature market mechanisms so far Congestion management Tariffs Fl

203、exible contracts Flexibility tenders Local flexibility markets Fault restoration Bilateral contracts Flexibility tenders Transmission Balancing and reserves Ancillary services markets Energy arbitrage Wholesale energy markets Source:IEA analysis from Venegas(2021),Active Integration of Electric Vehi

204、cles into Distribution Grids:Barriers and Frameworks for Flexibility Services.Tariff design Designing tariffs in a way that reflects the cost on the grid or system based on specific time periods and locations can align the charging decisions to adapt and participate in lowering the cost for the syst

205、em.These tariff designs are generally referred to as“dynamic tariffs”as opposed to flat,single-value“static tariffs”.Some of the main designs are:Time-of-use(ToU)or time-of-day(ToD)tariffs.Tariff rates can be set at a higher price to discourage load during peak periods.Rates may vary multiple times

206、within a day,and the metering simply needs to be at the same time interval as the tariff settings(e.g.,hourly).In Thailand,for example,off-peak rates can be as low as 45%of those during peak hours for connected consumers below 12 kV.In Korea,specific static ToU tariffs exist for EVs differentiated b

207、y season and the voltage level of the connection.Changes can be made more periodically for example,using day-ahead market prices but this implies a substantial loss of information and efficiency for the system.Enhancements to the tariff design can also be made to avoid rebound peaks while maintainin

208、g simplicity in setting up the tariff.Real-time pricing.Tariffs can be changed according to real-time conditions,especially in power grids with higher shares of utility-scale and distributed-scale variable generation where the supply-demand balance changes throughout the day and can reflect location

209、al signals from the grid.Setting Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|42 I EA.CC BY 4.0.tariffs based on the real-time conditions of the grid requires advanced metering and communication infrastructure and automation systems in

210、order to reflect the system needs and allow the EV users to respond to the time-varying prices.While establishing real-time pricing may incur upfront expenses,it can increase the value for the system.For example,a study from the European Union shows that using real-time pricing can save up to 27%of

211、power generation costs and reduce VRE curtailment by 14%compared to a baseline scenario.Critical-peak pricing.Tariff rates are fixed,but exceptionally high prices can be set and communicated if a load reduction is needed at specific times of the day or the year.This tariff structure is quite common

212、and offered,in particular,for EV charging in Colorado and Southern California.Critical peak pricing in the United States is estimated to save EV users USD 1 125-1 220 per month.Graphical representation of the basic types of tariff structure IEA.CC BY 4.0.Provide dedicated connections for EVs if need

213、ed The benefit of dynamic tariff designs is that they are technology-neutral and can incentivise load flexibility not just for EV charging but also for different loads.However,in certain cases,changing the tariff design can be burdensome and may require lengthy legislative changes,especially for res

214、idential loads.In this case,separating metering and creating specific dynamic tariffs for EVs as a new load category can help in facilitating EV load flexibility despite maintaining static tariffs elsewhere.In India,several states have separate EV tariffs,with states such as Maharashtra implementing

215、 ToD tariffs.Battery-swapping stations are required to participate in ToD tariff regimes with dedicated connections in Indias draft battery-swapping policy.Having EVs as a specific load category can also be useful in times of shortage,helping to discriminate between the basic needs of households and

216、 more flexible electricity demand.Allow innovative business models for engaging users It is important that EV users and EV fleet operators are given the opportunity to contribute to power system objectives based on a set of incentives.Setting up a fair dynamic pricing model can be costly,but dynamic

217、 load shifting can also be achieved by allowing dynamic control by the utility during a certain period of the StaticDynamicCritical PeakPrice per kWhHour of dayPrice per kWhHour of dayPrice per kWhHour of yearGrid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for p

218、olicy makers PAGE|43 I EA.CC BY 4.0.day and giving the fleet or EV user a rebate for enrolment or participation.Allowing a diverse range of possible tariff structures and reward systems can help incentivise participation from EV users.Flexibility contracts and markets Aside from the typical ways of

