1、FAOResponsible use of antimicrobials in beekeeping26FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH/GUIDELINES 26Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeepingISSN 1810-0708FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH/GUIDELINES 26Responsible use of antimicrobialsin beekeepingEditorsG.Formato1,L.Yu2,L.J.Song2,K.Mintiens2 and

2、 G.Ferrari11 Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana M.Aleandri2 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsRome,2021Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeepingRequired citation:FAO and IZSLT.2021.Responsi

3、ble use of antimicrobials in beekeeping.FAO Animal Production and Health Guidelines No.26.Rome,FAO.https:/doi.org/10.4060/cb6918enSome rights reserved.This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO licence(CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO;https:/creativecommon

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9、d for that reuse and for obtaining permission from the copyright holder.The risk of claims resulting from infringement of any third-party-owned component in the work rests solely with the user.Sales,rights and licensing.FAO information products are available on the FAO website(www.fao.org/publicatio

10、ns)and can be purchased through publications-salesfao.org.Requests for commercial use should be submitted via:www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request.Queries regarding rights and licensing should be submitted to:copyrightfao.org.Photo cover:IZSLT/M.Pietropaoli ISBN 978-92-5-135005-8 FAO,2021The desig

11、nations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)concerning the legal or development status of any country,territory,city or area or of it

12、s authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers,whether or not these have been patented,does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are n

13、ot mentioned.The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s)and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO.iiiContentsForeword vAcknowledgements viiExecutive summary ixCHAPTER 1A global overview of the beekeeping sector 1CHAPTER 2Prevention is better than cure

14、 32.1.Good beekeeping practices(GBPs)32.1.1.Classification of GBPs 32.1.2.Identification of GBPs 32.2 Biosecurity measures in beekeeping(BMBs)4CHAPTER 3How to use antimicrobials in beekeeping prudently and efficiently 73.1.Proper use of antimicrobials:general concepts 73.2.Antimicrobials access and

15、handling 73.3.Disease detection 83.4.Keeping records 83.5.Antibiotics cannot protect against poor beekeeping practices 83.6.Conclusion 9CHAPTER 4Main honeybee diseases 114.1 Varroosis 124.1.1 Control 124.2 American foulbrood 134.2.1 Control 144.2.2 Disinfection 154.3 European foulbrood 154.3.1 Contr

16、ol 164.3.2 Disinfection 164.4 Nosemosis 174.4.1 Control 184.5 Stonebrood(aspergillosis)184.5.1 Control 194.6 Aethinosis 194.6.1 Control 194.7 Tropilaelapsosis 204.7.1 Control 204.8 Wax moth 204.8.1 Control 20CHAPTER 5The Progressive Management Pathway(PMP)in the beekeeping sector 215.1 Introduction

17、215.2 The Progressive Management Pathway for Biosecurity Measures in Beekeeping 215.3 The Progressive Management Pathway for Antimicrobial Resistance in beekeeping 23CHAPTER 6Conclusion 29References 31Glossary 35ANNEX 1Good beekeeping practices(GBPs)43ANNEX 2Biosecurity measures in beekeeping(BMBs)4

18、9ANNEX 3Risk assessment tools:the surveys 53ivvHoneybees are fundamental to life on Earth in terms of their contribution to environmental biodiversity and quan-tity and quality of agricultural production systems.The absence of honeybees for pollination could mean a loss to farmers of up to 75 percen

19、t of their crops.Moreover,hive products themselves(honey,pollen,royal jelly,wax,propolis and bee venom)generate income for beekeep-ers and are an important source of food and energy for human consumption all over the world,and especially in rural areas.Honeybees face numerous health threats,includin

20、g loss of habitat due to land-use changes,diseases and pests,poor management practices,indiscriminate use of veteri-nary medicines and pesticides,climate change,the spread of monocultures which reduce their food variety,and the spread of honeybee pathogens due to globalization.Healthy honeybee popul

21、ations are important for the achievement of several of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs):“No poverty”(SDG1);“Zero hunger”(SDG2);“Good health and well-being”(SDG3);“Gender equality”(SDG 5);“Decent work and economic growth”(SDG8);“Responsible consumption and production”(SDG12);“Cl

22、imate action”(SDG 13),and“Life on land”(SDG15).The World Organisation for Animal Health(OIE)clas-sifies honeybees as terrestrial animals,which means that they require veterinary care.The increase in honeybee colony losses seen in some areas of the world and the emergence of new diseases threaten the

23、 pollination services and environmental biodiversity pro-vided by honeybees,and the beekeeping economy itself.In this context,a qualified diagnostic approach and proper use of antimicrobials at the apiary level is of fundamental importance to avoid unwanted effects such as residues in honeybee produ

24、cts and antimicrobial resistance(AMR).Honeybee diseases,their prevention and control fall within the scope of veterinary medicine.To guarantee honeybee health,veterinarians should work in close cooperation with livestock production experts and specific measures should be put in place:1)enforced legi

25、slation on the proper use and control of antimicrobials(prescription,distribution,administration,withdrawal time,residues,etc.)and related controls;2)enforced legislation on the transboundary and local movement of live bees and genetic material;3)training on good beekeeping practices and proper bios

26、afety measures;4)introduction of technical certifications for all those intending to keep and manage bees;implementation of sustainable beekeeping models to properly safeguard the health of bees and consumers and to protect the environment;5)regulation and monitoring farmerbeekeeper interactions to

27、prevent colony losses due to misuse of pesticides;6)proper training of veteri-narians on bee diseases;7)coordination of all beekeepers operating in the same area concerning timing of interven-tion,type of treatment(e.g.varroacide)to apply and other relevant measures.Veterinarians have a responsibili

28、ty to maintain a working relationship with beekeepers to support honeybee disease prevention and containment efforts.With the application,at the apiary level,of good beekeeping practices(GBPs)and proper biosecurity measures in beekeeping(BMBs),honeybee diseases can be prevented,and the use of unnece

29、ssary medicines reduced.These guidelines focus on preclinical indicators as an essential part of GBPs,which enable diagnosis of bee diseases before clinical signs appear in the colony.They also underline the importance of adopt-ing a sustainable approach in apiary management,which includes the use o

30、f medicines with a low environmental impact and avoidance of antibiotics.The latter can quite easily be achieved with specific beekeeping techniques and integrated control of honeybee diseases.Organic honey and bee products tend to fetch a higher price on the mar-ket and be more profitable,even thou

31、gh this kind of bee management is more labour-intensive and needs greater control.The emphasis here should therefore be on promot-ing and asserting quality as opposed to quantity.Sustainability is key to the future of beekeeping,and the One Health approach which considers human,ani-mal and environme

32、ntal health interconnected,ensuring high-quality hive products free of medicinal or pesticidal residues and adulteration.These guidelines define and categorize GBPs and BMBs that can minimize use of antimicrobials at the apiary level,reducing the risk of residues in honeybee products and lim-iting A

33、MR.It also introduces the Progressive Management Pathway for Biosecurity Measure in Beekeeping(PMP-BMB),a useful tool to assist governments,beekeepers and the industry in defining the steps required for sustainable,healthy and resilient beekeeping.Finally,we provide three different surveys(on Varroa

34、 management,infectious disease management and AMR)which may be useful for countries and beekeepers wanting Forewordvito adopt a PMP approach,enabling them to assess their current performance concerning the application of GBPs and BMBs and antimicrobial use in beekeeping.A PMP approach,GBPs and BMBs

35、are all conducive to proper honeybee management,which in turn:1)ensures better honeybee health,2)ensures better human health,3)protects the environment,and 4)increases the profitability of the beekeeping sector in a sustainable context.viiAcknowledgementsThe editors would like to thank Dr Berhe G.Te

36、kola(FAO)and the guidance provided by Dr Juan Lubroth(FAO).The following members of the FAO Antimicrobial Resist-ance(AMR)Working Group contributed to the develop-ment of the Progressive Management Pathways approach in beekeeping:Koen Mintiens,April Johnson,Alice Green,Jeffrey LeJeune,Jieun Kim and

37、Jing Xu.Moreover,the editors would like to thank the BPractices consortium partners1,Sofia Croppi(Hartpury University),Alejandro Dorado Garca(FAONSAH),Francesca Latronico(FAO),Franco Mutinelli(IZSVe),Jeff Pettis(Apimondia),Marco Pietropaoli(IZSLT),Marc Schfer(OIE Collaborating Centre for Varroa,SHB

38、small hive beetle and AFB Ameri-can foulbrood),Joseph Cazier(Appalachian State Universi-ty),and Beate Scherf(FAO),for their input.1 The BPractices project consortium is made of a multidisciplinary group representing research institutes,the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)

39、and the International Federation of Beekeepers Associations(Apimondia).https:/www.izslt.it/bpractices/ixHoneybees are indispensable pollinators for crop produc-tion and maintenance of biodiversity.These guidelines aim for sustainable management of honeybee health in modern beekeeping with responsibl

40、e use of antimicrobials,following the One Health approach to safeguard not only bee health,but also human health and that of the environment.To this end,disease prevention is preferred to treatment,as the latter often involves exten-sive pharmaceutical intervention.Use of medicines can be avoided by

41、 implementing good beekeeping practices(GBPs)and biosecurity measures in beekeeping(BMBs),to maintain colony health and reduce the likelihood of antimi-crobial residues in hive products.If antimicrobial is necessary,it is advisable to choose medicines with a low environmental impact,using them prude

42、ntly and following the instructions provided.It is imperative to use the correct pharmaceutical(authorized in the country of use and ideally prescribed by a veterinarian)and avoid antibiotics as much as possible.In terms of the One Health approach,prudent and lim-ited use of antimicrobials benefits

43、the quality of bee prod-ucts and the safety of surrounding ecosystems,while also Executive summaryslowing development of antimicrobial resistance(AMR),which is a widespread issue affecting multiple sectors.Honeybees can contract a variety of infectious diseases(e.g.varroosis,nosemosis,American foulb

44、rood,European foulbrood,etc.)which pose differing levels of risk to col-ony health and should be managed accordingly.For each disease listed,these guidelines provide an explanation of early disease detection,a list of preventive measures and if needed,available treatment options.To further aid beeke

45、epers in implementing these prac-tices and achieving sustainable production,a progressive management pathway(PMP)has been devised,focusing on BMBs and proper use of antimicrobials.It has been broken down into four Focus Areas to help beekeepers and policymakers/design teams set achievable goals in o

46、rder to eventually reach full sustainability.To facilitate initiation of this PMP,surveys were created to assess current beekeep-ing practices/BMBs and general awareness of topical issues such as AMR.The overall aim of these guidelines is to inform beekeepers of current challenges within the sector

