1、Future Capabilities of Combustion Engines and Liquid FuelsLITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:NOVEMBER 2022 Fuels InstituteDisclaimer:The opinions and views expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the individuals on the Fuels Institute Board of Directors and the Fuels Institute Board of

2、Advisors or any contributing organization to the Fuels Institute.The Fuels Institute makes no warranty,express or implied,nor does it assume any legal liability or responsibility for the use of the report or any product or process described in these materials.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMAR

3、Y:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS11.0 INTRODUCTION.022.0 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES AND HYBRIDS.032.1 ICE Design,Performance,Efficiency and Emissions Improvements.032.1.1 Light Duty Vehicle Gasoline Engines.032.1.2 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Diesel Compression Ignition Engines.07

4、2.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicle(HEV)Drivetrain Systems.102.3 ICE Emission Control Systems and Aftertreatment Improvements.132.4 ICE Configured for Dual Fuels and Blends.142.5 ICE Optimized for High-Octane Fuels.153.0 ENGINE AND FUELS VIEWED AS A HOLISTIC SYSTEM.174.0 LIQUID FUELS PRODUCTION.214.1 Carbon

5、 Capture.214.2 Fuel Substitution.234.2.1 Electrification.234.2.2 Hydrogen as Fuel.244.3 Feedstock Substitution.24Contents4.3.1 Low-Carbon Crude Oil.244.3.2 Biomass.254.3.3 Hydrogen.265.0 ALTERNATIVE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUELS.275.1 Natural Gas.275.2 Biofuels.275.2.1 Conventional/First Generati

6、on Biofuels.275.2.2 Advanced/Second Generation Biofuels.285.2.3 Bioblendstocks.316.0 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE ZERO-EMISSION PATHWAYS.347.0 CONCLUSION.36SOURCES.375.3 E-Fuels.31FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS2IntroductionAs the gl

7、obal community pursues lower carbon intensity in the transportation sector,many have identified electrification strategies as the most effective path to achieve these objectives.In most cases,these strategies refer to the deployment of battery electrical vehicles(BEVs)and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles

8、(H2FCVs),which are not equipped with internal combustion engines(ICEs);however,even under aggressive strategies to electrify the transportation system,the marketplace is expected to continue to rely for decades upon liquid fuels and internal combustion engine(ICE)vehicles,including the deployment of

9、 hybrid-electric vehicle(HEV)and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle(PHEV)technology.This literature review covers recent,current,and pending research and development projects focused on improving the ICE efficiency and emissions.In addition,several research and development initiatives are also focused

10、on reducing the carbon intensity of the liquid fuels that power these engines and vehicles.Understanding the objectives and potential benefits of such initiatives is important to better evaluate the potential emission contributions of the transportation sector.Please note that different studies use

11、different terms for engine efficiency,fuel economy,and CO2 abatement.Efforts have been made to clarify which term is being used by each paper referenced within this report.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS3Internal Combustion Engines

12、 and HybridsINTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE DESIGN,PERFORMANCE,EFFICIENCY AND EMISSION IMPROVEMENTSLight-Duty Vehicle Gasoline EnginesPassenger car ICE design has evolved over four decades to include several fuel efficiency improvements,including variable valve timing and gasoline direct injection(GDI)(s

13、ee Figure 1),gasoline engine turbocharging(see Figure 2),and engine downsizing(i.e.,number of cylinders)(see Figure 3).FIGURE 1:FUEL CONSUMPTION WITH DIFFERENT GASOLINE TECHNOLOGY PACKAGESUS Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends ReportAccording to the United States Environme

14、ntal Protection Agency(EPA),GDI engines were installedin 50%of model year(MY)2019 gasoline vehicles and are projected to continue to increase.22 US Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends Report:Greenhouse Gas Emissions,Fuel Economy,and Technology since 1975,EPA-420-R-21-003,J

15、anuary 2021,https:/nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P1010U68.pdf,46.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS4FIGURE 2:GASOLINE TURBO ENGINE PRODUCTION SHARE BY NUMBER OF CYLINDERS US Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive

16、 Trends ReportEPA also stated that vehicle engine downsizing is expected to continue with 50%of MY 2019 gasolinevehicles equipped with four cylinders or less.3FIGURE 3:GASOLINE ENGINE PRODUCTION SHARE BY NUMBER OF CYLINDERSUS Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends Report3 US

17、Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends Report:Greenhouse Gas Emissions,Fuel Economy,and Technology since 1975,EPA-420-R-21-003,January 2021,https:/nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P1010U68.pdf,40.In addition to the technology improvements listed above,cylinder deactivation

18、and start/stop technologies have also been deployed in almost 15%and 37%,respectively,of MY2019 gasoline engines also according to the EPA.4 But even with this track record of steady fuel efficiency improvement,additional ICE design improvements continue to be the subject of research efforts that in

19、clude the advancements listed in Table 1 with reported improvements to fuel consumption or thermal efficiency as noted.5TABLE 1:ADDITIONAL IDENTIFIED ICE DESIGN IMPROVEMENT RESEARCH EFFORTS4 US Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends Report:Greenhouse Gas Emissions,Fuel Econom

20、y,and Technology since 1975,EPA-420-R-21-003,January 2021,https:/nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P1010U68.pdf,48.5 Eyub Canli et al.,“Ceramic Coating Applications and Research Fields for Internal Combustion Engines,”Reza Golzari et al.,“Impact of Intake Port Injection of Water on Boosted Downsize

21、d Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Combustion,Efficiency and Emissions,”International Journal of Engine Research 22,no.1(January 1,2021):295-315,https:/doi.org/10.1177/32791;Augusto Csar Teixeira Malaquias et al.,“Combined Effects of Internal Exhaust Gas Recirculation and Tumble Motion Ge

22、neration in a Flex-Fuel Direct Injection Engine,”Energy Conversion and Management 217(August 2020),113007,https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113007.6 National Academies of Sciences,Engineering,and Medicine.2015.Cost,Effectiveness,and Deployment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light-Duty Vehicle

23、s.Washington,DC:The National Academies Press.https:/doi.org/10.17226/21744.7 National Academies of Sciences,Engineering,and Medicine.2021.Assessment of Technologies for Improving Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy2025-2035.Washington,DC:The National Academies Press.https:/doi.org/10.17226/26092.ICE Tec

24、hnology AdvancementReported ImprovementCeramic coatings4.5-9%Lower Fuel ConsumptionPort/direct water injection5-15%Higher Thermal EfficiencyExhaust gas recirculation with in-cylinder tumble flow10%Lower Fuel ConsumptionFurthermore,the National Academy of Sciences(NAS)Committee on the Assessment of T

25、echnologies for Improving Fuel Economy of Light-Duty Vehicles published two reports in 20156 and 2021.7In the first report,the NAS Committee continued work previously conducted by the National ResearchCouncil to provide potential ICE technology improvements that may be employed through 2030.Findings

26、 and recommendations from the first Committee Report are summarized below in Table 2,as follows:FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS5FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS6TA

27、BLE 2:OPTIONS FOR IMPROVING SPARK IGNITION ENGINE FUEL CONSUMPTION THROUGH 20308 Please note that further research related to High Octane Gasoline is described in more detail in Section 2.5.9 Please note that further research related to Bi-Fuel,or Duel-Fuel engines and vehicles are discussed in more

28、 detail in Section 2.4.10 Please note that additional research related to Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition(HCCI)is described in Section 3.0.11 Please note that further research related to HCCI is presented in Section 3.0.Technology or Technology BundleFuel Consumption Reduction,%Improved lubr

29、icants,lower engine friction,variable valve timing and lift,direct injection,cooled exhaust gas recirculation and downsizing/turbocharging.17-18(Combined)Higher Compression Ratio with current regular gasoline3Higher Compression Ratio with higher octane regular gasoline85High Compression Ratio with e

30、xhaust scavenging and direct injection(Mazda-Skyactiv)10Electrically assisted,variable-speed supercharger26Lean Burn Facilitated by Low-Sulfur Fuel5Compressed Natural Gas-Gasoline Bi-fuel Vehicle943Ethanol-Boosted,Direct Injection Engines20Variable Compression Ratio5Dedicated Exhaust Gas Recirculati

31、on10Spark-Assisted Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition(SI-HCCI)105Gasoline Direct Injection Compression Ignition5Waste Heat Recovery3High Octane Gasoline 87 AKI(91 RON)Increased to 91 AKI(95 RON)3-5Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition(HCCI)(aka Low Temperature Combustion)115FUELS INSTITUTE|LI

32、TERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS7In the second report,the NAS Committee continued with a similar work scope but extended the technology deployment time horizon to 2035 and focused on technology pathways(system-levelapplications)instead of specific/in

33、dividual technologies.Findings and recommendations from the Phase 3 Committee Report are summarized below in Table 3,as follows:TABLE 3:OPTIONS FOR IMPROVING SPARK IGNITION ENGINE FUEL CONSUMPTION THROUGH 2035Heavy-Duty Vehicle Diesel Compression Ignition EnginesIn general,heavy-duty vehicles(Class

34、7-8),which carry large quantities of freight in the U.S.,have relied upon diesel compression ignition(CI)engines for many reasons.Diesel engines operate at a higher efficiency than comparable spark ignition(SI)engines and have a flatter torque curve.In addition,diesel fuel has a higher energy densit

