1、Public Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure Authorized2Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year Retrospective4Table of ContentsAbbreviationsOverview 91 Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicators 131.1 Improving human endowments 131.2 Remov

2、ing constraints on provision of more and better jobs 151.3 Removing barriers to womens ownership and control over assets 201.4 Enhancing womens voice and agency 221.5 Persistence of gender gaps:potential causes 252 WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findings 292.1 Generating data,knowledge,and eviden

3、ce on gender 312.2 Leveraging knowledge to address gender gaps in WBG operations 332.3 Targeting country-level outcomes through country-driven approaches 362.4 Partnering to maximize impact 383 Looking Ahead 41References 43Annex A:Progress over time in Gender Equality 51Annex B:Leveraging the learni

4、ng-adapting-expanding approach to tackle gender gaps 65AcknowledgmentsThis Report has been prepared by a core team comprising Andrea Kucey,Abhilasha Sahay,Brett J.Libresco,Diego Ubfal,Chiara Broccolini,and Jen-nifer Solotaroff.Valuable inputs were provided by Tanima Ahmed,Diana Arango,Anna Tabitha B

5、onfert,Helle Buchhave,Sarah Bunker,Abigail Goodnow Dalton,Laila Elrefai,Jessica Gesund Forero,Alessandra Heine-mann,Azada Hussaini,Heather Mae Kipnis,Liz Koechlein,Jana Malinska,Mirai Maruo,Elizabeth Afua Laura Mensah,Heather Moylan,Maria Beat-riz Orlando,Carla Pittalis,Laura Rawlings,Hilary Margare

6、t Helen Steiner,Cindy Suh,Priyanka Tayal,and Wendy Teleki,Carol Marina Tojeiro.The team received valuable comments and suggestions from Paola Bui-trago Hernndez,Jacobus Joost De Hoop,Sameera Maziad Al Tuwaijri,Besa Rizvanolli,Anna Fruttero,Michael OSullivan,Louise Twining-Ward,and Mary Borrowman.The

7、 team greatly benefited from consultations with the World Bank Gender Leads Community of Practice and the Gender Leadership Council.World Bank Vice President for Human Development Mamta Murthi and Gender Global Director Hana Brixi provided invalu-able guidance and advice.Excellent editorial and comm

8、unications support was provided by Leslie Ashby and Kristyn Schrader-King,respectively.We also thank Nancy Palm and Katharine Corcoran for valuable design and production support.AbbreviationsBCCBehavioral Change Communication CPFCountry Partnership FrameworkDPFDevelopment Policy Financing DPODevelop

9、ment Policy Operations FCVFragility Conflict and Violence FGMFemale Genital Mutilation FLFPFemale Labor Force ParticipationFYFiscal Year GBVGender-based violenceGDPGross Domestic Product GILGender Innovation LabHLOHigh Level Outcome IAEG-GSInter-Agency Expert group on Gender StatisticsIBRDInternatio

10、nal Bank for ReconstructionICTInformation Communication and Technology IDAInternational Development AgencyIEGIndependent Evaluation Group IFCInternational Finance CorporationILOInternational Labor Organization IPVIntimate partner violenceMIGAMultilateral Investment Guarantee AgencyMOPANMultilateral

11、Organization Performance Assessment NetworkNEETNot in Education,Employment or Training OECDOrganization for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentUNUnited NationsUNESCO United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNFPAUnited Nations Population FundUNHCRUnited Nations High Commission

12、er on RefugeesSCDSystematic Country Diagnostic STEMScience Technology Engineering and Medicine WBGWorld Bank GroupWBLWomen Business and the Law WEFWorld Economic Forum WHOWorld Health Organization 89 OverviewBox 1.World Development Report 2012:Gender Equality and DevelopmentThe World Development Rep

13、ort on gender and development:Broke new ground in building a strong case for gender equality not only as a core development objective,but also as a lever to enhance other development outcomes.Introduced an economic lens to view gender equality and demonstrated that investing in women and girls is“sm

14、art economics.”Showed that gender equality increases productivity and growth and reduces poverty while improving prospects for society overall and the next generation.Informed the World Bank Group Gender Strategy(20162023)and its ongoing analytical work,operations,and investments.Introduced a framew

15、ork with core principles on gender equality that remain highly relevant amid multiple global crises.OverviewA decade ago,the 2012 World Development Report on gender and development brought gen-der to the forefront of the development agenda.Since the launch of that report(Box 1),the World Bank Groups

16、(WBGs)commitment to gender equality in its programs has become broader and more ambitious.Support for client countries increasingly addresses gender inequality through the WBGs lending and investment portfolio,impact evaluations,and other analytical products that support operations and emergency res

17、ponse.1 Strategic partnerships and investments in gen-der data across multiple domains have facilitated evidence-informed policy making for equality and empowerment.In the context of increasingly dire impacts of climate change,conflict and fragility,and food and nutrition insecurity,there is growing

18、 recognition that gender equality is a powerful lever for building resilience.engagement on gender and highlights promising approaches.Reflections and findings will enable the WBG and its partners to develop a deeper understand-ing of what works,provide opportunities to strengthen and expand efforts

19、 in critical areas,and will inform the new WBG Gender Strategy,to be launched in 2024.This retrospective report explores global progress and lessons learned over the past 10 years in promot-ing gender equality.This report takes stock of global progress and considers the impact of evidence-backed sol

20、utions to close the most persistent gender gaps.It examines the evolution of World Bank Groups 1 The World Bank Group Gender Thematic Policy Note series and Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series have served as inputs for this document.The thematic policy notes summarize key issues

21、on gender equality and empowerment and provide evidence on effective and promising solutions,operational good practices,and areas for future engagement;the causal evidence briefs highlight findings from impact evaluations of development interventions in nine areas,providing evidence and lessons on h

22、ow to close gender gaps and foster womens economic empowerment.10Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year RetrospectiveLooking back on 10 years of global progress toward gender equality revealed four key reflections.1.Advances in human capital have not led to greater economic opportunities for wome

23、n.Globally,there has been progress in access to health services and steady improvements in education out-comes.In developing countries,2 the number of girls attending secondary school has increased by 10 per-cent,fully closing the gender gap,and womens and girls tertiary enrollment rate has exceeded

24、 that of men and boys.The maternal mortality ratio in these countries has dropped by 10 percent,3 and fertility has declined by 4 percent,4 although these aggregated trends mask regional disparities;girls continue to lag boys in secondary enrollment rates in the Middle East,North Africa,and Sub-Saha

25、ran Africa,and fertility remains high in Sub-Saharan Africa.But these global advances in health and education have not translated into enhanced economic opportunities for women.The lack of access to economic opportunities,illus-trated by low female labor force participation,gen-der wage gaps,under-r

26、epresentation in leadership positions,and gender-based occupational segre-gation confining women towards low productivity jobs,requires urgent action.Female labor force par-ticipation in formal employment has remained stagnant since 1990 in most regions of the world,with women at 53 percent particip

27、ation versus 80 percent for men.5 Closing this gap yields non-trivial economic gains;if womens employment was as much as mens,then countries stand to gains as much as 20 percent increase in long-term GDP per capita(Pennings 2022).Similarly,economies can gain as much as$5-6 trillion if women started

28、and scaled new businesses at the same rate as men(We-Fi Initiative 2022).A real expansion of not only jobs,but quality work available to women is needed.Women are often in the lowest paid jobs,in piece-rate,subcontracted work,and vulnerable forms of self-employment,with negligible access,to insuranc

29、e,leave benefits and social protection(UN Women n.d.).2.Gains in gender equality are fragile.While the COVID-19 pandemic had devastating effects on lives and lived experiences of all,the impact on women was especially pronounced.The pandemic exacerbated gender gaps in human capital,intensified barri

30、ers to womens participation in the economy and public life,and compounded a co-ex-isting pandemic of violence against women and girls(Alon et al.2020;UNFPA 2020;UN Women 2021a).It was projected that 11.2 million girls worldwide would not return to school in 2020/21 because of pandem-ic-related schoo

31、l closures(UNESCO 2020).The UN Women Rapid Gender Assessments of the socioeco-nomic impacts of COVID-19 showed that 48 percent 2 These include countries that are a part of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Association lending programs across the six

32、WBG regions:South Asia,East Asia and the Pacific,Middle East and North Africa,Europe and Central Asia,Latin America and the Caribbean,Sub-Saharan Africa.IBRD lends to governments of middle-income and creditworthy low-income countries and IDA provides interest-free loans credits and grants to governm

33、ents of the poorest countries.Together,IBRD and IDA make up the World Bank.List of IBRD and IDA countries,as of June 2020.3 See the Gender Data Portal(https:/genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/sh-sta-mmrt/).Most recent year available is 2017.Despite these improvements,maternal mortality remains una

34、cceptably high(with 295,000 women dying during pregnancy and childbirth in 2017(Maternal Mortality(database),WHO(accessed 2021),https:/www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortality).Most of these deaths occur in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.In 2017,15 countries were considered to

35、be“high alert”(Afghanistan,Central African Republic,Chad,Democratic Republic of the Congo,Ethiopia,Haiti,Guinea,Iraq,Nigeria,South Sudan,Somalia,Sudan,Syria,Yemen,Zimbabwe)(Fragile States Index(accessed 2021),https:/fragilestatesindex.org/).4 See the Gender Data Portal(https:/genderdata.worldbank.or

36、g/indicators/sh-sta-mmrt/).Accessed September 2021.Original Source:United Nations Population Division,World Population Prospects.Most recent year available is 2019.A major remaining challenge is that more than 200 million women do not have access to contraceptives,despite wanting to delay or avoid p

37、regnancy(Singh,Darroch,and Ashford 2014).5 See the Gender Data Portal(https:/genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/sh-sta-mmrt/).Overview 11of women living in 45 countries assessed had difficulty accessing sanitary and health products and 37 percent had trouble accessing medical care.The pandemic brou

38、ght greater employment losses for women than men for all age groups and educa-tion levels and in urban and rural areas(Alon et al.2021;Fabrizio,Gomes,and Tavares 2021b;World Bank 2021a),and business closures were higher for women-than men-owned enterprises(Liu,Wei,and Xu 2021;Torres et al 2021).Fort

39、y-five percent of women had been exposed directly or indirectly to at least one form of GBV since the beginning of the pandemic(UN Women 2021a).6,7 Given reversion in progress across multiple gender equality outcomes,the time needed to close the gender gap has increased from 100 to 151 years post-pa

