1、XWorking Time and Work-Life Balance Around the WorldXWorking Time and Work-Life Balance Around the WorldCopyright International Labour Organization 2022 First published 2022Publications of the International Labour Organization(ILO)enjoy copyright under Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Conventio

2、n.Nevertheless,short excerpts from them may be reproduced without authorization,on condition that the source is indicated.For rights of reproduction or translation,application should be made to ILO Publishing(Rights and Licensing),International Labour Office,CH-1211 Geneva 22,Switzerland,or by email

3、:rightsilo.org.The ILO welcomes such applications.Libraries,institutions and other users registered with a reproduction rights organization may make copies in accordance with the licences issued to them for this purpose.Visit www.ifrro.org to find the reproduction rights organization in your country

4、.Working time and work-life balance around the world.Geneva:International Labour Office,2022ISBN 978-92-2-037941-7(print),ISBN 978-92-2-037891-5(web PDF)The designations employed in ILO publications,which are in conformity with United Nations practice,and the presentation of material therein do not

5、imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the ILO concerning the legal status of any country,area or territory or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles,studies and other contributions rests

6、solely with their authors,and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the ILO of the opinions expressed in them.Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the ILO,and any failure to mention a particular firm,commercial product or p

7、rocess is not a sign of disapproval.Information on ILO publications and digital products can be found at:www.ilo.org/publns.Produced by the Document and Publications Production,Printing and Distribution Unit(PRODOC)of the ILO.Graphic and typographic design,layout and composition,printing,electronic

8、publishing and distribution.PRODOC endeavours to use paper sourced from forests managed in an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible manner.Code:CHD-PMSERVXPrefaceThe number of hours worked,the way in which they are organized,and the availability of rest periods can significantly affec

9、t not only the quality of work,but also life outside the workplace.Working hours and the organization of work and rest periods can have a profound influence on the physical and mental health and well-being of workers,their safety at work and during the transit from their homes,and their earnings.Wor

10、king time also has significant implications for enterprises in terms of their performance,productivity,and competitiveness.Decisions on working time issues can also have repercussions for the broader health of the economy,the competitiveness of industry,levels of employment and unemployment,the need

11、 for transport and other facilities,and the organization of public services.Working time,through measures such as short-time work/work sharing measures and flexible working hours are key tools that can be used to counter the threats posed by economic crises,while telework can reduce the social and e

12、conomic impact of pandemics such as COVID-19.Therefore,it is not surprising that working time issues in one form or another are at the heart of most labour market reforms and evolutions taking place in the world today.Because of its centrality,addressing working time is also one of the oldest concer

13、ns of social partners in addressing labour policy and regulation.The importance placed on working time issues informed the ILO Constitution.Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles,on which the ILO Constitution is based,specifically recognized that the regulation of hours of work,including the establis

14、hment of a maximum working day and week,as among the measures that were urgently needed for the improvement of the conditions of labour prevailing at the time.This also echoed one of the demands of the labour movement at the dawn of the twentieth century.Conscious of the urgency of addressing the is

15、sue of very long hours of work,the International Labour Conference established the first international labour standard ever adopted,the Hours of Work(Industry)Convention,1919(No.1),which enshrined the eight-hour workday as an international norm.Since that time,working time has remained an important

16、focus of the ILOs work;indeed,one might even think of working time as a kind of“bridge”between the world of work at the time of the ILOs founding and the fast-paced world of work in the 21st Century.This ILO global report on working time focuses on the actual number of hours of work,working-time arr

17、angements,and their implications for worklife balance.It includes a range of statistics never before produced concerning the number of hours of work,both the situation as it existed immediately before the COVID-19 pandemic and also how it evolved during the pandemic.It then turns to the other half o

18、f the working-time equation,working time arrangements(which are also called work schedules),and reviews the most prominent types of working time arrangements that currently exist,such as shift work,part-time work and flexitime arrangements,and their effects on workers worklife balance.Next,an in-dep

19、th analysis of the matches and mismatches between workers actual hours of work and their preferred hours of work,as well as the effects of such matches and mismatches on worklife balance is provided.The report also reviews and analyses the working time-related crisis response measures deployed by go

20、vernments and enterprises to keep organizations functioning and workers employed during the COVID-19 pandemic,such as work-sharing or short-time work schemes and home-based telework.Finally,the report summarizes the main conclusions of all the previous chapters and considers their implications for b

21、oth public policies and enterprise policies regarding working time and worklife balance.At a time when digital transformation in the world of work has a profound influence on working time and work organization,I trust that this report will be a useful reference tool for practitioners and decision-ma

22、kers around the world.I also hope that it will encourage further initiatives toward combining the number of hours worked,the way they are organised,and rest periods in a manner that will improve the living and working conditions of human beings and their capacity to exercise greater choice and contr

23、ol over when they work.Philippe MarcadentBranch Chief INWORKiiiXContentsPreface iiiAcknowledgementsix1.Introduction11.1 The importance of work-life balance in the world of work 11.2 The contents of this report 32.Working-time patterns and developments around the world72.1.Introduction72.2 Some longi

24、tudinal trends in the number of hours of work 82.3 Average hours of work 11 2.3.1 Long hours of work 112.3.2 Long working hours by employment status 152.3.3 Long working hours by economic sector and occupation 172.3.4 Evolution of long hours of work during the COVID-19 pandemic 202.3.5 Short hours o

25、f work,very short hours,and time-related underemployment 222.3.6 Short and very short working hours by employment status 282.3.7 Short and very short working hours by economic sector and occupation 322.3.8 Evolution of short(part-time)hours of work during the COVID-19 pandemic 342.4 The unique situa

26、tion of working hours in the informal economy 412.5 Conclusion 482.6 References 493.Working time arrangements and their effects on work-life balance513.1 The standard workweek513.2 Shift work(including night and weekend work)523.3 Part-time work 56 3.3.1 The effects of part-time work on worklife bal

27、ance 583.3.2 Very short hours of work and“on-call”working-time arrangements 59 3.3.3 The effects of on-call work on worklife balance 613.4 Flextime,including time-banking arrangements 62 3.4.1 Effects on worklife balance 643.5 Compressed workweeks 65 3.5.1 Effects on worklife balance 653.6 Hours-ave

28、raging schemes,including annualized hours 65 3.6.1 Effects on worklife balance 663.7.Conclusion 673.8 References 68vXContents4.Working-time matches and mismatches between workers preferred and actual hours of work 73 4.1 Data and measures 74 4.2 Working time mismatches around the globe:the recent“st

29、ate of play”74 4.2.1 Objective measures:underemployment and overemployment 75 4.2.2 Subjective measures:underemployment and overemployment 85 4.2.3 Gender differences in mismatches 92 4.2.4 Occupational skills and mismatches 93 4.2.5 Working time mismatches and their effects on work-life balance 96

30、4.3 The effects of working time mismatches on worker well-being 99 4.3.1 Life and job satisfaction 99 4.3.2 Physical health 99 4.3.3 Mental health 100 4.3.4 Effects of hours mismatches on employers:productivity,performance and retention 100 4.4 Conclusion 101 4.5 References 102 4.6 Appendix 1055.Wor

31、king time-related crisis response measures 109 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 The use of working time measures as crisis response 111 5.3 Working time reduction and job retention 115 5.3.1 Relevance of working-time reduction 115 5.3.2 The financial crisis as a model 116 5.3.3 Regulation of job retention d

32、uring the COVID-19 crisis 117 5.3.4 Job-retention provisions in practice 119 5.3.5 Working-time reductions compared 121 5.4 Use of working-time flexibility measures during the COVID-19 crisis 125 5.4.1 Examples of the use of short-term oriented working time-related flexibility instruments during the

33、 COVID-19 crisis 128 5.4.2 Examples for the use of life-phase instruments of working-time flexibility 129 5.5 Home-based telework(home office)131 5.6 Conclusion 134 5.7 References 137Working time and work-life balance around the worldvi6.Conclusions and implications for policy 141 6.1 Main conclusio

34、ns of the report 141 6.2 Implications for public policies and enterprise/organizational policies 143 6.2.1 Public policies(national and sectoral levels)143 6.2.2 Enterprise/organizational policies 147 6.2.3 Conclusion 149 6.3 References 150viiXAcknowledgementsWorking Time and Work-Life Balance Aroun

35、d the World is the product of a broad collaborative effort among many different people,all of whom made important contributions to this report.The design,development,and production of this report was managed by Jon C.Messenger,the Team Leader of the Working Conditions Group and the ILOs lead technic

36、al expert on working time.He also researched and prepared Chapters 1,2,3,and 6 of the report.Florence Bonnet,a quantitative analyst,compiled and prepared the vast majority of the statistical data presented throughout this report,as well as co-authoring Chapter 4.The other co-author of Chapter 4 is P

37、rofessor Lonnie Golden of the Pennsylvania State University-Abington,USA,who began working on the analysis presented in this chapter during his time as a Visiting Scholar at the ILO.Dr.Angelika Kmmerling and Dr.Thomas Haipeter,both of the Institut Arbeit und Qualifikation(IAQ)at the University of Du

38、isburg-Essen,Germany,are the co-authors of Chapter 5 of the report.Other contributors to this report included:Sergei Suarez Dillon Soares,a quantitative analyst,who prepared the section on the evolution of short(part-time)hours of work during the COVID-19 pandemic in Chapter 2,and Joseph Humphreys,a

39、 former INWORK staffer,who prepared the first draft of Chapter 3 of the report and also three text boxes presented in different chapters of the report.Last,but certainly not least,Anne Drougard,Claire Piper,Michael Rose,an external editor,and our ILO colleagues in PRODOC provided essential administr

40、ative support with editing,formatting,layout,and quality control in the preparation and production of the final version of this report.The authors would also like to acknowledge Philippe Marcadent,Chief of the Inclusive Labour Markets,Labour Relations,and Working Conditions Branch,for his invaluable

41、 guidance,support,and flexibility throughout the long and often difficult process of preparing this report.ixX1.1.IntroductionThe ILOs Declaration of Philadelphia boldly asserts that“labour is not a commodity”(Art.I(a).While on the surface this statement may appear to be rather idealistic,it simply

42、recognizes the obvious fact that unlike tradable commodities(goods and services),workers are people with hopes,dreams and aspirations for themselves and their families.The Declaration of Philadelphia goes on to affirm that“all human beings,irrespective of race,creed or sex,have the right to pursue b

43、oth their material well-being and their spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity,of economic security,and equal opportunity”(Art.II(a).In other words,paid work is about more than just meeting workers material needs;they also need to have the opportunity to fulfill their personal li