35、y than gasoline.Overall,diesel compression ignition engines have been more cost-effective,leading to a lower cost of ownership.The following Table 4 provides a review of technology options for improving the fuel efficiency of heavy-duty CI engines.1312 Please note that Hybrid Electric Vehicle(HEV)te

36、chnology is described in more detail in Section 2.2.13 Characterization of Energy Distribution and Efficiency in a Modern Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine A Thiruvengadam,S Pradhan,P Thiruvengadam-International Journal of,2020-sae.orgTechnology PathwaysFuel Consumption ReductionDownsized/Boosted Engines inc

37、luding,application of Miller cycle(or Atkinson cycle in the naturally aspirated case),cooled EGR,friction reduction,and cylinder deactivation5%by 2025;With 5%More by 2030Strong Hybrid Electric Vehicle(HEV)Configuration1235-40%Advanced Combustion Technology(e.g.HCCI,Prechamber Combustion,Spark Contro

38、lled Compression Ignition(Mazda SkyActive-X)Not SpecifiedFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS8TABLE 4:TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS FOR IMPROVING DIESEL ENGINE FUEL EFFICIENCYCompression IgnitionEngine Loss Category2020+Compression Ignition Techno

39、logy AdvancementExhaust energyIncreased compression ratio and increased peak in-cylinder pressuresAdvanced turbocharger design,including two-stage and turbo-compoundingTwo-step piston design and eight-nozzle fuel injectorAdvanced ignition timing with actions to reduce nitrogen oxide(NOx)CoolantTherm

40、al barrier coatings inside cylinderAdvancements in urea dosage and selective catalytic reduction catalyst resulting in lower exhaust gas recirculation rates and lower heat rejectionFrictionBearing/piston coatings and low-frictional boundary lubricationSynthetic lubricants and advanced oil formulatio

41、nReduced friction shaft sealsReduced friction in gear trainIn-cylinder piston components including low friction piston ringPumpingLow-temperature selective catalytic reduction catalysts and partial hybridization of thermal managementAsymmetric turbochargerDedicated exhaust gas recirculation pumpHigh

42、-pressure and low-pressure exhaust gas recirculation loops with smart controlsThin-walled diesel particulate filter substrate(reduced back-pressure)Selective-catalytic-reduction-coated diesel particulate filtersEngine accessoriesVariable flow oil and coolant pumpsDecoupling of the oil and water pump

43、Electric oil pumpsFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS9As follows on Table 5 below,implementing these technology improvements is expected to lead to more than 20%in fuel savings.14European JEC research(a joint research project by the Eu

44、ropean Commissions Joint Research Centre,EUCAR,15 and Concawe)also supports a potential improvement for heavy-duty CI engines.JEC estimated a GHG-reduction potential of 9%fromTABLE 5:EXPECTED FUEL SAVINGS PERCENTAGE BY IMPLEMENTING TECHNOLOGY IMPROVEMENTSMY2016 to MY2025+heavy-duty CI engines.16Anot

45、her research study concluded that a 5%thermal efficiency improvement(from 29.68%to 31.1%)could be attained by implementing a toroidal piston bowl with tangential grooves technology within the diesel engine combustion chamber.1714 Characterization of Energy Distribution and Efficiency in a Modern Hea

46、vy-Duty Diesel Engine A Thiruvengadam,S Pradhan,P Thiruvengadam-International Journal of,2020-sae.org J.Engines 13(4):583-599,20215 EUCAR is the European Council for Automotive Research&Development.16 M.Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5(Luxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union,2

47、020),doi:10.2760/100379,95.17 Arvind Thiruvengadam et al.,“Characterization of Energy Distribution and Efficiency in a Modern Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine,”SAE International Journal of Engines 13,no.4(2020):583-599,https:/doi.org/10.4271/03-13-04-0037.Category of energy lossExhaust energy%Fuel In lossme

48、chanism%Reductionin lossmechanism%Fuel savings35.524014.21Coolant10.68252.67Friction2.32250.58Pumping1.7400.68Engine accessories1.3100.13Ambient heat transfer4.300Total18.27Waste heat recovery3.27Total21.54HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE(HEV)DRIVETRAIN SYSTEMSFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE

49、 CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS10Hybrid electric vehicles(HEVs)feature an electric motor and battery that stores electrical energy to supplement the ICE,which typically allows the ICE to be downsized and operated more closely to its peak efficiency.In addition,HEVs also useregen

50、erative braking to capture energy from braking,which is usually lost to friction and heat.The application of HEV technology to passenger cars has yielded a real-world average fuel economy improvement of approximately 30%(see Figure 4).18FIGURE 4:HYBRID REAL-WORLD FUEL ECONOMY DISTRIBUTION,CARS ONLYU

51、S Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends Report18 US Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends Report:Greenhouse Gas Emissions,Fuel Economy,and Technology since 1975,EPA-420-R-21-003,January 2021,https:/nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P1010U68.pdf,36.F

52、UELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS11Another researcher provided a review of hybrid vehicle classifications(micro,mild,full,and plug-in),configurations(series,parallel,and mixed),and types of engine cycles(Otto19,Atkinson20,and Miller21

53、).This review indicated a fuel consumption reduction of 5%to 8%,20%to 25%,and 45%for micro,mild,and full/plug-in HEVs,respectively.22European JEC research also supported the potential improvement through use of HEV technology inpassenger cars.JEC estimated that non plug-in hybridization of ICEs redu

54、ces fuel consumption by 25%.23Furthermore,hybrid vehicle technology could be potentially applied to additional future light-duty vehicles depending on economic feasibility,since the production share of HEVs composed only 6%to 7%of MY2020 light-duty vehicles(see Figure 5).24FIGURE 5:GASOLINE HYBRID E

55、NGINE PRODUCTION SHARE BY VEHICLE TYPEUS Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends Report19 Otto Engine Cycle consists of a four-stroke cycle for internal-combustion engines of the type used in automobiles where the first stroke consists of the suction into the cylinder of the e

56、xplosive charge(as gas and air),the second stroke consists of the compression,ignition,and explosion of the charge,the third stroke consists of the expansion of the gases,and the fourth stroke consists of the expulsion of the products of combustion from the cylinder20 Atkinson Cycle,as a modificatio

57、n to the four-stroke Otto Cycle,is designed to be more efficient at the expense of some torque at low engine speeds.The main difference occurs during the second stroke when the rising of the piston compresses the mixture of fuel and air(charge)in the combustion chamber.On the Atkin-son engine,the in

58、take valve is still open and some of the fuel and air mixture exits this valve so that the volume is compressed while the remaining mixture of fuel and air re-enters the next cylinder.21 Miller Cycle is a modification to the Atkinson Cycle,where the intake valve is also left open longer than it woul

59、d be in an Otto-cycle engine.This loss of charge air would typically result in a loss of power;however,in the Miller cycle,this is compensated for by the use of a supercharger.22 Juan P.Torreglosa et al.,“Analyzing the Improvements of Energy Management Systems for Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using a Sy

60、stematic Literature Review:How Far Are These Controls from Rule-Based Controls Used in Commercial Vehicles?”Applied Sciences 10,no,23(2020):8744,https:/doi.org/10.3390/app10238744.23 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5,10.24 US Environmental Protection Agency,The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends Re

61、port:Greenhouse Gas Emissions,Fuel Economy,and Technology since 1975,EPA-420-R-21-003,January 2021,https:/nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P1010U68.pdf,49.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS12TABLE 6:POTENTIAL FUTURE HEV ADVANCEMENTS

62、25 Andrew Smallbone et al.,“Realization of a Novel Free-Piston Engine Generator for Hybrid-Electric Vehicle Applications,”Energy Fuels 34,no.10(September 2020):1292612939,https:/doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c01647;Amir F.N.Abdul-Manan et al.,“Bridging the Gap in a Resource and Climate-Constraine

63、d World with Advanced Gasoline Compression-Ignition Hybrids,”Applied Energy 267(June 2020),114936,https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.114936.26 AFN Abdul-Manan,et al.,”Bridging the gap in a resource and climate-constrained world with advanced gasoline compression-ignition hybrids“,Applied Energy,

64、2020-Elsevier27 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5,17.Research projects also continue to seek ways to improve HEV efficiency,as shown in Table 6.25Research investigating the conversion of the gasoline ICE portion of a HEV from SI to CI has found that gasoline compression ignition(GCI)hybrids

65、 reduce well-to-wheels(WTW)GHG emissions by 7%to 43%versus unhybridized GCI and 26%to 55%versus conventional SI.26European JEC research also supports a potential opportunity to use hybrid technology within heavy-duty vehicles;however,JEC estimates that heavy-duty HEVs are only approximately 7%more e

66、fficient than stand-alone CI diesel fuel engines.27HEV Technology AdvancementReported Efficiency ImprovementImproved energy management systems versus rule-based control systems5-10%Thermoelectric generator waste heat recovery1.7%INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS AND AFTERTREATMENT

67、IMPROVEMENTSExcept for technology advancements tested to reduce engine back-pressure,recent research projects did not indicate a corresponding gasoline ordiesel engine performance or efficiency improvement(see Table 7).28FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENG

68、INES AND LIQUID FUELS13TABLE 7:EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY IMPROVEMENTS28 Ch.Indira Priyadarsini et al.,“Effect of Cone Angle on Performance of Catalytic Converter,”Journal of Information and Computational Science 13,no.12(2020):73-80,doi:16.10090.JOICS.2020.V13I12.287391.4132;Jonathan Lock e

69、t al.,“Cold-Start Modeling and On-Line Optimal Control of the Three-Way Catalyst,”arX-iv:2104.12390,Cornell University,https:/arxiv.org/pdf/2104.12390.pdf;Pelsu Pelen,“Modeling the Effect of SCR Denox Unit on Diesel Engine Performance,”(masters thesis,Middle East Technical University,January 2020),h

70、ttps:/open.metu.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11511/45645/index.pdf;Brian Robert Matias Hutchison,“Investigating the Influence of Fuel Volatility on Particle Emissions Phenomena in a Production Gasoline Direct Injection Engine,”(masters thesis,University of Toronto,2021),partial available at:https:/ Techn

71、ology AdvancementReported Efficiency ImprovementThree-way catalytic converter with perovskite-based metallurgyMaintained emissions reduction performance after hydrothermal aging versus activity loss for standard catalystCatalytic converter cone anglesAllows exhaust to flow more freely and limits bac

72、k-pressure(engine performance benefits not quantified)Cold-start optimal controlNOx emission reduced 35%versus traditional engine-controllerDiesel engine selective catalytic reduction DeNOx optimizationcell density constant with increased diameter and decreased catalyst lengthBetter catalyst perform

73、ance and reduced back pressure(engine performance benefits not quantified)FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS1429 Brake Thermal Efficiency is defined as break power of an engine as a function of the thermal input from the fuel and is r

74、epresented as Brake thermal efficiency=Power/Energy Required.30 Wittison Kamei,Experimental Investigation of a Dual-Fuel Compression Ignition Engine for Improvement of Emissions and Thermal Efficiency,(Guwahati,India:Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati,Lakshminath Bezbaroa Central Library(14.139

75、.196.25),July 1,2021),abstract available at http:/gyan.iitg.ernet.in/han-dle/123456789/1897?show=full.31 Additional work is being developed by the Fuels Institute is intended to provide the history related to gasoline-ethanol blends,including past and present ethanol volumes and blend percentages,as

76、 well as the types of vehicles that can use various gasoline-ethanol blend percentages,as further described in this paragraph.32 John F.Thomas,Shean P.Huff,and Brian H.West,Fuel Economy and Emissions of a Vehicle Equipped with an Aftermarket Flexible-Fuel Conversion Kit(Washington,DC:US Department o

77、f Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information,April 1,2012),https:/doi.org/10.2172/1038474;Ryan B.Wicker et al.,Practical Considerations for an E85-Fueled Vehicle Conversion,SAE Technical Paper 1999-01-3517,1999,https:/doi.org/10.4271/1999-01-3517;Gyrgy Budik,“Conversion of Internal Combus

78、tion Engine from Gasoline to E85 Fuel,”Periodica Polytechnica Transportation Engineering 38,no.1(2010):19-23,https:/doi.org/10.3311/pp.tr.2010-1.04;“Gen5DIY Flex Fuel Kits,”Gen5DIY,no date,https:/ Blanco,“EPA Approves Flex-Box Smart Kit,the First Certified Ethanol Conversion Kit,”Autoblog,October 11

79、,2007,https:/ EflexFuel Products,”FlexFuel Technology,StepOne Tech America Inc.,no date,https:/ Fuel Conversion Kits,”Autosales Inc.dba Summit Racing Equipment,no date,https:/ result.30Several recent research studies have also focused on gasoline-ethanol blends.31 These studies have included 10%gaso

80、line-ethanol blends(E10),15%gasoline-ethanol blends(E15),mid-level gasoline blends(E16-50),and ethanol flex fuel(E51-83).Conversion kits are being manufactured to convert a conventional E10 gasoline vehicle to a flex-fuel vehicle.Each kit,designed for certain makes and models,requires EPA certificat

81、es of conformity.Those that have received such certificates are available for approximately$300-1,000,not including installation.Because ethanol flex fuel(a.k.a.E85)has about 29%less energy content per unit volume than conventional gasoline,the flex-fuel conversion requires increased volumetric fuel

82、 delivery rates at increased ethanol levels to produce the same power(i.e.,more gallons per miles),and as expected,fuel efficiency(measured in miles per gallon)is approximately 29%lower depending on the ethanol percentage(51%to 83%);however,based on an interpolation of the European JEC study of carb

83、on-intensity results for E10 gasoline(128 gCO2/km)and E100(91 gCO2/km),GHG emissions reduce by 15%to 23%by converting from E10 to ethanol flex fuel(E51-83).32INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE CONFIGURED FOR DUAL FUELS AND BLENDSTraditional dual-fuel engines operate on a primary fuel such as natural gas whi

84、le utilizing a small amount of diesel as the pilot ignition fuel.Commercial stationary dual-fuel engines are anestablished technology,but dual-fuel engines in transportation are under research and development while various fuel combinations and engine designs are being tested.Future developments suc

85、h as dual-fuel injectors and optimized nozzle designs are expected to provide higher overall efficiency.Research on fuel combinations has focused on the primary fuel and finding alternatives with lower carbon levels than natural gas such as hydrogen,syngas(synthetic gas composed of hydrogen,carbon m

86、onoxide and carbon dioxide produced from the gasification of carbon-containing fuels),renewable natural gas(natural gas produced from renewable sources such as landfills,manure digesters and wastewater treatment plants),and others.One research paper reviewed the use of liquefied petroleum gas(LPG)an

87、d dimethyl ether(DME)with diesel fuel.Using LPG and DME with diesel fuel provided for a brake thermal efficiency(BTE)29 improvement of 3.5%to 14%when compared to the diesel-fuel-only mode,and the combination of LPG,DME,and diesel fuel provided for a BTE improvementapproximately 24%higher than the LP

88、G/dieselFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS15INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE OPTIMIZED FOR HIGH-OCTANE FUELS33 J.E.Anderson et al.,“High Octane Number EthanolGasoline Blends:Quantifying the Potential Benefits in the United States,”Fuel 97(J

89、uly 2012):585-594,https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.03.017.34 Anderson et al.,“High Octane Number EthanolGasoline Blends.”35 The compression ratio is the ratio between the volume of the cylinder and combustion chamber at their maximum and minimum values.36 Heather Hamje,“Running High-Octane Petrol

90、in a Suitably Adapted Engine,”Concawe Review 29,no.1(June 2020):4-11,https:/www.concawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/HOP.pdf.In a report published in 2012,Ford Motor Company engineers determined that blending additional ethanol above 10%increases the minimum research octane number(RON)of regular-grade gaso

91、line blendstock by four to seven points(approximately 92.5 RON E10 to 94.3 RON E15 and 98.6 RON E30).33 Ford engineers also determined that the use of the“higher RON would enable greater thermal efficiency in future engines through higher compression ratio(CR)and/or more aggressive turbocharging and

92、 downsizing,and in current engines on the road today through more aggressive spark timing under some driving conditions.”34 Ford engineers estimated the improvement to be within one to three CR-units.35In June 2020,CONCAWE also released a report investigating the fuel consumption improvements with r

93、unning high-octane gasoline(from 95 to 102 RON)on an adapted engine with a compression ratio 2 CR-units higher(12.2:1 than the comparison engine 10.2:1).36 The results indicated a fuel consumption improvement of 1.75%to 3.72%,depending on the driving-cycle(see Table 8).any recent research efforts re

94、lated to biodiesel and renewable diesel or after-market conversion/adaptation opportunities for increasing biodiesel blend percentages.See Section 3.0 Engine and Fuels Viewed as a Holistic System below for more information on other dual-fuel/engine combinations.Several other recent research studies

95、focus on biomass-based diesel fuel,namely biodiesel and renewable diesel.Although renewable diesel(a.k.a.hydrotreated vegetable oil(HVO)has been considered a“drop-in”fuel that can be used as a diesel fuel substitute up to 100%in existing CI engines,biodiesel blending has been generally limited to 20

96、%,as warranted by original equipment manufacturers.This research review did not revealTABLE 8:FUEL CONSUMPTION IMPROVEMENT WITH HIGH-OCTANE GASOLINEFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS16European JEC research further supports the potenti

97、al opportunity for GHG emissions improvement for higher-octane fuels(102 RON with 10%ethanol),which enable engines to be deployed with higher compression ratios.The JEC report states:“For gasoline engines,the combination of high compression rates with a high-octane gasoline(102 RON)offers a similar

98、GHG performance as Direct Injection Compression Ignition(DICI)vehicles when approaching 2025+.”37 The researchers used the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure(WLTP)to estimate direct injection spark ignition(DISI)gasoline engine GHG emissions at 128 gCO2e/km Well-To-Wheels(WTW).When o

99、ptimized for high-octane fuel,the GHG emissions decreased approximately 8%to approximately 118 gCO2e/km WTW.3837 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5.38 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5,10 and 50.95 RON98 RONDrive Cycle100 RON95 RON98 RON102 RON100 RON102 RONlitres/100 km%improvement