40、ndemic(WEF 2022).3.Slow,fragile progress suggests that transfor-mative change is needed,building on evidence and dataInvestments in data and research continue to be necessary,however bringing technical solutions to scale often requires addressing gender norms and understanding the effect of structur

41、al factors.Scal-ing-up successful interventions requires political and social will to address gender norms.This implies that changing mindsets and mobilizing collective action are often a necessary complement to technical solu-tions to advance gender equality and empowerment.These changes require a

42、deeper understanding of the underlying factors,including the policy arena,but also domestic policies,market structures,political prior-ities,legal systems,and social practices that shape structural changes.4.Gender equality and empowerment are central to advancing sustainable global development.This

43、 is a time of unprecedented consensus on the need to accelerate gender equality.Most develop-ment practitioners and policy makers recognize that gender equality and empowerment of women and girls enhance human capital development,economic growth,and resilience of societies.The amount of gender-focus

44、ed official development assistance as a proportion of total official development assistance from member countries of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organization for Economic Cooper-ation and Development increased from 30 percent in 2012 to 45 percent in 2019/20.Starting with Sweden in 2

45、014,countries have been adopting feminist for-eign and development policies to accelerate change and increase opportunities by integrating gender into policy making.These changes the result of concerted efforts by civil society,development agencies,and gov-ernments leverage improvements in data,rese

46、arch,and evidence over the last decade.Addressing the multiple global crises and ensuring a strong economic recovery will require accelerated progress towards gender equality and the empow-erment of women and girls.Investment is needed to increase understanding of how gender influences policies and

47、programs and can contribute to better development outcomes.Policies and investments to respond to climate change,violent conflict,and fra-gility must go beyond gender-based vulnerability to enable women to effect change and contribute to durable solutions to enhance long-term economic,environmental,

48、and social outcomes.6 Between April and September 2021,UN Women conducted regional gender assessments in 13 countries(Albania,Bangladesh,Cameroon,Colombia,Cte dIvoire,Jordan,Kenya,Kyrgyzstan,Morocco,Nigeria,Paraguay,Thailand,Ukraine)focused on GBV and COVID-19.7 For the purpose of the assessments,GB

49、V is defined as physical abuse(being slapped,hit,or the target of a thrown object;other physical harm),verbal abuse(being yelled at,called names,humiliated),being denied basic needs(health care,money,food,water,shelter),being denied communication(with other people,including being forced to stay alon

50、e for long periods of time),and sexual harassment(being subjected to inappropriate jokes,suggestive comments,leering,or unwelcome physical contact).12Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year Retrospective13Trends in Key Global and Regional IndicatorsSource:UNESCO Institute for Statistics.Data retri

51、eved from World Bank Gender Data Portal(accessed May 6).Note:Data as of February 2020.Net enrollment rate is the ratio of children of official school age enrolled in school to the population of children of official school age.Population-weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and D

52、evelopment(IBRD)and International Development Agency(IDA)countries.FemaleMale75706560555020002002Figure 1.Secondary School Enrollment Rates by Gender200420062008200162018Enrollment rate(%)1.Trends in Key Global and Regional IndicatorsIn 2016,the WBG launched its Gender Strategy(201623),fo

53、cusing on closing gender gaps in four key outcome areas:improving human endowments,removing constraints on availability of more and better jobs,removing barriers to womens ownership and control over assets,and enhancing womens voices and agency.This section examines global progress in these four are

54、as,highlight-ing areas where results have been limited and multiple crises threaten to reverse progress.8 1.1 Improving human endowments The past decade has delivered substantial progress in education and health.9 Youth literacy has increased in terms of absolute rates for boys and girls and of rela

55、tive gender gap.The gender parity index increased from 0.94 in 2010 to 0.97 in 2020.10 Further,by 2020,girls had a higher human capital index than boys in over 90 percent of countries.In developing countries,the average gender gap in primary and secondary school enrollment rates(Figure 1)has closed

56、substan-tially with girls overtaking boys in tertiary education enrollment(Figure 2).For school completion the gap has narrowed to within 1 to 2 percentage points in pri-mary completion rates with girls overtaking boys in secondary school completion.11,12 Girls and womens gains in education have ben

57、efited from improvements in reproductive health in developing countries.The maternal mortality ratio fell from 272 per 100,000 live births in 2010 to 230 in 2017,and the adolescent fertility rate fell from 52 births per 1,000 women aged 15 to 19 8 The main reference period of this retrospective is t

58、he most recent year of available data and the 9 preceding years,which is typically the decade before the onset of the pandemic(201019/20).Some figures show trends starting in approximately 2000 to compare trends between the first(200010)and second(201020)decades of the century.Because this is a retr

59、ospective of trends in gender equality in developing countriesspecifically those where the WBG provides development supportthe sample in most charts includes only International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and IDA countries.In some cases,these samples are compared with all countries(regar

60、dless of income level or WBG membership)to show how changes in outcomes over time may be different when comparing developing regions with all world regions,including the highest-income ones.9 Figure 1A in Annex A depicts trends in human capital index of boys and girls over the past decade,depicting

61、substantial gains in gender equality.10 Gender parity index for youth literacy rate is ratio of women to men aged 15-24 who can read and write a short simple statement about their everyday life(Gender Data Portal.Literacy Rate,Gender Parity Index(Youth Ages 15-24)(accessed September 2021),https:/gen

62、derdata.worldbank.org/indicators/se-adt-1524-lt-fm-zs/?geos=WLD_IBT&view=trend).11 See Figure 2A,3A,and 4A in Annex A for gender gaps in primary school enrollment,primary completion rate,and secondary school enrollment.12 Womens advantage in tertiary enrollment is found in all regions except Sub-Sah

63、aran Africa.See Figures 5A and 6A in Annex A for trends in gross tertiary school enrollment for developing countries and Sub-Saharan Africa.Similarly,girls have superseded boys in lower secondary completion rates in all regions except Sub-Saharan Africa according to UIS data retrieved from the Gende

64、r Data Portal.In East Asia and the Pacific,93 percent of girls and 91 percent of boys were completing lower secondary school as of 2020.In Sub-Saharan Africa,43 percent of girls and 46 percent of boys were completing lower secondary school as of 2020.In South Asia,81 percent of girls and 79 percent

65、of boys were completing lower secondary school as of 2020.In the Middle East and North Africa,78 percent of girls and 77 percent of boys were completing lower secondary school as of 2020.In Latin America and the Caribbean,83 percent of girls and 78 percent of boys were completing lower secondary sch

66、ool as of 2020.14Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year RetrospectiveFertility rate(births per 1,000 women ages 2425)Source:United Nations Population Division,World Popular Prospects Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal(accessed May 2020).

67、Note:Adolescent fertility rate is the number of births per 1,000 women aged 15 to 19.Population-weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency countries.Figure 3.Adolescent Fertility Rate6055504520002002 2004 2006200820016201

68、82020Enrollment rate(%)Source:UNESCO Institute for Statistics.Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal(accessed May 2020).Notes:The chart plots the ratio of total enrollment,regardless of age,to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown.Popu

69、lation-weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency countries.Figure 2.Tertiary School Enrollment Rates According to Gender(Gross)3530252000420062008200162018FemaleMalein 2010 to fewer than 45 in 2020(Figure 3).1

70、3 This is part of a steady drop in the total fertility rate of 2.65 births per woman in 2010 to 2.52 in 2020.This progress can be largely attributed to targeted investments in health care and education systems and empowerment of adolescent girls over the last decade.Social protection programs,includ

71、ing cash and in-kind transfers that promote uptake of health care and education have increased school enrollment,atten-dance,and completion and reduced early marriage and risky sexual behaviors(early sexual debut,transactional sex,unsafe sex)(Bastagli et al.2016;Camilletti 2020).These effects are co

72、ntingent on program modalities,such as timing,size,and frequency of transfer,and pres-ence of complementary interventions and supply-side services.14 Further,programs including World Bank interventions that focused on improving access and learning,providing life skills training with mentorship,and c

73、reating safe spaces for girls have improved girls educational attainment and continuation,increased contraceptive use,and reduced teen pregnancy(Evans and Yuan 2019;Halim et al.2023a).Despite improvements in human endowments glob-ally,critical regional disparities remain.Girls lag boys in primary an

74、d secondary education enrollment in the Middle East,North Africa,and Sub-Saharan Africa and in secondary school completion in Sub-Saharan Africa.Figures 4 shows that gender gaps in tertiary school enrollment Sub-Sahran Africa is much wider than the global average.The adolescent fertility rate also r

75、emains critically high in Sub-Saharan Africa,Latin America,and the Caribbean.The onset of crises,including the COVID-19 pan-demic,also threatens gains made in development of human capital.It was projected that 11.2 million girls worldwide would not return to school in 2021-22 13 See Figures 7A and 8

76、A in Annex A for trends in maternal mortality ratio and total fertility rate,respectively,over the past decade.14 For example,Premand and Barry(2022)find that cash plus programs,which include behavioral change communication(BCC)interventions on parenting techniques were more effective in improving e

77、arly childhood outcomes such as nutrition,health,and socio-emotional development than cash alone in Niger.Similarly,a randomized control trial in Bangladesh found that,if cash or food transfers are provided with behavior change communication on nutrition,a decrease in intimate partner violence was s

78、ustained four years after the intervention had ended(Roy et al.2018).See Hammad(2022)for a helpful overview on transfer modalities such as size,timing and frequency of transfer may impact outcomes.15Trends in Key Global and Regional IndicatorsSource:UNESCO Institute for Statistics.Data retrieved fro

79、m the World Bank Gender Data Portal(accessed May 2020).Notes:The chart plots the ratio of total enrollment,regardless of age,to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown.Population-weighted average of Sub-Saharan African countries.Figure 4.Tertiary S

80、chool Enrollment Rates According to Sex in Sub-Saharan Africa(Gross)Enrollment rate(%)2002200420062008200162018FemaleMalebecause of pandemic-related school closures(UNE-SCO 2020),in addition to the 130 million primary and secondary school-aged girls and youth who were out of sc

81、hool before the crisis.Although evidence is still emerging,the potential impacts are wide rang-ing.Education disruption puts girls at higher risk of adolescent pregnancy,early marriage,and violence.Up to 10 million more girls will be at risk of becom-ing child brides because of the pandemic(UNICEF 2