219、accessing flexibility through network tariffs and connection agreements,market-based procurement can also be explored.Local flexibility markets can entail bidding based on capacity and energy and enable the lowest cost of flexibility to be used first.An example is the United Kingdom,where more than

220、10 GW of location-specific flexible capacity was bid through a common platform where distribution network operators could publish their flexibility needs.Another example is the Crowd Balancing Platform in commercial operation in Germany,Italy,the Netherlands and Switzerland.Bidding in wholesale mark

221、ets In countries with unbundled power markets,opening up the wholesale energy market and balancing markets to the demand side allows for the wider participation of flexible loads,such as EVs.Explicit demand-side responses allow remuneration based on the actual costs of the system,compared to tariffs

222、,which are often fixed.However,this option may not be available,especially if the power market is only accessible to large suppliers and retailers.Hence,opening up the market to demand response and allowing the participation of entities such as EVs,charging stations and stationary batteries is a nec

223、essary first step.In instances where demand response is already allowed,the key features needed are allowing aggregation and modifying product specifications where possible to match the scale of EVs.Allow third-party resource aggregation Allowing third-party resource aggregation is a useful way for

224、distributed resources to meaningfully provide services in wholesale energy markets.Aggregators can access the electricity market as participants and enter into various contracts with smaller entities providing distributed generation or load flexibility.In the United Kingdom,participation in balancin

225、g markets has been opened up to aggregators known as Virtual Lead Parties which allows distribution-connected assets to provide aggregate services when needed.Adjust product specifications when possible Market product specifications,such as minimum sizes to participate and symmetry of ancillary serv

226、ices products,can implicitly form barriers by dictating the minimum amount of EV aggregation needed.While the size of a product needs to be large enough to significantly influence the bulk energy system,reducing it where feasible for the system should be encouraged.For example,in several European co

227、untries,the minimum size to participate in primary regulation is 1 MW.In Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|44 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Sweden,on the other hand,a minimum size of only 0.1 MW9 is needed,meaning only 27 EVs on 3.7 kW of c

228、harging are needed to provide the required service.In the United States,0.1 MW of resource aggregation is also accepted.3.4 Co-ordinate EV charging with renewables Initial demand from EV charging may increase power sector emissions The addition of EV charging load into the power system entails a mar

229、ginal generation requirement that may be fulfilled by technologies that produce more emissions.While EVs are generally considered cleaner than their internal combustion engine counterparts thanks to the higher efficiency of the conversion technology,their operating emissions are still dependent on t

230、he emissions intensity of the electricity used to charge them.IEA analysis shows that life cycle emissions are lower for EVs compared to conventional internal combustion engine(ICE)cars only if the average emissions intensity of the electricity used to charge the EVs is less than 800 g CO-eq/kWh(if

231、larger ICE cars are displaced by EVs of equivalent sizes)or less than 450 g CO-eq/kWh(if smaller ICE cars are displaced).10 Transport and electricity emissions intensity in selected countries,2019 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Source:IEA,World Energy Statistics and Balances(accessed 25 October 2022).9 For normal pr

232、imary regulation(power and energy),the activation time is 63%within 60 seconds and 100%within 3 minutes,whereas for disturbance(power only),the activation time is 50%within 5 seconds and 100%within 30 seconds.10 Small cars include battery electric vehicles with a capacity of 36 kWh(200 km range)or 7

233、5 kWh(400 km range)and internal combustion engines with a Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure(WLTP)fuel economy of 5.5 Lge/100 km.Large cars include battery electric vehicles with a capacity of 39 kWh(200 km range)or 80 kWh(400 km range)and internal combustion engines with an on-road f