47、and help them bring about sustainable production and maintain colony health.1Beekeeping plays an important role in generating employ-ment opportunities and increasing family income in rural areas of the world.Figure 1 presents the number of hives managed all over the world from 2007 to 2017.The glob

48、al trend of kept honeybee populations in the last decade has increased,with an estimated 74,967,203 hives in 2007,and an estimated 90,999,730 in 2017(a 21.4 percent increase).Analysis of the distribution of the honeybee population across different geographic areas shows that this increase has predom

49、inantly occurred in Asia(see Figure 2).Of the top nine honey-producing countries,which account for almost 60 percent of global production,China ranks first with 543,000 tons,followed by Turkey,Argen-tina,the Islamic Republic of Iran and the United States of America(see Figure 3 and Table 1).The tons

50、 of honey produced by continent are shown in Figure 4.Chapter 1A global overview of the beekeeping sectorFIGURE 1Managed world honeybee populations(20072017)FIGURE 2Managed world honeybee populations,by geographic area(20272017)Source:FAOSTAT(2017)Source:FAOSTAT(2017)2TABLE 1Top nine honey-producing

51、 countries(20072017)Country Tons China,mainland 543,000 Turkey 114,471 Argentina 76,379 Iran(Islamic Republic of)69,699 United States of America 66,968 Ukraine 66,231 Russian Federation 65,678 India 64,981 Mexico 51,066Source:FAOSTAT(2017)FIGURE 3Top nine honey-producing countries(20072017)FIGURE 4T

52、op nine honey-producing continents(20072017)Source:FAOSTAT(2017)Source:FAOSTAT(2017)Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeeping3Good beekeeping practices(GBPs)and biosecurity meas-ures in beekeeping(BMBs)can prevent honeybee diseases.Healthy hives are key to optimal productivity and,therefore,pr

53、ofitability.Moreover,they reduce use of antimicrobials,which also includes the cost of purchasing them and the time required to apply them.Risk assessment is a valuable tool and provides tailored animal health measures based on local disease manage-ment practices and use of antimicrobials.To see how

54、 many GBPs and BMBs are applied in your apiary,complete the risk assessment surveys in Annex 3.Regular consultation with a veterinarian or other qual-ified animal health professional and livestock production experts is recommended,not only when disease occurs but also to monitor bee health,biosecuri

55、ty measures and man-agement practices,so that shortcomings can be addressed before pathogens enter the apiary or cause evident(clinical)signs.2.1 GOOD BEEKEEPING PRACTICES(GBPS)GBPs should be considered as“a preventive tool able to properly control those factors that negatively affect hon-eybee heal

56、th,with consequences on human health,envi-ronment and farm productivity.”(Rivera-Gomis,Bubnic,Ribarits et al.,2019).Despite the importance of GBPs,thus far,the scientific literature and relevant regulations covering the beekeeping sector have only contributed a few general references to their defini

57、tion.We have established a set of GBPs through a process of definition,validation,classification and evaluation so that a list of validated and effective practices can be shared with all stakeholders involved.The FAOOIE Guide to good farming practices for animal production food safety(2009)and the c

58、ollaboration of BPractices partners,a transnatio-nal project funded under the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme,the European Research Area Network on Sustainable Animal Production(ERA-NET SusAn)(European Research Area on Sustainable Animal Production Systems,2016)provide

59、d a starting point for this process.GBPs are“integrative activities that beekeepers apply for on-apiary production to attain optimal health for honeybees,humans,and environment”(Rivera-Gomis,Bubnic,Ribarits et al.,2019:8).As such,their implementation has a positive effect on colony health,society an

60、d the environmental,in line with the One Health approach,thereby also favouring high production standards(Rivera-Gomis,Bubnic,Ribarits et al.,2019)(see Figure 5).GBPs have a very generic,universal approach.They have,indeed,a broadly common meaning and are not spe-cific to any geographical area or be

61、e disease.Nevertheless,they can properly prepare beekeepers to prevent and con-trol the various honeybee diseases by taking the necessary measures.2.1.1 Classification of GBPsThe GBPs were classified based on the OIEFAO classifica-tion of good farming practices(GFPs),under the following headings:gen

62、eral apiary management,veterinary med-icines,disease management(general),hygiene,animal feeding and watering,record-keeping,and training(Rive-ra-Gomis,Bubnic,Ribarits et al.,2019)(see Table 2).2.1.2 Identification of GBPsAn overall list of 251 GBPs was compiled from the average score provided by the

63、 different partners.This was then con-densed into a smaller and more practical list of 140 GBPs Chapter 2Prevention is better than cureFIGURE 5GBPs within the One Health approach in beekeepingRIVERA-GOMIS,BUBNIC,RIBARITS ET AL.(2019).for beekeepers,consisting of those with a mean score with-in the s

64、eventy-fifth percentile for each heading(see Annex 1)(Rivera-Gomis,Bubnic,Ribarits et al.,2019).Using the One Health approach,the following categories were iden-tified:honeybee health(HBH),product safety(PS),human health(HH)and productivity(PR)(see Table 3).Some GBPs were included in more than one c

65、ategory(Rivera-Gomis,Bubnic,Ribarits et al.,2019).GBPs also include monitoring of preclinical indicators.These are included in the honeybee health(HBH)category and are determined by in-field or laboratory diagnostic tests that detect the presence of honeybee diseases before they become clinically ev

66、ident and reduce hive productions,cause honeybee health issues or,in the worst cases,lead to colony death.Examples of PCIs include the presence/quantity of honeybee pathogens like Varroa mites,P.larvae or Nosema spp.within the hive(this can be monitored with beekeeping,microscopical,cultural or biom

67、olecular techniques).Annex 1 contains a detailed and validated list of GBPs by importance and category.2.2 BIOSECURITY MEASURES IN BEEKEEPING(BMBS)In addition to GBPs,there are Biosecurity Measures in Bee-keeping(BMBs).GBPs are the foundation of sustainable and resilient beekeeping,and a prerequisit

68、e for the imple-mentation of BMBs(Rivera-Gomis,Bubnic,Ribarits et al.,2019).Together,GBPs and BMBs increase honeybee health and reduce the need for antimicrobials at the apiary level.TABLE 2GBP headings and number of GBPs identified Heading Number of GBPs identified General apiary management 63 Vete

69、rinary medicines 8 Disease management(general)23 Hygiene 7 Animal feeding and watering 7 Record-keeping 25 Training 7TABLE 3GBP categories and number of practices identifiedGBP category Number of GBPs identified Honeybee health(HBH)109 Product safety(PS)44 Human health(HH)16 Productivity(PR)45FIGURE

70、 6BMBs within the One Health approach in beekeepingRIVERA-GOMIS,BUBNIC,RIBARITS ET AL.(2019).MODIFIEDAccording to Dewulf and Van Immerseel(2018),“bios-ecurity refers to the combination of all the different measures implemented to reduce the risk of introduction and spread of disease agents.”Biosecur

71、ity measures in Beekeeping(BMBs)are“all those operational activities implemented by the beekeeper to reduce the risk of intro-duction and spread of specific honeybee disease agents”(Pietropaoli,Ribarits,Moosbeckhofer et al.,2021).4Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeeping5BMBs,unlike GBPs,vary

72、 according to geographical area,climate conditions,beekeeping technology,bee genetic(different races of breeds of bees)or due to the differing prevalence,virulence and economic impact of the path-ogens.BMBs refer to each specific disease(e.g.,BMs for varroa,BMs for AFB,etc.).BMBs are indeed related

73、with local factors(e.g.,climatic conditions,beekeeping tech-nology,political decisions,bee breeds or races),stressors(e.g.,nutritional,pesticides,predators,etc.)or different prevalence,virulence and/or economic impact of honey-bee diseases.Recommendations and regulations of local authorities dictate

74、 the specific disease control strategies.In addition,BMBs are constantly evolving,depending on changes in the all mentioned factors listed above.A list of 67 BMBs was drawn up by the BPractices Board of Experts for the four main honeybee diseases:varroosis,American foulbrood,European foulbrood and n

75、osemosis(see Annex 2).These were then classified within the cate-gories of honeybee health(HBH,which includes preclinical indicators PCIs),product safety(PS),human health(HH)and productivity(PR)(see Table 4).Some BMBs were includ-ed in more than one category.Most BMBs clearly have an impact on honey

76、bee health(HBH)and hive productivity(PR).These two sectors are strongly linked given that keeping hives healthy increases productivity and profitability.As in most livestock husbandry systems,there is a wide variety in beekeeping practices between and within areas.Moreover,regulatory provisions and

77、compliance systems have a strong impact on disease management and imple-mentation of control strategies.BMBs evolve and should be periodically reviewed depending on changes concerning new invaders,and more generally,changes in prevalence of honeybee pathogens and abiotic stressors(e.g.changes in cli

78、mate that interfere with the biology of honeybees or pathogens).External biosecurity refers to actions taken to prevent the introduction of infectious diseases into the apiary,while internal biosecurity refers to actions taken to prevent spread of infection within the apiary,between hives.Both GBPs

79、and BMBs are key to increasing the resilience and sustainability of beekeeping.TABLE 4BMBs by category and disease Disease HBH(PCI)PS HH PR Varroosis 21(1 PCI)5 0 14 American foulbrood 19(1 PCI)0 0 8 European foulbrood 18(1PCI)0 0 6 Nosemosis 8(1 PCI)1 0 5 Total 56(4 PCI)6 0 33Chapter 2:Prevention i

80、s better than cure7In beekeeping,medicines are mainly used to control Varroa mites and small hive beetles.For Varroa mites,acaricides are frequently used in conjunction with several beekeeping techniques that can increase their efficacy.For small hive beetles,insecticides are frequently used in conj

81、unction with mechanical methods,such as traps.Antibiotics may be used for some honeybee infections caused by bacteria(European foulbrood or American foul-brood)or fungi(Nosema spp.).This chapter discusses the use of antimicrobials in beekeep-ing,starting with pharmaceutical Varroa control methods.In

82、 modern beekeeping,the course of action for Varroa destructor in Apis mellifera is management with acaricides,except in limited geographic areas like South Africa,where local honeybees(Apis mellifera capensis and Apis mellifera scutellata)are naturally resistant to the mite.In the rest of the world,

83、this has proven very difficult to accomplish.Nevertheless,it is strongly advisable to minimize the amount of acaricides applied at the apiary level,admin-istering proper acaricide treatments at appropriate times during the year,or favouring active ingredients with a lower environmental impact.Medica

84、l management of Apis mellifera without antibiotics is feasible and a significant milestone in sustainability.Bee-keepers can instead reduce the presence of infectious diseases at the apiary level by adopting GBPs and effective BMBs,or selecting genetically resistant bees(which are not yet available)