82、021a).Countries affected by fragility and conflict are at greater risk of backsliding on gender gaps in human development.The effects of violence and fragility on service delivery can be pernicious,with individuals from displaced households,especially girls,facing greater barriers to education,refle

83、cting accumulated disadvantage(Admasu et al 2021).Ensuring continued progress in accumulation of human capital is important for its intrinsic value not only in improving health and education outcomes for all,but also in empowering women and facili-tating access to economic opportunities.Notably,the

84、Utilization-Adjusted Human Capital Index(UHCI),15 notes that womens human capital is under-utilized,driven by gender-based occupational segregation and low female employment rates(Pennings 2020).Thus,it is crucial to understand what particular skills should be developed to facilitate the school-to-w

85、ork transition of girls and increase female labor force participation overall.For example,there is evidence that work-study programs allowing girls to acquire relevant early-age work experience;socio-emotional skills training;and digital,STEM,and other job-relevant skills with focus on the green tra

86、nsition can be effective(Halim,OSul-livan,and Sahay 2023).1.2 Removing constraints on provision of more and better jobsGender gaps in labor force participation and employ-ment have remained stubbornly large over the past decade,with the largest gaps in the Middle East,North Africa,and South Asia(Fig

87、ure 5).Female labor force participation has stagnated in most regions of the world over the past 30 years and declined in South Asia(Halim,OSullivan,and Sahay 2023).In settings with smaller gender gaps in participation,such as Sub-Saharan Africa,a large share of women in the active labor market are

88、engaged in vulnerable employment with inadequate earnings and poor working conditions(Bue et al.2022).The gender gap in the employment-to-population ratio has not improved at the global or regional level(Fig-ures 6 and 7).16,17 Latin America and the Caribbean and East Asia and Pacific are the except

89、ion,moving from 15 The Utilization-adjusted Human Capital Indices(UHCIs)adjust the HCI for labor-market underutilization of human capital,based on fraction of the working age population that are employed,or are in the types of jobs where they might be better able to use their skills and abilities to

90、 increase their productivity.16 Considering that not everyone who is participating in the labor market is employed(individuals could be unemployed or under-employed),the employment-to-population ratio is a more accurate measure of economic productivity.17 It is likely that the drop-off in mens and w

91、omens employment-to-population ratio in 2020 is capturing the effects of the first 6 to 9 months of the COVID-19 pandemic.16Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year RetrospectiveFigure 5.Gender gaps in labor force participation(%),19902019Source:Gender Data Portal(SL.TLF.ACTI.ZS)Notes:The top and b

92、ottom line in each sub-figure represent the proportion of men and women engaged in the labor market,respectively.0%52.6%78.7%68.7%82.7%66.2%77%21.3%755025478.5%64.2%74%62.8%80.6%25.2%81.6%57.9%WorldEurope&Central AsiaNorth AmericaSub-Saharan AfricanEast Asia&PacificSouth AsiaMi

93、ddle East&North AfricaLatin America&CaribbeanFigure 6.Employment to Population RatioFemaleMale8070605040200020022004200620082001620182020Enrollment(%)Figure 7.Gender Gap in Employment to Population Ratio According to RegionEnrollment Gap(%)EAPECAMENASARAFRLAC20092000

94、0022605040302010018 The World Bank Group has its operations and clients in 6 key regions:East Asia and Pacific(EAP),Europe and central Asia(ECA),Latin America and Caribbean(LAC),Middle East and North Africa(MENA),South Asia(SAR),and Africa(AFR).Source:International Labour Organ

95、ization(ILO).Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal.Accessed:April 2022Note:The chart plots employment to population ratio for ages 15 and up(modeled estimate).Population-weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency countri

96、es.Source:International Labour Organization(ILO).Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal.Accessed April 2022Note:The chart plots the average gender gap in the employment-to-population ratio in the countries of the region(modeled estimate).Sample includes International Bank for Reconstructi

97、on and Development and International Development Agency countries.1817Trends in Key Global and Regional IndicatorsSource:International Labor Organization(ILO).Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal.Accessed:May 2020Note:The chart plots the gender ratio of the unemployment rate for the pop

98、ulation aged 15-24.Population-weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency countries.Source:ILOSTAT database.Accessed:April 20Note:Youth not in school are those who were not enrolled in school or in a formal training program(e.g.,voca

99、tional training)during a reference period(e.g.,1 week).Sample consists of countries belonging to the lending categories International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency.200920112013 202246104Figure 9.Ratio of Female to Male Y

100、outh Unemployment Rate Ratio of female to male youth unemployment rateFigure 8.Share of Youth Not Employed,in School,or in Training According to GenderYouth NEET by Sex(%)200920112013 2003020100FemaleMaleTrends in Key Global and Regional Indicatorsa gender gap of 27 and 16 percentage poin

101、ts in 2009 to 24 and 13 percentage points in 2021/2022.The Middle East,North Africa,and South Asia,with gender gaps of approximately 50 percentage points,showed no net improvement from 2009 to 2022.Addressing cultural and social norms associated with womens work(Jayachandran 2021,Narayan 2022),and m

102、isperceptions about them(Bursztyn et al.2023)can prove crucial to achieve further progress.This should be combined with macroeconomic,labor mar-ket,development,fiscal and trade policies that provide the right incentives for females work.Greater focus is also needed on the school to work transition f

103、or young women and girls.The propor-tion of young women who are not employed or in school or training is consistently higher than for men(Figure 8).19 In addition,gains in educational attain-ment do not translate into employment for women(Figure 9).20 The gender wage gap has also been wide across al

104、l regions;globally,for every dollar that a man makes,a woman makes 77 cents.21 The economic cost of this gap is nontrivial;by closing gender gaps in lifetime earnings including overall wealth,pension,and assets,economies stand to gain an average of$160 trillion(Wodon and de la Brire 2018).22 South A

105、sia has the widest average gap in earnings as a percentage of male monthly earnings.Sub-Saharan Africa had the small-est decline in the earnings gap over the past decade.23 Most of this gap stems from the private sector.The wage gap in the public sector,which accounts for 45 percent of formal employ

106、ment in low-income coun-tries(Merotto et al.2018)is approximately 10 percent.An array of factors can contribute towards the gen-der gap in lifetime earnings including gender gaps in skills,occupational sorting,under-representation in leadership and gender gap in promotion rates and gender biases on

107、the demand-side that could in turn impact starting salaries,performance evaluations,and promotion rates(Sahay 2023).19 See Figures 9A to 14A in Annex A for regional trends on gender gap in NEET.20 See Figure 15A in Annex A for regional trends in female to male youth employment rate.21 See UN Women.E

108、qual Pay for Work of Equal Value at https:/www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/csw61/equal-pay.22 This estimate was calculated in 2018 based on data on the earning potential of the labor force in 141 countries.23 Limited data from 2021 makes it difficult to draw conclusions on the impact of COVID-19 on

109、 the earnings gap.18Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year RetrospectiveWomen are underrepresented in business leadership,despite growing evidence that female leadership improves results,including better outcomes for female employees,such as greater retention after maternity leave;smaller gender

110、gaps in promotion rates(Kunze and Miller 2017);and higher firm profits and productiv-ity(Flabbi et al 2018).Still,women-led firms account for only 25 percent of formal businesses globally.24 In a study of almost 22,000 publicly traded organizations world-wide,60 percent lacked a single female board

111、member(Noland et al.Kotschwar 2016).The median share of firms(regardless of size)with a woman in top manage-ment has only increased from 17 percent(200614)to 18.4 percent(201521)(Figure 10).25 The share of businesses led by women decreases as firm size increases,with women leading 27 percent of smal

112、l formal firms but only 17 percent of large formal firms(Figure 11).This pattern is replicated around the world,except in the Middle East,North Africa,and South Asia,where the share of formal women-led firms is smaller.In the majority of countries,the share of women engaged in informal employment is

113、 greater than the share of men,especially in South Asia,Latin America and the Caribbean,and Sub-Saharan Africa.In 56 percent of countries,more women than men work in informal employment.26 While globally there are more men than women in informal employ-ment,the picture is skewed by a select few coun

114、tries,like China and Russia,and masks stark regional dispar-ities(ILO 2023).Ninety-five percent of women working in South Asia,89 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa,and 59 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean are engaged in the informal sector(UN Women n.d.).The incidence of informality may be high

115、er among women for many reasons,including the need for flexible and/or reduced work hours(Sahay 2023).Women may often be engaged as domestic workers,street-vending,home-based workers or contributing family workers,deemed as low-skilled jobs,which have negligible pro-tection or social benefits;thereb

116、y,making women more vulnerable to the adverse,gendered impacts of crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic(ILO 2023).27 Women in vulnerable employment are often the first to lose their incomes(UN Women 2020)and the last to recover(UN Women 2013).The pandemic accentuated long-standing gender gaps in the

117、labor market and at home,including womens role as caregivers for children,elderly,sick,and people with disabilities as a constraint on increasing female labor force participation.Studies from multiple countries find that womens employ-ment losses have been greater than mens and sectors that make up

118、a large proportion of women were worst hit by the pandemic.High-frequency phone surveys conducted in 13 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean found that women were 44 percent more likely than men to have lost their jobs at the onset of the pandemic(World Bank 2021a).Micro data from several na

119、tional surveys show that the pandemic Figure 10.Share of Firms with a Top Female Manager20151050Source:World Bank Enterprise surveys.Accessed May 2022Note:These surveys target formal firms with at least five employees.Sample consists of countries belonging to the lending categories of the Internatio

120、nal Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency%of firms with a top female top managerSmallAllMediumLargeFirst survey(200614)Second survey(201521)24 In these calculations(and those used in Figure 11),women-led firms are those with more than 50 percent female ownershi

121、p or a top female manager(see Ubfal 2023 for statistics using alternative definitions).25 Because countries can have multiple enterprise surveys,the first and last survey for each country in the sample were selected under the condition that they were conducted at least 5 years apart.Then the sample

122、was restricted to countries that had their first survey between 2006 and 2014 and the last one between 2015 and 2021.In this way,the analysis was conducted on a balanced sample of 81 countries.26 Fifty-six percent among 176 countries for which data was collected and analyzed in ILO 2023.27 In the ag

123、riculture sector,for example,women are often informally engaged in small-scale farming or agricultural street vending,making a vital contribution to food security(Brixi and Van Nieuwkoop 2022).19Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicatorsrecession of 2020 was a“shecession,”with larger employment de