234、uel economy of 8.9 Lge/100 km.For more information,see the Global EV Outlook 2019.200 400 600 8001 0001 2000.000.501.001.502.002.503.00United StatesChinaFranceGermanyUkraineKazakhstanIndiaIndonesiaBrazilChileEgyptSouth Africag CO-eq/kWht CO-eq/toeRoad transportemissionsintensity(left axis)Electricit

235、yemissionsintensity(rightaxis)Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|45 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Many countries have electricity mixes with average emissions intensities11 of less than 800 g CO-eq/kWh but greater than 450 g CO-eq/kWh,as of

236、2019.Hence,despite the efficiency gains from EVs,further decarbonisation of the electricity mix is needed to ensure that the transport sector also decarbonises.Fortunately,there are strong potential synergies to be gained from increasing both renewables and EVs.New electricity demand arising from el

237、ectrification can be met with additional variable renewable sources.EV charging has strong potential synergies with renewables At the bulk energy level,load shifting of EV charging to more favourable times of the day can increase consumption and reduce the curtailment of transmission-connected renew

238、ables,leading to a better business case.In Korea,for example,flexible EV charging of 30%of the expected EV fleet in 2035 could reduce operating costs by USD 21/MWh and peak costs by USD 18/MWh,corresponding to 21%and 30%of the costs,respectively.It could also lead to a 63%emissions reduction compare

239、d to a full internal combustion engine fleet.Matching the EV load to the availability of renewables could also provide a better business case for renewable energy developers by reducing curtailment.Variable renewable energy patterns and the load-shifting potential of EVs in Korea,2050 IEA.CC BY 4.0.

240、Source:IEA(2021),Reforming Koreas Electricity Market for Net Zero.11 The annual average emissions intensity of the grid is referenced here as a high-level indicator.For more rigorous accounting,the marginal emissions intensity must be considered since the exact time and location of EV charging can e

241、ntail higher emissions compared to the annual average.One example is when charging occurs during peak periods where the marginal generation technology is diesel,and the network losses are high due to congestion.007080900 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0Solar and wind availability(GW)EV deman

242、d(GW)Hour of 48-hour periodWindgeneration(right axis)Solargeneration(right axis)Unmanagedcharging(left axis)Smartcharging(left axis)Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|46 I EA.CC BY 4.0.There are also potential synergies at the

243、 distribution level.Currently,areas with significant penetration of rooftop solar PV can experience problems with high local voltage(overvoltage)due to the injected energy not being matched with consumption.These conditions often arise during sunny weekends when consumption is low and PV generation

244、is high.On the other hand,simultaneous EV charging in the evening when consumption is high can cause the opposite effect of low voltage levels(undervoltage).Co-ordinating the operation of EV charging and solar PV could increase the mutual hosting capacity within a distribution grid by keeping delive

245、ry within the contractual voltage limits.For example,a modelling study in Sweden shows that the distribution grid could host a higher penetration12 of EVs and distributed PVs when co-ordinated with a management system compared to when they are uncoordinated.Given these potential benefits,policy make

246、rs should pursue the co-ordinated integration of EV charging to ramp up both electric mobility and the deployment of renewables.The co-ordinated plan helps ensure that the switch from ICEVs to EVs effectively decarbonises transport activity by ensuring that the marginal load imposed by the introduct

247、ion of EVs can be supplied by clean electricity.Encourage daytime charging Daytime charging,even when unmanaged,can help increase the consumption of renewables when solar-based generation is available and reduce storage requirements and ramping costs.Vehicle segments such as personal-use vehicles an

248、d school buses tend to be parked for long periods during the daytime at workplaces or schools.Providing charging solutions in these locations helps ensure that connected EVs are available during the daytime period.Policy makers can provide specific training for building managers to install and manag

249、e workplace chargers,as has been done in the United States,or they can also provide purchase and installation incentives,such as those available in the United Kingdom.Provide options to contract or support a clean electricity supply In liberalised power systems,market options for obtaining power sup

250、ply from renewable sources can be developed to help increase the build-up of renewable energy capacity.Options such as consumer power purchase agreements(PPAs),green tariffs and energy attribute certificates are common options provided by countries.Green tariffs can be a suitable option for individu