100、 vs 95 RONNEDCWLTCRDEArtemis7.0787.0627.0196.9547.6637.6407.5527.4868.1298.0227.9277.8278.348.2458.1688.075-0.220.831.75-0.291.442.3-1.322.483.72-1.142.063.17FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS17Engine and Fuels Viewedas a Holistic Sys

101、temSeveral research projects were identified that reviewed changes to engines and fuels holistically to improve vehicle performance and efficiency.39 Table 9 summarizes these projects.TABLE 9:EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT FROM VARIOIUS FUEL AND ENGINE COMBINATIONS39 Jim Alexander and E.Porpatham,“Numerical

102、 And Experimental Analysis on the Effects of Turbocharged Compressed Bio-Methane-Fueled Automotive Spark-Ig-nition Engine,”Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy(2021),https:/doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02161-5,prepublished version available at https:/ Paykani et al.,“Reactivity Controlled Compr

103、ession Ignition Engine:Pathways Towards Commercial Viability,”Applied Energy 282,part A,(January 15,2021):116174,https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116174;Akhilendra Pratap Singh,Vikram Kumar,and Avinash Kumar Agarwal,“Evaluation of Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition Mode Combustion Engi

104、ne Using Mineral Diesel/Gasoline Fuel Pair,”Fuel 301(October 1,2021):120986,https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.120986;Arun Kumar,“A CFD Study on DME/Methanol Fuelled Unconventional RCCI,”(masters thesis,Eindhoven University of Technology,January 2021),https:/pure.tue.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/1685010

105、63/1279807_Arun_Kumar.pdf;Parthasarathy Murugesan et al.,“Role of Hydrogen in Improving Performance and Emission Characteristics of Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engine Fueled with Graphite Oxide Nanoparticle-Added Microalgae Biodiesel/Diesel Blends,”International Journal of Hydrogen Energ

106、y(in press,corrected proof available September 2021),https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.08.107.Engine and Fuel CombinationEfficiency ImprovementTurbocharged internal combustion engine with compressed natural gasFuel consumption reduced 10.1%versus naturally aspirated internal combustion engineRe

107、activity controlled compression ignition(RCCI)engine with biofuelsUnquantifiedReactivity controlled compression ignition(RCCI)with diesel fuel and gasolineUnquantified lower emissions and higher brake thermal efficiency compared to spark ignition internal combustion engineReactivity controlled compr

108、ession ignition(RCCI)with methanol and dimethyl etherGas injection thermal efficiency improvement 1.3%versus convention diesel engine with dimethyl etherHomogeneous charged compression ignition(HCCI)with hydrogen-enriched 80%diesel/20%algal oil and graphite oxide nanoparticlesSimilar performance to

109、compression ignition en-gine with NOx and smoke reduction of 75%and 53%,respectivelyAn additional research project involved a review of different heavy-duty powertrain and fuel combinations with technical readiness level40,as detailed in Table 10.41As previously cited within this report,the European

110、 JEC also conducted a comprehensive WTW analysis of more than 1,500 different automotive fuels and powertrain combinations.After screening the combinations with a technical readiness level of six or greater-Tables 11 and 12 list some of the fuel/powertrain pathways for passenger cars and heavy-duty(

111、Type 5 aka Category 7-8)vehicles with estimated GHG-reduction potentials for MY2025+.44FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS18Passenger car fuel/engine combinations with the lowest GHG emission rates(gCO2e/km)include:42Compressed biometh

112、ane(CBM)in an SI engine with mild-hybrid technology;andHVO from used cooking oil in a DICI Engine with hybrid technology.Heavy-duty vehicle(Type 5 tractor-trailer combinations aka Category 7-8)fuel/engine combinations with the lowest GHG emission rates include:43HVO from used cooking oil in a DICI e

113、ngine;andCBM in a positive ignition(PI)engine with hybrid technology.40 Technology readiness levels(TRLs)are a method for estimating the maturity of technologies during the acquisition phase of a program.TRL is determined during a technology readiness assessment(TRA)that examines program concepts,te

114、chnology requirements,and demonstrated technology capabilities.TRLs are based on a scale from 1 to 9 with 9 being the most mature technology.41 Ralf Peters,Janos Lucian Breuer,Maximilian Decker,Thomas Grube,Martin Robinius,Remzi Can Samsun,and Detlef Stolten,“Future Power Train Solutions for Long-Ha

115、ul Trucks,”Sustainability 13,no.4(February 19,2021):2225,https:/doi.org/10.3390/su13042225.42 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5,11.43 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5,14.44 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5,12 and 15.TABLE 10:OPTIONS FOR FUTURE POWERTRAIN-FUEL COMBINATION

116、S(Peters et al.,”Future Power Train Solutions for Long-Haul Trucks.”)Energy CarrierNG(SNG,BNG,LNG)ICEDrive SystemConversion TechnologyInfrastructureTRLRemarknoneTo be extendedTRL 8-9Focus on methane slipDMEICEnoneTo be built-upTRL 7-8Focus on production chainHydrogenICEnoneTo be extendedTRL 5-6Focus

117、 on renewable electricity and H2 infrastructurePTFICEnoneExistingTRL 7-9Focus on renewable production chainElectricity(catenary)Hybrid(1)noneTo be built-upTRL 7-8Focus on renewable electricityBatteryE-motornoneTo be extendedTRL 9Focus on renewable electricity and infrastructure for chargingHydrogenE

118、-motorfuel cellTo be extendedTRL 7-8Focus on renewable electricity and H2 infrastructureNG(SNG,BNG,LNG)E-motorfuel cell and fuel processingTo be extendedTRL 5-6Complex system technologyPTFE-motorfuel cell and fuel processingExistingTRL 4-5Complex system technology(1)Hybrid system of catenary-based e

119、lectric powertrains and an internal combustion engine or fuel cell system.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS19TABLE 11:WORLDWIDE HARMONIZED LIGHT VEHICLE TEST PROCEDURE,PASSENGER CARS MODEL YEAR 2025 AND BEYONDFuel/Powertrain Combinat

120、ionGreenhouse Gas Reduction PotentialGasoline direct injection spark ignitiongCO2e/kmWell-to-wheel128-With Hybrid Technology9428%With Hybrid Technology8831%High-octane fuel(102 RON)gasoline direct injection spark ignition1188%Ethanol(E100)gasoline direct injection spark ignitionethanol from wheat912

121、9%With Hybrid Technology6747%Ethanol(E100)gasoline direct injection spark ignitionethanol from wheat straw2878%With Hybrid Technology2084%Diesel fuel direct injection compression ignition1206%With Hybrid Technology10121%With Hybrid Technology2878%Synthetic diesel fuel direct injection compression ig

122、nition3473%Hydrotreated vegetable(used cooking oil)direct injection compression ignition1588%With Hybrid Technology1390%Compressed biomethane direct injection spark ignition1588%With Mild-Hybrid Technology1390%TABLE 12:HEAVY-DUTY TYPE 5 MODEL YEAR 2025 AND BEYONDFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUM

123、MARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS20Fuel/Powertrain CombinationGreenhouse Gas Reduction PotentialDiesel fuel compression ignitiongCO2e/tkmWell-to-wheel63-With Hybrid Technology588%Ethanol-based fuel for diesel engines(ED95)compression ignitionethanol from straw2265%Synth

124、etic diesel fuel compression ignition1970%Biodiesel(B100 canola)compression ignition3446%Hydrotreated vegetable oil(used cooking oil)compression ignition1084%Liquefied natural gas high-pressure direct injection596%Compressed biomethane positive ignition887%FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:F

125、UTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS21Liquid Fuels ProductionCARBON CAPTUREIndustry efforts to decarbonize and reduce GHG emissions along the fuels production value chain have been in motion for years.As an example,industry reductions in flaring fugitive natural gas through impr

126、oved maintenance routines,vapor recovery units,and sophisticated leak detection systems and repair systems have all been instrumental in reducing emissions.In addition,increased efficiency improvements have allowed companies to lower their fuel consumption,reduce costs,and reduce their carbon emissi

127、ons.A set of new options are on the horizon to further cut emissions and help industry efforts toward achieving net-zero emissions:carbon capture,low-carbon fuel substitution,and low-carbon feedstocks substitution.The CO2 emissions from refineries originate from four main sources:process heaters(30-

128、60%),fluid catalytic cracking(FCC)unit(20-50%),hydrogen production(5-20%),and utilities(20-50%).45 The three main technologies for capturing CO2 are:45Ashish Bhadola et al.,Technology ScoutingCarbon Capture:From Todays to Novel Technologies,(Brussels,Belgium:Concawe,September 15,2020),https:/www.con

129、cawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/Rpt_20-18.pdf,72.46 Bhadola et al.,Technology ScoutingCarbon Capture:From Todays to Novel Technologies,pg.v.Concawes technology review shows that commercially available technology exists to allow for the capture of 85%to 90%of carbon emissions,but few projects have been im

130、plemented at refineries.Over the next couple of decades,advancements and research in carbon-capture technology will look to increase the percentage of emissions captured while reducing overall costs(see Table 13).461.Pre-combustion-CO2 in a hydrocarbon fuel stream is removed prior to use as a proces

131、s fuel at the refinery by converting the fuel into syngas(H2,CO)through gasification and then H2 and CO2 via a shift reaction;2.Post-combustion-The capture of CO2 in the flue/exhaust gas stream that is generated by a process unit using solvent absorption,membrane separation,or adsorption;and3.Oxygen