44、ves as well.In todays world,we might say that this means that workers need to have a healthy worklife balance.Working time has been at the heart of the work of the ILO since its origins,as demonstrated by the fact that the first ILO Convention the Hours of Work(Industry)Convention,1919(No.1)concerne

45、d working time.Indeed,since the dawn of the Industrial Revolution,limiting the number of hours of work has been an important issue related to the protection of workers health,including their well-being in a broader sense.The extremely long hours of work during this early period had social and health

46、 costs,leading to the movement to limit the number of hours of work first for women and children and later for all workers through the adoption of Convention No.1.Over the century that followed,working time continued to occupy a prominent place in labour and employment debates,not only the number of

47、 hours of work but also working-time arrangements or work schedules:how working hours are organized.Both aspects of working time the number of hours of work and working-time arrangements(work schedules)are key factors in determining how well workers can balance their paid work with their personal li

48、ves,including family responsibilities and other personal needs.For example,long hours of work(48 hours per week)have a negative effect on workers worklife balance,while shorter hours of work can help to facilitate that balance.Working-time arrangements that have predictable or flexible schedules can

49、 also help to facilitate a better worklife balance,while those with unpredictable schedules have the opposite effect.In summary,both the number of hours of work and working-time arrangements have an impact on workers worklife balance.1.1 The importance of work-life balance in the world of work While

50、 limiting the number of hours of work to protect workers health has been an important issue for more than a century,the emergence of worklife balance as a significant social goal came much later,stemming from policymakers increased awareness of the difficulty workers faced in reconciling their perso

51、nal lives with their paid work.This awareness first arose from the decline of the“male breadwinner model”and the subsequent mass entry of women into the labour market,which led to a“dual earner model”in which all adults are assumed to be in paid work.The reduction in womens economic dependence on me

52、n was a positive development but it also brought new challenges,since many women now faced a“double shift”:a first shift of paid labour and a second shift of unpaid labour performed in the home(Hochschild and Machung 1989).This worklife conflict persists today,particularly for women,who continue to

53、perform the majority of household and care tasks in all countries(ILO 2018).However,the conflict is also faced by men,perhaps increasingly so due to their slow but persistent catch-up in terms of family involvement(Harrington et al.2016;Knop and Brewster 2016).In addition,demographic shifts associat

54、ed with an ageing population and the burden of providing care for elderly family members have further intensified worklife conflict.Aside from the individual impacts of this development,such as stress,enterprises experience negative externalities from workfamily conflict,including lower 1productivit

55、y levels and absenteeism related to workers who struggle to care for their family members(Boushey 2016;Pitsenberger 2006).The coronavirus disease(COVID-19)pandemic has reinforced these concerns,at least in more developed countries.This has led many workers to seek new jobs that provide them with gre

56、ater flexibility,in particular the ability to work remotely,and therefore the opportunity to achieve a better balance between their paid work and their personal lives,including more time for their families and more time to devote to their own personal interests as well.Improving and facilitating wor

57、klife balance has therefore become an increasing focus for policymakers in recent decades.Better worklife balance is associated with a multitude of benefits for employees.For one,it has been empirically shown to facilitate increased job satisfaction and greater feelings of job security among those w

58、orkers who report high levels of worklife balance(Burke and Greenglass 1999;Kossek and Ozeki 1998;Chimote and Srivastava 2013).A reasonable worklife balance also has significant positive effects on the psychological and physical health of employees.For example,an empirical analysis based on data fro

59、m the United States National Study of the Changing Workforce(a nationally representative sample of working adults)found that worklife balance policies reduce stress levels(Halpern 2005).On the other hand,if workers are not able to achieve a reasonable worklife balance,they may experience negative he

60、alth consequences and working hours are an important factor influencing workers worklife balance.For example,long hours of work per week(more than 48)are associated with reduced levels of reported worklife balance and increased workfamily conflict,particularly if such long hours are involuntary(Faga

61、n et al.2012).Indeed,Fagan et al.reviewed a large number of studies that have identified long hours of work as an important predictor of worklife conflict and concluded that workfamily incompatibility,less engagement in community and civic life and lower fertility rates are all common outcomes of lo

62、ng hours of work.Moreover,such worklife imbalances may also reduce mental well-being,resulting in stress,anxiety and lower job and life satisfaction.For example,workers reporting substantial workfamily conflict have been found to face higher levels of depression and poorer physical health and to be

63、more likely to engage in heavy alcohol use(Frone,Russell and Barnes 1996).Overall,a healthy worklife balance has been shown to have a positive effect on the experience of work and is effective in preventing negative psychological and physiological health effects(Chimote and Srivastava 2013).A health

64、y worklife balance among employees is also beneficial for employers and provides a number of positive effects for enterprises.Companies that implement worklife balance policies benefit from increased retention of current employees,improved recruitment,lower rates of absenteeism and higher productivi

65、ty.For example,a study of 45 companies across North America that facilitated worklife balance found the presence of such policies to be associated with increased employee retention and improved recruitment(Williams et al.2000)and similar findings were reported in a number of other studies(Maxwell et

66、 al.2007;Porter and Ayman 2010).In a longitudinal assessment of the implementation of flexible scheduling in a public service organization,Dalton and Mesch(1990)found that absenteeism decreased significantly among employees in the experimental group but not the control group.These findings are suppo

67、rted by a meta-analysis of studies analysing flexible working schedules,which identified a significant negative relationship between the availability of flexible schedules and absenteeism(Baltes et al.1999).Moreover,enterprises that implement polices focused on cultivating worklife balance report hi

68、gher levels of productivity as well(Bond and Galinsky 2006).More specifically,a number of studies reveal a link between flexible work arrangements and higher levels of self-reported focus,concentration and motivation(Raabe 1996;Williams et al.2000).Similarly,a case study of chartered accountants(Lew

69、is 1997)found that working reduced hours on a voluntary basis resulted in greater self-reported productivity and efficiency.Finally,employers also benefit from employees that are more loyal:policies that empower workers to organize their hours based on their needs are linked to greater job satisfact

70、ion,loyalty and organizational commitment(Williams et al.2000;Batt and Valcour 2003).An examination of 3,381 American workers revealed that flexible working time policies and childcare assistance were associated with employee loyalty for those with family responsibilities Working time and work-life

71、balance around the world2(Roehling,Roehling and Moen 2001).The global teleworking experiment unleashed as a crisis response measure to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent post-pandemic“great resignation”phenomenon yielded new,powerful evidence that providing workers with greater flexi

72、bility in deciding when,where and how they work results in positive business outcomes,including improved productivity,and that conversely,restricting such flexibility results in substantial costs,including increased turnover.Therefore,there is a substantial amount of evidence that worklife balance p

73、olicies provide significant benefits to enterprises,supporting the argument that such policies are a“win-win”for both employers and employees.1.2 The contents of this reportThis first-ever ILO global report on working time focuses on the actual number of hours of work,working-time arrangements(work

74、schedules)and their implications for worklife balance.However,it must be emphasized that this report does not cover national laws related to working time,which were comprehensively reviewed by the ILO in 2018.1 This report begins by reviewing the major global patterns and developments concerning the

75、 number of hours of work,both the situation as it existed immediately before the COVID-19 pandemic and also how it evolved during the pandemic(Ch.2).It then turns to the other half of the working-time equation,working-time arrangements(work schedules),in order to review the different types of workin

76、g-time arrangements(work schedules),such as shift work,part-time work and flextime arrangements,and their effects on workers worklife balance(Ch.3).Next,the report presents an in-depth analysis of both matches and mismatches between workers actual hours of work and their preferred hours of work,as w

77、ell as the effects of such matches and mismatches on worklife balance,based on a truly unique(pre-crisis)dataset,the International Social Survey Programme(ISSP)Work Orientations IV Module(2015)the only source of internationally comparable data on workers preferences regarding their hours of work tha

78、t extends beyond Europe(Ch.4).The report then drills down more deeply into working-time developments during the pandemic by reviewing the working time-related crisis response measures deployed by governments and enterprises to keep organizations functioning and workers employed,such as work-sharing

79、or short-time work schemes which had already proved their worth during the last economic crisis,the Great Recession and also home-based telework(Ch.5).Finally,the report summarizes the main conclusions of Chapters 2 to 5 and considers their implications for both public policies and enterprise polici

80、es on working time and worklife balance(Ch.6).1 This report does not cover national laws related to working time because legal developments regarding working time were comprehensively reviewed in the General Survey concerning working-time instruments-Ensuring decent working time for the future in 20

81、18.3XReferencesBaltes,Boris B.,et al.1999.“Flexible and Compressed Workweek Schedules:A Meta-Analysis of Their Effects on Work-Related Criteria”.Journal of Applied Psychology,84(4):496 513.Batt,Rosemary,and Monique Valcour.2003.“Human Resource Practices as Predictors of Work Family Outcomes and Empl

82、oyee Turnover”.Industrial Relations:A Journal of Economy&Society 42(2):189220.Bond,James T.,and Ellen Galinsky.2006.How Can Employers Increase Productivity and Retention of Entry-level,Hourly Employees?Research Brief No.2.Families and Work Institute.Boushey,Heather.2016.Finding Time:The Economics of

83、 Worklife Conflict.Harvard University Press.Burke,Ronald J.,and Esther Greenglass.1999.“Work-Life Congruence and WorkLife Concerns among Nursing Staff”.Canadian Journal of Nursing Leadership 12(2):2129.Chimote,Niraj Kishore,and Virendra Srivastava.2013.“WorkLife Balance Benefits:From the Perspective

84、 of Organizations and Employees”.IUP Journal of Management Research 12(1):6273.Dalton,Dan R.,and Debra J.Mesch.1990.“The Impact of Flexible Scheduling on Employee Attendance and Turnover”.Administrative Science Quarterly 35:370387.Fagan,Colette,et al.2012.The Influence of Working Time Arrangements o

85、n WorkLife Integration of“Balance”:A Review of the Evidence.Conditions of Work and Employment Series No.32.ILO.Frone,Michael R.,Marcia Russell and Grace M.Barnes.1996.“WorkFamily Conflict,Gender,and Health-Related Outcomes:A Study of Employed Parents in Two Community Samples”.Journal of Occupational

86、 Health Psychology 1(1):5769.Harrington,Brad,et al.2016.The New Millennial Dad:Understanding the Paradox of Todays Fathers.Boston College Center for Work&Family.Hochschild,Arlie,and Anne Machung.1989.The Second Shift:Working Parents and the Revolution at Home.Penguin Books.ILO.2018.Care Work and Car