124、clines for women than men in most countries,which is attributed to the composition of womens employment across industries and occupa-tions and to greater childcare needs during school and daycare center closures(Alon et al.2021).An analysis of U.S.monthly Current Population Survey data found that lo

125、ss of employment among women with young children due to the burden of childcare accounted for 45 percent of the increase in the employment gender gap(Fabrizio,Gomes,and Tavares 2021).Increasing levels of forced displacement due to fra-gility,conflict,and violence intensify gender gaps.The number of

126、forcibly displaced persons worldwide more than doubled from 40 million in 2010 to 89.3 mil-lion by the end of 2021,including 48 million internally displaced persons and 26.6 million refugees.28 Violent conflict and fragility affect men and women differently,which may reflect norms and dynamics that

127、entrench gaps.Displaced women face greater barriers to labor market participation than displaced men,although constraints vary according to setting.There has been some increase in entrepreneurial activity but primarily at the micro level and in start-ing enterprises rather than sustaining them.Persi

128、stent gender gaps in firm performance have been docu-mented around the world,particularly among small or micro enterprises.29 These gaps can be attributed to a range of constraints including lack of skills,networks,and access to finance,technology,and markets,which affect womens decision to become e

129、ntrepreneurs,their sectorial choices and business investments.These con-straints are compounded by contextual factors,such as social norms,lack of access to childcare,and risk of gender-based violence(Ubfal,2023,Halim et al.2023).The COVID-19 pandemic has had a disproportionate impact on women-led f

130、irms and exacerbated gender gaps in entrepreneurial activity.A higher share of women-owned than men-owned firms closed in each wave of the Future of Business Survey between May 2020 and September 2021(Figure 12)(Goldstein et al.2022).Women-led businesses were disproportionally affected even in the f

131、irst few months of the pandemic The share of firms with any female participation in ownership had declined by 25 percent early in the pandemic,30 and women-led businesses faced longer closures during the pandemic(Liu,Wei,and Xu 2021).Source:See Figure 1 in Ubfal(2023).Note:A woman-led firm is define

132、d as a firm with more than 50 percent female ownership or with a top female manager.Statistics were obtained using sample weights considering the design of the enterprise surveys.Calculation using the last survey available from each country in the pooled World Bank Enterprise Surveys Microdata.These

133、 surveys target formal firms with at least five employees.Figure 11.Share of Firms Led by Women According to Region and Firm Size732741WorldAFREAPECALACMNASAR0554034%of firms led by women in the region by size of firmSmall 519 employeesMedium2099 employees

134、Large (=100 employees)28 Refugee Data Finder(database),United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,Geneva(accessed May 2021),https:/www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/.29 For differences in profits see World Bank(2019)in Africa and World Bank(2021)in Southeast Asia.The evidence from Southeast Asia i

135、ndicates that gender gaps in performance are observed for microbusinesses but not for small and medium-sized enterprises.Similarly,Fang et al(2022)show that gender gaps in productivity are observed worldwide among formal firms,but only for firms of smaller size.30 Based on 2019/20 estimates from Wor

136、ld Bank Enterprise Surveys.20Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year Retrospective1.3 Removing barriers to womens ownership and control over assets Over the last 10 years,there have been significant improvements in womens financial inclusion.In 2011,globally,47 percent of women had an account at a

137、 financial institution,compared to 55 percent of men.By 2021,this had risen to 74 percent for women and 78 percent for mena decrease in the global gen-der gap from 8 to 4 percentage points.Because there is negligible gender gap in high-income economies,developing economies primarily drive this gap a

138、s well as the reduction in gap over the last decade(Figure 13).Persistent gender gaps in account ownership in devel-oping economies can largely be attributed to limited account ownership of women at formal financial institutions.Although the rate of account ownership and borrowing from informal sour

139、ces has increased for women,there has not been as much improvement in their access to formal financial institutions.According to data collected in 2021,women are more likely than men to borrow from family and friends(8 percent more likely)and informal savings organizations(9 percent more likely),but

140、 only 21 percent of women,in 2021,had access to formal borrowing,compared with 23 percent Figure 12.Business Closure Rate According to GenderSource:World Bank Group/OECD/Facebook Future of Business Survey.0.350.300.250.200.150.10May 2020June 2020July 2020Aug 2020Sept 2020Oct 2020Sept 20210.250.320.1

141、80.200.150.190.140.180.140.180.140.180.120.16Closure RateMean maleGender gap(Malefemale closure rate)CI around gap sizeMean femaleFigure 13.Gender Gap in Account Ownership Source:Global Findex database 2021.Note:The chart plots the percentage of respondents who report having an account(by themselves

142、 or with someone else)at a bank or another type of financial institution or report personally using a mobile money service in the past 12-month(age 18+)a.High-income economiesb.Developing economiesWomenMen202002001 Source:Global Findex database;accessed on December 2

143、02232 See Figures 16A and Figures 18A-23A in Annex A for gender differences in account ownership at formal finance institutions at the global and regional level.33 See Figures 17A and Figures 24A-29A in Annex A for gender differences in account ownership at mobile institutions at the global and regi

144、onal level.of men.31,32 Women have limited access to large-sized loans from formal financial institutions.Mobile money has contributed to closing the gender gap in account ownership,particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa.33 Global Findex 2021 data show 21Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicatorsthat

145、mobile money accounts are helping women increase their financial access(Klapper et al.2022).The spread of mobile money accounts in some regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa has made possible to include groups of women who had been excluded from the formal financial system.Women also lack collateral(e.

146、g.,land;housing;other high-value,nonfinancial assets)and a credit history,which increases gender gaps in accessing credit.34 Women face longstanding,widespread,sys-temic barriers to ownership of land,housing,and other high-value family assetsespecially those that are inherited.It is difficult to gau

147、ge changes in own-ership of land over time because of a paucity of data,but in regions where the WBG works,womens rate of ownership is lower than mens(Figure 14).Lack of land,housing,and other traditional forms of collateral and,consequently,limited ability to develop a credit history are prominent

148、constraints on female business owners involvement in growth-oriented enterprises.Land formalization programs can improve womens property rights and there is evidence that providing information and monetary incentives can encourage joint land titling in the name of wife and husband(Halim et al.2023c)

149、.Moreover,solving barriers,such as lack of identification,lack of mobile phone owner-ship,distance from a bank,and low financial capabil-ity,and promoting digitalization of cash payments can be key to increase financial access for women(Klapper et al.2022).In parallel,lending products that reduce co

150、llateral requirements can improve womens entre-preneurs access to capital(Ubfal 2023).Figure 14.Gender Gaps in(A)House and(B)Land Ownership FemaleFemaleMaleMale50403020050607080900605040302005060708090100EAPECALACMENASARAFREAPECALACMENASARAFR A B34 See Fig

151、ures 30A-32A in Annex A for gender differences in borrowings made from different sources.Source:Demographic and Health Surveys(DHS).Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal.Accessed May 2022Note:Data are from 20152020.22Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year Retrospective1.4 Enhancing wo

152、mens voice and agency Voice and agency constraints affect women and girls in all regions and income groups.Removing these constraints and unleashing womens full potential can yield enormous dividends that help make entire soci-eties more resilient and more prosperous.For example,when more women are

153、elected to office,policy mak-ing increasingly reflects the priorities of families and women.Similarly,preventing GBV can alleviate adverse health,economic,and psychological effects on women and girls.Agency entails freedom from violence,con-trol over sexual and reproductive health,ownership and cont

154、rol over land and housing,and voice and collective action(Klugman et al.2014).Womens participation and leadership play an important role in closing gender gaps in human endowments and increasing womens voice and agency(Beaman et al.2012;Iyer et al.2012).Although there has been a steady increase in t

155、he proportion of seats that women hold in national parliaments(Fig-ure 15),the gender gap persists.On average,only one woman holds a seat for every three men.35 Latin Amer-ica and the Caribbean saw the highest increase(from 19 percent in 2010 to 29 percent in 2020),followed closely by Europe and Cen

156、tral Asia(from 15 percent in 2010 to 24 percent in 2020).The proportion remains low in the Middle East,North Africa,and South Asia(18 percent in 2020).GBV persists in all regions,including high-income countries,and imposes nontrivial economic costs.Freedom from violence is a fundamental right and es

157、sential for achieving gender equality.Violence that is gender based undermines the safety,health,agency,and empowerment of those who experience it and of their families and communities across generations.Intimate partner violence(IPV),non-partner violence,harassment in the workplace,child marriage,a

158、nd other types of GBV are the most extreme manifes-tations of gender inequality and the most prevalent forms of violence worldwide,affecting women and girls disproportionately.One in three women world-wide is subjected to physical or sexual violence by an intimate partner(Map 1)or a non-partner.36 N

159、early 12 million girls are married each year before reaching the age 18(UNICEF 2022)and over 200 million girls and women have undergone female genital mutilation(FGM)(UNICEF 2023).37 Carrying a high risk of death and disability,FGM is mostly carried out on minors with devastating consequences(UNICEF

160、 2021b).Standing as a major obstacle to achieving gender equality,GBV,in any form,erodes human capital accu-mulation and economic outcomes.Survivors suffer from serious health implications,including mental problems and poorer sexual and reproductive health outcomes(Ell-sberg et al.2008;WHO 2021).Yet

161、 globally,fewer than 20 percent of women seek official support services after Source:Inter-Parliamentary Union(IPU).Data retrieved from World Bank Gender Data Portal(accessed May 2022).Note:This chart plots the percentage of parliamentary seats in a single or lower chamber that women hold.Population

162、-weighted average of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Agency countries.Figure 15.Share of Seats Held by Women in National Parliaments2520992001 2003 2005 2007 2009200172019%of seats held by women in national parliaments35 See I

163、nter-Parliamentary Union(accessed May 2022).36 See Figures 33A in Annex A for regional averages over the last decade on share of women who have ever experienced intimate partner violence.Similarly,Figure 34A in Annex A provides regional averages for share of women who have ever experienced physical

164、or sexual violence.Figure 35A in Annex A reports attitudes towards wife beating and Figure 36A in Annex A depicts the share of women who sought help to stop violence.37 Based on representative data on prevalence from 31 countries23Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicatorsexperiencing violence38 a

165、nd safety concerns in pub-lic spaces impact the mobility of women and girls,and their access to education and job opportunities(Borker 2022).Studies from India and Bangladesh underscore labor market impacts of perceived threats of sexual harassment and safety(Ahmed and Kotikula 2021;Borker 2021)and