251、al EV users and CPOs,whereas PPAs can be utilised by fleet managers.These options are common in Europe and the United States.Where the mechanism already exists,high minimum size requirements can act as barriers to the types and numbers of EVs that can participate,such as bus depots or large EV fleet

252、s.Lowering the size requirements to participate,as is 12 For the mentioned study,the penetration rates are based on the presence of the typical load of EV charging(3.7 kW)per household and the typical daily rooftop PV output(11.4 kWh)per household.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measu

253、res for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|47 I EA.CC BY 4.0.recommended for bidding in wholesale markets,can help.For example,India recently lowered the minimum requirements for its Green Open Access mechanism to purchase renewables from 1 MW to 0.1 MW and is awaiting implementation o

254、f the regulation in individual states.As the decarbonisation of the power system progresses,importance will be placed on increasing the precision of temporal and locational matching,such as 24/7 matching.This will require a higher frequency of exchange of information on emissions,forecasts and conne

255、cted EVs.Investments in establishing a smart electric mobility ecosystem can help support this higher demand.Develop a framework to monitor indirect emissions from EV charging As EV charging produces indirect emissions through the electricity sector,creating a framework to monitor electricity emissi

256、ons from EV charging can help align smart charging algorithms and support decarbonisation options where possible.Obtaining charging time periods coupled with the real-time and forecasted electricity mix can help align charging towards periods of lower emissions,especially in cases where carbon price

257、s do not exist or are not significant enough to change dispatch and load-shifting decisions.Initial considerations on developing frameworks to determine the amount and share of GHG emissions from electric mobility have been conducted at United Nations Economic Commission for Europe workshops.Leverag

258、e incentives around EV charging Incentives for charging infrastructure deployment can be tied to renewable energy matching conditions.For example,in Belgium,to qualify for tax incentives for residential charging,the user must show that the charging point is supplied by renewable electricity through

259、either a retail contract,an on-site renewable energy source or a mixture of both.In Hanover,Germany,between 2018 and 2021,grants of EUR 500 were given to those planning to build charging points supplied by renewable sources.Incentives for the co-location of PV with EV charging stations can also be a

260、n option,especially for cases where distributed PV would be more cost-effective than utility-scale PV(i.e.reduced grid interconnection costs and reduced land use costs).More importantly,co-location can reduce grid losses and can offset high local EV charging demand.System operators can identify and

261、publish locations where co-located PV-EV charging would provide grid benefits.They can also use incentives such as rebates,special tariff structures and streamlined interconnection schedules tied to the co-location of PV and EV charging.The use of these incentives often requires authorisation from r

262、egulators and/or policy makers,depending on the regulatory regime.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|48 I EA.CC BY 4.0.3.5 Incentivise smart-readiness Policy makers must often balance the trade-offs between instituting standar

263、ds to enjoy the benefits of scale and aggregation and allowing the market to continue to innovate without additional restrictions.Given the potential for flexibility of EVs,uncontrolled charging loads in situations where they would be parked for a long period of time represent a lost opportunity.Set

264、ting a minimum standard of communication and controllability while the EV market is still nascent will help ensure a future-proof infrastructure.Policy makers can set the minimum requirements based on the conditions of their markets,both with respect to EV uptake and the state of the power system.In

265、stitute randomised charging delays Instituting charging delays based on known peak and off-peak periods can be a cost-effective solution to reduce EV load during peak periods,even in situations where EVs are connected to regular sockets.The delays should incorporate randomness and variation to preve

266、nt simultaneous power draw at the first instance of the off-peak hour that could lead to grid instability.In the United Kingdom,for example,a randomised delay of up to 10 minutes,with the remote capability of being adjusted to 30 minutes,is required in all charge points as part of the Smart Charge P

