1、GENDER EQUALITY AND SOCIAL INCLUSION DIAGNOSTIC OF SELECTED SECTORS INNEPALOCTOBER 2020ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANKGENDER EQUALITY AND SOCIAL INCLUSION DIAGNOSTIC OF SELECTED SECTORS INNEPALOCTOBER 2020ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANKCreative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO) 2020 Asian Developmen

2、t Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City, 1550 Metro Manila, PhilippinesTel +63 2 8632 4444; Fax +63 2 8636 2444www.adb.orgSome rights reserved. Published in 2020. ISBN 978-92-9262-424-8 (print); 978-92-9262-425-5 (electronic); 978-92-9262-426-2 (ebook)Publication Stock No. TCS200291-2DOI: http:/dx.doi.

3、org/10.22617/TCS200291-2 The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) or its Board of Governors or the governments they represent.ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in

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6、https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/. By using the content of this publication, you agree to be bound bytheterms of this license. For attribution, translations, adaptations, and permissions, please read the provisions andterms of use at https:/www.adb.org/terms-use#openaccess.This CC lice

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8、erial.Please contact pubsmarketingadb.org if you have questions or comments with respect to content, or if you wish toobtain copyright permission for your intended use that does not fall within these terms, or for permission to use theADB logo.Corrigenda to ADB publications may be found at http:/www

9、.adb.org/publications/corrigenda.Notes: In this publication, “$” refers to United States dollars, “” for euros, and “NRs” refers to Nepalese rupees.Cover design by Kookie Trivino.On the cover: Marginalized women and men empowered to achieve gender equality and social inclusion in different spheres o

10、f society. Printed on recycled paperCoNtENtSTABLES, FIGURES, And BoxES .vACKnoWLEdGMEnTS .viiiABBREVIATIonS .ix1. oVERALL ConTExT .1Introduction .3Country Context .3Key Points about Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Nepal .6Policy Commitments .11Institutional Structures to Promote Action on Ge

11、nder Equality and Social Inclusion Issues .122. AGRICULTURE And nATURAL RESoURCE MAnAGEMEnT .14Area of Collaboration .16Sector Context.16Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and Outcomes .20Good Practices and Lessons .25Looking Forward: Issues and Opportuni

12、ties to Consider .283. EnERGy . 32Area of Collaboration .33Sector Context.34Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and Outcomes .37Good Practices and Lessons .40Looking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to Consider .444. SKILLS dEVELopMEnT .49Area of Collabor

13、ation .51Sector Context.51Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and Outcomes .54Good Practices and Lessons .60Looking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to Consider .625. TRAnSpoRT .68Area of Collaboration .69Sector Context.69Gender Equality and Social Inclus

14、ion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and Outcomes .73Good Practices and Lessons .78Looking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to Consider .79iiiCONTENTS6. URBAn dEVELopMEnT . 85Area of Collaboration .86Sector Context.87Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector P

15、lanning and Outcomes .89Good Practices and Lessons .91Looking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to Consider .947. WATER, SAnITATIon, And HyGIEnE .98Area of Collaboration .100Sector Context.100Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and Outcomes .103Good Practi

16、ces and Lessons .108Looking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to Consider .111AppEndIx: dATA on SELECTEd ISSUES .116ivtABLES, FIGURES, ANd BoxESTABLES1.1 Mechanisms to Achieve Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Nepal .132.1 Selected Measures to Address Production Input Constraints of Women and

17、Excluded Group .292.2 Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Perspectives in the Agriculture Sector .313.1 Potential for Addressing Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Issues inSelected Energy-Related Policies and/or Legislations Recognition of Existing Conditions .363.2 Tip

18、Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Perspectives into Analysis and Planning in the Energy Sector .484.1 Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Perspectives in the Skills Development Sector .665.1 Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social Inclusi

19、on Perspectives into the Transport Sector .836.1 Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Perspectives into Urban Development .967.1 Urban Water and Sanitation Service Providers Institution Models in Nepal .1027.2 Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage in Seven Provinces of Nepal

20、.1047.3 Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Perspectives in the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Sector .115A.1 LiteracyWomen .116A.2 LiteracyMen .116A.3 Literacy Rates by Ethnic or Caste and Religious Groups (Selected) and Gender .117A.4 Employment StatusWomen .117A.5 Employ