132、-combustion-An air separation unit separates oxygen from nitrogen before the combustion process to promote a flue/exhaust gas composed of only H2O and CO2.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS2247 Aramco,“Managing Our Footprint;Carbon Ca

133、pture Utilization and Storage“,https:/ 13:CONCAWE CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGY REVIEW(Bhadola et al.,Technology ScoutingCarbon Capture:From Todays to Novel Technologies.)*A list of potential technologies that fall within each of these categories is available in the executive summary of the source repor

134、t.As government incentives increase and costs decrease,more projects will start to develop over the coming years.A few of the most notable carbon-capture projects at refineries in the last decade include:Petrobras Refinery,Brazil(2012):Petrobras in collaboration with other oil majors conducted a suc

135、cessful pilot-scale test on a 33 bpd FCC unit that utilized oxygen-combustion to capture CO2 emissions;Valero Refinery,Port Arthur,Texas(2013):the steam methane reforming(SMR)plant utilizes pre-combustion carbon-capture technology;NWR Sturgeon Refinery,Alberta Canada(2020):operates a pre-combustion

136、carbon-capture unit by converting heavy bottoms into syngas where the hydrogen is further used in refinery operations;andAramco implemented a demonstration project at the Hawiyah Gas Plant with the“capability to capture and process 45 million standard cubic feet of CO2 at our plant in Hawiyah.The ca

137、ptured CO2 is piped 85 kilometers and pumped into the Uth Maniyah oil reservoir,sequestering the gas while also helping to maintain pressure in the reservoir and recover more oil.”47Technology*Near-term commercialTechnology readiness levelCharacteristicsCommercialEmergingFirst generation technology8

138、5-90%CO2 capture rate with 95%CO2 purityAverage cost of CO2 capture is US$50-75 per tonne123456789Second generation technology90%CO2 capture rate with 95%CO2 purityReduce cost of electricity(COE)by 20-30%Average cost of CO2 capture is US$40per tonne123456789Today2030123456789Today2040Early stages of

139、 research and development95%CO2 capture rate with 95%CO2 purityReduce COE by 30-40%Average cost of CO2 capture is US$30 per tonneFUEL SUBSTITUTIONElectrificationElectrification is already widely used across various manufacturing industries and becoming an option for the oil and gas sector.Electrific

140、ation of energy-intensive equipment such as furnaces and boilers will allow companies to reduce GHG emissions through electricity derived from renew-able sources such as solar or wind(see Table 14).48TABLE 14:ELECTRIFICATION OPTIONSFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COM

141、BUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS2348 Dietmar Schwer and Clemens Schneider,“Electrification of Industrial Process Heat:Long-Term Applications,Potentials and Impacts,”in ECEEE Industrial Summer Study Proceedings,ed.Therese Laitinen Lindstrm,Ylva Blume,and Nina Hampus(Stockholm,Sweden:European Council

142、for an Energy Efficient Economy,2018),411-422,available at https:/epub.wupperinst.org/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/7037/file/7037_Schuewer.pdf.(Schuwer and Schneider,”Electrification of Industrial Process Heat:Long-Term Applications,Potentials and Impacts,”415)TechnologyElectric steam boilerPower-t

143、o-HeatUtility system:Replacing conventional(natural gas-driven)boilersTRLCategoryProcess system and electrification option9Industrial heat pumpsPower-to-HeatUtility system:Heating(low to mediumtemperatures)8-99Heat recovery system:High-grade steam production by mechanical vapour recompression of exc

144、ess,low-pressure steam and thus reduction of steam boiler loadElectric drivesPower-to-Mechanical driveUtility system:Reducing steam demand by replacing steam turbines to provide mechanical drive for pumps and compressors9ElectrolysisPower-to-HydrogenReactor system:Replacing conventionally produced h

145、ydrogen for hydrotreater and hydrocracker with hydrogen from water electrolysis6-9Heat pump-assisteddistillationPower-for-SeparationSeparation system:Reducing heat demand for the crude oil separation processLowMembrane-assisted distillationPower-for-SeparationSeparation system:Reducing heat demand f

146、or the crude oil separation processLowFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS2449 Hydrogen Technologies,“Dynamic Combustion Chamber,”https:/ 2017 electrification project at the Marathon Refinery in Martinez,California,replaced a gas-fired

147、turbine with an electric motor that drives the refrigeration compressor at the alkylation unit.Even though electrification technology is ready forcommercialization,retrofitting a complex integrated facility such as a refinery is challenging.Future research and demonstration plants are expected to fo

148、cus on application-specific technical implementation and evaluate costs.Hydrogen as a FuelHydrogen at a production facility can also act as a fuel substitute for fossil-based furnaces and boilers,but modifications to the equipment are necessary.The technology has yet to be commercialized,but compani

149、es have deployed pilot projects with hydrogen-ready boilers that can run on either natural gas or 100%hydrogen.Utilizing hydrogen produced from renewable sources as the fuel means the equipment would have zero carbon dioxide emissions.In 2021,HyNet North West in Manchester,UK,did a live demonstratio

150、n of a 1MW industrial hydrogen boiler.Future research and work are focused on scaling the technology to major industrial-size applications such as refineries.For example,Hydrogen Technologies Inc.headquartered in Stockton,California,is developing a boiler with 30%greater efficiency than traditional

151、hydrocarbon boilers with 97%boiler thermal efficiency that requires no smokestack,lowering both capital and operating expenses.49FEEDSTOCK SUBSTITUTIONLow-Carbon Crude OilUpstream of refiners,similar options are available to reduce fuel life-cycle carbon emissions by lowering the carbon intensity of

152、 the crude oil feedstocks.Electrification:Upstream crude oil producers can electrify equipment used in the field to lower their emissions profile.CO2-Enhanced Oil Recovery(CO2-EOR):This oil-extraction method increases overall pressure in the oil well,allowing for increased production while a portion

153、 of the injected CO2 remains trapped underground.Any CO2 that is not initially stored can be collected and injected back into the well permanently.Under the California Low Carbon Fuel Standard,five projects have been implemented to install solar arrays in various oil fields across California to lowe

154、r the carbon intensity of crude oils;similar projects have been implemented in other parts of North America as well:Poso Creek Oil Field Solar Electricity Project,Kern County,California(2020):an estimated emissions reduction of 23,605 MT CO2e per year from supplying solar electricity directly to the

155、 oil field.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS25Valero Refinery,Port Arthur,Texas(2013):the SMR plant in Texas referenced in the section on“Carbon Capture”sends the CO2 for use in EOR at the West Hastings Unit oil field in southeast Te

156、xas.Husky Energy,Lashburn,Saskatchewan,Canada(2019):a 30-ton-per-day carbon-capture pilot plant,“the project is the worlds first pilot-scale plant using structured adsorbents to capture carbon from a once-through steam generator for use in heavy oil recovery”.Shell Quest Facility,Edmonton,Alberta,Ca

157、nada(2020):captures and stores CO2 from their hydrogen production for bitumen upgrading.BiomassProduction of liquid fuels from biomass-based feedstocks occurs through two general pathways:Stand-alone processing converts a biomass-based feedstock into fuelCo-processing simultaneously processes a biom

158、ass-based feedstock with a petroleum feedstock to produce a product made up of both renewable and petroleum productsIn all cases,the introduction of biomass-based feedstocks lowers GHG due to biogenic emissions.This refers to the fact that plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere through photosynthesis

159、 as they grow and release it back into the atmosphere when they are burned for energy,keeping the carbon balance neutral.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS2650“LCFS Pathway Certified Carbon Intensities,”California Air Resources Board,

160、no date,https:/ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/documents/lcfs-pathway-certified-car-bon-intensities.51 Aramco,”Worlds first blue ammonia shipment opens new route to a sustainable future“,Sept 27,2020,https:/ was mentioned as a fuel substitute for furnaces and boilers,but it could also be used as a feedstoc

161、k for hydrogen-consuming process units such as hydrocrackers and hydrotreaters.As shown in Figure 6,a key component in reducing emissions would be tied to the production pathways used to produce the hydrogen:Steam Methane Reforming of Natural Gas(SMR of NG)(gray hydrogen),SMR with carbon capture(blu

162、e hydrogen),SMR of Renewable Natural Gas(SMR of RNG),electrolysis via renewable electricity(green hydrogen),and thermal decomposition of methane.50Green/blue hydrogen production projects in development at refineries include:Saudi Aramco,Saudi Arabia(2020)and the Institute of Energy Economics,Japan(I

163、EEJ)successfully demonstrated the production and shipment of forty tons of high-grade blue ammonia from Saudi Arabia to Japan for use in zero-carbon power generation.51Shell Rheinland Refinery,Germany(2021):10MW electrolyzer unit to produce green hydrogen;BP Lingen Refinery,Germany(2024):60MW electr

164、olyzer unit to produce green hydrogen;Grangemouth Refinery,Scotland(2027):SMR with carbon capture,utilization,and storage to produce blue hydrogenFIGURE 6:HYDROGEN CARBON INTENSITY FROM VARIOUS PRODUCTION PATHWAYS(California Air Resources Board,“LCFS Pathway Certified Carbon Intensities”)Average CI(