267、oints Regulations 2021.Minimum communication requirements Imposing minimum communication requirements on the charging infrastructure or vehicles can help ensure that more co-ordinated charging strategies can be implemented at higher levels of EV penetration.In power systems where the grid already co

268、ntains or is developing advanced metering and communications features,requiring EV charging infrastructure to be ready to communicate with the power system can help take advantage of these assets.Mandating compliance with the OCPP on EVSEs and battery-swapping stations,as has been done in the United

269、 Kingdom and India,respectively,can help ensure that the smart charging of batteries can be conducted when the opportunity arises.In some cases,EVs may continue to charge using regular sockets or charge in areas where the distribution grid does not have advanced metering and communication infrastruc

270、ture.Requiring communication features in EVs,which is already common practice for some manufacturers using vehicle telematics,can help in implementing managed charging in such contexts.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|49 I E

271、A.CC BY 4.0.A framework for grid integration of electric vehicles Every electricity system is unique and has specific circumstances.EVs,due to the various vehicle segments and charging use cases,also pose different types of impacts.While it is not possible to identify the level of EV charging load a

272、t which various issues will arise,it is possible to categorise the context in which EVs connect to the grid and associate measures that can be implemented to mitigate any impacts.Given the various possible measures to manage the EV charging process,from simple to complex,determining when to deploy w

273、hich measures can be useful.This report provides a framework that can be used as a guide for this.The framework summarises the key issues of grid integration:Volume of flexible-charging EV load.As EVs increase in uptake,the amount of the connected flexibility resource available when they charge can

274、increase depending on the vehicle segment and charging use case.It is important to recognise that since the primary use of EVs is for mobility,the connected flexibility resource also entails an inevitable load from the system.Flexibility demand from the system.The flexibility demand is what remunera

275、tes the investment in the grid integration measures.The demand for flexibility can come from limitations in building new capacity or limitations in power generation during the moment of demand.For example,cost-efficiency measures on new network capacity investments can make a distribution company co

276、nsider investing instead in shifting load from EVs through V1G,especially if the periods of excess demand occur for only a few hours of the year.By examining the nature of the flexibility supply from EVs and flexibility demand,policy makers can consider the following phases to prioritise measures ac

277、cording to the situations they face.Phase one Phase one is where the EV charging load has no noticeable impact on the grid.Either the EV penetration levels are small,the vehicle segments electrified are small or the loads are small relative to the capacity of the grid.Even if there is high flexibili

278、ty demand from the system,the volume of the connected storage resource is too small and sparse to be reliably utilised.In this case,policy makers can focus on increasing the deployment of EVs through policies such as increasing charging infrastructure support or enforcing standards and interoperabil

279、ity to help address range anxiety or improve charger confidence.Deploying charging stations in favourable areas of the grid can be a sufficient strategy to accommodate new stocks of EVs,especially if they turn out to have limited charging flexibility.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy me

280、asures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|50 I EA.CC BY 4.0.This is a period where policy makers can focus on foundational aspects,such as developing databases for EVs and charging points and conducting data research on travel and charging patterns.From the power system perspective

281、,an important component is creating frameworks to incentivise demand response.Phase two Phase two is where the EV charging load is significant and noticeable in system operations,but the flexibility demand is minimal.There is a considerable number of EVs where unmanaged charging is resulting in occa

282、sional problems in the local load or systemwide peak load.However,the demand for flexibility can remain low,either because there is sufficient network or peaking capacity in most periods of the year or there is an upcoming upgrade.Note that EV penetration may not necessarily be higher compared to ph

283、ase one,but the other connected loads may also have profiles that collectively contribute to issues with the peak load or network capacities.Applying passive measures to provide simple load-shifting measures can be a cost-effective solution.If load shifting to a defined off-peak period is specifical

284、ly desired,simple signals such as time-of-use tariffs or critical-peak tariffs will be needed to obtain a response from the EV users.The signals and the response need to be measured by an hourly meter or through an onboard charging measurement device.Personal-use vehicles and fleet operations can co