166、evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa suggests that higher levels of GBV are associ-ated with lower economic development(Ouedraogo and Stenzel 2021).A study from Brazil suggests that improved gender equality in the labor market can cur-tail the most severe forms of violence against women(Perova et al.202

167、1).An International Finance Corpo-ration(IFC 2019a)study in Fiji found that staff lost 10 workdays per year because of domestic and sexual violence.Costs of IPV can be up to 3.7 percent of Gross domestic product(Klugman et al.2014).Incidence and implications of GBV have intensified in the context of

168、 multiple crises.A shadow pandemic of GBV accompanied the onset of COVID-19.Not only did the incidence of IPV increase in the immediate term,but over the next decade,an additional 10 mil-lion girls could be at risk of becoming child brides because of learning disruptions and school closures.39 Globa

169、l fragility and conflict have increased in recent years,increasing GBV.Women who are conflict adja-cent and have been forcibly displaced are 40 to 55 percent more likely to experience IPV in their lifetime than nondisplaced women or those living far from conflict events.Forced displacement can also

170、amplify the risk of child marriage and worsen human capi-tal outcomes(Lu,Siddiqui,and Bharadwaj 2021).40 Approaches to addressing gender dimensions of conflict and displacement requires involving men and boys and empower women and girls to increase community resilience.Child marriage is an especiall

171、y pernicious form of GBV,given its long-term effects on human capital development and economic opportunities,especially for girls.Child marriage can affect multiple areas of a girls lifecycle by lowering educational attainment,increasing risk of adolescent and early pregnancy,Map 1.Prevalence of Int

172、imate Partner Violence Source:World Health Organization;accessed in December 2022 and accessible with World Bank regional and income group aggregates on the Gender Data Portal.Note:The map is based on analysis of available data from surveys and studies conducted between 2000 and 2018 on the prevalen

173、ce of physical and sexual intimate partner violence.38 Based on representative data on prevalence from 31 countries.39 On the effect of COVID-19 on Child Marriage,see Yukich et al(2021).40 Using data from seven countries,it was found that women who were adolescents at the time of forced displacement

174、 were significantly more likely to marry early and less likely to continue their education and had more children overall(Lu,Siddiqui,and Bharadwaj 2021).24Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year RetrospectiveMap 2.Prevalence of Child Marriage Figure 16.Mean Age at First Marriage for(A)Women and(B)

175、Men,200911 vs.201619Source:UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs,Population Division.World Marriage Data 2019.Note:The charts plot average length of single life expressed in years of women and men who marry before age 50.Sample includes International Bank for Reconstruction and Development an

176、d International Development Agency countries with survey data available for the two periods of comparison.A B3530252053025201515202530Mean age at first marriage(survey 20092011)Mean age at first marriage(survey 20092011)Mean age at first marriage(survey 20162019)Mean age at first marriage

177、(survey 20162019)Source:UNICEF Data;Demographic and Health Surveys(DHS),Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys(MICS),AIDS Indicator Surveys(AIS),Reproductive Health Survey(RHS),and other household surveys.Data retrieved fromWorld Bank Gender Data Portal(accessed May 2022).Note:Countries in gray do not h

178、ave comparable data availableEAPECASARLACAFRMENA25Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicatorsdiscouraging them from working,lowering labor force participation and future earnings prospects,and impeding retention of jobs and profits even when paid work is secured.41 Although child marriage rates hav

179、e been declining,progress has been slow.In most countries for which data are available,more than 30 percent of women aged 20 to 24 were married by age 15(Map 2).Inci-dence is alarmingly high in Sub-Saharan Africa(Niger,28 percent;Central African Republic,26 percent)and South Asia(Bangladesh,16 perce

180、nt;Nepal,8 per-cent.42 Progress on decreasing the prevalence of early marriage has been promising albeit slow.Figure 16 suggests a slight increase in mean age of women at the time of their first marriage between 200911 and 201619 for most countries indicated by data points lying below the 45-degree

181、line.1.5 Persistence of gender gaps:potential causesSeveral channels can explain the persistence in gen-der inequalityfrom lack of enabling infrastructure and services to discrimination,weak formal institu-tions,and limited political and social will to address deeply held social norms.Social norms a

182、re embedded in existing power struc-tures across politic,social,and economic spheres(WDR 2012,Narayan 2022,WBL 2022);and remain key barriers in areas where progress has been slowest.This includes lack of redistribution of childcare and house-work,limited access to more and better jobs,GBV pre-ventio

183、n,access to technology and financial assets,and womens leadership in public and private sectors.Lack of investment in infrastructure and services(including transport and care),as well as investment in water and sanitation can constrain womens time.Legal discrim-ination limits womens access to econom

184、ic opportu-nities.According to Women,Business,and the Law(WBL)(2022),women have around three-quarters of the economic rights of men(Figure 17),and nearly 2.4 billion women of working age still do not have equal economic opportunities.Women have fewer economic rights than men in most developing count

185、ries,but disparities are greatest in Sub-Saharan Africa,Middle East and North Africa and South Asia(Map 3).43 In the last half-century,gender parity in legal reforms has been achieved to the greatest degree in mobility and marriage,while progress has been slowest in parental rights and pay(Figure 18

186、).There have been improvements in the score for entrepreneurship with most countries reaching equality in the ability to sign a contract,open a bank account,and register a busi-ness,but many economies(104 of them)still lack a 41 Wodon et al.(2017)demonstrated the harms of child marriage and its asso

187、ciated economic costs in a conceptual framework positing five domains of main impacts:fertility and population growth;educational attainment and learning;labor force participation;decision making and investments;and health,nutrition,and violence.42 See Figure 37A in Annex A for regional averages on

188、proportion of women married by age 15.43 Women,Business and the Law measures legal differences between mens and womens access to economic opportunities in 190 economies.Thirty-five aspects of the law are scored across eight indicators of four or five binary questions.Each indicator represents a diff

189、erent phase of a womans career.Indicator-level scores are obtained by calculating the unweighted average of the questions within that indicator and scaling the result to 100.Overall scores are then calculated by taking the average of each indicator,with 100 representing the highest possible score.Fi

190、gure 17.Limited progress in gender-equal legislation:Worldwide women have 77%of mens economic rightsSource:Women,Business,and the Law 2022.Balanced sample of 190 countries.Score value represents share of right enjoyed by women relative to men.For example,under parenthood,women have only 56 percent o

191、f the right that men do.MobilityWorkplacePayMarriageParenthoodEntrepreneurshipAssetsPensionWBL2022Score89873$26Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year RetrospectiveMap 3.Women,Business,and the Law(WBL)index score 2022,by country(scale 1-100)Source:Women,Business,and the Law.Data retriev

192、ed from World Bank Gender Data Portal.(accessed May 2022).Source:Women,Business,and the Law(The World Bank).Balance sample of 141 countries,908070605040302005201020152020Score(world average)MobilityParentWorkplaceEntrepreneurshipPayAssetsMarriagePensionFig

193、ure 18.Overall WBL scores,global averages,by rights category(IBRD and IDA countries),1970202127Trends in Key Global and Regional Indicatorslegal provision that expressly prohibits gender-based discrimination in access to credit.Even when more progressive laws that remove barriers to womens opportuni

194、ties have passed,their implementation and enforcement can be constrained by informal norms supported by existing power structures.For example,in countries that prohibit discrimination based on gen-der in employment,employers frequently discriminate in favor of men if they see women as secondary brea

195、d-winners(WBL 2022).44 There are significant misperceptions around certain social norms,with a majority of both men and women around the world supporting the right of women to work outside the home,but perceiving that support to be much lower,especially among men,than its actual levels(Bursztyn et a

196、l.2020;Bursztyn et al.2023).This implies that simple information interventions could be highly effective.Accelerating progress requires changing mindsets and mobilizing collective action as a complement to technical solutions.Investments in data and research continue to be necessary,but to scale-up

197、effective tech-nical solutions and achieve transformative change requires addressing gender norms and understand-ing the effect of structural factors,including the policy arena,domestic policies,market structures,political priorities,legal systems,and social practices that shape structural changes.R

198、ecent evidence demonstrates that norms can be changed with targeted efforts.The WBG can leverage its convening power and global knowledge to support coalitions of government champions,private sector,civil society,and development partners that advocate for changes in key legal reforms.In many regions

199、 customs and social norms will constrain the imple-mentation of these reforms.The evidence indicates that conducting activities to develop and disseminate new laws and promote behavioral change that lead to their implementation,including simple information campaigns to correct misperceptions,can mak

200、e a dif-ference.45 However,as pointed above,it is crucial to understand the effect of structural factors,including the right macroeconomic policies,which could either facilitate or inhibit any attempted change.44 Policy and programmatic interventions can help women and girls enter spaces that have h

201、istorically been dominated by men,such as encouraging girls to consider education and jobs in science,technology,engineer,and mathematics(STEM),cross over to more profitable male-dominated sectors,and take leadership roles in the public and private sectors,particularly in growth-oriented enterprises

202、.Discussions around the division of housework and the provision of childcare services can help alleviate womens time constraints while also moving the needle on norms related to outsourcing childcare.Leveling the playing field in these ways can also reduce the risk of GBV,which is underpinned by the

203、 same social norms.45 An excellent example is the reform of the Family Code in the Democratic Republic of Congo(see Braunmiller and Dry 2022).28Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year Retrospective29WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findings2.WBG Engagement on Gender and Main FindingsOver the last

204、 10 years the WBGs corporate commitments on gender have increased,with an enhanced focus on results.Figure 19 depicts key milestones since 2010 when Gender and Development was adopted as a special theme under the 16th International Development Agency(IDA)replenishment.46 IDA has helped to elevate ge

205、nder as a priority,focusing on a framework for action;developing regional action plans;and emphasizing health,education,social protection,and agriculture across cycles.The nature and ambition of IDA and Bank support has evolved over time,improving data collection,seeking to close specific gender out

206、come gaps,addressing GBV,and integrating gender analysis into Country Partnership Frameworks(CPFs).By the 20th IDA replenishmentnegotiated in 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemicpolicy commitments were at the forefront of economic empowerment,including on childcare,productive economic inclusion,facilit

207、ating entry of women into higher-skilled jobs,and on fiscal policy and budget systems.The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD)and IFC capital increases also reflect strong commitments to integrate gender into WBG programming.The WBG commitments on gender are anchored in the WB