165、gCO2e/MJ)00Hydrogen Gas(Grid Electroysis)Hydrogen Gas(SMR of NG)Hydrogen Gas(SMR of RNG)Hydrogen Gas(Solar/Wind Electroysis)1641189911FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS2752“Natural Gas Benefits and Considerations

166、,”Alternative Fuels Data Center,US Department of Energy,no date,https:/afdc.energy.gov/fuels/natural_gas_benefits.html.53 Sakari Oksanen et al.,Advanced Biofuels:What Holds Them Back?(Abu Dhabi,UAE:International Renewable Energy Agency,November 2019),https:/irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publi

167、cation/2019/Nov/IRENA_Advanced-biofuels_2019.pdf,7.54“LCFS Pathway Certified Carbon Intensities,”California Air Resources Board.Alternative Internal Combustion Engine FuelsNATURAL GASBIOFUELSConventional/First Generation BiofuelsConventional biofuel production technologies have established fuel carb

168、on intensity pathways and have well established commercially viable operations.Such technologies include fermentation for corn ethanol production,transesterification for biodiesel production,hydrotreating for renewablediesel production,and methane capture/purification for biomethane(biogas or renewa

169、ble natural gas)production.Each conventional/first generation biofuel reduces GHG emissions by at least 20%compared to the petroleum fuel they replace,as shown in Figure 7 below.54There are already more than 175,000 natural gas vehicles in the U.S.with millions more worldwide.“The advantages of natu

170、ral gas as a transportation fuel include its domestic availability,widespreaddistribution infrastructure,and reduced greenhouse gas emissions”over conventional gasoline and diesel fuels,especially when using renewable natural gas(RNG).52Biofuels have been successfully used in the transportation mark

171、et for more than 20 years by blending with traditional petroleum fuels.“Liquid biofuels require little change in fuel distributioninfrastructure or the transport fleet and can therefore be rapidly deployed,leading to much-needed reductions in GHG emissions.”53FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMAR

172、Y:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS2855 Genevieve Alberts et al.,Innovation Outlook:Advanced Liquid Biofuels(Abu Dhabi,UAE:International Renewable Energy Agency,2016),Pages 26 and 64.https:/www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2016/IRENA_Innovation_Outlook_Ad

173、vanced_Liquid_Biofuels_2016.pdf.FIGURE 7:COMPARATIVE CARBON INTENSITIES OF PETROLEUM FUELS AND CONVENTIONAL BIOFUELS(California Air Resources Board,“LCFS Pathway Certified Carbon Intensities”)Advanced/Second Generation BiofuelsEmerging technologies and resulting fuel pathways are still in the develo

174、pment stages and not ready for commercialization.These include fuels similar to conventional/first generation biofuels but with different feedstocks and production processes.Such technologies include gasification andFischer-Tropsch process,hydrothermal liquefaction,pyrolysis,lignocellulosic ethanol/

175、butanol,and many others.Figures 8 and 9 show various advanced/second generation biofuel production pathways in development and their respective carbon intensities.55Average CI(gCO2e/MJ)0200Gasoline(CARBOB)101DieselNaturalGas(CNG)BioLNGEthanolBiodieselRenewableDieselBioCNG3228FI

176、GURE 8:SECOND GENERATION BIOFUELS DEVELOPMENT STATUS(Alberts et al.,Innovation Outlook:Advanced Liquid Biofuels)TRLLignocellulosic butanol1-3456789ResearchPrototypeDemonstrationReady for commercialisationAerobic fermentationLignocellulosic ethanolAqueous phase reformingPyrolysis oil+upgradingHydroth

177、ermal upgradingSyngas fermentationSugars to hydrocarbonsGasification+Fischer-TropschGasification+mixed alcoholsGasification+methanolAlcohol to hydrocarbonsFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS2956 Oksanen et al.,”Advanced Biofuels:What H

178、olds Them Back?”.P.74.FIGURE 9:SECOND GENERATION BIOFUELS CARBON INTENSITIES(Alberts et al.,Innovation Outlook:Advanced Liquid Biofuels)FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS30Based on a survey,the International Renewable Energy Agency fo

179、und that the most important barriers for advanced biofuels are:561.Regulation2.Production Economy3.Feedstock Related4.Technology Risk5.Financing related6.Public perceptionsCurrent advanced/second generation biofuels Sierra BioFuels Plant,Fulcrum BioEnergy,Storey County,Nevada(2022):Converting munici

180、pal solid waste through gasification and Fisch-er-Tropsch process to produce transportation fuelsRed Rock Biofuels,Lakeview,Oregon(2022):Converting waste woody biomass through gasification and Fischer-Tropsch process to produce transportation fuelsprojects include:57 Daniel J.Gaspar et al.,Top 13 Bl

181、endstocks Derived from Biomass for Mixing-Controlled Compression-Ignition(Diesel)Engines:Bioblendstocks with Potential for Decreased Emissions and Improved Operability(Washington,D.C.:US Department of Energy,July 2021),https:/doi.org/10.2172/1806564,https:/www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1806564,xiv,30(s

182、ee figure captions).58 A.Soler,Role of e-Fuels in the European Transport System:Literature Review(Brussels,Belgium:Concawe,January 2020),https:/www.concawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/Rpt_19-14.pdf,23.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS31Bio

183、blendstocksThe US Department of Energys Co-Optimization of Fuels&Engines initiative released a study in 2021 that screened thousands of blendstocks for medium-and heavy-duty ground transportation and identified 13 that have the potential to be produced commercially while reducing GHG emissions by at

184、 least 60%.“The 13 blendstocks comprise 6 hydrocarbons,3 esters and 4 ethers;”among these,“the hydrocarbons,fatty acid methyl esters and fatty acid fusel esters present minimal barriers to adoption.”The study did not involve an economic feasibility or availability assessment of the 13 blendstocks.As

185、 a result,there could be significant issues prior to implementation related to blendstock production and economic viability.57E-FUELSElectro-fuels(E-fuels),or power-to-liquids,are produced through the combination of CO2 and H2.CO2 can come from carbon-capture sources such as flue gas at a refinery o

186、r from the atmosphere using direct air capture,while H2 can be produced via electrolysis using renewable electricity.The primary e-fuels are e-methane,e-hydrogen,e-ammonia,e-methanol,e-DME and e-OME(oxymethylene ether),e-gasoline,and e-diesel.These synthetic fuels can be used in ICE vehicles,though

187、in some cases with modifications.According to Concawe,“most e-fuels conversion routes(except from e-hydrogen or e-ammonia)consist of e-hydrogen reacting with captured CO2 to produce clean syngas consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.Syngas can further be processed to produce several types of fu

188、els.”58 There are two main pathways to convert the syngas into fuels:methanol synthesis and the Fischer-Tropsch process.The e-fuel technologies are yet to be commercialized,but a few demonstration plants are being developed.Many e-fuels technologies are in the later stages of development,as indicate

189、d by a Technical Readiness Level(TRL)of nine(9)shown within Table 15 below.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS32TABLE 15:TECHNICAL READINESS LEVEL OF E-FUELS TECHNOLOGIES(Soler,Role of e-Fuels in the European Transport System:Literatur

190、e Review)TechnologyWater electrolysisTRL(today)Alkaline electrolyser9Polymer-electrolyte membrane electrolyser(PEM)8High-temperature electrolyser cell(SOEC)5CO2 supplyCO2 extractionCO2 from biogas upgrading,ethanol production,beer brewing,.9CO2 exhaust gasScrubber with MEA9Scrubber with next generat

191、ion solvent8Absorption/electro-dialysis6Pressure-swing absorption(PSA)/Temperature-swing absorption(TSA)6CO2 from airAbsorption/electro-dialysis6Absorption/desorption(TSA)6CO2 conditioning(liquefaction and storage)9SynthesisH2 storage(stationary)9Fischer-Tropsch pathwayFischer-Tropsch synthesis9Reve

192、rse water gas shift(RWGS)6Hydrocracking,isomerization9Methanol pathwayMethanol synthesis9DME synthesis9Olefin synthesis9Oligomerization9Hydrotreating9FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS33The total production cost will continue to reduc

193、e as the various technologies involved with the production of e-fuels continue to develop and renewable electricity becomes cheaper.Figure 10 shows the cost of production in 2015 versus 2050 for the two major routes(methanol synthesis/Fischer-Tropsch process)and whether high-or low-temperature elect

194、rolysis is used.Current projects in e-fuels include:Siemens Energy,Magallanes region,Chile(2022):e-fuel production using wind energy and direct air carbon capture followed by methanol synthesisNordic Blue Crude,Nordic Electrofuel AS,Porsgrunn,Norway(2022):e-fuel production using wind energy and capt

195、ured CO2 from industrial emission followed by Fischer-Tropsch processRepsol,Bilbao,Spain(2024):e-fuel production using renewable electricity and captured CO2 from the co-located Petronor refinery followed by Fischer-Tropsch synthesisShell Rheinland Refinery,Germany(2025):e-gasoline production using

196、green hydrogen generated in an electrolyzerFIGURE 10:COST OF E-LIQUID FUELS BY TYPE OF TECHNOLOGY(Soler,Role of e-Fuels in the European Transport System:Literature Review)/kWh0.60.50.40.30.20.10ViaCH3OHVia FTLT electrolysisViaCH3OHVia FTHT electrolysisViaCH3OHVia FTLT electrolysisViaCH3OHVia FTLT el