87、e Jobs for the Future of Decent Work.Knop,Brian,and Karin L.Brewster.2016.“Family Flexibility in Response to Economic Conditions:Fathers Involvement in ChildCare Tasks”.Journal of Marriage and Family 78(2):283292.Kossek,Ellen Ernst,and Cynthia Ozeki.1998.“WorkFamily Conflict,Policies,and the Job-Lif

88、e Satisfaction Relationship:A Review and Directions for Organizational BehaviorHuman Resources Research”.Journal of Applied Psychology 83(2):139149.Krausz,Moshe,and Nechama Freibach.1983.“Effects of Flexible Working Time for Employed Women Upon Satisfaction,Strains,and Absenteeism”.Journal of Occupa

89、tional Psychology 56(2):155159.Lewis,Suzan.1997.“Family Friendly Employment Policies:A Route to Changing Organizational Culture or Playing About at the Margins?”.Gender,Work and Organization 4(1):1324.Maxwell,Gill,et al.2007.“The Incidence and Impact of Flexible Work Arrangements in Smaller Business

90、es”.Journal of Employee Relations 29(2):138161.Pitsenberger,D.Jeanne.2006.“Juggling Work and Elder Caregiving:WorkLife Balance for Aging American Workers”.AAOHN Journal 54(4):181185.Working time and work-life balance around the world4Porter,Stacey,and Roya Ayman.2010.“Work Flexibility as a Mediator

91、of the Relationship between WorkFamily Conflict and Intention to Quit”.Journal of Management&Organization 16(3):411424.Raabe,Phyllis Hutton.1996.“Constructing Pluralistic Work and Career Arrangements”.In The WorkLife Challenge:Rethinking Employment,edited by Suzan Lewis and Jeremy Lewis(Sage Publica

92、tions),128141.Roehling,Patrica V.,Mark V.Roehling and Phyllis Moen.2001.“The Relationship between Work-Life Policies and Practices and Employee Loyalty:A Life Course Perspective”.Journal of Family and Economic Issues 22(2):141170.Williams,Margaret L.,et al.2000.“Outcomes of Reduced Load Work Arrange

93、ments at Managerial and Professional Levels:Perspectives from Multiple Stakeholders”.Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management,Toronto,Canada.5X2.2.Working-time patterns and developments around the world2.1 IntroductionThe topic of working time can be divided into two main c

94、omponents:(a)the number of hours of work;and(b)the organization of those working hours,which is more commonly known either as working-time arrangements or work schedules.This chapter will focus on important patterns and developments with regard to hours of work that is,the length or volume of workin

95、g hours in both the formal economy and the informal economy.The most prominent feature of working-time patterns and developments in todays world is the uneven distribution of hours of work.Because the distribution of hours of workhours does not cluster around the mean(that is,the legal working week)

96、in many countries,working-time statistics that focus exclusively on average hours of work can be misleading indicators of the typical hours of work hours in a particular region,country,sector or occupation.While the traditional concern regarding regular long hours of work and their effects dating fr

97、om the dawn of the Industrial Revolution remains a problem in some parts of the world and among some groups of workers,the phenomenon of short hours of work often referred to as“part-time work”has emerged as an issue in other parts of the world and among other groups of workers.Short(part-time)hours

98、 of work can potentially benefit worklife balance because they provide workers with more time for their personal lives,including their family responsibilities.However,short hours of work can potentially be a concern,particularly for those workers with very short hours of work,because they are associ

99、ated with time-related underemployment2 and limited or no benefit entitlements(for example,no social security benefits,no paid leave)and are often associated with unpredictable work schedules as well.Both long and short hours of work can present challenges for employers,too:in the case of long hours

100、 due to declining marginal productivity and in the case of short hours because part-time work can be more difficult to manage if business operations are based on a full-time logic(for example,scheduling shift work).This chapter will briefly discuss average hours of work,but it will focus primarily o

101、n both long and short hours of work,as well as the unique situation of hours of work in the informal economy.2 The time-related underemployment rate(TRU)is a measure of labour underutilization that provides information on the share of employed persons who are willing and available to increase their

102、working time(for production within the SNA production boundary)and who have worked fewer hours than a specified time threshold during the reference period.TRU signals inadequate employment(ILO 2008).72.2 Some Longitudinal Trends in Hours of WorkBefore reviewing the current situation regarding hours

103、of work,it is interesting to briefly consider how we got to where we are at the present time.The two figures below(Figures 1 and 2)show longitudinal trends in average annual hours of work per workers in selected developed countries and in selected developing countries in comparison with key develope

104、d countries.The two figures are dramatically different.Figure 1 shows a clear downward trend from the late 1800s through most of the 20th Century in all the developed countries shown in this graph,before flattening out towards the end of the century(with the notable exception of Germany)or even turn

105、ing slightly upwards(e.g.,Sweden,the United States).In stark contrast,Figure 2,which begins much later(the 1950s)due to the lack of available data on working hours in developing countries prior to that time,shows much longer hours in those developing countries shown in the graph(Brazil,China,and Ind

106、ia),with only one of them showing a downward trend(Brazil)which began in the 1970s.In fact,the average annual working hours per worker actually increased in China as that country industrialized before levelling off in the early 21st Century.Average annual working hours increased even more dramatical

107、ly in the Republic of Korea as that country industrialized,before beginning to decline in the 1990s as Korea became fully developed and declining even more dramatically in the 2000s with the adoption of a 40-hour standard workweek in that country,not including overtime(see the text box below for det

108、ails).X Figure 1.Longitudinal trends in average annual working hours in selected developed countriesSource:Huberman&Minns(2007)and PWT 9.1(2019)Note:We plot the data from Huberman&Minns(2007)and extend coverage using an updated vintage of PWT,which uses the same underlying source.Comparisons between

109、 countries are limited due to differences in measurement.3,000 h2,500 h1,500 h500 h0 h1,000 h2,000 h1870 0020002017AustraliaUnited StatesSwedenBelgiumFranceGermanyUnited KingdomAnnual working hours per workerAverage working hours per worker over an entire year.Before 1950 the d

110、ata corresponds only to full-time production workers(non-agricultural activities).Starting in 1950 estimates cover total hours worked in the economy as measured primarily from National Accounts data.Working time and work-life balance around the world8X Figure 2.Longitudinal trends in average annual

111、hours of work,selected developing countries versus two key developed countriesSource:Huberman&Minns(2007)and PWT 9.1(2019)Note:We plot the data from Huberman&Minns(2007)and extend coverage using an updated vintage of PWT,which uses the same underlying source.Comparisons between countries are limited

112、 due to differences in measurement.X Box 1.Working-time reduction in the Republic of Korea Introduction of five-day week The Republic of Korea,a country with historically long hours of work,introduced a five-day working policy in 2004 through its revised Labour Standards Act,which effectively made S

113、aturday an official non-workday,set an 8-hour normal workday and reduced the standard legal workweek from 44 to 40 hours.Prior to that labour law reform,the average annual hours of work per employed person in the Republic of Korea was 2,392,which was by far the longest in any OECD country(ILO 2016a)

114、.In 2019,prior to the COVID-19 pandemic,the figure was 1,967 hours per year(OECD.Stat 2021).The labour law reform aimed to address the negative effects associated with excessively long hours of work.Republic of KoreaBrazilIndiaChinaGermanyUnited StatesAnnual working hours per workerAverage working h

115、ours per worker over an entire year.Before 1950 the data corresponds only to full-time production workers(non-agricultural activities).Starting in 1950 estimates cover total hours worked in the economy as measured from primarily National Accounts data.2,500 h1,500 h500 h0 h1,000 h2,000 h0

116、0201020179X Box 1.Working-time reduction in the Republic of Korea(continued)Implementation A phased approach was used to implement the workweek reduction.In 2004,all organizations with 1,000 employees or more were required to implement a 40-hour workweek,followed in 2005 by organizations

117、with 300 employees or more(Rudolf 2014).In 2005,organizations with 100 or more employees implemented the 40-hour workweek,followed by organizations with 50 or more employees in 2007,organizations with 20 or more employees in 2008 and organizations with 520 employees in 2011.Organizations with less t

118、han 5 employees were excluded.The Government encouraged the public sector to take the lead in this initiative and share best practices on the implementation of the working-time reduction.For example,the central and local governments phased in the new workweek by giving employees every other Saturday

119、 off for one year and then fully implementing the five-day week.The 40-hour workweek law allowed for the workday to be extended to 12 hours as long as there was agreement between employee and employer.To help employers make the transition,the first four hours of overtime were charged at a 25 per cen

120、t extra hourly wage and thereafter a 50 per cent extra hourly wage(Republic of Korea 2009).After three years,all overtime was set at 50 per cent of the employees wage for all extra hours above 40 hours per week.Also,if flexible working-time arrangements were agreed between the parties,the overtime p

121、remium could be avoided.For example,if an employee worked 48 hours in a given week,no overtime pay would be paid for that week as long as the number of hours they worked per week averaged 40 over a three-month period including that week.Economic outcomes In 2012,according to the Korea Labour and Soc

122、iety Institute,total hours of work decreased from 1.87 billion to 1.64 billion and jobs steadily increased,rising by 12.3 per cent from 21.57 million in 2001 to 24.24 million in 2011(Yi-Guen 2012).The estimated effect on actual hours of work was a decline in the number of hours of work per week per

123、person,from 50.4 in 2001 to 43.9 in 2011(Yi-Guen 2012).In addition,for every 10 per cent decrease in hours of work per week there was a corresponding 9.7 per cent increase in employment,which is higher than the 56 per cent increase typically associated with working-time reductions(Yi-Guen 2012).Alth

124、ough as of 2012 more than half(53.5 per cent)of Korean employees had a standard five-day workweek,the remaining employees are members of organizations with five employees or less and therefore they are still under the legal standard of a 44-hour workweek.Working time and work-life balance around the

125、 world102.3.Average number of hours of workThe classical statistical indicator regarding working time is the average number of hours of work per week either actual hours or usual hours in the main job.3 We begin our global overview of hours of work here.X Figure 3a.Average hours of work per week,by

126、sex and geographic region(total employment,2019,based on data from 160 countries 4)As shown in figure 3a,the average number of hours of work per week in paid work globally was approximately 43.9 hours prior to the COVID-19 pandemic(2019 or latest available year).Average hours of work per week were c