208、G Gender Strategy(2016-2023).46 There were crucial steps prior to 2010 that also helped advance the agenda.In particular,the 2001 Gender Strategy strengthened the country-driven approach through the strategy paper,Integrating Gender into the World Banks Work:A Strategy to Action.The 2009 Internation

209、al Evaluation Group evaluation of the 2001 strategy(WBG 2010)highlighted the need for stronger results monitoring and better country-specific gender diagnostics.IDA CyclesGender identified as special theme in IDA16,main-streaming gender in analytical and operational work World Development ReportEmbe

210、dded an economic lens to gender equality,call to strengthen data and analytical work to identify and address gender gaps WBG Gender Strategy(201623)Introduced an outcome-oriented approach and installed a more rigorous Gender Tag methodology to review operationsIEG Mid Term ReviewMarked progress in s

211、trategy implementing by integrating gender equality with other key priorities,strengthening country-driven approaches,leveraging knowledge and moving towards delivery at scale Maintain the momentum of#Accelerate Equality and final year of WBG Gender Strategy(FY1623)Support IDA implementation Launch

212、Update to the Gender Strategy(FY2430)with focus on“Accelerating Gender Equal-ity and Empowerment for All”20016Looking forwardFigure 19.Key Milestones in World Bank Group Approach to Gender in Development30Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year RetrospectiveThe WBGs approach to advancin

213、g gender equality has increasingly leveraged knowledge,data,and evi-dence to improve results in operations and enhance outcomes in country programs.The 2012 World Devel-opment Report on gender and development helped build awareness that development outcomes can be achieved more quickly and efficient

214、ly when a gender lens is applied to policy advice,project design,and implementation support.Today,WBG teams almost universally use evidence and data to target specific gender gaps in operations,advisory services,and analytics.This enhanced focus on gender in opera-tions and investments is increasing

215、ly coming together in a coherent and strategic way through the WBGs country-driven model.The WBG is one of many key stakeholders committed to advancing gender equal-ity and empowerment and works in partnership with governments and other stakeholders to drive better,more-focused results.Recent evalua

216、tions and assessments suggest embedding knowledge and learning in operations improves results.The introduction of corporate mea-sures such as the gender tag have promoted exten-sive integration into operations downstream which is increasingly informed by evidence and global knowl-edge.For example,a

217、forthcoming retrospective on Bank support for GBV prevention and response over 2012-22 details a growing evidence base and highlights an expansion and diversification of activities address-ing GBV in all sectors,regions,and country-income levels.Evidence-informed support has improved out-comes on GB

218、V and broader development objectives.This includes sector approaches,such as in educa-tion projects,where retention has been increased by addressing sexual harassment and abuse in schools,and in transport projects where interventions have contributed to greater female labor force participation by en

219、hancing safety on public transport.The value of the WBGs country-driven model to ori-ent outcomes is also emphasized in recent reports and evaluations.A forthcoming IEG report finds that the WBG can improve the transformational potential of its support for Women and Girls Economic Empower-ment and G

220、BV prevention and response in FCV coun-tries by using a more comprehensive,strategic coun-try-level approach.The 2021 WBG DPF Retrospective found that rigorous analytical work to underpin DPOs has helped influence policy dialogue and reforms,and that DPOs have supported strong outcomes on gender thr

221、ough country-driven approaches and have been able to effectively leverage other WBG engage-ments and open new areas of engagement to advance Figure 20.World Bank Group Approach to Addressing Gender Inequality DevelopmentEnhanced outcome orientation to accelerate gender equality at the county levelCo

222、untry-driven approach Priorities informed by robust dialogue and diagnostics Coherent program aligned with country partnership framework objectives and high-level outcomes Analytics,operations,and dialogue aligned with objectives and focuses on outcomesLearningAdaptingExpandingGenerating data,knowle

223、dge,and evidenceLeveraging knowledge to deliver smart solutionsExpanding to accelerate gender equality and empowermentTransformational operationsPartnering to maximize impact31WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findingsgender equality.A forthcoming Country Engagement Review suggests CPFs could move f

224、rom a cross-cutting approach on gender to be more selective on gender priorities and align the program to focus on key out-comes.The draft 2023 MOPAN assessment report notes that the well-established Country Engagement Model(CEM)promotes the upstream integration of evidence and cross-cutting themes

225、and downstream adaptation to changing needs and contexts.Two key observations emerge during implementation of the current WBG Gender Strategy:a learning-adapt-ing-expanding approach can support transformational programs and drive results at scale,and a coherent coun-try driven model with clear prior

226、ities can enhance out-come orientation on gender.Using the strategic approach depicted in Figure 20,the following section reflects on WBG engagement on gender over the past decade and highlights key lessons to strengthen implementation and results.Annex B provides additional details on how the WBG h

227、as leveraged the learning-adapting-expanding approach to address gender gaps.2.1 Generating data,knowledge,and evidence on genderData,knowledge,and evidence are increasingly informing government policies and operations.Over the last decade,there has been more-reliable and bet-ter data available to a

228、ssess how economic realities for men and women differ and what social factors influ-ence them and an increase in demand for help from clients in collecting high-quality sex-disaggregated data to inform public policy and support gender equal-ity(Box 2).The WBG Gender Data Portal,revamped in 2022,make

229、s the latest gender statistics accessible through compelling narratives and data visualizations to increase understanding of gender data and facili-tate analyses that inform policy choices.47 Better data facilitate diagnostics and monitoring,and researchers,operational staff,and clients are increasi

230、ngly working together to design policies and operations informed by the best available evidence.The WBG has built capacity and expertise in gender analysis and gender-responsive programming across all sectors.Investments in research and evidence in the public and private sectors have yielded a growi

231、ng global knowledge base about what types of develop-Box 2.World Bank Group(WBG)Support to Clients to Improve the Quality of Sex-Disaggregated DataSince 2012,the WBG has worked closely with partners and clients to increase the availability,quality,and relevance of gender statistics and sex-disaggreg

232、ated data.This includes partnering with national statistics offices to improve gender data under the Strengthening Gender Statistics project in 12 countries eligible for International Development Agency(IDA)financing.Other efforts include collecting new data,such as initiatives on work and employmen

233、t,asset ownership and control,and private sector indicator harmonization,including through Harmonized Indicators for Private Sector Operations and Joint Impact Indicators.The WBG has also augmented existing databases and worked on methodological advances,through Living Standards Measurement Survey,t

234、o increase the accuracy and reliability of data collected on employment,assets,and time use.Continuing efforts to improve gender data is key to informing effective policy,project design,and implementation support.47A list of indicators is included in the Gender Data Portal(https:/genderdata.worldban

235、k.org/indicators/).32Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year Retrospectivement policies and programs work to increase gender outcomes.The 2012 World Development Report on gender and development sparked the establishment of the World Banks regional Gender Innovation Labs(GILs),financed by the Umbre

236、lla Facility for Gen-der Equality.These labs,of which there are currently five(Africa,East Asia and the Pacific,Latin America and the Caribbean,Middle East and North Africa,South Asia),generate evidence on the effectiveness of approaches to close gender gaps by testing innova-tions;conducting impact

237、 evaluations;and supplying lessons for project design,implementation,and moni-toring(Box 3).At the same time,the Banks longstand-ing research units48 are generating evidence related to gender.49 The Gender Group has been working on a Gender Thematic Policy Note series summarizing key findings of res

238、earch from within and outside the World Bank on gender equality and empowerment that provides evidence on effective and promising solutions,operational good practices,and areas for future engagement.50 These efforts respond to teams requests for technical solutions to inform operations and investmen

239、ts.Box 3.Gender Innovation Labs Generate Evidence on What Works to Accelerate Gender EqualityGender Innovation Labs periodically conduct systematic reviews of literature on evaluation findings from gender-focused interventions and generate evidence to inform the four pillars of the current WBG Gende

240、r Equality Strategy.A few recent examples include studies on occupational segregation(World Bank 2022a),child marriage(Williams,Heise,and Tas 2022),empowerment through self-help groups(Javed,Zahra,and Munoz Boudet 2022),and barriers to womens economic participation(World Bank 2022b).GILs also conduc

241、t studies to generate evidence on what works to change deep-seated social norms.Examples include the Uganda Farm and Family Balance Project(Ambler,Jones,and OSullivan 2018)(Africa GIL),the Laos Peoples Democratic Republic Poverty Reduction Fund(East Asia and the Pacific GIL)(World Bank n.d.),GBV pre

242、vention among indigenous communities(Latin America and the Caribbean GIL)(Contreras-Urbina n.d.),the self-help groups in South Asia systematic review(South Asia GIL)(Javed,Munoz Boudet,and Zahra 2021),and Egypts experiment in providing access to nurseries(Middle East and North Africa GIL)(Elbehairy

243、n.d.).Under the coordination of the global gender team,the Gender Innovation Lab Federation conducts monthly meetings to coordinate actions across the five GILs.The Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series is one outstanding product of this cooperation.It highlights findings from impa

244、ct evaluations of development interventions conducted by the GILs in nine thematic areas,providing evidence and lessons on how to close gender gaps and foster womens economic empowerment.48 See Development Research Group and Development Impact Evaluation Unit.49 Topics include womens employment and

245、entrepreneurship(McKenzie and Puerto 2021),health(Banerjee,Ferrara,and Orozco-Olvera 2019),GBV(Anukriti,Erten,and Mukherjee 2022),human endowments(Baird,McIntosh,and Ozler,2019),financial inclusion and control over assets(Demirg-Kunt and Klapper 2016),and social norms(Gauri,Rahman,and Sen 2019).Mult

246、iple studies have been conducted on each topic,with one each highlighted here for brevity.In addition to contributing to the evidence base on womens economic status,the WBG has made measurement and methodological contributions.For example,it developed a tablet-based tool for family planning counselo

247、rs that collects detailed information on all factors relevant to counseling and adoption of modern contraceptive methodsan area with limited to no data(Bergstrom and Ozler 2021).50 Five notes,are already available(Increasing Female Labor Force Participation,Closing Gender Gaps in Earnings,What works

248、 in supporting women-led businesses?,Increasing Access to Technology for Inclusion,and Placing Gender Equality at the Center of Climate Action.)33WBG Engagement on Gender and Main FindingsThere has been an increasing number of WBG prod-ucts and research that make a strong business case for closing g

249、ender gaps in the private sector.Analysis within private sector reports and studies on childcare,entrepreneurship,employment and corporate lead-ership,insurance,disruptive technologies,and GBV have facilitated identification of priorities at regional and national levels.51 Since 2009,the Women,Busin