197、ectrolysis20152050FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS34Internal Combustion Engine Zero-Emission PathwaysIn general,most research papers to date do not describe pathways to achieve carbon neutrality from a WTW GHG perspective when using

198、 liquid or gaseous fuels within ICE vehicles.Studies by the European JEC consortium and McKinsey&Company postulate possible carbon-neutral or near-carbon-neutral combinations,but these combinations are not yet commercially available.SYNTHETIC DIESEL PATHWAYSTwo synthetic diesel pathways either appro

199、ach zero WTW GHG emissions or provide for negative WTW GHG emissions when using the Fischer-Tropsch process using residual feedstock(waste wood,black liquor,or pyrolysis oil derived from waste wood)or via power-to-liquid using renewable electricity.The e-fuel(power-to-liquid)route combined with DICI

200、 vehicles approach zero WTW GHG emissions when using renewable electricity and negative WTW GHG emissions when using wood residue coupled with carbon capture and sequestration.5959 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5,58 and 99.60 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5,60 and 105.DIMETHYL

201、ETHER PATHWAYDME produced from renewable electricity via methanol synthesis and DME synthesis from CO2 fluegas used in a compression ignition engine can approach zero WTW GHG emissions.60COMPRESSED BIOMETHANE(CBM)PATHWAYCBM produced from manure digesters and used within DISI and performance improved

202、(PI)engines can provide for negative WTW GHG emissions due to a significant credit for avoided methane emissionsfrom untreated manure storage.Please note that the negative GHG emissions for biomethane from manure can only be considered if there are farms where untreated manure is stored.LIQUEFIED BI

203、OMETHANE AND LIQUEFIED SYNTHETIC NATURAL GAS PATHWAYLike CBM,liquefied biomethane and liquefied synthetic natural gas sourced from manure digesters and used in high-pressure direct injection engines can provide negative WTW GHG emissions,significantly due to avoiding methane emissions.The negative G

204、HG emissions for biomethane from manure can only be considered,however,if there is farm application of untreated manure.61FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS3561 Prussi et al.,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report V5,102.62 Bernd Heid,Christopher

205、Martens,and Anna Orthofer,“How Hydrogen Combustion Engines Can Contribute to Zero Emissions,”McKinsey&Company,June 25,2021,https:/ PATHWAYHydrogen ICE vehicles with hydrogen sourced from renewable sources can potentially approach zero WTW GHG emissions.62 Hydrogen fuel cells have received a lot of a

206、ttention,but H2-ICE could also be aviable alternative with necessary engine modifications.Toyota has invested considerable resources to develop hydrogen vehicles and has successfully converted a Toyota Corolla to an H2-ICE.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION E

207、NGINES AND LIQUID FUELS36ConclusionIn summary,the authors of this report identified approximately 17,000 research articles published within the past two years focused on improving ICEs or lowering their carbon footprint.An observer could conclude that this abundance of research projects indicates no

208、t only a continuing interest in improving the ICE but also supports a point-of-view that the ICE will continue to power motor vehicles well into the future.This point-of-view is succinctly captured by the following quotation from the 2021 NAS report:“Internal combustion engines(ICEs)will continue to

209、 play a significant role in the new vehicle fleet in MY 20252035 in ICE-only vehicles,as well as in hybrid electric vehicles(HEVs)from mild hybrids to plug-in hybrids,but will decrease in number with increasing battery electric vehicle(BEV)and fuel cell electric vehicle penetration.In this period,ma

210、nufacturers will continue to develop and deploy technologies to further improve the efficiency of conventional powertrains,for ICE-only vehicles and as implemented in HEVs.Developments in the ICE for hybrids will advance toward engines optimized for a limited range of engine operating conditions,wit

211、h associated efficiency benefits.Major automakers are on differing paths,with some focusing their research and development and advanced technology deployment more squarely on BEVs,and others more focused on advanced HEVs to maximize ICE efficiency.”6363 National Academies of Sciences,Engineering,and

212、 Medicine.2021.Assessment of Technologies for Improving Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy2025-2035.Washington,DC:The National Academies Press.p.369.https:/doi.org/10.17226/26092.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS37SourcesICE DESIGN,PERF

213、ORMANCE,EFFICIENCY AND EMISSIONS IMPROVEMENTS1.USEPA,“The 2020 EPA Automotive Trends Report Greenhouse Gas Emissions,Fuel Economy,and Technology since 1975”,EPA-420-R-21-003(January 2021)2.Ceramic Coating Applications and Research Fields for Internal Combustion Engines E CANLI-academia.edu3.Thermal

214、efficiency improvement of super-lean burn spark ignition engine by stratified water insulation on piston top surface T Nagasawa,Y Okura,R Yamada-Journal of Engine,2021-4.Impact of intake port injection of water on boosted downsized gasoline direct injection engine combustion,efficiency and emissions

215、 R Golzari,H Zhao,J Hall,M Bassett-Journal of Engine,2021-5.Combined effects of internal exhaust gas recirculation and tumble motion generation in a flex-fuel direct injection engine ACT Malaquias,NAD Netto,RBR da Costa-Energy Conversion and,2020 Elsevier6.Experimental investigation of toroidal pist

216、on bowl with tangential grooves on CI engine AS Reddy,J Krishnaraj-AIP Conference Proceedings,2021-aip.scitation.org7.Thiruvengadam,A.,Pradhan,S.,Thiruvengadam,P.,Padmanaban,V.et al.,Characterization of Energy Distribution and Efficiency in a Modern Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine,SAE Int.J.Engines 13(4):5

217、83-599,2020-sae.org8.National Academies of Sciences,Engineering,and Medicine,“Cost,Effectiveness,and Deployment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light Duty Vehicles”,The National Academies Press,Washington DC,2015.https:/www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-technologies-for-improving-fue

218、l-economy-of-light-duty-vehicles-phase-29.National Academies of Sciences,Engineering,and Medicine,“Assessment of Technologies for Improving Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy 2025-2035”,The National Academies Press,Washington DC,2021.https:/www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/assessment-of-technologies-

219、for-improving-fuel-economy-of-light-duty-vehicles-phase 3ICE HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE DRIVETRAIN SYSTEMS10.Hybrid Electric Vehicles:A Review of Existing Configurations and Thermodynamic Cycles R Len,C Montaleza,JL Maldonado,M Tostado-Vliz-Thermo,2021-11.Analyzing the Improvements of Energy Management

220、 Systems for Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using a Systematic Literature Review:How Far Are These Controls from JP Torreglosa,P Garcia-Trivio,D Vera-Applied Sciences,2020-12.Realization of a Novel Free-Piston Engine Generator for Hybrid-Electric Vehicle Applications A Smallbone,MR Hanipah,B Jia,T Scott-E

221、nergy&,2020-ACS Publications13.Thermoelectric generator optimization for hybrid electric vehicles WB Nader-Applied Thermal Engineering,2020 Elsevier14.Bridging the gap in a resource and climate-constrained world with advanced gasoline compression-ignition hybrids AFN Abdul-Manan,HW Won,Y Li,SM Sarat

222、hy,X Xie-Applied Energy,2020-ElsevierFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS38ICE EMISSIONS CONTROL SYSTEMS AND AFTERTREATMENT IMPROVEMENTS15.Development of three way catalytic converter for automotive exhaust gas B Bayram-2021-open.metu.e

223、du.tr16.Effect of Cone Angle on Performance of Catalytic Converter CI Priyadarsini,TR Reddy,MNC Sekhar,R Hathiram-17.Cold-Start Modeling and On-Line Optimal Control of the Three-Way Catalyst J Lock,K Clasn,J Sjblom,T McKelvey-arXiv preprint arXiv:2104.12390,2021-arxiv.org18.Modeling the effect of SC

224、R denox unit on diesel engine performance P Pelen-2020-open.metu.edu.tr19.Investigating the Influence of Fuel Volatility on Particle Emissions Phenomena in a Production Gasoline Direct Injection Engine BRM Hutchison-2021-DUAL FUELS20.Experimental investigation of a dual-fuel compression ignition eng

225、ine for improvement of emissions and thermal efficiency W Kamei-2021-14.139.196.2521.Discussion on the combustion,performance and emissions of a dual fuel diesel engine fueled with methanol-based CeO2 nanofluids,S Pan,J Wei,C Tao,G Lv,Y Qian,Q Liu,W Han-Fuel,2021 Elsevier22.Fuel economy and emission

226、s of a vehicle equipped with an aftermarket flexible-fuel conversion kit,JF Thomas,SP Huff,BH West-ORNL/TM-2011/483.Oak Ridge,2012-23.Practical considerations for an E85-fueled vehicle conversion,RB Wicker,PA Hutchison,OA Acosta,RD Matthews-1999-sae.org24.Conversion of internal combustion engine fro

227、m gasoline to E85 fuel,G Budik-Periodica Polytechnica Transportation Engi-neering,2010-pp.bme.hu25.https:/ FUELS29.High octane number ethanolgasoline blends:Quantifying the potential benefits in the United States JE Anderson,DM DiCic-co,JM Ginder,U Kramer,TG Leone,.Fuel 97,585-59430.H Hamje,“Running