127、learly the longest in Asia and the Pacific(47.4),particularly in Southern Asia(49.0)and Eastern Asia(48.8).In contrast,the shortest average hours of work per week are found in North America(37.9)and Europe and Central Asia(38.4),particularly in Northern,Southern and Western Europe(37.2).The other re

128、gions of the world lie somewhere between these two extremes.From a gender perspective,the average number of hours of paid work per week were somewhat higher for men than for women,at 46.2 versus 40.5.However,it is important to keep in mind than this gender difference in paid work does not reflect th

129、e substantially greater amount of time that women devote to unpaid household tasks and care work compared to men.3 Data on actual hours of work focuses on measuring the hours worked in a particular week(the reference week),while data on usual hours of work attempts to capture a respondents typical(u

130、sual)number of hours of work per week.The working-hours data presented in this chapter uses data on actual hours of work per week,unless otherwise specified.4 This figure and all subsequent figures in this chapter present the pre-pandemic situation regarding hours of work(2019 or latest year availab

131、le),based on survey data from 160 countries that represents 95 per cent of total global employment.For the classification of countries/territories by income group,see Annex 1;for the classification of countries/territories by region,see Annex 2;for the detailed sources of national data,see Annex 3;a

132、nd for additional details on the method-ology used to calculate the regional and global estimates presented in this chapter,see Annex 4.38.839.239.937.944.647.448.840.149.038.437.239.042.743.941.441.642.540.145.349.149.441.351.540.740.139.945.246.240.835.536.036.435.439.343.848.138.435.733.838.038.5

133、40.500AfricaAmericasLatin America and the CaribbeanNorthern AmericaArab StatesAsia and the PacificEastern AsiaSouth-Eastern Asiaand the PacificSouthern AsiaEurope and Central AsiaNorthern,Southernand Western EuropeEastern EuropeCentral and Western AsiaWorldAverage actual hours of work per

134、 weekTotalMenWomen11X Figure 3b.Average hours of work per week,by sex and economic sector (total employment,2019)From a sectoral perspective,figure 3b shows that globally,the sectors with the longest weekly hours of work in 2019 were wholesale and retail trade(49.1 hours),transport and communication

135、s(48.2 hours)and manufacturing(47.6 hours).The sectors with the shortest weekly hours of work were agriculture(37.9 hours),5 education(39.3 hours)and health services(39.8 hours),although it seems likely that the extreme demands on the health services sector arising from the COVID-19 pandemic would h

136、ave substantially increased average hours of work in that sector.X Figure 3c.Average hours of work per week,by sex and major occupational group (total employment,2019)5 Measuring actual hours of work in the agriculture sector is notoriously difficult due to the highly seasonal nature of such work.Th

137、erefore,the reference week used for making the measurement is critical and it is not possible to have much confidence that the average hours for any particular week is truly representative of the entire year.49.148.247.646.746.444.443.943.543.242.642.039.839.337.951.349.449.249.947.344.945.045.445.6

138、44.246.043.141.341.046.040.845.243.840.839.839.641.539.439.739.138.638.132.700Wholesale&retail tradeTransport&communicationsManufacturingAccomodation&food servicesMining andQuarryingConstructionUtilitiesFinance&insuranceReal estate&business servicesPublicadministrationOther servicesHealth

139、EducationAgricultureAverage actual hours of work per weekWorldTotalMenWomen48.247.044.843.041.240.840.240.248.549.845.644.542.942.941.842.246.744.643.237.539.139.439.037.300Plant,machineoperatorsand assemblersService andsales workers ManagersCraft and relatedtrades workersretail tradeTech

140、nicians&associatesClerical support workersProfessionalsElementary occupand skilled agri.workersAverage actual hours of work per weekWorldTotalMenWomenWorking time and work-life balance around the world12Finally,figure 3c shows that the major occupational group with the longest average hours of work

141、was plant and machine operators and assemblers,who worked 48.2 hours per week on average,closely followed by service and sales workers at 47.0 hours per week.In contrast,both professionals and workers in the elementary occupations,including skilled agricultural workers,worked an average of 40.2 hour

142、s per week.While this brief overview of average hours of work demonstrates that this particular working-time indicator is certainly useful,too many analyses of working time begin and end with this one single measure.That is a serious shortcoming because as with any measure of central tendency the es

143、timation of average weekly hours of work fails to reveal whether the distribution of working hours in a region,country,sector,occupation or other category is normally shaped or whether it is skewed;in the latter case,this could mean that workers hours of work are more likely to be outside the normal

144、 range in the direction of either long hours or short(part-time)hours.That is the primary reason why the remainder of this chapter focuses on the distribution of working hours outside the normal range that is,long hours and short(part-time)hours.In addition,there are also other sound reasons for thi

145、s focus,such as the fact that regular long working hours are associated with a variety of negative effects,such as those on occupational safety and health,worklife balance and productivity,as well as the fact that very short hours of work(less than 15/20 hours per week)are associated with time-relat

146、ed underemployment(for an in-depth discussion of the effects of working hours on different outcomes of interest,see Messenger 2018).2.3.1 Long hours of workLong hours of work can be defined as regularly working more than 48 hours per week.This definition is consistent with the relevant international

147、 labour standards,Convention No.1 and the Hours of Work(Commerce and Offices)Convention,1930(No.30),which limit normal working hours to 48 per week.It is also consistent with the relevant literature on the negative effects of long hours of work on occupational safety and health,worklife balance,and

148、productivity and performance(for an in-depth discussion of the effects of hours of work on these outcomes,see Messenger 2018).X Figure 4a.Workers working more than 48 hours per week,by sex,major geographic region and level of development(total employment,2019,in%)13.721.331.616.327.232.719.617.328.5

149、35.216.725.130.848.523.546.731.210.711.011.022.441.614.835.401020304050DevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalAfricaAmericasArab StatesAsia and the

150、PacificEurope andCentral AsiaWorld%working more than 48 hours a week TotalMenWomen13X F4b.Workers working more than 48 hours per week,by detailed geographic region(total employment,2019,in%)As shown in figures 4a and 4b,approximately one third of the global workforce(35.4 per cent)worked more than 4

151、8 hours per week in 2019 prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.The categories in figure 4a are based on countries level of economic development:developed(high-income),emerging(middle-income)or developing(low-income).The proportion of workers working such long hours is substantially higher in d

152、eveloping countries as compared with developed countries and is highest of all in emerging economies.The region with the highest proportion of workers who regularly work more than 48 hours per week is Asia and the Pacific,where nearly half of all workers(46.7 per cent)work long hours.The highest pro

153、portions of workers with such long hours of work are found in Southern Asia(57.1 per cent)and Eastern Asia(47.7 per cent).Africa has the second-highest proportion of workers with long hours of work(27.2 per cent),particularly Northern Africa(40.0 per cent),followed by the Arab States at 25.1 per cen

154、t.The region with the lowest proportion of workers with long hours of work is clearly Europe and Central Asia(11.0 per cent),particularly in Eastern Europe(4.5 per cent).In developing and emerging economies,such long hours of work are driven mainly by low hourly wages and/or a desire to maximize ear

155、nings(whether these are wages or income from self-employment),which means that workers often need to work long hours just to make ends meet(Lee,McCann and Messenger 2007;ILO 2009).The situation is very different in developed countries,particularly for certain categories of salaried employees such as

156、 professional workers and managers,who may be expected to work whatever hours are required to complete their assignments and/or may work long hours to demonstrate their commitment to the organization and thus attempt to advance their careers(Lee,McCann and Messenger 2007;ILO 2009).There is also a su

157、bstantial gender difference in the incidence of long hours of paid work.As shown in figures 4a and 4b,men are substantially more likely than women to work long hours of paid work(41.2 per cent versus 26.4 per cent).This is true in all regions of the world,with the notable exceptions of Eastern Asia

158、and South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific,where there is virtually no gender difference.However,as already noted,it is important to keep in mind than this gender difference in paid work does not reflect the substantially greater amount of time that women devote to unpaid household tasks and care work c

159、ompared to men.In fact,this higher share of womens unpaid work accounts for much of the difference between women and men in paid hours of work(ILO 2018;Eurofound 2015;Lee,McCann and Messenger 2007).4.511.613.819.525.822.926.525.140.047.757.135.40070Eastern EuropeNorthern,Southern andNorth

160、ern AmericaLatin America andthe CaribbeanSub-SaharanAfricaSouth-EasternAsia and theCentral andWestern AsiaArab StatesNorthern AfricaEastern AsiaSouthern AsiaWorld%working more than 48 hours a week TotalMenWomenWorking time and work-life balance around the world142.3.2 Long hours of work by employmen

161、t status It is particularly interesting to look at long hours of work by employment status,because there is a dramatic difference between the working-time patterns of employees and self-employed(own-account)workers(see figures 5a,5b,6a and 6b,respectively).Globally,31.1 per cent of employees regular

162、ly work more than 48 hours per week,but the proportion is much higher for self-employed workers,at 44.4 per cent.This general pattern holds across all the major geographic regions of the world,with the sole exception of Africa,where a higher proportion of employees(33.4 per cent)work long hours than

163、 self-employed workers(27.7 per cent).The main reason for this reversal in the classic pattern is the predominance of the informal economy in Africa as we will see later in this chapter.The difference in long hours of work between the two groups appears more muted in regions in which long hours of w

164、ork are prevalent,such as Asia and the Pacific,where 45.4 per cent of employees have long hours of work compared with 52.8 per cent of self-employed workers.The pattern even reverses itself in some cases,most notably in Southern Asia,where a much larger proportion of employees(70.3 per cent)than sel

165、f-employed workers(54.2 per cent)regularly work long hours.However,the general pattern of self-employed workers being more likely to have long hours of work becomes even more striking in regions where long hours of work are relatively rare.For example in Europe and Central Asia,27.7 per cent of self

166、-employed workers regularly work long hours versus a mere 7.9 per cent of employees;in other words,self-employed workers in this region are more than three times as likely as employees to have long hours of work.X Figure 5a.Employees working more than 48 hours per week,by sex,major geographic region

167、 and level of development(2019,in%)31.234.315.433.439.617.413.015.226.333.416.823.137.948.820.845.432.38.17.67.931.539.512.631.060DevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTota

168、lDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalAfricaAmericasArab States Asia and thePacificEurope andCentral AsiaWorld%working more than 48 hours a week TotalMenWomen15X Figure 5b.Employees working more than 48 hours per week,by sex and detailed geographic region(2019,in%)X Figure 6a.Self-employed(own-account)wo

