1、1Overview WOMEN AND TRADE THE ROLE OF TRADE IN PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY 2020 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and the World Trade Organization 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved 1 2 3

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14、. Contents ix Foreword xi Acknowledgments xiii Abbreviations 1 Overview 3 Trade improves the lives of women 6 Thechangingnatureoftradecreates newopportunitiesforwomen 10 Betterpoliciescanhelpwomen overcome the challenges of trade andmaximizeitsbenefits 13 Collectiveeffortstopromote tradeandgenderequ

15、ality 15 Notes 15 References 19 Chapter 1 The impact of trade on women in their different roles 20 Key messages 22 Introduction 26 Howtradeaffectswomen workers 55 Howtradeaffectswomenproducers andbusinessowners 61 Howtradeaffectswomen consumersanddecisionmakers 66 Annex 1A 67 Annex 1B 69 Annex 1C 70

16、 Notes 73 References 79 Chapter 2 How constraints and opportunities shape womens roles in trade 80 Key messages 82 Introduction 82 Barriersreducingwomensshare in the gains from trade 114 Newopportunitiesforwomen tobenefitfromtrade 146 Notes 147 References 159 Chapter 3 Policy responses to promote wo

17、mens benefits from trade 160 Key messages 161 Priorities to increase market access for women 165 Prioritiestoincreasewomenscapacity to engage in international trade 169 Mitigating the risks from trade faced by women 171 Collectiveeffortstopromote womenseconomicempowerment 182 Stepstofurtherinclusive

18、ness 183 Notes 185 References iii Boxes 2 Box O.1 Early evidence on the impact of COVID-19 on trade and women 24 Box 1.1Keytermsusedinthisreport 52 Box 1.2 Procurementpolicyin supportofwomensequalpay 59 Box 1.3Reducingfertilizerlogistics costsandthegendergapinagricultural productivityinEthiopia 83 B

19、ox 2.1 Women traders are likely to be moreaffectedbyconflictandviolence 85 Box 2.2Merchandiseproducedby womenfaceshighertariffs 93 Box 2.3 Pakistani women entrepreneursfacemanychallenges asaresultofnontariffmeasures 108 Box 2.4Womensgeographical mobilityismorelimitedthanmens 114 Box 2.5Tradecanbenef

20、itagricultural development and help close the genderproductivitygap 118 Box 2.6 COVID-19: How services disruptionwillaffectwomen 126 Box 2.7 Implications of COVID-19 forfemaleworkersinmanufacturing globalvaluechains 129 Box 2.8 Female export jobs and earnings in Vietnam 134 Box 2.9 Female employment

21、 and upgradinginthemedicaldevices globalvaluechaininCostaRica andtheDominicanRepublic 138 Box 2.10 Online electronic commerceplatformofferswomen 140 Box 2.11 Gender analysis of electronic commerce and online trading in SouthAsiaandSoutheastAsia 164 Box 3.1 Thebeneficialeffectsof trade facilitation f

22、or women 173 Box 3.2EastAfricanCommunitysGender Equality,Equity,andDevelopmentBill 178 Box 3.3 Increasing relevance of gender-related policies emerging from World Trade Organization Trade Policy Review reports 179 Box 3.4 Womenseconomic empowerment in Aid for Trade Figures 4 Figure O.1 Average femal

23、e labor shareishigherformanufacturing firmsintegratedintoglobaltrade 5 Figure O.2 Women are less likely to be in informal jobs if they work in trade-integrated sectors 6 Figure O.3Thecurrenttariffstructure benefitsmale-headedhouseholdsin 78percentofcountriesassessed 7 Figure O.4Countriesthatare more

24、 open to trade have higher newbusinessopportunities levelsofgenderequality 8 Figure O.5 Female employment has shiftedintoservices,1991versus2017 9 Figure O.6GVCfirmsemploymore womenthannon-GVCfirms 22 Figure 1.1 Trade openness and liberalization increased in the1990sand2000s 23 Figure 1.2 Countriest

25、hatare more open to trade have higher levelsofgenderequality,2017 Contentsiv 25 Figure 1.3Genderinequality fallsascountriesspecializeinto more sophisticated GVCs 27 Figure 1.4Thefemalelaborshare increasesascountriesspecializeinto more sophisticated trade and GVCs 28 Figure 1.5 As trade participation