285、mprise a significant amount of the EV charging load.Hence,rallying the different entities involved in co-ordinating the charging process,such as the aggregators,CPOs,EMSPs and OEMs,will require common communication protocols and a common data exchange platform where signals can be exchanged.Policies

286、 to encourage the self-consumption of renewables may be valuable to incentivise homeowners and building managers to schedule their EV charging to periods when on-site generation is available.In doing so,the EV charging load on the distribution grid can be reduced.An example of a system in this phase

287、 is Norway.Despite its high share of EVs,the country can actually be classified under phase two due to its high shares of clean and flexible hydro generation and high existing distribution grid capacity,which have led to lower demand for additional flexibility from the power system.The impact of EV

288、charging is noticeable only in certain instances,such as in winter periods,and other flexibility measures exist given that the country already has dynamic tariffs(real-time pricing)and smart meters.Phase three Phase three is where the flexible EV charging load is significant and there is a high dema

289、nd for flexibility.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for policy makers PAGE|51 I EA.CC BY 4.0.The demand for flexibility can come from local network capacity limitations wherein passive charging measures are not enough to shift the load in a more c

290、o-ordinated manner.The demand can also come from the wholesale market looking to shift a significant amount of demand to avoid marginal generation or to match renewables.Deploying active V1G can be a useful strategy in this situation.The strategy entails enhanced communication and control,supported

291、by advanced metering and communications infrastructure.Active V1G allows remote and co-ordinated control of charging processes based on the needs of the local distribution network or the wholesale market.To activate this fully,grid codes should recognise V1G,and measures to value co-ordinated and ag

292、gregated flexibility should be deployed.Measures such as real-time tariffs,contracts or markets for flexibility,and opening market access to aggregators are important to allow revenue stacking for the aggregators and the contracted EVs.Forecasting generation and network capacity can help aggregators

293、 anticipate and offer EV load flexibility.Active V1G is currently practised in the Netherlands,France and Connecticut(United States),with direct control on either the charging points or the cars themselves.EVs in these countries or states can enroll in programmes that participate in managing grid co

294、nstraints and wholesale energy and balancing markets.Phase four Phase four is where flexibility demand is high and the availability of connected flexible EVs is also high.As the primary purpose of EV batteries is for mobility,offering up energy to the grid comes at a premium.This means that high lev

295、els of flexibility demand exist such that the market can remunerate this appropriately.Such high flexibility demand can occur in power systems relying on high levels of variable renewable energy generation,or those with limited sources of flexibility such that EVs participating through V2G become fe

296、asible.High availability of flexible EV load is also necessary since vehicles discharge to the grid and need to be recharged according to the users targeted state-of-charge levels.This may imply having larger batteries than the typically required range or aggregating a large pool of connected EVs su

297、ch that discharging large values of energy still maintain a satisfactory state of charge at the individual level.Island power systems tend to carry these features,especially those aiming to integrate high shares of variable renewable energy.A few V2G pilot programmes have already been conducted in t

298、he Azores(Portugal)and Hawaii(United States),and future economic viability would depend on the cost of alternative flexibility sources,such as stationary storage.Certain vehicle segments may also be better Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integration A manual for poli

299、cy makers PAGE|52 I EA.CC BY 4.0.suited for V2G based on their charging periods and ease of co-ordination.For example,several V2G pilot programmes are being conducted for school buses in the United States.For this charging strategy,grid codes should recognise V2G.State-of-health measurements help cr

300、eate algorithms that can properly remunerate the EV user based on the accelerated degradation(or the absence thereof)of the battery for conducting V2G services.Bidirectional protocols are also needed to activate two-way communication,and decentralised peer-to-peer power trading can help provide an a

301、dditional avenue for V2G participation with other distributed energy resources.Finally,reducing or eliminating two-way taxation for storage improves the business case for V2G providers.V2B and V2H are not included in the framework as they can be activated by the EV users or the fleet operators accor