169、rkers working more than 48 hours per week,by sex,major geographic region and level of development(2019,in%)3.07.913.317.121.824.632.237.723.143.670.331.0607080Eastern EuropeNorthern,Southern andNorthern AmericaLatin America andthe CaribbeanSouth-Eastern Asiaand the PacificCentral andWeste

170、rn AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaNorthern AfricaArab StatesEastern AsiaSouthern AsiaWorld%working more than 48 hours a week TotalMenWomen24.930.118.527.732.522.819.822.730.938.63.332.835.753.330.652.833.523.030.127.725.747.427.544.400DevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTota

171、lDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalAfricaAmericasArab States Asia and thePacificEurope andCentral AsiaWorld%working more than 48 hours a week TotalMenWomenWorking time and work-life balance around the world

172、16X Figure 6b.Self-employed(own-account)workers working more than 48 hours per week(2019,in%),by sex and detailed geographic region2.3.3 Long hours of work,by economic sector and occupationRounding out our review of the situation of long hours of work prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic(2019

173、),we now turn to patterns by economic sector and occupation.X Figure 7.Workers working more than 48 hours per week,by economic sector and sex (total employment,2019,in%)48.8 45.4 44.8 43.8 37.9 37.6 32.7 30.6 29.7 27.4 26.6 20.3 19.9 19.254.749.548.452.039.040.140.637.035.730.834.324.725.527.741.020

174、.739.636.226.922.227.120.419.314.418.211.716.616.00070Wholesale&retail tradeTransport&communicationsManufacturingAccomodation&food servicesConstructionMining andQuarryingOther servicesReal estate&business servicesAgricultureUtilitiesFinance&insurancePublicadministrationEducationHealth%wor

175、king more than 48 hours a week TotalMenWomen16.020.522.927.027.431.932.132.847.854.261.644.40070Eastern EuropeNorthern AmericaLatin America andthe CaribbeanSub-Saharan AfricaSouth-Eastern Asiaand the PacificNorthern,Southernand WesternCentral andWestern AsiaArab StatesNorthern AfricaSouth

176、ern AsiaEastern AsiaWorldTotalMenWomen%working more than 48 hours a week 17As shown in figure 7,the economic sector with the highest proportion of workers with long hours of work is wholesale and retail trade;globally,nearly half of all workers in this sector(48.8 per cent)regularly work more than 4

177、8 hours per week.The share of workers who work long hours also exceeds 40 per cent of the workforce in transport,storage and communications(45.4 per cent),manufacturing(44.8 per cent)and accommodation and food services(43.8 per cent).At the other end of the spectrum,the sectors in which workers are

178、least likely to regularly work long hours are public administration(20.3 per cent),education(19.9 per cent)and health services(19.2 per cent).The proportion of men with long hours of work is higher than that of women in all these sectors,particularly the transport and communications sectors,in which

179、 the proportion of men with long hours of work is more than double that of the proportion of women with long hours of work.However,if we look at the sectoral incidence of long hours of work by region,we see that the high proportion of workers with long hours of work in wholesale and retail trade is

180、primarily characteristic of one region Asia and the Pacific where nearly two thirds of the workers in this sector(64.6 per cent)work long hours,a proportion that is 20 per cent higher than in any other region(Africa has the second-highest,at 44.1 per cent).Indeed,the wholesale and retail trade secto

181、r does not have the highest proportion of workers with long hours of work in any other region of the world.For example,in the Americas it is the mining and quarrying sector(29.2 per cent),while in the Arab States it is the other services sector(36.2 per cent),primarily owing to the long hours of wor

182、k of domestic workers in that region(see box 2).X Box 2.Hours of work and domestic workersDefining domestic work According to the Domestic Workers Convention,2011(No.189)domestic work refers to“work performed in or for a household or households”and a domestic worker is“any person engaged in domestic

183、 work within an employment relationship”.If an individual only occasionally or sporadically performs domestic work,they are not a domestic worker.The literature makes a distinction between live-in and live-out domestic workers.Live-in workers reside at their employers home,whereas live-out domestic

184、workers report to their employers home in the morning and go home in the evening,and they may also work for more than one household(ILO 2011).Working-time trends in domestic work(1)Long hours of workIn a number of countries,domestic workers are excluded from the working-time regulations that establi

185、sh a standard work week,leading to long hours of work.This exclusion is justified on the basis of domestic work being unique because“the needs of household members are not always predictable”(ILO 2011).Almost half(48.9 per cent)of global domestic workers have no legal limit on their normal hours of

186、work and they are clustered in the Arab States and Asia and Pacific(ILO 2021).Live-in domestic workers are most at risk of long hours of work as they reside in their workplace and therefore can be on standby essentially 24 hours/7 days per week.Working time and work-life balance around the world18X

187、Box 2.Hours of work and domestic workers(continued)(2)Lack of clear working-time boundaries The nature of domestic work can make it difficult to distinguish between working time,periods of rest and standby time,particularly for live-in domestic workers(ILO 2021).When clear work schedules are not pro

188、vided,working time can be very unpredictable.The requirement for some domestic workers to work long hours and constantly be available for work leads to an erosion of rest periods.Therefore,it is important to regulate different periods of domestic work by classifying periods of standby as working tim

189、e in order to help prevent long hours of work(ILO 2015).(3)Rest periods and annual leaveGiven the blurred boundaries of working time in domestic work,the right to weekly rest is key to ensuring that domestic workers are afforded an uninterrupted weekly break from work.An ILO study found that 77 per

190、cent of 108 countries investigated afforded domestic workers the legal right to weekly rest,ranging from 24 to 48 hours of rest(2021).However,37.3 per cent of domestic workers are clustered in countries(such as Japan,the Republic of Korea and China)that do not guarantee them the right to weekly rest

191、(ILO 2021).A similar trend may be observed for paid annual leave,with 77.8 per cent of countries surveyed by the ILO affording domestic workers between two and four weeks per year;yet 36.4 per cent of domestic workers in a small group of countries in the Arab States and Asia and the Pacific,and to a

192、 lesser extent Africa,do not have any entitlement to annual leave(ILO 2021).Impact on health,safety and worklife balance The long hours of working and lack of rest associated with domestic work in a minority of countries negatively impacts both their health and worklife balance.For domestic workers

193、with family responsibilities,worklife conflict is likely if the working-time regulation of domestic workers does not exist(ILO 2011).While limited studies exist on the worklife balance effects of domestic work,more general analyses of long hours of work and lack of rest breaks highlight the negative

194、 health consequences.Specifically,relevant studies have shown that fatigue and lack of sleep lead to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease,diabetes,obesity,depression and anxiety,and also results in workers being more likely to be the victims of accidents at work(ILO 2013).Therefore,unregulate

195、d domestic work has negative impacts on both health and safety.19X Figure 8.Workers working more than 48 hours per week,by major occupational group and sex(total employment,2019,in%)Finally,figure 8 provides global figures on long hours of work by major occupational group.Plant and machine operators

196、 and assemblers are the occupational group most likely to work long hours;nearly half of all workers in this group(48.3 per cent)regularly work long hours.Service and sales workers and managers are also quite likely to work long hours(44.6 per cent and 44.0 per cent,respectively).By contrast,clerica

197、l support workers are the least likely to work long hours(20.2 per cent),closely followed by all professionals(22.9 per cent).The proportion of men with long hours of work is higher than that of women in all these occupational groups.In addition,the situation of workers in the elementary occupations

198、,including skilled agricultural workers,is interesting because it provides an illustration of how average hours may be deceiving.It will be recalled that the average hours of work for this occupational group are one of the shortest,at 40.2 hours per week.However,despite the normal appearance of aver

199、age hours in this occupational group,the proportion of workers with long hours of work falls in the middle of the pack,at 35.5 per cent.As a result,the two different working-time indicators paint a very different picture of the situation of hours of work in this occupational category.2.3.4 Evolution

200、 of long hours of work during the COVID-19 pandemicGiven the dramatic fall in global demand for goods and services during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic,which resulted from government policies designed to contain the pandemic particularly the so-called“lockdowns”that shuttered businesses an

201、d confined many individuals to their homes to mitigate the spread of the virus our starting assumption on long hours of work is that they should have decreased in the first year of the pandemic.Although the data available for this period is preliminary and available for only a small number of countr

202、ies,we do see the expected pattern in figure 9:the proportion of workers who regularly work more than 48 hours per week decreased substantially between the fourth quarter of 2019 and the second quarter of 2020.This general pattern holds in all regions of the world for 48.344.644.036.135.525.722.920.

203、249.753.149.839.440.231.227.929.040.236.329.722.426.918.219.013.40070Plant,machineoperatorsand assemblersService andsales workers ManagersCraft and relatedtrades workersretail tradeElementary occupand skilled agri.workersTechnicians&associatesProfessionalsClerical support workers%working

204、more than 48 hours a week TotalMenWomenWorking time and work-life balance around the world20which data were available at the time of writing.It is particularly notable in those regions/subregions of the world where the proportion of long-hours workers was the highest prior to the pandemic:South-East

205、ern Asia and the Pacific(a decline from 22.2 per cent to 17.5 per cent of the population still in employment from the fourth quarter of 2019 to the second quarter 2020)and Latin America and the Caribbean(a decline from 16.2 per cent to 12.7 per cent of the employed population in the same period).How

206、ever,the decrease in long hours of work was not as steep as might be expected given the situation,perhaps in part because some products were in high demand.Also,in many regions of the world the proportion of workers with long hours of work had already begun to rise by the third quarter of 2020,altho

207、ugh it still remained slightly below its 2019 level at the end of 2020.The Republic of Korea is a notable outlier:it is located in Eastern Asia,which of course was the point of origin of the pandemic.The proportion of workers with long hours of work in that country had already begun to decline in th

208、e first quarter of 2020 and continued to decline throughout all of 2020.The only thing we can say with some degree of certainty is that there was indeed a decline in long hours of work in the first year of the pandemic in the countries with available data,albeit a very modest one.X Figure 9.Trends i

209、n workers working more than 48 hours per week in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic(total employment,fourth quarter 2019 to fourth quarter 2020,in%),by sex and detailed geographic region6 6 The graphs shown in figure 9 are based on ILO calculations using data from 60 countries or areas(excludin

210、g India and China),representing close to one third of global employment.Estimates for Africa(2 countries),the Arab States(1 country),Eastern Asia(2 countries),Southern Asia(1 country)and Central and Western Asia(2 countries)are not displayed due to the limited number of countries or areas with avail