85、.Minimal or no use of medicines results in practically residue-free bee products.This increases market access and opens up the possibility of using quality marks for products(such as“organic”),which fetch higher prices on the market.3.1 PROPER USE OF ANTIMICROBIALS:GENERAL CONCEPTSAntimicrobials sho

86、uld not replace GBPs or BMBs.It is important to follow the instructions on medicine packages on shelf life(for sealed as well as open vials)and storage temperature(e.g.placing it in a clean cupboard or refrigerator if cold storage is required).Inappropriate or excessive use of antimicrobials is unli

87、kely to improve animal health and can result in toxicity or antimicrobial resistance(AMR;see Box 1).It is therefore crucial to use antimicrobials in a medically responsible way.3.2 ANTIMICROBIALS ACCESS AND HANDLINGAntimicrobials should only be used with a veterinary pre-scription or based on veteri

88、nary advice.All treated hives should receive the medicine at the correct dose and at the appropriate time.The instructions given by the veterinarian and printed on the label should be strictly followed.Chapter 3How to use antimicrobials in beekeeping prudently and efficientlyBOX 1Antimicrobial resis

89、tance what is it?Antimicrobial resistance(AMR)is a major global threat of increasing concern to human and animal health.It also has implications for food safety,food security and the economic well-being of millions of farming households.AMR refers to when microorganisms bacteria,fungi,viruses and pr

90、otozoal parasites develop resis-tance to antimicrobial substances,like antibiotics.This can occur naturally through adaptation to the environ-ment.The pace of AMRs spread is now on the increase due to inappropriate and excessive use of antimicrobials.Various factors are at play:lack of regulation an

91、d oversight of use;lack of awareness in best practices which leads to excessive or inappropriate use;the use of antibiotics not as medicines but as growth pro-moters in animals;over-the-counter or internet sales which make antimicrobial drugs readily available,and the common availability of falsifie

92、d or poor-quality antimicrobials.As a result of AMR,medicines that were once effective treatments for disease become less so or even useless,reducing their ability to successfully treat infections,mortality increases;there are more severe or prolonged illnesses;agriculture faces production losses;an

93、d livelihoods and food security are reduced.The health consequences and economic costs of AMR are respectively estimated at 10 million human fatalities a year and a 2 to 3.5 percent decrease in global gross domestic product(GDP),amounting to USD 100 trillion by 2050.However,the full impact remains h

94、ard to estimate.Source:FAO(2021)8Based on findings in human medicine,it is likely that in many countries,large volumes of antimicrobials sold are of substandard quality or falsified(Kelesidis&Falagas,2015).This includes medicines with no or very low amounts of the active substance,expired medicines,

95、or medicines with false labelling.Such medicines will not cure the diseased hives;rather,they may drive AMR and can even be dan-gerous for bees.As such,antimicrobials should only be purchased from licensed,credible dealers and/or estab-lished businesses,which stand behind the quality of the medicine

96、s they sell.Outdated,leftover or expired medicines should be disposed of in environmentally friendly ways,such as returning them to the retailer or in appropriate disposal facilities.These antimicrobials may have lost much of their potency and might be harmful to diseased colonies.They may contribut

97、e to the development of resistant pathogens(bacteria,fungi or parasites)either in the hives(if used)or in the environment(if disposed of in an inappropriate way).3.3 DISEASE DETECTIONDespite preventive measures and proper care,honeybees just like humans can still be affected by diseases.A diseased h

98、ive may require treatment to guarantee its health and welfare and to ensure food production.Clinical examination of sick hives is crucial for determining a correct diagnosis and establishing a treatment plan or the biosecu-rity measures to apply.Sometimes,a laboratory diagnosis is needed to determin

99、e the exact disease agent and choose the most effective treatment.Unfortunately,laboratory capacity is highly variable between regions and cost and timing are also an issue,since it can take some days to diagnose disease.Thus,in regions with poor laboratory services and farmers,particularly smallhol

100、ders with limited resources,the clinical skills of the veterinarian become even more important.In these cases especially,kits for on-field diagnosis(e.g.for American foulbrood or European foul-brood diagnostics)can be very useful,even if not cheap.Frequent hive health checks(at least once a month,de

101、pending on the season)are important to detect suspect-ed sick colonies as early as possible.Many diseases can spread very rapidly within apiaries or among close apiaries,especially through robbing behaviour,2 so it is vital to act quickly and seek assistance from a competent veterinarian or bee heal

102、th technician if necessary.2 Robbing behaviour is especially strong when there is little nectar in the field.Strong colonies with the largest stores are more likely to prey upon weaker colonies.Some robbing is carried out so secretly that it escapes notice.Most of the time,when robbing is taking pla

103、ce,bees from the opposing hives can be seen fighting.These fights can lead to significant loss of bees.Robbing may go on between hives in one apiary or hives of different apiaries.3.4 KEEPING RECORDS Apiary record-keeping is essential,especially for professional beekeeping,and can save time and mone

104、y.These records can be used to improve apiary productivity management,apiary health planning,and as medical history for future disease outbreaks.Having productivity and health data is essential to improve the profitability of the hives.Inclusion of data about type of medicine,dosage,indications for

105、use,modality of administration and,if available,data from laboratory diagnos-tics and results of official controls are very helpful.Moreover,it is very important to record dates of treat-ments and the type of treatment given(e.g.if associated or not with a specific beekeeping technique)to ensure tha

106、t active ingredients are rotated(which is very important for Varroa control),and to evaluate final efficacy(e.g.by counting the amount of Varroa at the bottom of the hive or verifying the subsequent mortality of the hives).3.5 ANTIBIOTICS CANNOT PROTECT AGAINST POOR BEEKEEPING PRACTICESAntibiotic tr

107、eatments are usually administered to hives via liquid sucrose syrup or medicated candy,but this also requires proper training of personnel/beekeepers to calculate correct dosage and avoid spillover treatment.A homogeneous distribution of the antibiotic within the syrup or the candy and sufficient up

108、take by all hives must be assured.After medication,containers/feeders should be carefully cleaned to avoid cross-contamination and residues.In many countries,antibiotics are not registered for bees,so their use may be illegal(such as in the European Union,where they may only be administered under th

109、e“cascade prescription”3).Antibiotics like tetracyclines,sulfonamides or tylosin may be effective,especially if associated with the beekeep-ing technique of the shook swarm,for some honeybee infections caused by bacteria,like European foulbrood(EFB)or American foulbrood(AFB)(in the latter case,it is

110、 impor-tant to note that they are not able to kill spores).Moreover,the antibiotic fumagillin may be effective for the treatment of the nosemosis caused by the microsporidium(fungus)Nosema spp.Individual hive treatments should always be favoured,since“whole apiary”treatments promote the development

111、and spread of AMR.The number of colonies treated and the spread of antibiotic residues via drifting should be minimized.Identification of sick hives(such as through hive labelling)3 Where there is no suitable veterinary medicine authorized in a specific European Union member State for the specific c

112、ondition being treated,to avoid unacceptable suffering,vets are permitted to use their clinical judgement to treat animals under their care in accordance with the cascade prescription(for more information,see glossary).Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeeping9enables individual treatment and

113、record-keeping.It may also be wise,where possible,to relocate the infected hive to an isolated“quarantine”apiary until it has recovered.Antibiotics are sometimes given to healthy hives as a pre-caution to prevent,rather than treat,an infection(particu-larly AFB and EFB).Preventive use of antibiotics

114、(also called“prophylactic use”)is discouraged in livestock and should be discouraged in beekeeping too.In countries where the use of antibiotics in beekeeping is approved(such as the United States of America),they are intended for therapeutic purpose only.Antibiotics should only be used preventively

115、 in exceptional circumstances,such as when some hives in a group have been diagnosed with an infection that has most likely already infected,or will soon infect,the rest of the api-ary and the consequences are likely to be severe.It may then be necessary to treat hives that are not yet infected/clin

116、ically ill but are at immediate and high risk of becoming infected and contributing to further disease spread.Moreover,antibiotics are not effective for non-bacterial disease agents such as viruses,fungi(with the exception of Nosema spp.)and parasites.Therefore,it is essential to have a correct diag

117、nosis before starting any antibiotic treat-ment.Not all antibiotics are effective against all bacteria,either.Antibiotic susceptibility,also called antibiotic sensi-tivity,refers to the likelihood that bacteria will be inhibited or killed by a certain antibiotic.This can vary even between different

118、strains of the same bacterial species.Any super-fluous use of antibiotics,such as for viral diseases,drives selection of resistant bacteria and threatens to make the next bacterial infection harder or even impossible to treat.There are other reasons to discourage the use of antibi-otics in beekeepin

119、g:the frequent relapses of these diseases;the contamination of the hive components and the likely release of antibiotics into hive products with possibility of generating residues in hive products;the risk,especially for AFB,to mask the disease,allowing a spread of sub-clinical infections within the

120、 whole apiary;the sustainabili-ty-oriented approach of modern beekeeping.Furthermore,antibiotics kill beneficial commensal(protective)bacteria which provide a natural barrier and defence system against pathogenic(disease-causing)bacteria,thereby removing the animals natural defence and making it mor

121、e vulnerable to opportunistic pathogens.New tools to control bee pathogens that can even be used in organic beekeeping are under investigation,such as specific bacteriocins,probiotics,phytotherapeutic/essential oil products and bacteriophages.3.6 CONCLUSIONThe main advice for beekeepers on use of an

122、timicrobials in beekeeping can be summarized as follows:1.avoid/reduce use of antimicrobials and adopt GBPs and BMBs medicines should never be considered a substitute for GBPs or BMBs;2.only use antimicrobials according to a veterinarians indication and the instruction label;3.do not administer any

123、antimicrobial during a honey flow or into honey supers;4.do not misuse antimicrobials,including prophylacti-cally,because it may lead to AMR;5.spillover of antimicrobials may be toxic for honey-bees and may lead to residues in hive products;6.only use antibiotics for individual treatment on affected

124、 hives.Chapter 3:How to use antimicrobials in beekeeping prudently and efficiently11Honeybees are susceptible to various diseases,some of which are highly contagious.It is very important for a beekeeper to be able to recognize the first signs of disease or infestation in hives and know how to procee

125、d in its management.This knowledge may be acquired through specific training and on-field experience.This chapter briefly outlines important factors in the honeybee disease dynamic and classifies the main honeybee diseases,including the zoonosis,aspergillosis.Honeybee diseases can be classified in t