302、ding to their own individual needs for backup and resilience.Key framework considerations The phases are not a measure of progress,only a description of the conditions that policy makers may face in their system.Certain countries may have high levels of transport electrification coupled with suffici

303、ent network and generation capacities or the availability of other more cost-effective flexibility sources,such that flexibility from V2G(phase four)may not be necessary.The measures are cumulative,meaning that the requirements for the lower phases will generally be needed for the higher phases.For

304、example,the requirements for phase two,such as the standardisation of communication protocols,are also needed for phase four.The measures are not exclusive to their phases,meaning that policy makers can deploy measures from higher phases even if they are in a lower phase.For example,they can deploy

305、advanced metering and communications infrastructure(a phase three measure)even before they observe a significant impact of EVs on their operations(still in phase one).This is possible as other connected resources,such as distributed generation and behind-the-meter storage,could be taking advantage o

306、f such technology deployment.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 3.Deploy measures for grid integrationA manual for policy makers PAGE|53 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Framework for grid integration of electric vehicles IEA.CC BY 4.0.Deploy active measures:unidirectional V1GDeploy active measures,bidirectional c

307、harging:V2GHourly metering or sub-hourly meteringReducing or eliminating two-way taxation for storageEnable data exchange platforms for grid operators,EMSPs,OEMs,CPOs and EV usersEnable platforms for decentralised power tradingTime-of-use or critical peak tariffsReal-time advanced metering and commu

308、nications infrastructurePHASE 1:No noticeable impactNo significant impact yet.Encourage higher EV uptake through incentives and public EVSE deployment.Database for EV registrations and charging pointsFrameworks to incentivise demand response Separate metering for EVs or onboard charging measurement

309、devicesContracts and markets for flexibilityBattery state-of-health considerations for V2G cyclingEV-EVSE-grid standardisation of communication protocolsEV-EVSE interface standardisation and interoperability measuresBidirectional protocols:ISO-15118-20:2022,CHAdeMOMarket access for aggregatorsGrid c

310、ode definition for V1GSelf-consumption policiesPassive measures:time-of-use tariffs,vehicle-based charging time delaysCo-ordinate charging station deployment in areas beneficial to the gridForecasting of EV availability,electricity prices,VRE generation and grid constraintsData collection of travel

311、and charging patternsBattery state-of-health measurementsGrid code definition for V2GReal-time tariffsPHASE 2:Flexible EV load noticeable with low flexibility demandDistinct variability observed caused by EV charging but demand for flexibility is low enough that simple flexibility measures would suf

312、fice.PHASE 3:Flexible EV load is significant with high flexibility demandDemand for flexibility is high,matching the availability of flexible EV load and paving the way for aggregated smart charging.PHASE 4:Flexible EV load is highly available with high flexibility demandHigh flexibility demand alon

313、g with highly available flexible EV load can provide energy back to the system in periods of deficit.Charging strategyTechnology requirementsSystem operationsRegulation and market designGrid Integration of Electric Vehicles 4.Improve planning practices A manual for policy makers PAGE|54 I EA.CC BY 4

314、.0.4.Improve planning practices 4.1 Conduct proactive grid planning The typical process where grid operators respond to connection requests,in this case from EVSEs,can delay the rapid uptake of EVs.In some cases,connection requests can take from 6 months to over a year.Policy makers can streamline t

315、he interconnection process to help accelerate this process.As the number of EVs increases,the grid will eventually need to be reinforced and expanded.Reinforcing the grid to accommodate new load can take years for permitting and construction and can thereby slow down the electrification process.Addi

316、tional new charging points can utilise the existing network.In many cases,however,fast-charging stations may require a new grid connection and grid reinforcement where the existing network capacity is constrained.The connection process from request to construction approval can be a lengthy procedure