228、 high-octane petrol in a suitably adapted engine,”Concawe Review,Vol.29,No.1,June 2020,https:/www.concawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/HOP.pdfENGINE AND FUELS VIEWED AS A HOLISTIC SYSTEM31.Numerical and Experimental Analysis on the Effects of Turbocharged Compressed Bio-Methane Fuelled Automotive Spark-Ig-

229、nition Engine J Alexander,E Porpatham-2021-32.Reactivity controlled compression ignition engine:Pathways towards commercial viability A Paykani,A Garcia,M Shahbakhti,P Rahnama-Applied Energy,2021 ElsevierFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID F

230、UELS3933.Evaluation of reactivity controlled compression ignition mode combustion engine using mineral diesel/gasoline fuel pair AP Singh,V Kumar,AK Agarwal-Fuel,2021 Elsevier34.A CFD study on DME/Methanol fuelled unconventional RCCI INCJ Maes,II Borosan-2021-research.tue.nl35.Role of hydrogen in im

231、proving performance and emission characteristics of homogeneous charge compression ignition en-gine fueled with graphite oxide P Murugesan,AT Hoang,EP Venkatesan-International Journal of,2021 Elsevier36.Future Power Train Solutions for Long-Haul Trucks R Peters,JL Breuer,M Decker,T Grube,M Robinius-

232、Sustainability,2021-37.Concawe Review,Volume 27,No.2,March 2019,https:/www.concawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/LowCarbonPathways.pdf38.European Commission,JRC Science for Policy Report,JEC Well-To-Wheels Report v5,EUR 30284 EN,2020,https:/www.con-cawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/jec_wtw_v5_121213_final.pdf39.Co

233、ncawe Review,Volume 29,No.2,February 2021,https:/www.concawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/JEC-Well-to-Wheels-study-version-5-a-look-into-the-carbon-intensity-of-different-fuelpowertrain-combinations-in-2030.pdfLIQUID FUELS PRODUCTION40.C.Oliveira,K.M.Schure,“Decarbonisation Options for the Dutch Refinery S

234、ector.”,MIDDEN,(December 24,2020).41.M.Cioli,K.M.Schure,D.van Dam,“Decarbonisation Options for the Dutch Industrial Gases Production.“,MIDDEN,(March 26,2021)42.Chantal Beck,Sahar Rashidbeigi,Occo Roelofsen,and Eveline Speelman,“The future is now:How oil and gas companies can decarbonize.“,McKinsey a

235、nd Company(January 7,2020)43.Fatih Gle,Will Meredith,Colin E.Snape,P“University of Nottingham(April 23,2020)44.Ashish Bhadola,Vivek Patel,Shailesh Potdar and Sudipta Mallick,“Technology Scouting-Carbon Capture:From Todays to Novel Technologies.”,Concawe,(September 15,2020)45.IEAGHG,“The Carbon Captu

236、re Project at Air Products Port Arthur Hydrogen Production Facility.”,(December 2018)46.Petrobras,Chevron,BP,et.al,“Demonstration Fluid Catalytic Cracking Demonstration”CO2 Capture Project(2013)47.Strugeon Refinery,“The Sturgeon Refinerys Approach to Sustainable Energy Production”,Northwest Refining

237、,(2021)48.Tesoro Refining&Marketing Company(Marathon),“Marathon Alkylation Unit Electrification Project”,California Air Resources Board(05/10/2019)49.Berenschot,“Electrification in the Dutch Process Industry“,CE Delft,(February 8th,2017)50.Schuwer,“Electrification of industrial process heat:long-ter

238、m applications,potentials and impacts,”Wuppertal Institute,(2018)51.Hydrogen Technologies,“Dynamic Combustion Chamber,”https:/ and BP,“Lingen Green Hydrogen decarbonising industry together,”(2021)53.Shell Rheinland Refinery,C“Refhyne,(2021)54.Bernd Heid,Christopher Martens,and Anna Orthofer,“How hyd

239、rogren combustion engines can contribute to zero emissions.”,McKinsey and Company(June 25,2021)55.S Griffiths,BK Sovacool,J Kim,M Bazilian,“Industrial decarbonization via hydrogen:A critical and systematic review of devel-opments,socio-technical systems and policy options“Energy Research&Social Scie

240、nce,(October,2021)56.Nez-Lpez Vanessa,Moskal Emily,“Potential of CO2-EOR for Near-Term Decarbonization”,Frontiers in Climate,(September 27,2019)57.Christophe McGlade,“aC IEA,(April 11,2019)58.IEA Paris,“Green refinery hydrogen for Europe,”IEA,(January 27,2021)59.Husky Energy,Carbon Capture Pilot Pla

241、n,Inventys,https:/eralberta.ca/story/inventys-to-demonstrate-carbon-capture-tech-nology-at-husky/60.Shell,“Quest Carbon Capture and Storage,”https:/www.shell.ca/en_ca/about-us/projects-and-sites/quest-carbon-capture-and-storage-project.html61.Aramco,“Carbon Capture,Utilization and Storage,”https:/ f

242、irst blue ammonia shipment opens new route to a sustainable future,”https:/ Air Resources Board,“Innovative Crude Oil Applications,”https:/ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/documents/ap-proved-innovative-crude-oil-applications-under-lcfs64.M.Yugo,T“Concawe,(September 2,2021)65.California Air Resources Board,

243、“LCFS Certified Pathway Carbon Intensities,”https:/ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/documents/lcfs-pathway-certified-carbon-intensitiesFUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FUELS40LIQUID FUELS FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES66.Alternative Fuels Data C

244、enter,“Natural Gas Benefits and Considerations,“US Department of Energy67.Adam Brown,Mahmood Ebadia,Jack Saddler,et al.,“The Role of Renewable Transport Fuels in Decarbonizing Road Trans-port”,Advanced Motor Fuels TCP and IEA Bioenergy TCP,(November 2020)68.IRENA,“Innovation Outlook:Advanced Liquid

245、Biofuels“(2016)69.IRENA,“Advanced Biofuels:What holds them back?”(November 2019)70.U.S Department of Energy,“Top 13 Blendstocks Derived from Biomass for Mixing-Controlled Compression-Ignition(Diesel)Engines,Co-Optimization of Fuels&Engines,(July 2021)71.A.Soler,Role of e-Fuels in the European Transp

246、ort System:Literature Review(Brussels,Belgium:Concawe,January 2020),https:/www.concawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/Rpt_19-14.pdf72.Nordic Blue Crude,“Electrofuels,”https:/nordicelectrofuel.no/73.Siemens Energy,“Haru Oni:E-Fuels.”https:/www.siemens- Garcia de Las Heras,P“REPSOL,(September 28,2021)75.Fulcru

247、m Bioenergy,“Sierra Biofuels Plant,”https:/fulcrum- Biofuels,“Lakeview Oregon Plant,”https:/ Boretti,“Advantages and Disadvantages of Diesel Single and Dual-Fuel Engines”,Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering,(December 3,2019)PATHWAYS/SUMMARY78.McKinsey and Company,“How hydrogen combustion engines can

248、 contribute to zero emissions”,https:/ Mottschall,P Kasten,F Rodrguez,“Decarbonization of on-road freight transport and the role of LNG from a German perspective“,Mitarbeit von ko-Institut und ICCT,2020.FUELS INSTITUTE|LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY:FUTURE CAPABILITIES OF COMBUSTION ENGINES AND LIQUID FU

249、ELS41About the Fuels InstituteThe Fuels Institute,founded by NACS in 2013,is a 501(c)(4)non-profit research-oriented think tank dedicated to evaluating the market issues related to vehicles and the fuels that power them.By bringing together diverse stakeholders of the transportation and fuels market

250、s,the Institute helps to identify opportunities and challenges associated with new technologies and to facilitate industry coordination to help ensure that consumers derive the greatest benefit.The Fuels Institute commissions and publishes comprehensive,fact-based research projects that address the

251、interests of the affected stakeholders.Such publications will help to inform both business owners considering long-term investment decisions and policymakers considering legislation and regulations affecting the market.Research is independent and unbiased,designed to answer questions,not advocate a

252、specific outcome.Participants in the Fuels Institute are dedicated to promoting facts and providing decision makers with the most credible information possible so that the market can deliver the best in vehicle and fueling options to the consumer.For more about the Fuels Institute,visit fuelsinstitu

253、te.orgFuels Institute StaffJohn Eichberger|Executive Directorjeichbergerfuelsinstitute.org|(703)518-7971Jeff Hove|Vice Presidentjhovefuelsinstitute.org|(703)518-7972Amanda Appelbaum|Director,Researchaappelbaumfuelsinstitute.org|(703)518-7974Marjorie Kass|Director,Marketing&Communicationsmkassfuelsin

254、stitute.org|(703)518-7973Amanda Patterson|Coordinator,Communications&Projectsapattersonfuelsinstitute.org|(703)518-7975FOR A LIST OF CURRENT FUELS INSTITUTE BOARD MEMBERS AND FINANCIAL SUPPORTERS,PLEASE VISIT FUELSINSTITUTE.ORG(703)518-7970FUELSINSTITUTE.ORGFUELSINSTITUTE1600 DUKE STREETSUIT 700ALEXANDRIA,VA 22314