26、 involves moresophisticatedtradeandGVCs,the male-to-female wage ratio declines 29 Figure 1.6Thefemaleemployment- to-populationratioincreasedinmost economiesbetween1991and2017 30 Figure 1.7Womensemploymentis shiftingintoservicesandawayfrom agriculture,1991versus2017 31 Figure 1.8Agriculturestillaccou

27、nts formuchoffemaleemploymentin certainregions,1991versus2017 32 Figure 1.9 More tradable services have provided the strongest job growth forbothgenders,1991versus2017 33 Figure 1.10 Womenspresenceinhigh- skillroleshasexpanded,1991versus2017 34 Figure 1.11Low-incomecountrieshave very few women in hi

28、gh-skill jobs 35 Figure 1.12Servicesectorjobsrequire highereducationlevelsforwomen and men 36 Figure 1.13Skilledagriculturaland elementaryoccupationshavethe largest shares of women in low- and lower-middle-incomecountries 37 Figure 1.14 Women are less likely to be in informal jobs if they work 40 Fi

29、gure 1.16Tradingmanufacturingfirms indevelopingandemergingcountries showasignificantlyhigherfemale wagesharethannontradingfirms 41 Figure 1.17Indevelopingcountries, anincreaseinmanufacturing exportsissignificantlylinkedto increases in the female wage share 42 Figure 1.18 In developing and emerging c

30、ountries,tradingfirmsinmanufacturing showasignificantlyhigherfemale laborsharethannontradingfirms 43 Figure 1.19 Average female labor share across developing and emergingcountriesishigherfor manufacturingfirmsthatexport 44 Figure 1.20 Average female labor share in developing and emerging countriesis

31、higherformanufacturing firmsintegratedintoglobaltrade 44 Figure 1.21Thefemalelaborshare premiuminexportingfirmsishigherin low-technologymanufacturingsectors 44 Figure 1.22Inthemanufacturing sector,tradingfirmsmanagedby women have a higher female share of theworkforcethannontradingfirms 46 Figure 1.2

32、3Thewagegapbetween female and male workers still exists 47 Figure 1.24 Men tend to work longer hoursthanwomen,especially inlow-incomecountries 48 Figure 1.25Thewagegapissmaller formiddle-incomecountriesthan forlow-incomecountries 49 Figure 1.26 Wage gaps between women and men decrease with higherlev

33、elsofeducation 50 Figure 1.27Womenstimespent at work relative to men increases withahigherlevelofeducation in trade-integrated sectors 38 Figure 1.15 Informal employment remains at high levels in several regions Contentsv 54 Figure 1.28Thenegativerelationship between the female labor share and the a

34、verage wage rate is smaller for trading firms 54 Figure 1.29Theshareoffemale-owned firmsandexportersincreaseswith thelevelofspecializationofcountries into more sophisticated trade 56 Figure 1.30 A low percentage of firmsisfemale-ownedandglobal 57 Figure 1.31Morethan50percentof female-ownedbusinesses

35、areconcentrated in sectors with high barriers to cross- bordertrade,inbothgoodsandservices 58 Figure 1.32Majority-male-owned exportingfirmsperformbetterand are more digitally connected than female-ownedexportingfirms 60 Figure B1.3.1Farmmanagers productivitydistribution,bygender 63 Figure 1.33Thecur

36、renttariffstructure benefitsmale-headedhouseholdsin 78percentofcountriesassessed 64 Figure 1.34Womenspendmuchmore time on childcare than men do acrossallcountries 84 Figure 2.1Constraintsaffecting women in trade are diverse 87 Figure 2.2 Sectors that employ more womenfacehigherinputtariffs 88 Figure

37、 2.3Onaverage,womenworkin services sectors that are less trade- intensive 89 Figure 2.4Onaverage,women face an export cost 13 percent higherthanmenscost 90 Figure 2.5Customsproceduresand regulationsaremoreburdensome 93 Figure B2.3.1 Pakistani women-led companies engage mainly in the textilesandfoodi