126、wo ways:the nature of the agent responsible for the disease:parasitic,fungal,bacterial or viral(this type of classifi-cation is more accurate);the function of the individuals affected in the hive:brood diseases or adult diseases(see Table 5).In an increasingly globalized world,the international trad

127、e of bees and bee products is continuously growing.It has increased considerably over the past few decades in particular and is expected to continue to increase as tech-nology makes transport easier and lowers national trade barriers.All members of the World Trade Organization(WTO)have agreed to tra

128、ding rules in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures,or SPS Agreement.Member States recognized OIE as the relevant international organization for developing standards,guide-lines and recommendations on animal health.The OIE Terrestrial animal health code is used as a

129、 basis for drafting veterinary regulations and guidelines governing the import and export of animals and animal products.The honeybee diseases covered by the code are:acara-pisosis(Acarapis woodi),varroosis(Varroa spp.),AFB,EFB,aethinosis(Aethina tumida or small hive beetle),and tro-pilaelapsosis(Tr

130、opilaelaps spp.).Other bee diseases such as nosemosis,chalkbrood and all viral diseases are not currently covered by the OIE Ter-restrial animal health code that provides standards for the improvement of animal health and welfare and veterinary public health worldwide,including through standards for

131、 safe international trade in terrestrial animals(mammals,reptiles,birds and bees)and their products.However,nose-mosis is included in the OIE Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals.The OIE has also published measures for the safe trade and movement of bees for importing coun

132、tries to prevent the introduction of bee diseases into their territory.There Chapter 4Main honeybee diseasesTABLE 5Main honeybee diseases Disease Causative agent Type Individuals affected Acarapisosis Acarapis woodi Parasitic AdultsVarroosis Varroa destructor Parasitic Adults and broodAethinosis Aet

133、hina tumida(Small hive beetle)Parasitic BroodTropilaelapsosis Tropilaelaps spp.Parasitic Adults and broodAmerican foulbrood(AFB)Paenibacillus larvae Bacterial BroodEuropean foulbrood(EFB)Melissococcus plutonius Bacterial BroodChalkbrood Ascosphaera apis Fungal BroodStonebrood Aspergillus flavus Fung

134、al BroodNosemosis Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae Fungal AdultsAmoebiasis Malpighamoeba mellificae Protozoal AdultsSacbrood virus(SBV)Picornavirus Viral BroodChronic bee paralysis virus(CBPV)Cripaviridae Viral AdultsAcute bee paralysis virus(ABPV)Dicistroviridae Viral AdultsDeformed wing virus(DWV)If

135、laviridae Viral AdultsBlack queen cell virus(BQCV)Dicistroviridae Viral BroodIsraeli acute paralisysis virus(IAPV)Dicistroviridae Viral AdultsKashmir bee virus(KBV)Dicistroviridae Viral Adults12Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeepingare currently no vaccines for bee diseases,so it is vital t

136、o control the spread of diseases by following the recommen-dations.The prevalence of honeybee diseases should be period-ically monitored to check whether they fulfil OIEs criteria for listed diseases(see chapter 1.2 of the Terrestrial animal health code,2018).4.1 VARROOSISVarroa destructor(V.destruc

137、tor)is the mite responsible for varroosis,an external parasitic disease that attacks honey-bee colonies(see Figure 7).V.destructor is the biggest cause of economic losses in the beekeeping sector worldwide.It is present in almost all parts of the world except for Australia and has shown a strong abi

138、lity to develop resistance to some of the available treatments.The mite affects both the brood and adult bees.With the exception of a few subspecies of honeybee,if left untreated,an infested colony will become weaker over time and likely die.The mite weakens bees by feeding primarily on their fat bo

139、dy tissue.Weakened bees are more susceptible to many other diseases,especially viral patho-gens(such as deformed wing virus or acute bee paralysis virus),which can wipe out entire bee colonies.It is also important to verify visual signs of Varroa infes-tation during hive inspections,such as:the pres

140、ence of mites on adult bees(these can easily be detected at the end of the productive season);scattered and discoloured brood pattern,with per-forated cappings containing dead bees at the end of metamorphosis,unable to leave the cells;the presence of deformed bees:smaller,with stunted abdomens or de

141、formed wings.4.1.1 ControlWithout a doubt,most A.mellifera colonies in temper-ate climates will be damaged or even collapse within a few years if no or inappropriate Varroa control methods are used(Boecking and Genersch,2008;Rademacher and Harz,2006;Rosenkranz,Aumeier and Ziegelmann,2010).There are

142、a wide range of different chemical substances,application techniques and methods to keep mite populations under control.Treatments include an array of different miticide options that are highly depend-ent on location,time of year,level of infestation and honey-flow period.All these factors should be

143、 considered to ensure treatment is effective in reducing the number of mites in the colony and preventing honey contamination(FAO,2020).Acaricide treatment strategies may include:“Hard”acaricides:these are used to control Varroa and include pyrethroids(e.g.fluvalinate,acrinathrin,flumethrin),organop

144、hosphates(e.g.coumaphos)and formamidine(e.g.amitraz).These are usually synthetic substances with a high environmental impact.They are not usually approved for organic beekeeping.Most do not require in-depth knowledge of the mites biology and are easy to apply:they are mainly used as sustained-releas

145、e formulations,most often in the form of chemical-impregnated strips.As lipophilic sub-stances,they are mainly absorbed by the bees wax,thus not directly jeopardizing the honey unless grossly misused.However,they are persistent and accumulate FIGURE 7Left:Dorsal and ventral view of a V.destructor fe

146、male-Center:V.destructor female on a drone back-Right:V.destructor female on a pupaGIOVANNI FORMATO,IZSLT13after repeated treatments.As a consequence,they may contaminate bee products in levels exceeding maximum residue limits.Other disadvantages of these miticides is that they may harm bees(Chauzat

147、 et al.,2009)and create Varroa resistance,thus causing unrecognized failure of the control(Milani,2001).Rotation of active ingredients is strongly advised to prevent AMR(FAO,2020).Unfortunately,the use of hard acaricides registered for plants containing pyretroids(e.g.fluvalinate,bifen-thrin,ethofen

148、prox)or organophosphates(e.g.clor-phenvinphos,clorpyriphos,diazinon,pirimiphos-me-thyl)has been recorded in beekeeping(Spain,Ministry of Agriculture,Food and the Environment,2016).Such use is illegal and can harm human health,bee health and the environment.It is critical to use prod-ucts specificall

149、y registered for bees(FAO,2020).“Soft”acaricides:these are acaricides with a low envi-ronmental impact and are usually approved for organic beekeeping.They include organic acids(e.g.formic acid,oxalic acid,lactic acid)and essential oils(e.g.thymol)(FAO,2020).Apart from formic acid,they have only pro

150、ven to be effec-tive on phoretic Varroa.As such,their acaricide activity is higher when no capped brood is present in the hives.Formic acid has shown acaricide activity on not only pho-retic Varroa,but also Varroa in the reproductive stage(i.e.within the sealed brood)(FAO,2020).Organic compounds do

151、not leave residual active ingre-dients that are dangerous for human health.Most of these substances are water-soluble and/or volatile and,furthermore,natural ingredients of honey.This makes contaminations that jeopardize the quality of honey or beeswax unlikely.So far,no issues of resist-ance have b

152、een reported with organic compound use(FAO,2020).Their miticide effects and toxicity for honeybees depend on different climate and beekeeping conditions,such as active ingredient concentration,time and number of treatments,method of application(trickling,evaporat-ing,spraying,sustained-release formu

153、lations,etc.),alti-tude and type of hive.For this reason,the climate and within-hive conditions and the mode of application should be carefully tuned for optimal effect.Compared with hard acaricides,the“therapeutic index”(the range between efficacy on Varroa and toxicity for the bee)of soft acacirid

154、es is lower and the final acaricide efficacy is often more variable.Beekeeper training is highly advisable(FAO,2020).Biotechnical methods:Varroa infestation can be reduced by adopting biotechnical methods.These should be applied by experienced,trained beekeep-ers.They tend to be more time-consuming

155、than the application of acacirides(FAO,2020).The most com-monly used biotechnical methods are:-Drone brood removal:this consists of reducing mite population growth by removing the drone brood.This technique is typical in spring,when bees increase drone brood.Elimination of drone brood does not seem

156、to affect colony size or honey production(Calderone,2005).-Brood interruption:this technique consists of a number of methods that interrupt the Varroa life cycle,stopping it from reproducing.It is achieved by caging the queen or confining her in a trapping comb or completely removing the brood(FAO,2

157、020).Integrated control:acaricide performance(hard or soft acaricides,organic or conventional)can be boost-ed by applying them in combination with biotechnical methods.For example,the hive can be treated more effectively by combining brood interruption with oxal-ic acid or amitraz treatments during

158、its temporarily induced broodless stage(FAO,2020).Biological control:this is another potential strate-gy against Varroa infestations but research is in its early stages and no biological commercial product for Varroa treatment is currently available.The most substantial efforts have been made with e

159、ntomo-pathogenic fungi such as Metarhizium,Beauveria and Verticillium.Selective breeding of Varroa-tolerant bees:this is considered the best long-term solution.However,independent proof of“resistant lines”is lacking and it is often difficult to make recommendations concerning the use of commercially

160、 raised queens(Rosenkranz,Aumeier and Ziegelmann,2010;FAO,2020).4.2 AMERICAN FOULBROODAmerican foulbrood(AFB)is a bacterial disease that affects brood.“It is considered the most widespread and destructive infectious bee disease and it can cause serious economic losses to beekeeping.The term“American

161、”does not refer to the disease originating from the United States of America,but rather to the fact that it was first identified and studied there”(FAO,2020).“AFB is caused by a spore-forming bacterium,Paeniba-cillus larvae(P.larvae).The spores can withstand a tempera-ture of 100C for several minute

162、s in a suitable environment(e.g.in the intestine of the larvae)and a single spore can produce 250 million new bacilli after only 24 hours”(FAO,2020).Spores can remain viable for more than 30 years in an infected hive,contaminating new colonies(FAO,2020).The affected brood is characterized by high mo

163、rtality,and the broodcomb appears irregularly capped(see Figure 8).Chapter 4:Main honeybee diseasesResponsible use of antimicrobials in beekeeping14FIGURE 8The“toothpick test”to diagnose AFBFIGURE 9Incineration of infected combsFIGURE 10Dead larvae with EFB in open cells4.2.1 ControlAppropriate acti

164、on should be taken as soon as a case of AFB is detected to reduce the spread of the infection.AFB is mainly controlled through three different methods:antibi-otic treatment,shook swarm or incineration(FAO,2020):4 Antibiotic treatment:in many countries,this is not allowed.Where it is allowed and ther