250、ess,and the Law initiative has measured legal and regu-latory differences in access to economic opportunities between men and women and has become an important tool for policy dialogue.These data have increasingly supported reforms through country operations and helped to accelerate progress in key

251、areas.While the current Gender strategy(FY 16-23)focused on closing gender gaps between girls and boys and men and women,the WBG has also increased its efforts to address sexual orientation and gender iden-tity as a development issue.The WBG has expanded the evidence base on the links between LGBTI

252、exclu-sions and development,finding that due to exclusion especially from education and economic opportunities,LGBTI people are likely overrepresented in the bottom 40 percent.Equally,LGBTI people experience widespread legal discrimination and regulatory barriers which pre-vent them from accessing m

253、arkets,services,and spaces;these in turn hinder their ability to participate equally in society and contribute fully to their societies and econo-mies(Cortez et al.,2021).New internal policies and struc-tures have strengthened the Banks commitment to work-ing against discrimination based on sexual o

254、rientation and gender identity(SOGI).The World Banks Envi-ronmental and Social Framework,the ESF Directive on Disadvantaged or Vulnerable Groups,and the Good Practice Note on Non-Discrimination:SOGI establish policy and guide teams on addressing such discrimi-nation at key entry points.The SOGI Task

255、 Force,estab-lished in January 2015,includes representation from across the Bank Group and offers leadership for oper-ationalizing SOGI inclusion in the institutions work.For example,the task force has provided inputs to over 30 Systematic Country Diagnostic(SCDs),Country Partnership Frameworks(CPFs

256、),and Country Eco-nomic Memorandums(CEMs).Sixteen SCDs now mention SOGI,including Albania and Croatia.The task force has also offered support to in-country social specialists to identify SOGI entry points in operations,such as in Mexico,El Salvador,and North Macedonia.While at a nascent stage of imp

257、lementation,this work stream is critical to ensuring all people are afforded the opportunity to reach their full potential.2.2 Leveraging knowledge to address gender gaps in WBG operationsCorporate commitments have helped focus efforts through operations and investments to address rel-evant gender g

258、aps.A key innovation of the Gender Strategy was the introduction of a rigorous results-ori-ented“gender tag”and an IFC“gender flag”that relies on gender analysis to inform interventions to narrow gender gaps.52 This mechanism,tracked as part of the Corporate Scorecard,has inspired action in operatio

259、ns and investments across the WBG portfolio.The share of Bank operations that are gender tagged has risen dramaticallyfrom 50 percent in fiscal 2017 to more than 90 percent in fiscal 2022(Figure 21),a trend consistent across sectors and regions.53 IFC has quadrupled its share of gender flagged inves

260、tments and doubled its gender-flagged advisory services during the same period,and remains on track to meet corporate capital increase commitments(as reflected in its Corporate Scorecard and Key Performance 51 For example,it has been estimated that the insurance industry could earn up to$1.7 trillio

261、n by 2030 if it targeted women,with half of the earnings from emerging economies(IFC 2015).IFC produces guides with private sector best practices to inspire and influence actions,such as the Guide for Fund Managers(IFC 2020),Bonds to Bridge Gender Gaps,Women in E-commerce(https:/www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/

262、connect/topics_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/gender+at+ifc/priorities/digital_economy_sa/ecommerce),and Respectful Workplaces(IFC 2019b).IFC also produces sector,thematic,and country-specific research,such as The Business Case for Womens Employment in Agribusiness(IFC 2017)and The Impact o

263、f Domestic and Sexual Violence on the Workplace in Solomon Islands(IFC 2019c).52 To be tagged,a Bank operation must use diagnostics to identify a gender gap,propose specific actions to narrow the gap,and track progress on the proposed action.IFC applies similar criteria for investment and advisory s

264、ervices to receive the gender flag.53 Fiscal 2017 was the baseline for the Corporate Scorecard(https:/scorecard.worldbank.org/en/scorecard/home)and 18th replenishment of the Results Measurement System(IDA 2017)reporting.34Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year RetrospectiveIndicators).The Multila

265、teral Investment Guarantee Agency(MIGA)adopted the gender flag approach as part of its first gender strategy implementation plan in 2021.The gender architecture created to provide upstream technical and operational support on the Gender Tag and Flag has expanded significantly after several years of

266、targeted efforts to build capacity.With the introduction of corporate commitments on gender,the WBG institutions expanded dedicated resources to produce knowledge,provide training,incubate,and deliver programs,and develop tools and guid-ance to inform teams.This dedicated effort focused on building

267、expertise within technical families and at the regional level to create a network of support staff,with over 3,000 staff members trained to date.Each Bank region maintains a customized structure that delivers upstream support,including to share data and knowledge,country-specific gender analysis,and

268、 evidence-based solutions.54 On the private sector side,IFCs gender architecture is somewhat decentralized,with regional leads and their teams located in the field close to operations to enhance country-level impact with industry,product and strategy leads and their teams located in HQ.Investments i

269、n training and supporting technical staff and facilitating access to analytical work,research,and evidence have allowed operational teams to adapt innovations and expand effective solutions.There has been a growing emphasis on translating global knowledge and evidence to country specific contexts an

270、d to promote coordination across the institution to share good practice gender solutions.When operational staff,gender experts,and research-ers jointly generate evidence,it has facilitated uptake into operations and informed dialogue with internal and external stakeholders.This approach has gained t

271、raction;for example,research conducted by the Africa GIL has influenced the design of sub-components of Bank operations with commitments totaling$10 billion and directly affected government strategies and policies in multiple countries.Other regions have found gender programs and platforms can serve

272、 as an effective pro-cess to translate technical knowledge into operations,while also improving coordination and results.Outcomes can be enhanced in operations where there is a focused effort to learn from past policies and pro-grams through a data-and evidence-driven approach,test new solutions,ada

273、pt to different country circum-stances,and expand solutions that show promise.By embedding this learning-testing-adapting-scaling approach in various initiatives,the WBG has made incremental gains in advancing gender equality.One example of this is the increase in multisector opera-tions to promote

274、empowerment of women and ado-lescent girls.These innovative projects have an explicit development objective of promoting gender equality through various entry points such as increasing access to education and good-quality reproductive,child,and maternal health services;expanding economic oppor-tunit

275、ies,including breaking into male-dominated occupations;and addressing prevalent gender norms that threaten to undermine economic opportunities.Figure 21.Gender-Tagged World Bank Operations,Fiscal 1722100%80%60%40%20%FY17FY18FY19FY20FY21FY2239%51%59%61%84%90%93%92%62%67%56%55%54%50%65%61%81%80%All Op

276、erationsIBRDIDA54 In addition to the wide range of evidence curated and shared by technical experts,task teams have access to practical resources,such as the Gender Tag Good Practice Note,DPO Dashboard,GBV Dashboard,online good practice source book,and quarterly newsletters that feature good practic

277、e examples for specific instruments and sectors.35WBG Engagement on Gender and Main FindingsProjects such as the Sahel Womens Empowerment and Demographic Dividend and new education projects(e.g.,Angola,Nigeria,Mozambique,and Tanzania)are expanding regional support to empower girls,including through

278、interventions to shift norms and mindsets of boys and girls.Similarly,social protection programs that include complementary interventions(e.g.,asset transfers,training,coaching,childcare,case management,referral services to prevent and respond to violence against women and children)have also bol-ste

279、red womens economic empowerment(Camilletti et al 2021;Heinemann and Beegle 2021).The introduction of a corporate commitment on gen-der has led to investments and innovations at the sector and regional level.In the first years of Gender Strategy implementation,global practices and indus-try groups id

280、entified the most critical gender gaps and priority areas and themes for action in follow-up notes.This effort was often complemented by prac-tical how-to notes on specific topics such as disaster risk management,land ownership,labor force partic-ipation,and entrepreneurship.In energy,water,and tran

281、sport,teams introduced innovations with a focus on womens employment.An investment in analysis in the energy sector led to the creation of the South Asia WePOWER partnership of more than 30 electricity util-ities and energy-sector organizations that collectively aim to increase workforce participati

282、on of women in the sector.This initiative is now being replicated in other regions and has informed operations across the sector.Other examples of sector wide approaches include:(i)to help mining companies address obsta-cles to equality and inclusion in the workplace,along the supply chain,and in co

283、mmunity engagement and investment;(ii)in the transport sector for designs to increase safety and mobility for women and expand access to higher-paying jobs in this male-dominated sector;and(iii)institutional changes in the water sec-tor to boost womens employment at water utilities globally(from a l

284、ow 18 percent(World Bank 2019)and are being supported through interventions to address harmful gender norms,lack of role models and men-tors,inadequate recruitment processes,deficient work environments,and lack of accessible training.Work to prevent and respond to GBV has increased significantly in

285、the last decade and is present in every sector.The WBG has adopted guidelines to address sexual exploitation and abuse and sexual harassment in WBG activities and procurement and has increased its emphasis on prevention and response,focusing on institutions and policy reforms,55 as well as system st

286、rengthening and safe spaces.Since fiscal 2017,390 World Bank operations in all global practices have included actions to prevent and respond to GBVcompared with 38 projects over the FY08-13 period.The World Banks engagement on GBV has expanded to contexts involving fragility,conflict,and violence an

287、d in all regions.There are unique entry points across sectors to engage in GBV prevention,with investments in knowledge,including impact evaluations,advi-sory services and analytics,and evidence generation through the GBV Innovations Development Market-place,driving improvements.56 IFC has developed

288、 a robust business case for the private sector,as well as sector guidance notes.Training and recruitment of specialists has improved technical expertise on GBV across the WBG.The surge in GBV associated with the COVID lockdowns brought even greater attention to this development issue,including incre

289、ased demand from clients and new commitments as part of IDA20.55 There has also been a notable increase in the number of Development Policy Operations that introduce actions to address GBV.Between fiscal 2017 and fiscal 2021,20 operations in almost every region included GBV measures in their activit

290、ies.Examples include Bhutan COVID-19 Crisis Development Policy Credit,Afghanistan Incentive Program Development Policy Operation,and Uzbekistan Supporting a Transparent and Inclusive Market Transition Development Policy Operation.56 The WBG,in partnership with the Sexual Violence Research Initiative

291、,launched the Development Marketplace to Address Gender-Based Violence(https:/www.worldbank.org/en/programs/development-marketplace-innovations-to-address-gender-based-violence)in 2015 to support evidence-based research,pilot interventions,and other activities related to GBV prevention and response.