21、ment StatusMen .118A.6 Employment of Currently Married Women .118A.7 Cash Earnings of Currently Married Women .119A.8 Type of EmploymentWomen .119A.9 Type of EmploymentMen .120A.10 Employment and Cash Earnings of Currently Married Women and Men.120A.11 OccupationWomen .121A.12 OccupationMen .121A.13

22、 Womens Control Over Their Own Earnings and Over Those of Their Husbands .122A.14 Household Food Security .122A.15 Migration Status .123A.16 Ownership of AssetsWomen .123A.17 Ownership of AssetsMen .123A.18 Ownership of AssetsWomen (House) .124A.19 Ownership of AssetsWomen (Land) .124A.20 Participat

23、ion in Decision-Making .125vTABLES, FIGURES, AND BOXESA.21 Womens Role in Final Decisions on How to Use Remittances .125A.22 Womens Participation in Decision-Making .126A.23 Attitude Toward Wife BeatingWomen .127A.24 Attitude Toward Wife BeatingMen .127A.25 Attitude Toward Wife BeatingWomen (%) .128

24、A.26 Spousal Physical Violence Against Men .130A.27 Indicator of Womens Empowerment .130A.28 Provincial Poverty Index .131A.29 Population by Caste and Ethnicity, and Religion by Province .131A.30 Human Development Index Values by Province .131A.31 Area and Population by Province .132A.32 Caste or Et

25、hnic and Religious Groups .132FIGURES1.1 Provincial Poverty Index.41.2 Percentage of Literate Women and Men by Province .51.3 Attitude Toward Wife Beating .81.4 Share of Total Labor Migrants by Sex, Fiscal Year 20082009 to Fiscal Year 20162017 .112.1 Occupation by Profession and Sex .162.2 Income Le

26、vels from Agricultural and Nonagricultural Work .172.3 Household Food Security .182.4 Provincial and Local Level Institutional FrameworkSocial Development .202.5 Women Ownership (Alone) of House and Land .213.1 Hydropower Potential in Nepal .344.1 Literacy Rate in Nepal .544.2 Employment Rate .554.3

27、 Womens Enrollment in Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training Subjects, Fiscal Year 20162017 .575.1 Situations of Roads in Nepal, Fiscal Year 20152016 .706.1 Women Ownership of House and Land in Rural and Urban Areas .877.1 Access to Water and Sanitation .104BoxES2.1 Organizing and M

28、obilizing Women and Excluded Groups .262.2 Targeted Support for Improved Livelihood Security through Agriculture .272.3 Gender and Climate Smart Agricultural Practices .283.1 Community Rural Electrification .413.2 Biogas Support Program.423.3 Best Practices for Engendering Utilities .433.4 Ramite Kh

29、ola Solar Mini-Grid Experience .474.1 Institutions for Skills Development in Nepal .53viTABLES, FIGURES, AND BOXES4.2 Challenges in Nontraditional Trades .584.3 Importance of Skills Testing .604.4 Measures to Increase Access of Women to Skills Training .614.5 Strategies to Include Women in Nontradit

30、ional Trades .625.1 Access to Paved Roads of Different Social Groups .745.2 Issues of Women Contractors .765.3 Gender in Transport Policies and Institutional Structures .785.4 Employment Opportunities by Sector Projects .816.1 Janata Awas (Peoples Housing) .926.2 Measures to Increase Tenure Security

31、 of the Poor .936.3 Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Project of Ministry of Urban Development, Nepal .937.1 Water and Sanitation for the Poor through Output-Based Aid .1097.2 Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Strategies in Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project .1107.3 Methodo

32、logies Used During Program Implementation .113viiACKNoWLEdGMENtSthe Asian Development Bank has prepared the Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Diagnostic of Selected Sectors in Nepal to assist itself, the government, and development partners in Nepal to identify ways to incorporate approaches for

33、gender equality, social inclusion, and womens empowerment in selected sectors. These sectors involve agriculture and natural resource management; energy; skills development; transport; urban development; and water, sanitation, and hygiene. Gender equality and social inclusion consultant Chhaya Jha p