165、e are antibiotics registered for use on honeybees against AFB,these do not guarantee total disinfection of the hive(they have a bacteriostatic rather than bactericidal effect)and are not effective against spores,increasing the risk of relapses and further spread of the infection.Furthermore,inap-pro

166、priate use of antibiotics encourages AMR and risks the presence of medicinal residues in hive products.That said,antibiotic treatment can be effective,especially if combined with the“shook swarm”technique which may actually help reduce antibiotic contamination of hive products.The persistence of ant

167、ibiotic residues may vary depending on the antibiotic selected:oxy-tetracycline decomposes fastest in honey,followed by streptomycin and sulphathiazole(Ga i et al.,2015;FAO,2020).Antibiotic treatment may be the treatment of choice(in countries where antibiotics are registered),in cases of early dise

168、ase stage in strong colonies and in cases of high disease prevalence in the apiary(FAO,2020).As stated in chapter 3,the golden rules for anti-biotic use are as follows:-“be aware of and comply with regulations for the use of veterinary medicines in honeybees.Use antimicrobials only in accordance wit

169、h regulato-ry requirements and other veterinary and public health guidance”(FAO,2020:41);-only use antimicrobials registered specifically for honeybees;-“keep detailed records of the origin and use of all medicines,including batch numbers,dates of administration,doses,treated hives and withdrawal ti

170、mes.Treated hives or apiaries should be clearly identified”(FAO,2020:41);-observe the required storage conditions for antimi-crobials and feeds;-“ensure that all treatments or procedures are car-ried out properly,as described in the instructions(e.g.respecting the dose and method of applica-tion)”(F

171、AO,2020:41);-“observe the withdrawal time of antimicrobials and ensure that products from treated hives are not used for human consumption until the withdrawal periods have elapsed”(FAO,2020:41).The shook swarm method:this“consists of shaking the bees from the infected combs(brood and store combs)in

172、to a clean hive with new frames and new 4 If the colony is severely compromised,incineration is the best option.MASSIMO PALAZZETTI,AZIENDA SANITARIA LOCALE VITERBO VITERBO LOCAL HEALTH CARE SERVICE ASL VTGIOVANNI FORMATO,IZSLTPHOTO BY MASSIMO PALAZZETTI,ASL VT15Chapter 4:Main honeybee diseasesfounda

173、tions”(FAO,2020:41).This reduces the infec-tion level,as the affected brood are the most contam-inated.“Old,infected combs should be destroyed by incineration”(FAO,2020:41).This method“gives bet-ter results in the case of strong colonies and during the honey flow,as colonies will need to build new h

174、oney-combs starting from wax foundations”(FAO,2020:41).Destruction of the hives by incineration(see Fig-ure 9):incineration of combs and honeybees after killing the bees(e.g.by asphyxia with sulphur dioxide,in the evening or at night)may be the best option in the case of“weak colonies;severe AFB cli

175、nical infec-tion;when the disease appears outside of the honey flow(colony recovery is more difficult because it is impossible to build new honeycombs,and there high probability of relapse);and a very low prevalence of the disease in the apiary or in the geographical area”(FAO,2020:42)(when the goal

176、 is the eradication of AFB).“If the hive is in good condition,it may be dis-infected using sodium hypochlorite and finally torch-ing,after having first scraped off wax and propolis”(FAO,2020:42).Otherwise,it should be incinerated.“To destroy a hive by incineration and avoid further contamination,a h

177、ole at least 50cm deep should be dug in the ground.Then the combs(and the hive,if needed)should be burned,and the hole should then be covered in soil”(FAO,2020:42).4.2.2 DisinfectionAll beekeeping equipment(boxes,boards,frames,queen excluders,etc.)and objects used for the manipulation of infected hi

178、ves(e.g.hive tools,gloves,suit,etc.)should be properly disinfected.“Possible methods to use vary accord-ing to the substrate to disinfect.Wooden equipment can be scorched with fire and then sprayed with bleach or caustic soda.Objects can be dipped in hot paraffin or microcrys-talline wax,or gamma-ra

179、yed”(FAO,2020:43).Clean the honey-house extraction tools/facilities(uncappers,cen-trifuge,sieves,pumps,spins,honey extractor etc.),the hive-product packaging materials(jars,tanks,barrels,etc.)thoroughly with detergent(FAO,2020:43).After applying detergent,be sure to rinse all items adequately.4.3 EU

180、ROPEAN FOULBROODEuropean foulbrood(EFB)is a bacterial disease that affects the honeybee brood.The genetic resistance of some spe-cies of bees to this disease may allow them to overcome infection without suffering serious damage,especially in favourable environmental conditions.However,it should be n

181、oted that even if prognosis is better than for AFB,in some areas,EFB has a more malignant manifestation,seriously damaging even strong bee colonies(FAO,2020).EFB is caused by the non-spore-forming bacterium Melissococcus plutonius(M.plutonius),often associated with other bacteria,including Bacillus

182、pumilis,Paenibacil-lus alvei,Paenibacillus dendritiformis,Enterococcus faeca-lis,Achromobacter eurydice and Brevibacillus laterospo-rus.Depending on the species of bacteria associated with M.plutonius,EFB can present different clinical signs,such as the presence or absence of an unpleasant acidic sm

183、ell.M.plutonius is is quite resistant to adverse environ-mental conditions,remaining viable for several months in pollen.The disease(Figure 9)can occur throughout the year,but it is more common in spring when there is more brood to feed due to an increase in the queen bees egg depo-sition.This creat

184、es an imbalance between the increasing number of larvae and the few nurse bees that survive wintering,which may trigger EFB(FAO,2020).In addition,the EFB would seem to be more common in cold and rainy spring,where there may be food shortages,particularly of protein for the brood due to lack of polle

185、n(FAO,2020).“The health status of the colony plays an important role in the development of the disease.Weak colonies or colonies that are stressed for any reason(food short-age,migratory beekeeping,pesticides,etc.),as well as genetically more sensitive colonies,are especially prone to this disease.H

186、ealthy and strong colonies will be able to recover from the disease by themselves if the season guarantees adequate food sources(e.g.pollen and nec-tar)”(FAO,2020:46).A typical sign of EFB is dead larvae in open cells,as they are killed before the cells are capped.“This is one of the features that d

187、ifferentiates EFB from AFB”(FAO,2020:46)(see Figure 10 and Table 6).TABLE 6Main differences between EFB and AFB European foulbrood(EFB)American foulbrood(AFB)Dead larva in uncapped cell Dead larva in capped cellSour smell Smell of fish gelatinAbsence of blackening of honeycombs Dark honeycombs,sunke

188、n and perforated cappingsNon-ropey dead larvae Ropey dead larvaeRemovable flake Non-removable flakeSource:FAO(2020)Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeeping164.3.1 ControlIt is important to take appropriate actions as soon as pos-sible when a case of EFB is detected,to reduce the spread of the

189、 infection.EFB is mainly controlled through the same three methods as for AFB:antibiotic treatment,shook swarm or incineration:5 Antibiotic treatment:in many countries,this is not allowed.Where it is allowed and there are antibiotics registered for use on honeybees against AFB,these do not guarantee

190、 total disinfection of the hive(they have a bacteriostatic rather than bactericidal effect)and are not effective against spores,increasing the risk of relapses and further spread of the infection.Further-more,inappropriate use of antibiotics encourages AMR and risks the presence of medicinal residue

191、s in hive products.That said,antibiotic treatment can be effec-tive,especially if combined with the“shook swarm”technique which may actually help reduce antibiotic contamination of hive products.The persistence of antibiotic residues may vary depending on the antibiotic selected:oxytetracycline deco

192、mposes fastest in honey,followed by streptomycin and sulphathiazole(Ga i et al.,2015;FAO,2020).Antibiotic treatment may be the treatment of choice(in countries where antibiotics are registered),in cases of early disease stage in strong colonies and in cases of high disease prevalence in the apiary(F

193、AO,2020).As stated in chapter 3,the golden rules for antibiotic use are as follows:-“Be aware of and comply with regulations for the use of veterinary medicines in honeybees.Use antimicrobials only in accordance with regulato-ry requirements and other veterinary and public health guidance”(FAO,2020:

194、41).-Only use antimicrobials registered specifically for honeybees.-“Keep detailed records of the origin and use of all medicines,including batch numbers,dates of administration,doses,treated hives and withdrawal times.Treated hives or apiaries should be clearly identified”(FAO,2020:41).-Observe the

195、 required storage conditions for veteri-nary medicines and feeds.-“Ensure that all treatments or procedures are car-ried out properly,as described in the instructions(e.g.respecting the dose and method of applica-tion)”(FAO,2020:41).-“Observe the withdrawal time of veterinary prod-ucts and ensure th

196、at products from treated hives are not used for human consumption until the withdrawal periods have elapsed”(FAO,2020:41).5 If the colony is severely compromised,bee killing and incineration is the best option.The shook swarm method:this“consists of shaking the bees from the infected combs(brood and

197、 store combs)into a clean hive with new frames and new foundations”(FAO,2020:41).This reduces the infec-tion level,as the affected brood are the most con-taminated.“Old,infected combs should be destroyed by incineration”(FAO,2020:41).This method“gives better results in the case of strong colonies an

198、d dur-ing the honey flow,as colonies will need to build new honeycombs starting from wax foundations”(FAO,2020:41).In the case of EFB,which is usually less severe than AFB,a“partial shook swarm”may be performed,taking out only brood combs(which are the most infected material)and leaving the store co

199、mbs(FAO,2020).“This will allow the colony to recover more quickly and produce honey for human consumption within a few months”(FAO,2020:47).Destruction of the hives by incineration:incineration of combs and honeybees after killing the bees(e.g.by asphyxia with sulphur dioxide,in the evening or at ni

200、ght)may be the best option in the case of“weak colonies;severe EFB clinical infection;when the disease appears outside of the honey flow(colony recovery is more difficult because it is impossible to build new honeycombs,and there high probability of relapse);and a very low prevalence of the disease

201、in the apiary or in the geographical area”(FAO,2020:42)(when the goal is the eradication of AFB).“If the hive is in good condition,it may be disinfected using sodium hypochlorite and finally torching,after having first scraped off wax and propolis”(FAO,2020:42).Otherwise,it should be incinerated.“To

202、 destroy a hive by incineration and avoid further contamination,a hole at least 50 cm deep should be dug in the ground.Then the combs(and the hive,if needed)should be burned,and the hole should then be cov-ered in soil”(FAO,2020:42).4.3.2 DisinfectionAll beekeeping equipment(boxes,boards,frames,quee