211、able data for the period 20192020.Estimates are weighted averages based on survey data from 63 countries or areas.However,estimates for Africa(2 countries),Arab States(1 country),Eastern Asia(2 countries),Southern Asia(1 country)and Central and Western Asia(2 countries)are not displayed due to the l

212、imited number of countries available and the resulting lack of representativeness of the results.0552019Q4 2020Q1 2020Q2 2020Q3 2020Q4Latin America and the CaribbeanNorthern AmericaSouth-Eastern Asiaand the PacificNorthern,Southernand Western EuropeEastern EuropeTotal0552019Q42

213、020Q12020Q22020Q32020Q4Men02019Q42020Q12020Q22020Q32020Q4Women%working more than 48 hours a week 5521From a gender perspective,the proportion of men who regularly work more than 48 hours per week in the labour force remained much higher than the comparable proportion of women working such

214、 hours roughly double the proportion of women in all the quarters analysed.The proportion of men with long hours of work did decline slightly in the first and especially the second quarters of 2020,but it began to rise in the third quarter of 2020;however,long hours of work among men remained slight

215、ly below its pre-pandemic level even in the fourth quarter of 2020.The proportion of women who work more than 48 hours,however,dipped only very slightly in the second quarter of 2020 albeit from a lower level before essentially regaining its pre-pandemic level by the fourth quarter of 2020.2.3.5 Sho

216、rt hours of work,very short hours of work and time-related underemploymentShort hours of work often called“part-time work”means regularly working less than the full-time hours in a particular country.Specifically,the Part-Time Work Convention,1994(No.175)defines a part-time worker as an“employed per

217、son whose normal hours of work are less than those of comparable full-time workers”.However,most statistical definitions of part-time work focus on the actual number of hours worked per week with thresholds of less than 35 hours per week or sometimes less than 30 hours per week(such as the definitio

218、n of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD),which is used as the basis for determining which workers are working“part-time”.In this report,we will use the standard ILO statistical definition of part-time work to define short hours of work less than 35 hours of work per week.

219、Based on this definition,figures 10a and 10b indicate that approximately one fifth of global employment(20.3 per cent)consists of short(or part-time)hours of work of less than 35 hours per week.7 The proportion of workers with such short or part-time hours of work is substantially higher in develope

220、d countries compared with countries that are still developing their economies(Messenger 2018).However,when we break down this broad group of developing countries into emerging economies(middle-income countries)and less developed economies(developing countries),it becomes apparent that while short ho

221、urs of work are indeed more prevalent in developed countries than in emerging economies,the proportion of workers with short hours of work is actually the highest in the least developed countries.This phenomenon is likely to be the result of time-related unemployment(working fewer hours than one wou

222、ld prefer to work),which is an issue that we will investigate below,as well as the sectoral composition of employment and the prevalence of agriculture,in which sector the hours of work are less likely to be fully captured,as mentioned earlier.In fact,the proportion of workers with short hours of wo

223、rk is highest in a developing region,Africa(37.5 per cent),particularly sub-Saharan Africa(40.3 per cent;see figure 10b).However,the proportion of workers with short or part-time hours of work is also substantial in the Americas(26.7 per cent)and Europe and Central Asia (22.8 per cent),particularly

224、the highly developed subregion of Northern,Southern and Western Europe(29.7 per cent).The relatively high prevalence of short hours of work in European countries is perhaps the classic example of the expansion of part-time work in developed countries in recent decades.Such short hours of work or par

225、t-time working have been gradually increasing in most developed countries,in which part-time work is widely seen as a mechanism for promoting workfamily reconciliation and worklife balance in general(Fagan et al.2014).7 Part-time hours of work should be distinguished from the contractual arrangement

226、s associated with part-time employment,which are often inferior to the contractual arrangements for comparable workers in full-time employment(ILO 2011).Part-time work as a type of working-time arrangement is reviewed in Chapter 3.Working time and work-life balance around the world22X Figure 10a.Wor

227、kers working less than 35 hours per week,by sex,major geographic region and level of development(total employment,2019,in%)X Figure 10b.Workers working less than 35 hours per week,by sex and detailed geographic region(total employment,in%)46.131.230.537.534.128.024.926.727.525.12.014.043.913.526.014

228、.528.011.028.322.844.916.925.820.300708090DevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalAfricaAmericasArab States Asia and thePacificEurope and

229、Central AsiaWorld%working less than 35 hours a week TotalMenWomen8.710.412.615.714.022.024.727.828.029.740.320.3055404550Eastern AsiaEastern EuropeNorthern AfricaSouthern AsiaArab StatesCentral andWestern AsiaNorthern AmericaSouth-Eastern Asiaand the PacificLatin America andthe CaribbeanN

230、orthern,Southern andSub-Saharan AfricaWorld%working less than 35 hours a week TotalMenWomen23There is also a substantial gender difference in the incidence or short(part-time)hours of work,but it is the reverse of the difference for long hours of work:women are nearly twice as likely(27.8 per cent)a

231、s men(15.4 per cent)to have short hours of work across the world.This gender difference holds in nearly all regions of the world,except Eastern Europe and Eastern Asia,in both of which subregions the proportion of workers with short work hours is quite low for both women and men.This substantial gen

232、der difference in the incidence of short hours of work is due primarily to the fact that women frequently bear the primary responsibility for performing unpaid household tasks and unpaid care work;in particular,the presence of children and their ages are key determinants of womens paid hours of work

233、(for an in-depth discussion of this issue,see Lee,McCann and Messenger 2007,Ch.4).This unequal share of unpaid household and care work has been quantified,including in a recent ILO study,which found that“globally,women dedicate,on average,3.2 times more hours than men to unpaid care work:4 hours and

234、 25 minutes(265 minutes)per day against 1 hour and 23 minutes for men(83 minutes)”(ILO 2018,p.53).Turning to very short hours of work defined here as less than 20 hours per week8 figures 11a and 11b show that the proportion of workers with very short hours of work remains quite small overall:a mere

235、7.6 per cent of total global employment.The proportion is slightly higher in some regions,particularly sub-Saharan Africa and South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific.However,the most striking aspect of such part-time work is its gender dimension:the proportion of women with very short hours of work is su

236、bstantially higher than the proportion of men in every single region of the world,with women doubling or even tripling the rate of men in some subregions,most notably Northern,Southern and Western Europe(15.0 per cent for women versus only 5.2 per cent for men).As with short(part-time)hours in gener

237、al,this situation is due primarily to womens disproportionate share of unpaid household tasks and unpaid care work;these time demands limit the extent of their participation in paid work.X Figure 11a.Workers working less than 20 hours per week,by sex,major geographic region and level of development(

238、total employment,2019,in%)8 Alternative hours thresholds may also be used(for example,less than 15 hours per week).20.214.58.016.913.810.28.29.47.37.00.33.721.14.810.35.211.33.49.07.219.66.38.77.600DevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDeveloped

239、TotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalAfricaAmericasArab States Asia and thePacificEurope andCentral AsiaWorld%working less than 20 hours a week TotalMenWomenWorking time and work-life balance around the world24X Figure 11b.Workers worki

240、ng less than 20 hours per week,by sex and detailed geographic region(total employment,in%)Very short hours of work(less than 20 hours per week)are even more likely to be associated with time-related underemployment than short(part-time)hours of work,as we will see in section 2.3.6 below.They also te

241、nd to be linked with unpredictable work schedules(for further details on working-time arrangements and their effects on worklife balance,see Ch.3).Time-related underemploymentThe main reason for concern with regard to both short and very short hours of work is that such situations are often an invol

242、untary state for workers that is,they tend to be associated with time-related underemployment.Figure 12a demonstrates this situation graphically for both short hours of work(less than 35 hours per week)and very short hours of work(less than 20 hours per week).It shows that globally,one fifth or 20.5

243、 per cent of all workers with short hours of work experience time-related underemployment,while one fourth or 25.9 per cent of all workers with very short hours of work are in the same situation.Time-related underemployment is highest in the Americas(29.1 per cent for workers with short hours of wor

244、k and 38.6 per cent for workers with very short hours of work),particularly Latin America and the Caribbean(31.0 and 41.4 per cent,respectively).The proportion of workers in time-related underemployment is also substantially higher than the global average in Eastern Asia (28.5 per cent for workers w

245、ith short hours of work and 36.9 per cent for workers with very short hours of work)and Central and Western Asia(22.9 per cent and 29.4 per cent,respectively).2.33.14.13.63.77.98.114.09.810.318.37.60510152025Eastern EuropeEastern AsiaNorthern AfricaSouthern AsiaArab StatesNorthern AmericaCentral and

246、Western AsiaSouth-EasternAsia and theNorthern,Southern andLatin America andthe CaribbeanSub-SaharanAfricaWorldTotalMenWomen%working less than 20 hours a week 25X Figure 12a.Time-related underemployment among people working less than 35 or less than 20 hours per week,by major and detailed geographic

247、region(total employment,2019,in%)Note:The figure above is based on 111 countries representing 55 per cent of global employment.Overall,figure 12a suggests that mismatches between workers actual hours of work and their preferred hours of work exist for a substantial portion of the global workforce;in

248、 this case,workers would prefer to work longer hours to increase their earnings but are unable to do so.As shown in figures 12b and 12c,men working less than full-time are somewhat more likely to experience time-related unemployment than women working less than full-time.This situation holds true fo

249、r workers with both short and very short hours of work.This situation is most likely due to the social expectation in most countries that men will be the primary“breadwinner”(earner)in the household,and therefore they are more likely to prefer full-time employment than women(for a comprehensive revi

250、ew of working-time matches and mismatches around the world,as well as their relationship with employers needs,see Ch.4).25.929.417.122.422.220.226.736.926.513.98.541.438.622.020.522.98.316.615.719.320.628.521.411.18.431.029.121.201020304050WorldCentral and Western AsiaEastern EuropeNorthern,Southern

251、 andWestern EuropeEurope and Central AsiaSouthern AsiaSouth-Eastern Asia and the PacificEastern AsiaAsia and the PacificArab StatesNorthern AmericaLatin America and the CaribbeanAmericasAfrica%time related under-employment35h/week20h/weekWorking time and work-life balance around the world26X Figure

252、12b.Time-related underemployment among women and men working less than 35 or less than 20 hours per week,by major and detailed geographic region(total employment,2019,in%)Note:ILO calculations,based on 111 countries representing 55 per cent of global employment.24.227.314.220.820.316.525.635.124.611