38、ndustries 94 Figure B2.3.2 Pakistani export-related measuresandconformityassessment proceduresarethemainimpediments facedbywomen-ledfirms 98 Figure 2.6Womensupper-secondary completionratesarelowerthanmens in low-income and lower-middle-income countries 99 Figure 2.7 Trade-intensive sectors employ mo

39、reworkerswithSTEMbackgrounds 101 Figure 2.8Thedigitalgender divide persists 103 Figure 2.9Lawsaffectwomen throughouttheirworkinglives 105 Figure 2.10Withgreaterequality ofopportunity,morewomenwork, and they receive higher wages 106 Figure 2.11 Women are less likely to hold leadershippositionsinbusin

40、esswhen theylackpropertyrights 107 Figure 2.12 Women spend considerably less time than men on paid work 109 Figure B2.4.1 Women are more likely tomigrateforsocialreasons,whereas men migrate for economic reasons 116 Figure 2.13Theemploymentshareof serviceshassteadilyincreased,19702010 117 Figure 2.14

41、Servicescontributeagrowing shareofvalueaddedtoagricultural andmanufacturinggoods,201116 118 Figure B2.6.1 Womensoccupations requiremoreface-to-faceinteractions thanmensandofferlessopportunity for remote work 119 Figure B2.6.2 Women tend to be employed in services sectors that forsmallfirms facelarge

42、rtradedisruption viContents 120 Figure 2.15 Female employment shares inmanufacturingandagriculture are lower than in most services 122 Figure 2.16Womenaccountfora large and growing share of doctors in OECDcountries,2000versus2015 122 Figure 2.17 Trade in services has been growing faster than trade i

43、n goods 123 Figure 2.18Theshareoffemale- managedfirmsishigherinservices thaninmanufacturing 125 Figure 2.19GVCfirmsemploymore womenthandonon-GVCfirms 126 Figure B2.7.1 Declines of U.S. imports were sharp in many GVC-intensive manufacturingsectors,firstquarter2020 128 Figure B2.7.2 U.S.manufacturingi

44、mports fromselectedcountrieshadslightly larger declines in sectors that employ a large share of female GVC workers in thesourcecountries,firstquarter2020 128 Figure B2.7.3Chinesemanufacturing exportstoselectedcountriesdropped sharplyininputstotheappareland footwear sectors that employ a large share

45、of female GVC workers in the destinationcountries,firstquarter2020 130 Figure B2.8.1 Female employment supportsVietnamsexports 131 Figure 2.20 SMEs participate significantlyinGVCsthrough indirectexportsandlargefirms 133 Figure 2.21 Women are more likely tobeproductionworkersbutless likelytoownormana

46、geGVCfirms 135 Figure B2.9.1 Strong and sustainablefemaleparticipation 136 Figure 2.22Countriesathigherpointsof theGVCupgradingtrajectoryexhibit higherlegalequality 139 Figure B2.10.1 Share and average sales ofwomen-ledenterprises,bysector 141 Figure B2.11.1 Impediments to e-commerce,bygenderoffirmC

47、EO inSouthAsia 143 Figure 2.23 Women spend more time on householdandlessonworkingactivities 144 Figure 2.24Theprobabilityofjoblossdue toautomationishigherforfemaleworkers 174 Figure 3.1 Inclusionofgender-related provisions in PTAs is not recent 175 Figure 3.2 Mainbroadtypesof gender-related provisio

48、ns in PTAs 178 Figure B3.3.1Thenumberof Trade Policy Review reports with gender policy has increased 180 Figure B3.4.1 Promotionofwomens economic empowerment is increasingly part of Aid for Trade objectives 181 Figure B3.4.2 Donors and partner countriesconsiderAidforTrades contributiontowomenseconom

49、ic in the medical devices GVC empowermentthroughdifferentchannels Maps 51 Map 1.1 Discrimination against female workerspersistsinmanycountries 102 Map 2.1 Thegendergapinmobile ownershipisparticularlyhigh inAfricaandSouthAsia viiContents Tables 85 Table B2.2.1 Tarifffacedintop destinationmarkets,bygender and wage decile 86 Table B2.2.2 Distributionofwomen andmen,byincome 92 Table 2.1Accesstofinanceand transportation costs are important perceived constraints for SMEs indevelopingcountries 97 Table 2.2Women-ledfirmsfacehigher rejectionratesfortradefinance 138 Table