203、n excluders,etc.)and objects used for the manipulation of infected hives(e.g.hive tools,gloves,suit,etc.)should be properly disinfected.“Possible methods to use vary according to the substrate to disinfect.Wooden equipment can be scorched with fire and then sprayed with bleach or caustic soda.Object

204、s can be dipped in hot paraffin or microcrystalline wax,or gamma-rayed”(FAO,2020:43).Clean the honey-house extraction tools/facilities(uncap-pers,centrifuge,sieves,pumps,spins,honey extractor etc.),the hive-product packaging materials(jars,tanks,barrels,etc.)thoroughly with detergent(FAO,2020:43).Ch

205、apter 4:Main honeybee diseases174.4 NOSEMOSISNosemosis is a disease of adult bees caused by unicellular fungi belonging to the Nosema genus of the Nosematidae family.There are two different species of Nosema that affect Apis mellifera,with different prevalence depending on the area:Nosema apis(N.api

206、s)and Nosema ceranae(N.cer-anae).Both have a dormant stage as spores.The spores are hard to distinguish morphologically and represent the resistant and propagation form of the disease(FAO,2020)(see Figure 11).Spores can remain infectious from a few days up to five years at low temperatures(FAO,2020)

207、.“Heat,as well as solar ultraviolet radiation,can kill them in a few hours”(FAO,2020:29).N.apis spores sur-vive well in cold and freezing conditions,while N.ceranae spores are killed at low temperatures,preferring higher temperatures(up to 60C),and can survive desiccation.Nosemosis is influenced by

208、many factors:“wet and cold spells increase the chances of infection among bees of the same hive because they force the bees indoors;scarcity of honey and pollen flows;seasonal patterns can also affect the spread of infection.During long,cold winters and cold,rainy springs,the bees may not find necta

209、r and pollen;frequent hive inspections during adverse weather con-ditions(e.g.winter season,windy or rainy weather)can trigger the onset of the disease as well as its propagation due to the induced stress;the presence of other diseases(such as amoebiasis,varroosis or viruses)exacerbates the symptoms

210、 of nosemosis”(FAO,2020:29);“Nosema apis is responsible for the“classic”known form of the disease,which is widespread especially in cold and wet areas.It appears more easily during spring and in mismanaged hives during winter.It occurs mainly with a decrease in the colony population.The disease neve

211、r affects the larval stages and seldom the queen.Nosema FIGURE 11Microscopic Nosema spp.sporesFIGURE 12Honeycomb smeared with Nosema-infected diarrhoeaapis spores,found in the faeces of the bees,are directly or indirectly ingested by adult honeybees and develop in the intestines of the bees,affectin

212、g their digestive functionsSpores are expelled with faeces and can be swallowed by other bees,which become infected”(FAO,2020:30).The fungus also affects the nutrition glands,abruptly interrupt-ing their secretion.The bees can no longer feed the brood and consequently,colony renewal comes to a halt.

213、N.ceranae is a recently identified species of fungus,first isolated in 1996 by Fries on A.cerana,a bee species wide-spread in Southeast Asia(FAO,2020).It was first isolated in A.mellifera by Higes in 2006(FAO,2020).N.ceranae has spread across Europe,replacing the indigenous Nosema species on A.melli

214、fera,N.apis.Concerning nosemosis from N.apis,the following clin-ical signs will appear:intestinal disorders,such as diarrhoea(see Figure 12);inability to secrete royal jelly;reduction in the activity of foraging bees until it stops completely;in the rare cases in which the queen is sick,a marked dec

215、rease in egg-laying(FAO,2020).First,there is a slow depopulation,work decreases and the colony becomes restless(FAO,2020).Some bees stop being able to fly and walk with their wings paralysed,spread out in“K”form,while other bees gather in small groups(FAO,2020).Eventually,dead bees with swollen abdo

216、mens and legs retracted below the chest can be observed on the bottom of the hive.The running board of the hive entrance and the honeycombs become smeared with diarrhoea(FAO,2020).Unlike N.apis,N.ceranae occurs throughout the year.It attacks the intestine(midgut)of the bees,causing mal-absorption.Di

217、arrhoea is typically absent.“It seems that foraging bees die away from the hive,causing a progressive depopulation of the colonies”(FAO,2020:30)until there is total loss.FAO(2020)FAO(2020)Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeeping184.4.1 ControlUnfortunately,prognosis is frequently poor because

218、 its onset usually goes unnoticed,and clinical signs are only seen at an advanced stage of disease.Generally,affected colonies do not recover spontaneously,and require the beekeepers intervention.Antibiotic treatment for bees is registered in some countries.Fumagillin is one such antibiotic,obtained

219、 from Aspergillus fumigatus and discovered in 1951.It is adminis-tered by feeding the infected bees with medicated sucrose syrup.Nevertheless,the use of fumagilin in colonies heavily infected with N.ceranae has not been found to improve size or survival of colonies during the inactive season,indepen

220、dently of dose or administration strategy(Williams,Shutler and Rogers,2010;Mendoza et al.,2017).More-over,a recent re-evaluation of commercial hive products indicates the possible presence of fumagillin as a salt,dicy-clohexylamine(DCH).This chemical is a potential human health and food safety hazar

221、d since it is five times more toxic than fumagillin,based on studies conducted on rats(van den Heever et al.,2014).As such,caution and control should be exercised in honey production when using these substances(Martel et al.,2006).If disease is advanced,colony destruction is advised,particularly in

222、weak colonies.Hive materials can be retrieved after killing the bees,sterilizing the hives(with boiling water,6 percent soda and a blue flame)and destroying the combs.Infected honey and pollen should not be used to feed other bees to prevent transmission.If the affected colony is very strong,move it

223、 to a sun-exposed area(not windy and cold)with a clean hive and combs to reduce chances of reinfection from diarrhoea,provide proper feeding(e.g.molasses,herbs or medicated feed)and replace the queen.Infected combs should be destroyed,and the hive should be sterilized or destroyed.The honey can be u

224、sed for human consumption.4.5 STONEBROOD(ASPERGILLOSIS)Fungi belonging to the Aspergillus genus are ubiquitous in the soil and can cause disease in insects,birds and mammals,including humans(especially those who are immunocompro-mised),making aspergillosis a zoonotic disease(FAO,2020).In humans,Aspe

225、rgillus fungi may cause:respiratory diseases like pulmonary infections(bron-copulmonary aspergillosis,pulmonary aspergillomas)or allergic bronchitis,if inhaled;infections of the eye,pharynx,skin and open wounds in case of direct contact(FAO,2020;Mousavi et al.,2016).Moreover,as fungi belonging to th

226、e Aspergillus genus multiply,they produce specific mycotoxins that may be dan-gerous when transmitted to animals and humans ingesting contaminated food.Regarding bee products,mycotoxins may be transmitted to humans through the consumption of pollen.Stonebrood,or aspergillosis,is a honeybee disease c

227、aused by different species of fungi belonging to the Asper-gillus genus.“The main species of fungi responsible for the disease in honeybees are Aspergillus flavus and less frequent-ly,Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus niger”(FAO,2020:55)(and occasionally other species,according to Nardoni et al.

228、,2017).Symptomatic disease is quite rare,but nonetheless widespread throughout the world,affecting brood(larvae and pupae)and,rarely,adult bees(Batra,1973).Many spe-cies of Aspergillus produce aflatoxins,which may contribute to the death of the brood(Burnside,1930).“The ideal temperatures for the de

229、velopment of the fungi is between 33C and 37C,but they can also mul-tiply at temperatures between 7C and 40C.Exposure to temperatures above 60C for a minimum of 30 minutes can devitalize both spores and hyphae”(FAO,2020:55).The infection is spread through ingestion of contaminat-ed food primarily po

230、llen(Foley et al.,2012)containing Aspergillus fungal spores,or by direct contact between bees.Adult bees only become infected via ingestion,whereby the mycelium penetrates through the walls of the bees intestine and spreads to the rest of the body.The disease can spread from sick hives to healthy on

231、es through drifting,robbing or swarming(FAO,2020).“The beekeeper can also transmit the disease by using contami-nated bee tools or by moving the combs from sick colonies to healthy ones”(FAO,2020:56).“One of the first signs of the disease is a spotted and irregular brood pattern(high quantity of emp

232、ty cells,mixed with other cells containing eggs,larvae and nymphs of all ages)”(FAO,2020:56).“In honeybee larvae,the infection gives rise to a characteristic ring near the head of the infected larvaeOnce the larvae die,which occurs in the capped cells,their bodies harden,appearing as small stones(Fi

233、gure 13)that are difficult to crush;hence the name,stonebrood”(FAO,2020:55).Eventually,the fungus pro-duces enough spores to completely fill the cell containing the infected larvae.The dead larvae initially appear wrinkled and cream-co-loured before going mouldy and mummifying.They often become cove

234、red with a sort of felt made up of the fungal spores,starting from the head.The colour of this felt differs depending on the species of Aspergillus involved:yellow-ish-green for A.flavus,grey-green for A.fumigatus or black for A.niger(FAO,2020).If no spores develop,the felt remains greyish-white.The

235、 larvae mummify and become difficult to extract from the brood cells,even with tweezers(FAO,2020;Seyedmousavi et al.,2015).In cases of strong fungus growth,the fungus can fill the cells before they are capped.The disease kills adult bees because of the mycotoxins produced rather than fungemia.“Infec

236、ted bees will initially Chapter 4:Main honeybee diseases19appear excited and restless,this state giving way to paral-ysis,inability to fly and death,usually occurring far away from the hive”(FAO,2020:56).After death,the body becomes hard,and in humid conditions,it can be covered with the typical gre

237、y-white fungal felt(FAO,2020).“Although the death of entire colonies of bees affected by the fungus has been observed,the disease usually has a transitory character”(FAO,2020:56)and tends to resolve spontaneously.Little is known about the sensitivity of bees to this disease.4.5.1 Control“More resear

238、ch is needed to determine the proper control measures to adopt.The replacement of the queen can be very useful.To date,there are no registered treatments to control this infection in bees,although experimentally it has been observed that the essential oils of cinnamon(Cinnamomum zeylanicum),Litsea c

239、ubeba and geranium(Pelargonium graveolens),as well as their mixtures,are able to contain the growth of this fungus.Genetic selection for bee resistance to stonebrood could be an interesting sector to invest effort in,as it has been observed that a genetic predisposition may differ from colony to col

240、ony”(FAO,2020:56).4.6 AETHINOSISAethina tumida(Murray,1867)(order Coleoptera,family Nitidulidae Small Hive Beetle-SHB),is native to sub-Saha-ran Africa but over the past few decades it spread in various regions of the world(United States of America,Canada,South and Central America,Australia,Egypt,It