317、.Hence,proactively planning the grid can help anticipate the connection requests.Streamline interconnection processes One way to streamline the process is to mandate time windows to respond to connection requests.For example,in the Netherlands,network operators are required to respond to connection

318、requests within 18 weeks for capacities less than 10 MVA.Standardising interconnection procedures and publishing them can help inform the project planning and delivery of charging infrastructure.Another tool can be to mandate the publication of hosting capacity maps.Hosting capacity analyses help pr

319、ovide grid transparency and align transport planning.The analyses are not exclusive to EV charging but can also be done for other distributed energy resources,such as rooftop PV.Support capacity building for distribution companies Modelling the uptake of distributed energy resources requires planner

320、s to be more sophisticated as penetration levels increase.Typical top-down planning approaches,such as econometric models or Bass diffusion models,may be simple to execute and useful at larger scales,but they may fail to account for outliers and exceptions in the distribution system areas.Meanwhile,

321、bottom-up approaches,such as activity-based or agent-based modelling,can reflect details down to EV adoption at the household level but are computationally intensive.California approaches this modelling challenge by mixing top-down models with higher spatial precision as a compromise,whereas the Net

322、herlands forecasts EV adoption at the neighbourhood level and updates it every 2 years.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 4.Improve planning practices A manual for policy makers PAGE|55 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Common challenges include a lack of capacity of the utility staff or a lack of resources to focu

323、s on planning and modelling.These challenges have been identified in the United States but are common around the world.Increasing the regulated revenue linked to improving the modelling and analytical capabilities of the distribution companies can help address this situation.The additional budget ca

324、n allow the companies to recruit or train staff to develop the required capabilities.It can also provide them with the resources to collaborate with mobility planners who may already have modelling expertise.13 Provide targets and regulatory incentives for achieving electric mobility Government targ

325、ets on EV adoption can help form the basis of planning by distribution and transmission companies and consequently aid regulatory decisions.In France,for example,the Mobility Orientation Law(Loi dorientation des mobilits)provides distribution companies with the ability to conduct medium-term plannin

326、g on EV charging based on the governments targets for vehicle electrification.Moreover,providing incentives or setting performance benchmarks tied to electric mobility and the overall energy transition can also be an option.Distribution companies in the United States identified that a lack of perfor

327、mance incentives for measuring support for transport electrification is one of the main barriers to proactive planning.Providing incentives through regulatory design or setting performance benchmarks based on the speed of connection of distributed energy resources can help forge proactive planning.4

328、.2 Reflect the full value of EV charging Power sector planning is the process by which a selected entity,usually the system operator,outlines feasible options to meet the future long-term needs for electricity while working towards stated policy goals for climate and energy.Long-term plans may fail

329、to account for new technologies and their flexible capabilities,thereby leading to additional infrastructure costs.For example,modelling shows that 15%EV penetration in 2030 in a representative utility area could require transmission and distribution investments of EUR 5 800 per EV.These investments

330、 could be reduced to EUR 1 700 per EV if smart charging were considered.In Germany,the smart charging of 30 million EVs could reduce cumulative distribution network investments between 2019 and 2050 from EUR 80 billion to EUR 54 billion a 33%reduction.Hence,reflecting the full value of EV charging c

331、an help power systems be more cost-effective.13 Mobility planners may use several planning models with optimisation goals such as minimising infrastructure costs,maximising the number of EVs recharged or maximising charger utilisation.More advanced models,like POLARIS in the United States,combine ac

332、tivity-based modelling,which can cover EV uptake,charging location and transport mode choices.Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles 4.Improve planning practices A manual for policy makers PAGE|56 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Revisit planning criteria for grid expansions Traditional grid expansion planning involve

333、s forecasts of the peak load and the subsequent build-up of lines,transformers and substations to provide the capacity to match that peak load.Investing instead in other alternatives,such as energy efficiency measures and demand-side flexibility programmes,to substitute for physical capacity can sometimes be more cost-effective.Case studies in the United States have shown that an average load redu