253、.38.140.037.221.018.920.67.115.214.314.018.929.019.17.38.030.128.120.228.134.321.224.525.124.628.239.728.914.59.143.440.423.322.327.39.618.517.923.622.729.523.912.29.032.430.422.0-50-40-30-20-50-50-40-30-20-50WorldCentral and Western AsiaEastern EuropeNorthern,Southern andWeste

254、rn EuropeEurope and Central AsiaSouthern AsiaSouth-Eastern Asiaand the PacificEastern AsiaAsia and the PacificArab StatesNorthern AmericaLatin Americaand the CaribbeanAmericasAfrica%time related under-employment35h/week20h/weekMenWomen272.3.6 Short and very short hours of work,by employment statusEa

255、rlier in this chapter,we saw that self-employed workers(own-account workers)are substantially more likely to work long hours than employees.Self-employed workers are also substantially more likely to work short(part-time)hours than employees:26.9 per cent of self-employed workers regularly work less

256、 than 35 hours per week,compared with only 15.0 per cent of employees(see figures 13a,13b,14a and 14b).This general pattern holds across all the major geographic regions of the world,except for Northern,Southern and Western Europe,where the share of employees with short hours of work(29.9 per cent)i

257、s slightly higher than the share of self-employed workers with short hours of work(29.1 per cent).As noted earlier,the relatively high prevalence of short hours of work in advanced European economies is perhaps the classic example of the expansion of part-time work in developed countries in recent d

258、ecades.However,it is interesting to note that this pattern does not extend to Eastern Europe,where self-employed workers are four times more likely to work short(part-time)hours than employees(33.5 per cent versus 7.9 per cent),mainly because of a strong preference for full-time work established dur

259、ing the communist era(Lee,McCann and Messenger 2007).This substantial difference in hours of work by employment status is even more stark if we look at very short hours of work,that is at workers with less than 20 hours of work per week.The proportion of self-employed workers with very short hours i

260、s more than double the comparable figure for employees(11.1 per cent versus a mere 4.8 per cent;see figures 15a,15b,16a and 16b below).This pattern holds in all regions of the world without exception.Although at first glance this might seem to be surprising,it is well known that a substantial portio

261、n of own-account workers enter self-employment because they are unable to secure a wage and salary job.While self-employment may be a desirable choice,for those workers who enter self-employment due to their inability to secure dependent employment it acts as a kind of“employment of last resort”and

262、is often informal in nature(see section 2.4 below on hours of work in the informal economy).X Figure 13a.Employees working less than 35 hours per week by sex,major geographic region and level of development(2019,in%)30.316.127.219.825.321.123.422.327.023.81.010.821.47.125.59.421.56.728.421.529.210.0

263、25.015.000DevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalAfricaAmericasArab States Asia and thePacificEurope andCentral AsiaWorldTotalMenWomen%w

264、orking less than 35 hours a week Working time and work-life balance around the world28X Figure 13b.Employees working less than 35 hours per week,by sex and detailed geographic region(2019,in%)X Figure 14a.Self-employed(own-account)workers working less than 35 hours per week,by sex,major geographic r

265、egion and level of development(2019,in%)5.67.99.78.516.516.310.821.022.723.729.915.0055404550Southern AsiaEastern EuropeNorthern AfricaEastern AsiaCentral andWestern AsiaSouth-Eastern Asiaand the PacificArab StatesLatin America andthe CaribbeanSub-Saharan AfricaNorthern AmericaNorthern,So

266、uthern andWorldTotalMenWomen%working less than 35 hours a week 43.042.045.842.434.238.943.939.428.331.430.030.038.720.334.220.629.235.528.130.642.224.833.326.9007080TotalMenWomenDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmerg

267、ingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalAfricaAmericasArab States Asia and thePacificEurope andCentral AsiaWorld%working less than 35 hours a week 29X Figure 14b.Self-employed(own-account)workers working less than 35 hours per week,by sex and detailed geograp

268、hic region(2019,in%)X Figure 15a.Employees working less than 20 hours per week,by sex,major geographic region,and level of development(2019,in%)15.019.418.133.530.029.130.942.543.239.340.826.900Eastern AsiaNorthern AfricaSouthern AsiaEastern EuropeArab StatesNorthern,Southern andCentral a

269、ndWestern AsiaSouth-EasternAsia and theSub-SaharanAfricaLatin America andthe CaribbeanNorthern AmericaWorldTotalMenWomen%working less than 35 hours a week 13.16.65.68.38.76.17.26.76.45.20.12.35.02.29.83.27.11.38.86.411.93.18.14.8024680TotalMenWomen%working less than 20 hours a week Develo

270、pingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalAfricaAmericasArab States Asia and theEurope andCentral AsiaWorldWorking time and work-life balance around the wor

271、ld30X Figure 15b.Employees working less than 20 hours per week,by sex and detailed geographic region(2019,in%)X Figure 16a.Self-employed(own-account)workers working less than 20 hours per week,by sex,major geographic region,and level of development(2019,in%)1.21.03.02.92.35.36.36.17.39.89.64.8024681

272、0121416Eastern EuropeSouthern AsiaNorthern AfricaEastern AsiaArab StatesCentral andWestern AsiaSouth-EasternAsia and theLatin America andthe CaribbeanNorthern AmericaSub-SaharanAfricaNorthern,Southern andWorldTotalMenWomen%working less than 20 hours a week 19.720.020.019.914.716.520.517.07.312.54.99

273、.816.47.716.37.910.115.410.011.819.210.113.911.30354045TotalMenWomen%working less than 20 hours a week DevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelopedTotalDevelopingEmergingDevelope

274、dTotalAfricaAmericasArab States Asia and thePacificEurope andCentral AsiaWorld31X Figure 16b.Self-employed(own-account)workers working less than 20 hours per week,by sex,major geographic region,and level of development(2019,in%)2.3.7 Short and very short hours of work,by economic sector and occupati

275、onTo complete our review of the situation of workers with short and very short hours of work prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic(2019 or latest available year),we now consider patterns of short and very short hours of work by economic sector and occupation.From a sectoral perspective,figure

276、17 shows that agriculture is the sector with the largest proportion by far of workers with less than 35 hours of work per week:35.9 per cent of all workers and close to half of all women in this sector work short hours.The catchall sectoral category of other services,which includes a variety of pers

277、onal services that are not classified elsewhere,has the second-highest proportion,at 25.5 per cent of all workers.A similar pattern holds for very short hours of work(see figure 18).From an occupational perspective,the broad category of elementary occupations and skilled agricultural workers contain

278、s the highest proportion of workers with both short and very short hours,at 27.8 and 11.5 per cent,respectively(see figures 19 and 20).These proportions are twice as high for women compared to men.Professionals,service and sales workers,and craft and related trades workers(including the retail trade

279、)also have relatively high proportions of workers with both short and very short hours of work.4.26.96.69.813.323.310.912.420.316.917.311.30Southern AsiaNorthern AfricaEastern AsiaArab StatesEastern EuropeSouth-EasternAsia and theNorthern,Southern andCentral andWestern AsiaSub-SaharanAfri

280、caLatin America andthe CaribbeanNorthern AmericaWorldTotalMenWomen%working less than 20 hours a week Working time and work-life balance around the world32X Figure 17.Workers working less than 35 hours per week,by economic sector and sex (total employment,2019,in%)X Figure 18.Workers working less tha

281、n 20 hours per week,by economic sector and sex (total employment,2019,in%)35.925.522.721.119.117.115.714.213.011.210.610.19.69.528.917.619.315.013.712.915.010.011.38.79.76.87.97.747.831.224.623.424.024.023.219.622.216.017.215.216.111.600AgricultureOther servicesEducationHealthAccomodation

282、&food servicesReal estate&business servicesConstructionWholesale&retail tradeMining andQuarryingPublicadministrationTransport&communicationsManufacturingUtilitiesFinance&insuranceWorldMenWomen%working less than 35 hours a week 15.811.77.36.26.15.95.44.33.93.33.13.02.62.211.97.45.15.34.44.33.53.33.61

283、.92.82.41.81.822.614.79.36.86.88.57.98.57.25.55.34.15.82.60510152025AgricultureOther servicesAccomodation&food servicesEducationHealthReal estate&business servicesWholesale&retail tradeMining andQuarryingConstructionManufacturingTransport&communicationsPublicadministrationUtilitiesFinance&insuranceW

284、orldMenWomen%working less than 20 hours a week 33X Figure 19.Workers working less than 35 hours per week,by major occupational group and sex(total employment,2019,in%)X Figure 20.Workers working less than 20 hours per week,by major occupational group and sex(total employment,2019,in%)2.3.8 Evolution

285、 of short(part-time)hours of work during the COVID-19 pandemicThis section will analyse the evolution of short(part-time)hours of work during the COVID-19 pandemic its dynamics;the change in the composition of the part-time workforce;and the effects on employment of reducing full-time hours of work.

286、The first question to be answered is:how did short(part-time)hours of work evolve during the COVID-19 pandemic?27.818.317.016.815.914.310.37.622.214.112.810.910.110.97.87.537.422.134.122.420.218.916.29.005540Elementary occupand skilled agri.workersProfessionalsCraft and relatedtrades work

287、ersretail tradeService andsales workersClerical support workersTechnicians&associates ManagersPlant,machineoperatorsand assemblersWorldMenWomen%working less than 35 hours a week 11.56.25.75.24.34.33.12.28.43.83.84.13.32.62.32.216.88.613.56.15.85.65.02.7024681012141618Elementaryoccupand skilled agri.