241、aly,Korea and the Philippines).Adult SHBs(Figure 14)are excellent fliers(capable of flying 10 km)and can survive up to 12 months.More than 1000 adult beetles may occur within a colony and can be fed by worker bees via trophallaxis.Females oviposit several eggs(about 1000 eggs in their lifetime)in ty

242、pical clutches in small cracks or within capped brood cells.The larvae emerge from the eggs after 16 days(most within 3 days)and feed on pollen,honey and bee brood until their development that takes about 2 weeks.Following this,the larvae reach the wandering phase and leave the colony to pupate in t

243、he soil surrounding the colony.Pupation takes about 212 weeks after which adults leave the soil and fly to search for new host colonies.Bee colony damage is due to adult beetles,that can cause colonies to abscond,but mainly due to larval feeding behaviour that causes severe damage to combs,honey fer

244、-mentation and full structural collapse of the nest.4.6.1 ControlAt the apiary level,good beekeeping practices related to Aethina tumida are usually the best way to avoid the relat-ed-damage and to reduce the use of chemicals to control the pest.If necessary,different control methods can be adopt-ed

245、,both at the apiary level and inside the honey house.The combination of different control strategies is the best solution to apply.The first strategy should be to install mechanical traps or biological control methods and only subsequently chemical control methods(i.e.when the pop-ulation of beetles

246、 threats the survival of the colony).Mechanical traps(e.g.provided with glue or baits)are able to support the monitoring and controlling activities of the parasite inside the hives.Successful egg emergence is correlated with relative humidity,with fewer eggs hatching at a relative humidity of 50%.Fo

247、r this reason,in the honey house a controlled FIGURE 13StonebroodFIGURE 14Aethina tumida adultGIOVANNI FEDERICO(IZSME)CARLO FERRARI(ASL ROMA 5)Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeeping20humidity and temperature can avoid SHB multiplication.Moreover,a fluorescent light source positioned on the

248、floor of the extraction room overnight attracts the SHB larvae.In this way they may be collected and destroyed by putting them in alcohol or detergent solution.4.7 TROPILAELAPSOSISTropilaelaps spp.(Anderson&Roberts,2013)(order Mesostigmata,family Laelapidae)are mites that occur in:Indonesia(Sulawesi

249、 Island)and Philippines-Tropilaelaps clareae;mainland Asia and Indonesia(except Sulawesi Island)-Tropilaelaps mercedesae.Tropilaelaps mercedesae and Tropilaelaps clareae are also parasites of the introduced A.mellifera in these regions.Similarly to Varroa destructor,the colonising Tropilaelaps femal

250、e lays from one to four eggs on a mature bee larva shortly before the brood cell is capped.The drone brood is preferred and the mite progeny,usually one male and several females feed on and seriously damage the bee larva(Figure 15).Development of the mite requires about 1 week.Adults,including the f

251、oundress female,emerge with the adult bee and search for new hosts.Reproduc-tive-cycle inside brood cells is very short and permit a faster population increase than Varroa mites.Phoretic survival of Tropilaelaps mites on bees is quite short(only 12 days).Tropilaelaps can act as a potential vector fo

252、r honeybee viruses,such as deformed wing virus(DWV),resulting in death of bee larvae(up to 50%),irregular brood patterns and malformations of bee adults.4.7.1 ControlEven if the use of“hard”acaricides,organic acids and essential oils is common in the beekeeping sector,a variety of beekeeping practic

253、es,like brood interruption,can be used as an Integrated Pest Management strategy to reduce the infestation and the use of chemicals into the colonies.4.8 WAX MOTHThe term wax moth is a common name which refers to different species of moths that invade,attack,and damage honeybee colonies and hive pro

254、ducts.The most common ones are the greater wax moth G.Mellonella(Figure 16)and the lesser wax moth Achroia grisella.The last one is less destructive and less common.The greater wax moth is ubiquitously distributed every-where beekeeping is practiced.The duration taken by the moth to complete its lif

255、e cycle varies from weeks to months and is affected by both biotic(intra-and interspecific)and abiotic factors.Tempera-ture averages of 2933C is optimum for development.Oviposition begins a fairly short time after emergence and mating of females.Eggs are deposited in clusters of 50150 in cracks or c

256、revices inside the hive.Upon hatching,the wax moth larvae move from the cracks and crevices onto honeybee comb where they begin to feed on honey,pollen,and brood,destroying the comb structure.Larvae take between 28 days and 6 months before pupation.The greater wax moth pupa is immobile,does not feed

257、,and is housed in cocoon.4.8.1 ControlGood beekeeping practices are fundamental to reduce reproduction and consequently damage due to the wax moth.Keeping strong colonies,with adequate food sourc-es,and sealing cracks and crevices of hives,are two com-mon practices.Not-used equipment(bs)can be expos

258、ed to temperatures above(heating technique)or below(freezing technique)the tolerance range of the wax moth eggs and larvae.Moreover,fumigants are used at large scale against wax moth like acetic acid,formic acid and carbon dioxide.Biological control of the wax moth is also common with the use of spo

259、res of Bacillus thuringiensis.FIGURE 15Tropilaelaps mites on bee pupaeFIGURE 16Wax moth larvaMASSIMO PALAZZETTIDENIS ANDERSON(CSIRO)21The four stages are as follows:Stage 1 Risk Assessment(surveys)In the first stage,collaboration between different stake-holders focuses on assessing the current statu

260、s of bee-keeping practices,the associated risks and the extent to which biosecurity measures may already be applied in beekeeping.The risk assessment will likely be carried out through specific field surveys that will help the expert group to establish the general level of beekeeping knowledge and u

261、nderstanding(see Annex 3 for an example).The results of these surveys will serve as a basis for determining the BMP.Stage 2 Local/Provincial Biosecurity(Biosecurity Management Plan)This step involves the implementation of a BMP at the local or provincial level.6 The BMP includes GBPs and BMBs val-id

262、ated and approved by local beekeepers to be applied as part of daily apiary management.Stage 3 National Biosecurity(National Biosecurity Management Plan)This step revolves around expanding these efforts to the national level by developing a National Biosecurity Man-agement Plan(NBMP).This plan must

263、be made accessible to all beekeepers.Stage 4 Sustainable National Biosecurity(Sustainable National Biosecurity Management Plan)This step focuses on the development of a Sustainable National Biosecurity Management Plan(SNBMP),employing the indications laid out in the plan to reduce the use of anti-mi

264、crobials and instead focus on the prevention and control of diseases through correct management,beekeeping tech-niques,integrated pest management,biosecurity measures and organic medicinal treatments.This follows the One Health approach,protecting the health of the environment,animals and humans,inc

265、reases food secu-rity and creates sustainable,resilient livelihoods in apiculture.6 This stage should also be incorporated into a beekeeping industry that wishes to compartmentalize.Chapter 5The Progressive Management Pathway(PMP)in the beekeeping sector5.1 INTRODUCTIONThe Progressive Management Pat

266、hway(PMP)is a tool developed to assist countries,industries and producers to implement appropriate and sustainable levels of risk man-agement in livestock or aquaculture production systems,including those for beekeeping.The Progressive Manage-ment Pathway for Biosecurity Measures in Beekeeping(PMP-B

267、MB)is an extension of the Progressive Control Pathway(PCP),which has been internationally adopted as a systematic framework for planning and monitoring risk reduction strategies for control of major livestock and zoonotic diseases.Most PCPs relate to control of single diseases or dis-ease complexes.

268、In contrast,the PMP focuses on building management capacity through a bottom-up approach with strong stakeholder involvement to promote application of risk management at the producer level,as part of the national approach.In these guidelines,two different applications of PMP are described:one for bi

269、osecurity management,and the other for AMR management.5.2 THE PROGRESSIVE MANAGEMENT PATHWAY FOR BIOSECURITY MEASURES IN BEEKEEPINGThe Progressive Management Pathway for Biosecurity Measures in Beekeeping(PMP-BMB)(see Figure 16)is a pro-cess devised for modern beekeepers.It sets out the steps requir

270、ed for sustainable,healthy and resilient beekeeping.The pathway is split into four stages applicable on a global scale to help beekeepers achieve sustainability and colony health.It is based on the idea that GBPs,in conjunction with the correct BMBs,will manage risks and lead to opti-mal colony heal

271、th,thereby reducing the need for pharma-ceutical interventions and improving overall product quality,consumer confidence and environmental outcomes.Before beginning the pathway,the intention to keep bees should be made clear and the collaboration of local authorities,local beekeepers and experts,as

272、well as govern-ment support,should be sought.This is necessary to obtain all the information needed and formulate a Biosecurity Management Plan(BMP).22Responsible use of antimicrobials in beekeepingFIGURE 17The Progressive Management Pathway for Biosecurity Measures in Beekeeping(PMP-BMB)23Chapter 5

273、:The Progressive Management Pathway(PMP)in the beekeeping sector“Competence to maintain national sustainable bee-keeping”is defined as reduction in the emergence of new honeybee diseases,elimination of circulating diseases,and a platform for the prevention,early detection of and sustainable response

274、 to threats.This can then provide and maintain international confidence in management(ICM)and ease international trade.5.3 THE PROGRESSIVE MANAGEMENT PATHWAY FOR ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE IN BEEKEEPINGAs explained,the PMP is a tool to assist countries to imple-ment sustainable measures to manage risk

275、 in livestock pro-duction systems.The aim of the PMP-AMR in beekeeping is to assist countries in developing and implementing a multi-sectoral One Health National Action Plan(NAP)to combat AMR,with a focus on the beekeeping sector.The availability and use of antimicrobials,not just in bees,but in all

276、 terrestrial and aquatic animals and crops,are essential to health and sustainable agriculture production.They contribute to food security,food safety and animal welfare,and in turn,to the protection of livelihoods and the sustainability of animal crop production.AMR can occur naturally through adap

277、tation to the environment,but misuse and overuse of antimicrobials speeds up the process.AMR is a global,multisectoral problem encompassing humans,animals,plants and the environment.It requires a similarly multisectoral approach at the national level with actions spanning the policy and regulatory s

278、pheres,preventive actions,and engagement with producers and other stakeholders.The World Health Organization(WHO),in collaboration with FAO and OIE,developed a global action plan on AMR to ensure availability of treatment with effective and safe medicines.The member States of each of the three organ

279、-izations agreed to implement the global action plan using the One Health approach to address AMR in human,animal and plant health,as well as in food and the environment.An effective approach should involve all sectors of govern-ment and society.In addition to this,in 2015,FAO developed and adopted