292、Over 5 years,it awarded 50 projects in 34 countries covering a wide range of topics:economic empowerment to address GBV;GBV,education,and adolescents;health sector response;interventions to reduce GBV in humanitarian settings;interventions to reduce IPV;methods to measure intervention effectiveness;

293、risk factors for GBV;safety,security,and justice;sexual violence on sex workers;shifting cultural norms to address GBV;technology and GBV.36Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year RetrospectiveThere are positive trends in the scope of invest-ments to address gender gaps through operations,but also

294、 indications that the focus on design could be complemented by an emphasis on results and impact,including support during implementation.An early review of fully implemented gender-tagged Bank operations(50 as of September 2022)57 reveals that good progress has been made toward intended results,with

295、 documented World Bank contributions to addressing the gender gaps identified at project design).More-recent operations indicate progress in terms of greater ambition in project interventions to advance gender equality and more operations with a gender focus.For example,a review of the quality of ge

296、nder-tagged operations in Latin America sug-gests that the ambition and quality of gender-tagged operations are increasing,with a significant share of operations going beyond the corporate gender tag commitment.There are more Bank-wide operations designed with a development objective to empower wome

297、n and girls(particularly in Africa)and more direct investments to support GBV prevention.A growing trend is the inclusion of gender reforms in development operations,which are supported by investments across country programs.Significant effort has been made at the design stage;greater focus and syst

298、ematic effort to support implementation could strengthen results.2.3 Targeting country-level outcomes through country-driven approaches WBG country programs are increasingly prioritiz-ing closing gender gaps and coordinating support with clearer linkages to gender outcomes.The cur-rent WBG Gender St

299、rategy defines a country-driven approach as coherent alignment with country part-nership framework objectives supported by policy dialogue and diagnosis of gender gaps to achieve sustained outcomes.The Gender Strategy Mid-Term Review(World Bank Group 2021b)found that results on gender were enhanced

300、through strong coun-try-driven approaches and coordinated support from the Bank,IFC,and MIGA for the public and private sectors.The current WBG effort to enhance outcome orientation(WBG 2021)amplifies the potential of this approach to build greater accountability for outcomes.There are opportunities

301、 to leverage all WBG instru-ments to drive results at the country and sector level.Coherent country engagement on gender can facilitate implementation of complementary approaches across sectors and public-private spheres.The WBG is increas-ingly working with governments to identify priority areas,in

302、formed by analytical work and evidence,to better inform programs and target results.Given the multitude of entry points,identifying synergies across the country program portfolio can create opportunities to enhance gender equality and empowerment out-comes.There are also opportunities to leverage de

303、eper understanding of country-and local-level policy are-nas and engage with a wide range of stakeholders to advance innovations,context-appropriate framing,and collaborative action.Many countries now emphasize gender equality and empowerment as national priori-ties and acknowledge their contributio

304、n to addressing other pressing development priorities.Recent country examples demonstrate how WBG sup-port can address country-level challenges by focusing on specific actions to achieve outcomes.WBG engage-ment with Bangladesh,Ethiopia,Kosovo,Morocco,Mozambique,Nigeria,Turkey,and Uzbekistan pri-ori

305、tizes womens labor force participation,entrepre-neurship,enrollment in higher education(particularly science,technology,engineering,and mathematics),maternal and reproductive health,and voice and agency.Proposed portfolios of operations include instruments to support policy reform and investments to

306、 equalize pay,provide employment benefits to part-time workers,address GBV,and connect female entrepreneurs with finance institutions.More countries have prioritized womens empowerment and labor force participation as country development goals(Box 4),and this trend 57 More than 2,000 gender-tagged o

307、perations are being implemented.37WBG Engagement on Gender and Main FindingsBox 4.Bangladesh:A Success StoryThe country engagement in Bangladesh adopted a deliberate,coherent approach toward achieving gender priorities,with emphasis on reducing the fertility rate and increasing female labor particip

308、ation rate.Key lessons from Bangladeshs long-term country engagement on gender include:Using a whole-of portfolio approach helps address multiple dimensions of gender gaps.Given the nature of gender issues and social norms,a long-term approach and continuity across multiple CPF cycles,as well as an

309、iterative approach enabled through course correction is more conducive to producing outcomes.Partnership with private sector and civil society is key to driving job creation and reducing fertility.Bangladeshs total fertility rate decreased from 6.9 births per woman in the early 1970s to 2.0 in 2020.

310、Extreme poverty fell from 43.8 percent in 1991 to 14.8 percent in 2016,and the countrys per-capita GDP more than doubled in the last decade.Although gender gaps in the labor market remain wide,female labor force participation(FLFP)increased nearly 10 points to 37.7%since 2000 even while declining in

311、 the rest of the Region.The Bangladesh Jobs Diagnostic 2017 reports that women captured more than 70 percent of all new jobs in the country during this period.Womens entrepreneurship has also expanded in recent years but still remains limited:women make up only 7.1 percent of Bangladeshs entrepreneu

312、rs.The rapid decline in the fertility rate as well as the increase in uptake of jobs by women can be attributed to the deliberate efforts by the Government,which made demographics a top priority under the countrys first Five-Year Plan,published in 1971.Government agencies,NGOs,academic institutions,

313、and development partners worked together to scale up innovative ideas and findings from early programs feeding into the Bangladeshs national Family Planning Program(introduced in 1977).The government continues to highlight gender equality as a priority for economic growth in its latest Five-Year Pla

314、n(FY21-25).It aims to harness women and girls full potential through improving their access to resources and opportunities,as well as removing barriers and restrictive societal norms.The 2015 National Social Security Strategy(NSSS)also prioritizes improving access to quality jobs for vulnerable grou

315、ps,particularly women,as well as providing childcare services.The World Bank has been a consistent partner in fostering Bangladeshs gender agenda by using a wide range of lending and analytical instruments.Early on,the Bank financed projects focusing on family planning service delivery,infant and ma

316、ternal mortality,and maternal nutrition.Bank-supported operations beginning in the 1990s provided stipends to girls who performed well in secondary school and remained unmarried,raising girls secondary enrollment from 4 million to 9 million.Ongoing and pipeline projects,such as the Health Sector Sup

317、port Project(FY18)and the Urban Health Nutrition and Population project(FY24)continue to complement these efforts,while in the last year,3.5 million girls received stipends to stay in school.Programmatic support across sectors has helped to integrate actions that enable womens economic empowerment a

318、nd employment.This includes increasing access to skills to expand employment opportunities for women,including in STEM sectors such as power(e.g.,through the Electricity 38Gender Equality in Development:A Ten-Year Retrospectiveis also reflected in recent CPFs that have introduced high-level outcomes

319、(HLOs).There has been more attention paid and resources provided to support country-driven approaches on gender.This includes developing tailored country gender programs and platforms to identify key oper-ational,technical,and analytical work to support implementation of WBG programs;investments in

320、capacity building;and policy dialogue and direct engagement with clients.These approaches can also facilitate institutional strengthening across the whole of governmentincluding finance ministries,line ministries,and womens ministriesto improve policies and programs designed to accelerate gen-der eq

321、uality and strengthen budget processes and national strategies on poverty reduction,economic growth,and investment.The WBG often helps gov-ernments implement consultation and monitoring mechanisms that engage stakeholders and enhance process legitimacy.In settings of fragility,conflict,and violence,

322、different approaches and strong partnerships are needed,including country-and region-specific knowledge and local partnerships,including civil society,the private sector,womens groups,and a range of actors to understand how operations can be implemented to deliver gender equality and empowerment goa

323、ls.2.4 Partnering to maximize impactInternational financial institutions and multilateral development banks have stepped up the global effort to achieve gender equality and empowerment.Gen-der equality is an area of focus in all development institutions,and teams work together to exchange knowledge

324、and collaborate on pressing challenges,including through biennial global summits.58 A com-parative advantage of the WBG is its combination of country depth and global breadth,multisector knowl-edge and research,and its ability to mobilize and leverage financing through public and private sector inst

325、ruments.The Umbrella Facility for Gender Equal-ity is a platform on gender that generates and shares evidence-informed solutions with international finan-cial institutions,governments,and other development partners to influence policy dialogue at the country level by making data and evidence availab

326、le,improv-ing development financing design through knowledge 58 In May 2022,the Building Back Better:Advancing Gender Equality for a More Resilient Future Summit held in Cairo focused on the care economy,climate change,and digitization.It featured a plenary that the WBG organized on how to accelerat

327、e womens participation in the labor force and invest in a more-equitable care economy.It highlighted key barriers to and opportunities for accelerating womens empowerment at work,with an emphasis on care.Distribution Modernization Project)and ICT.These efforts are complemented by support for policy

328、reforms,for example to regulate childcare services and maternity leave and set up a mechanism to report sexual harassment,as well as business development training and facilitating market links for women.For example,an IDA17 operation reached nearly 1 million poor women in rural areas with livelihood

329、 support,agricultural outreach,small-scale infrastructure,and youth skills,and average household income rose almost 80%.To support womens entrepreneurship,the Bank and IFC work with public and private-sector entities to help women entrepreneurs establish and expand businesses through the Women Entre

330、preneurs Finance Initiative(We-Fi).Sources:Bangladesh Country Gender Assessment 2021;Bangladesh Country Gender Assessment 202139WBG Engagement on Gender and Main Findingsgeneration,and increasing awareness of and demand for gender-smart approaches.59 UN agencies are partners on policy,analysis,and c

331、lient support,particularly in fragile and conflict-af-fected countries.60 At an institutional level,there is a structured partnership with UN Women,61 although partnerships are most common at the country level(Box 5).In 2021,the WBG and UN Women launched an open-access course on gender equality in t

332、ranspor-tation(UN Women 2021b)and a report on ensuring economic and political opportunities for all women in Lebanon(World Bank and UN Women 2021).The WBGUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refu-gees(UNHCR)Joint Data Center on Forced Displace-ment aims to improve the quality and quantity of data fo

333、r evidence-based policy decisions and response to global refugee crises.Both institutions are building on their ongoing joint initiatives on forced displacement,including analytical work,collaboration with govern-ments,microdata collection,and joint missions.The WBG-UNHCR Strengthened Partnership for Address-ing Forced Displacement,part of the Global Com-pact on Refugees provides complementary too