288、workersService andsales workersCraft andrelatedtrades workersretail tradeProfessionalsTechnicians&associatesClerical support workers ManagersPlant,machineoperatorsand assemblersWorldMenWomen%working less than 20 hours a week Working time and work-life balance around the world34Given the dramatic dec

289、line in global demand for goods and services during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic resulting from governments policies to attempt to contain the pandemic particularly so-called“lockdowns”that shuttered businesses and confined many individuals to their homes in order to mitigate the spread o

290、f the virus our starting assumption with regard to short hours of work is that they should probably have increased during the first year of the pandemic.An increase in short hours of work would occur if companies reduced the number of hours of work of full-time workers in response to the decrease in

291、 demand for their goods and services early in the pandemic,rather than simply laying off workers.Such reductions in hours of work could take the form of either reduced weekly hours of work or short-term furloughs of affected workers.Moreover,these working-time reductions may be unilateral organizati

292、onal decisions,or alternatively they may be encouraged by working time-related crisis-response measures that promote reductions of hours of work in lieu of layoffs(for example,work-sharing or short-time work;for further details,see Ch.5).Although the data available for the period of the COVID-19 pan

293、demic is preliminary and available for a relatively small number of countries,we do see the expected pattern in figure 21:the proportions of workers who regularly work less than 35 hours per week increased substantially between the fourth quarter of 2019 and the second quarter of 2020.This general p

294、attern holds in most of the regions for which data were available at the time of preparation of this report,with the exception of South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific.The trend towards shorter hours of work was particularly pronounced in Latin America and the Caribbean and in Northern,Southern and Wes

295、tern Europe;in the latter case,this was most likely due to the widespread use of work-sharing/short-time work measures in that region.Nonetheless,the higher proportions of workers with short hours of work appear to have been short-lived:they reverted very close to pre-pandemic levels by the fourth q

296、uarter of 2020.X Figure 21.Trends in workers working less than 35 hours per week during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic(total employment,fourth quarter of 2019 to fourth quarter of 2020,in%),by sex and detailed geographic region99 The graphs shown in figure 21 are ILO calculations using data

297、 from 60 countries or areas(excluding India and China),representing close to one third of global employment.Estimates for Africa(2 countries),the Arab States(1 country),Eastern Asia(2 countries),Southern Asia(1 country)and Central and Western Asia(2 countries)are not displayed due to the limited num

298、ber of countries with available data for the period 20192020.0554045502019Q4 2020Q1 2020Q2 2020Q3 2020Q40554045502019Q42020Q12020Q22020Q32020Q40554045502019Q42020Q12020Q22020Q32020Q4TotalMenWomen%working more than 35 hours a week Latin America and the CaribbeanNorthe

299、rn AmericaSouth-Eastern Asiaand the PacificNorthern,Southernand Western EuropeEastern Europe35From a gender perspective,the proportion of women with less than 35 hours of work per week remained much higher than that of men nearly double the rate for men with short hours of work in all the quarters a

300、nalysed.The proportions of both women and men with short hours of work increased substantially in the second quarter of 2020,with the exception of South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific,but started to decline beginning in the third quarter of 2020.However,the proportions of both women and men with short

301、 hours of work remained slightly above their pre-pandemic levels in most regions at the end of 2020 again with the exception of South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific,where they were substantially lower than prior to the pandemic.Unfortunately data for 2021,the second year of the pandemic,was only avail

302、able for a small subset of the countries shown in figure 21 at the time of preparation of this report,which itself covers fewer than half of the countries shown in the pre-pandemic figures analysed earlier in this chapter.Nonetheless,data was available for a small number of countries covering all of

303、 2021 and the first few months of 2022.The numbers that follow are not comprehensive,nor do they necessarily represent worldwide trends;they represent the trends in a limited number of countries for which data covering the entire period of the COVID-19 pandemic was available.Nevertheless,the trends

304、shown below are relevant and the sample includes some high-population countries such as the United States,Brazil,Indonesia and Mexico.Figure 22 shows the percentage of workers with short hours of work for two country aggregates the first includes 9 countries for which data were available through the

305、 end of 2021 and the second includes another 12 countries for which data existed up to mid-2021.The figure indicates that the proportion of workers with short(part-time)hours of work increased somewhat,from 2122 per cent of all workers before the pandemic to 24 per cent of workers,before almost retu

306、rning to pre-pandemic levels by early 2021.An increase is also visible for the last two quarters of 2021 for those countries in which data for this period was available,which may be due to the second-and third-wave lockdowns in some of them.X Figure 22.Percentage of workers working less than 35 hour

307、s per week during the COVID-19 pandemicSource:Labour force and other household survey microdata.21%22%23%21%22%23%24%22%0%5%10%15%20%25%30%May/2019Aug/2019Nov/2019Feb/2020May/2020Aug/2020Nov/2020Feb/2021May/2021Aug/2021Nov/2021Feb/2022Percent part-time workersYear and quarter9 country21 countryWorki

308、ng time and work-life balance around the world36Nonetheless,even if the aggregate numbers of workers with short hours of work changed only slightly during the pandemic,workers with short hours of work during the pandemic may not have the same characteristics as those prior to the pandemic.An analysi

309、s follows of ten countries or areas with surveys for which individual identifiers are available for the first quarter of 2020,before the pandemic and the second quarter of 2020 following its initial onset.Table 1 shows two different stories in two neighbouring countries:Mexico and the United States.

310、X Table 1.Flows into and out of part-time hours of work during the COVID-19 pandemic,Mexico and United States(first to second quarters 2020)Source:Mexico,National Survey of Occupation and Employment microdata;and United States,Current Population Survey microdata.In the United States,the proportion o

311、f workers with short hours of work fell from 14 per cent to 12 per cent of the working-age population from the first quarter to the second quarter of 2020.This change was due mostly to 29 per cent of workers with short hours of work transitioning to not working.The flows from full-time to part-time

312、hours and vice versa compensated each other:4 per cent of the working-age population transitioned from part-time to full-time hours of work and 5 per cent transitioned from full-time to part-time hours of work.In Mexico,the story is very different.The proportion of workers with short hours of work i

313、ncreased from 18 per cent to 22 per cent of working-age individuals.This is because the flows between full-time and part-time hours of work were highly asymmetrical.While 12 per cent of working-age individuals transitioned from full-time to part-time hours of work,only 3 per cent took the opposite p

314、ath.Combined with very limited transitions from being out of work to having part-time hours of work and large but similar transitions from having part-time and full-time hours of work to being out of work,this led to a net increase in short hours of work,from 18 per cent to 21 per cent of the workin

315、g-age population.Of the ten countries or areas whose flows were analysed,the Mexican story is the most common.Argentina,Bolivia(Plurinational State of),Brazil,Chile,Costa Rica,Mexico,North Macedonia and Portugal all followed the same pattern:many workers with short hours of work left the paid labour

316、 force altogether,but this was more than compensated by a net entry into short hours of work by previously full-time workers.Only in the United States,the United Kingdom and the Occupied Palestinian Territory were flows between part-time and full-time hours approximately equivalent.MexicoUnited Stat

317、es Initial Final Full-timePart-timeNot workingTotalFull-timePart-timeNot workingTotalFull-time23%12%10%45%35%5%6%46%Part-time3%7%8%18%4%6%4%14%Not working2%3%32%37%1%1%37%40%Total29%21%50%100%41%12%48%100%37Reduction of full-time hours and the prevention of job lossesSince it is possible to observe

318、the state of employment of the same workers in two consecutive quarters,it is possible to see the relation that hours worked(in the first quarter)has on the probability of losing ones job(in the second quarter).Losing ones job is defined as being out of work,whether this is a furlough,unemployment o

319、r leaving the labour force and whether it is voluntary or involuntary.Figure 23 shows the odds of losing ones job in Mexico during the pandemic.The graphs with blue lines in panel 1 represent self-employed workers and those with the black lines in panel 2 represent employees.The thin lines above and

320、 below the thick lines in both panels represent the 95 per cent confidence interval.X Figure 23.Transitions out of employment during the COVID-19 pandemic,MexicoSource:Labour force and other household survey microdata.While both employees and self-employed workers with short hours of work prior to t

321、he pandemic were likely to lose their jobs,those who had previously worked full-time were far more likely to keep their jobs.The trajectory of the declining probability of job loss is close to linear,from 1 hour to a little more than 40 hours of work per week,after which it flattens out.0%10%20%30%4

322、0%50%60%70%0070Probability of losing job(moving average)Hours effectively worked per weekLower 95Moving averageUpper 950%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%0070Probability of losing job(moving average)Hours effectively worked per weekUpper 95Moving averageLower 95Working time and work-life b

323、alance around the world38A similar pattern is observed in most of the countries or areas analysed.10 Table 2 shows the increase in the chances of keeping ones job with each additional hour worked in the ten selected countries/areas.The first column shows the effect of hours of work alone,so that the

324、 percentage points given indicates the probability of job retention with each increasing weekly hour of work.The second column controls for demographics such as age,sex and schooling.The third column controls for occupation.For example,each additional weekly hour of work prior to the COVID-19 pandem

325、ic increased the chances of an employee in Argentina keeping their job from the first to the second quarter of 2020 by 0.6 percentage points;therefore,a worker with 40 hours of work per week would be 18 percentage points more likely to keep their job than one with 10 hours of work per week.If basic

326、demographics,particularly education,are controlled for,then the effect is cut in half and a worker with 40 hours per week becomes 9 percentage points more likely to keep their job than one with 10 hours per week.Controlling for occupation has very little effect.X Table 2.Increase in the probability

327、of keeping ones job following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic with each additional hour of work per week,selected countries/areasSource:Household survey microdata.Note:ns=not significant;nd=no data.10 In North Macedonia and the Occupied Palestinian Territory,small sample sizes make the confidence

328、 intervals very large and nothing can be discerned.EmployeesSelf-employed workersCountry/areaHours of work alone+demographic+occupationOnly hours+demographic+occupationArgentina0.6%0.3%0.3%0.7%nsnsBrazil0.3%0.3%0.3%0.5%0.3%0.3%Chile0.6%0.3%0.3%0.8%0.0%nsCosta Rica0.9%0.4%nd0.9%0.3%ndNorth Macedonian

329、sNsnsnsns0.1%Mexico0.8%0.4%0.4%0.9%0.1%0.1%Occupied Palestinian TerritorynsnsnsnsnsnsPortugal0.4%0.2%ns0.4%0.2%0.2%United Kingdom0.1%0.1%0.1%0.2%0.2%0.2%United States0.7%0.0%0.0%0.0%nsns39Table 2 shows that as expected,the effect of hours of work alone is stronger than the effect of hours of work on

330、ce other characteristics are controlled for.It also shows that irrespective of controls,those who initially had shorter hours of work were more likely to lose their jobs(permanently or temporarily)than those who had longer hours of work.Only in the United Kingdom did hours of work have no significan

331、t influence on the risk of losing ones job during the pandemic,most likely because of job-retention schemes,which helped all workers,irrespective of their hours of work,to remain in employment.These flows into and out of short(part-time)hours of work suggest that the profile of workers with short ho

332、urs of work may have changed during the pandemic.Figure 24 shows that this was indeed the case.Part-time workers became increasingly female,older and more educated.These compositional changes are a net result of the flows both into and out of short(part-time)hours of work.X Figure 24.Composition of

333、short-hours workersSource:ILO calculations based on microdata from 30 household surveys.The main conclusion here is that although the incidence of short(part-time)hours of work as a percentage of total employment changed only slightly with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic,this does not mean that the composition of short-hours workers remained the same.There were strong flows both into and out of