280、an Action Plan on AMR(20162020)within its Strategic Programme.It addressed four major“Focus Areas”that have been here applied to the beekeeping sector:to improve awareness on AMR and related threats(Figure 18);to develop capacity for surveillance and monitoring of AMR and antimicrobial use(AMU)in fo

281、od and agriculture(Figure 19);to strengthen governance related to AMU and AMR in food and agriculture(Figure 20);to promote good practices in food and agriculture and the prudent use of antimicrobials(Figure 21).The PMP helps countries and individual sectors(key sec-tors identified by countries)meas

282、ure their progress on opti-mal and sustainable use of antimicrobials.It sets out specific activities to implement,achievements and key performance indicators for each Focus Area,in stages.Furthermore,the Excel-based PMP guides the user through the list of activi-ties and targets that should be imple

283、mented or met,with a dashboard showing progress made over time for each of the four Focus Areas.In this way,the PMP-AMR in beekeeping is an important new tool facilitating responsible use of antimicrobials in this sector,in line with the One Health approach.24Responsible use of antimicrobials in bee

284、keepingFIGURE 18Action Plan on AMR for the“Awareness”Focus AreaSTAGE 1(assess awareness)Gather data(e.g.literature,scientific data,invento-ry,existing training on AMU and AMR)Carry out surveys on awareness of AMU,AMR,GBPs and BMBs Engage with and assess education and training programmes Develop educ

285、ational and training materials for key stakeholders(beekeepers,vets,veterinary parapro-fessionals)on AMU,GBPs and BMBsSTAGE 3(nationwide awareness in beekeeping)Launch an awareness campaign targeting key stake-holders at the national level with effective commu-nication methods Revise core curricula

286、of vets and veterinary parapro-fessionals to ensure coverage of GBPs,BMBs,AMU and AMRSTAGE 2(local/provincial awareness)small-scale Implement educational and training materials for key stakeholders(beekeepers,vets,veterinary para-professionals)on GBPs,BMBs AMU and AMR Review core curricula of vets a

287、nd veterinary profes-sionals and develop a plan to ensure coverage of GBPs,BMBs,AMU and AMRSTAGE 4(Sustainable management of AMU)Organize training courses to promote alternatives to antimicrobials with high environmental impact Promote integrated control through adoption of proper beekeeping techniq

288、ues Repeat survey from Stage 1 to assess progress made on awareness Revise and re-launch awareness campaignsAWARENESSGoal:Improve awareness and understanding of GBPs,BMBs,AMU and AMRChapter 5:The Progressive Management Pathway(PMP)in the beekeeping sector25FIGURE 19Action Plan on AMR for the“Evidenc

289、e”Focus AreaSTAGE 1(AMU assessment and development of AMU and AMR surveillance)Verify antimicrobials in use in beekeeping Determine routes and flows of antimicrobials Assess laboratory capacity concerning diagnosis of honeybee diseases and detection of antimicrobial residues in hive products Develop

290、 operational plans for monitoring antimicro-bials sold/used in bees Develop operational plans for monitoring antimicro-bial residues in hive products Develop operational plans for monitoring honeybee diseases Develop operational plans for monitoring GBPs/BMBsSTAGE 3(nationwide AMU and AMR surveillan

291、ce in beekeeping)Implement national surveillance for antimicrobials sold to end used according to animal species Report data on total quantity of antimicrobials sold to end users according to animal species and type of use(therapeutic,medicated feed,growth promotion)Implement national surveillance o

292、f pathogens in hive products for for human consumption(honey houses and shops)Implement passive and active surveillance on hives(infected and healthy)Systematically collected,analyze and report dataSTAGE 2(AMU/AMR surveillance at local level)Implement operational plans to improve traceability of ant

293、imicrobials used on bees at local/provincial level Develop laboratory capacity for honeybee diseases diagnosis and residue quantification in hive prod-ucts at local/provincial level Implement operational plans for surveillance of antimicrobial residues in hive products and AMR at key production site

294、s(apiaries and honey houses of professional beekeepers)at local/provincial level Implement operational plans to monitor application of GBP/BMBs Develop a national plan for surveillance(active/passive)of antimicrobial residues in honey products and AMRSTAGE 4(nationwide AMU and AMR surveillance in al

295、l sectors)Implement a national monitoring/surveillance sys-tem for priority pathogens and AMU in humans,animal and plants Ensure that laboratory capacity concerning AMR generates reliable data Collect and report data on antimicrobials sold/used in animals and plantsEVIDENCEGoal:Develop capacity for

296、monitoring and surveillance of GBPs,BMBs,AMU and AMRResponsible use of antimicrobials in beekeeping26FIGURE 20Action Plan on AMR for the“Governance”Focus AreaSTAGE 1(situational analysis and assessment)Establish a multisectoral coordination group(MCG):ministries,stakeholders(eg.key One Health part-n

297、ers/industries,funding organizations)and a Tech-nical Working Group to perform situational analysis Collection information on AMR burden in humans,animals and plants Identify gaps and measures for improvement Identify and validate GBPs/BMBs,in collaboration with beekeepers Evaluate behaviour of vets

298、 and beekeepers towards known drivers of AMR,their knowledge of GBPs/BMBs/AMU/AMR)Analyse potential national/international obligations(OIE/Codex standards)Review existing National Action Plan(NAP)Assess veterinary services Draft a regulatory framework to develop monitoring/surveillance systems on GB

299、Ps/BMBs/AMU/AMR Set a time frame to develop a NAP STAGE 3(National Biosecurity Management Plan)Obtain government approval for NBMP,including NAP and operational plan on AMR in beekeeping Implement the NBMP Develop a Sustainable National Biosecurity Manage-ment Plan(SNBMP)STAGE 2(estabilish a governa

300、nce mechanism at local/provincial level)Ensure legislation/policy in place supporting adop-tion of harmonized and validated GBPs/BMBs and/or integrated strategies(chemicals and beekeeping techniques)to prevent and control honeybee dis-eases at local/provincial level Set up a rewards system(eg.Reduct

301、ion of controls,simplication of beehive movement in migratory bee-keeping,refunds of hives destroyed due to notifia-ble diseases)for beekeepers who respect AMU and observ validated GBPs/BMBs at local/provincial level Identify funding sources to implement at least year 1 of the plan at local/provinci

302、al level Develop a National Biosecurity Management Plan(NBMP),including a NAP and operational plan on AMR in beekeepingSTAGE 4(SNBMP implementation and review)Implement the SNBMP in beekeeping Ensure legislation/policy in place discouraging AMU and supporting adoption of strategies with low environm

303、ental impact to control honeybee diseases Monitor progress on application regularlyGOVERNANCEGoal:strengthen governance(political commitment,policy,regulatory framework)related to GBPs,BMBs,AMU and AMRRChapter 5:The Progressive Management Pathway(PMP)in the beekeeping sector27FIGURE 21Action Plan on

304、 AMR for the“Practices”Focus AreaSTAGE 1(risk assessment on AMU,AMR,GBPs and BMBs)Depending on the results of the survey from Focus Area 1,Stage 1:Assess the risks for AMR Verify application of GBPs and BMBs Review nationally available guidelines on AMR,GBPs and BMBs considering international docu-m

305、ents/literature Plan small-scale initiatives on proper AMU in bee-keeping,GBPs and BMBs Evaluate laboratory results on diagnosis of honey-bee diseases Evaluate results of AMR studiesSTAGE 3(nationwide implementation of National Biosecurity Management Plan(NBMP)on AMU in beekeeping)Implement a NBMP,i

306、ncluding a national operational plan on AMU in beekeeping and adoption of GBPs and BMBs Implement integrated strategies to prevent and control honeybee diseases Implement nationally agreed initiatives and actions to foster proper AMU in beekeeping(including pro-motion of GBPs and BMBs)Develop a Sust

307、ainable National Biosecurity Manage-ment Plan(SNBMP)STAGE 2(promotion of proper AMU,GBPs and BMBs at local/provincial/small-scale level)Implement small-scale initiatives on validated GBPs/BMBs and on prudent and responsible use of anti-microbials in apiculture Implement an inspections/rewards and sa

308、nctions procedure concerning proper AMU and application of GBPs and BMBs at local/provincial levelSTAGE 4(nationwide implementation of SNBMP,including operational plan on AMU)Implement a SNBMP,including operational plan on AMR in beekeeping Develop reports regularly Make guidelines for proper AMU av

309、ailable in all sectorsPRACTICESGoal:promote GBPs,BMBs,and responsible AMU 29Over the past decade,the number of managed beehives around the world has increased by over 21 percent.As such,the need to establish international guidelines to ensure hives are managed correctly and prevent the spread of hon

310、eybee diseases has never been greater.Varroosis,American foulbrood,European foulbrood and nosemosis are just a few of the widespread diseases that pose a threat not only to colony health,but also to the producers and consumers that rely on bee products.Managing these dis-eases is one of the most cha

311、llenging aspects of beekeeping and involves beekeepers,veterinarians and other profes-sionals within the sector.All too often,beekeepers rely on veterinary medicines and antimicrobials,but in an era of sustainability,it is important to strive towards a One Health approach.To achieve this,various mea

312、sures including GBPs and BMBs can be adopted,based on the principle that pre-vention is better than cure.These guidelines include specific measures for the prevention of each disease to support beekeepers in this undertaking.Given that the use of antimicrobials within the beekeeping industry is not

313、regulated in every country,some may be inclined to misuse or overuse medicinal treatments,a growing concern in multiple sectors.However,proper daily management,scheduled inspections and biosecurity meas-ures reduce the need for therapeutical intervention.With the advent of two progressive management

314、 pathways in beekeeping(the PMP-BMB and PMP-AMR),all beekeepers and producers can strive to reduce the use of antimicrobials,decreasing the risk of AMR and achieving sustainable bios-ecurity.The first pathway focuses on the implementation of GBPs and BMBs to reach a national sustainable status of pr

315、oduction,while the second tackles a multisectoral prob-lem,highlighting the strategies required to adopt prudent or limited use of antibiotics,with the aim of diminishing the threat of AMR.Like the current guidelines,these com-prehensive guidelines aim to inform beekeepers of the risks associated wi

316、th poor management and incorrect antibiotic use,equipping them with the tools(namely a list of inter-nationally approved GBPs and BMBs,and two PMPs with related surveys for risk assessment of AMU and disease management)to keep bees and produce bee products sus-tainably,while safeguarding the health

317、of all.Chapter 6Conclusion31ReferencesAizen,M.A.&Harder,L.D.2009.The global stock of domesticated honeybees is growing slower than agricultural demand for pollination.Current Biology,19(11):915918.Argauer,R.J.1986.Antibiotics in beekeeping.In W.A.Moats,ed.Agricultural uses of antibiotics.ACS Symposi

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