34、repared this publication in close collaboration with Senior Social Development Officer Suman Subba of the Nepal Resident Mission. Principal Social Development Specialist Francesco Tornieri of the South Asia Department provided overall guidance throughout the process.viiiABBREVIAtIoNSADB Asian Develo

35、pment BankCBS Central Bureau of Statistics CGD Child, Gender and Disabled CTEVT Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training DFID Department for International DevelopmentDOLI Department of Local Infrastructure DevelopmentESMF Environmental and Social Management FrameworkEVENT Enhanced Voc

36、ational Education and Training ProjectGDP gross domestic productGESI gender equality and social inclusionHDI human development indexkWh kilowatt-hourLAHURNIP Lawyers Association for Human Rights of Nepalese Indigenous PeoplesLGOA Local Government Operation ActMHM menstrual hygiene managementMOPIT Mi

37、nistry of Physical Infrastructure and TransportMOUD Ministry of Urban DevelopmentNDHS Nepal Demographic Health SurveyNEA Nepal Electricity AuthorityNGO nongovernment organizationNLSS Nepal Living Standard SurveyNSTB National Skills Testing BoardNWSC Nepal Water Supply CorporationODA Official Develop

38、ment AssistanceOBA output-based aid OBC other backward classODF open defecation free PPP publicprivate partnershipPWD person with disability RUDP Regional Urban Development ProjectSDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SDGs Sustainable Development GoalsSDR special drawing rightsSTWSSSP Sma

39、ll Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Support ProgramTESP Training and Employment Service ProvidersTEVT Technical Education and Vocational Training TSLC Technical School Leaving CertificateUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentWASH Water, San

40、itation and HygieneWSS Water Supply and Sanitation WUA Water Users AssociationsWUSC Water Users and Sanitation Committeesix1IntroductionThis introductory chapter provides a brief background and highlights key points about gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) in Nepal.1 The subsequent chapters

41、 focus on sectors and subsectors of cooperation between ADB and the Government of Nepal and provide practical resources for GESI mainstreaming in project operations.Country contextThe development indicators of Nepal have improved over the last two decades. Overall poverty levels have declined, but d

42、isparities still exist based on location and social background.Nepal is heavily dependent on remittances. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. Industrial activity mainly involves the processing of agricultural products. Nepal is planning to graduate from the least developed country status by

43、2022 and transform into a middle-income country by 2030.The Constitution of Nepal (2015) established a new federal structure with three tiers of governmentfederal, provincial, and local. For the first time, local governments have exercised executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The separation

44、of roles and powers at the three levels is evolving.Key points about gender equality and social inclusion in NepalPolitical representation of women and excluded groups has significantly improved after the restructuring of Nepal.Despite progress, development indicators are lower for women and exclude

45、d groups. Gender-, caste- and ethnicity-based inequality and violence are still prevalent. In general, women across Nepal have a weaker role in decision-making compared to men. Caste-based and language-based discriminations are experienced by the Dalits2 and Adivasi Janajatis are disadvantaged by ca

46、ste- and language-based bias.3 The Madhesis4 are also prone to political, economic, and social marginalization. The Government of Nepal recognizes people of third gender, and official documents have provided space to identify their sex as “Others.”5 However, the lack of social acceptance of differen

47、t sexual orientation, gender identities, expressions and sexual characteristics (SOGIESC) marginalizes people of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersexual (LGBTI+) community.Overall CONtext1GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC OF SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALPolicy commitmentsT

48、he Constitution is committed to ending discrimination related to class, caste, region, language, religion, and gender. Eight sectoral ministries have their own GESI guidelines. The Local Government Operation Act (LGOA) 2017 has several provisions for promoting GESI, which have been included in the f

49、unctions of the local government. Nepal has ratified as many as 23 international human rights instruments that include international conventions and covenants on women, ethnic minorities, and persons with disability (PWD), and against racial discrimination. Nepal is committed to the uN Sustainable D

50、evelopment Goals and to “leaving no one behind.”Institutional structuresThe location of GESI responsibility is spread over various institutional mechanisms and structures, from the federal to ward levels of the government, including the constitutionally established National Commissions for specific

51、groups.There are many non-state actors and identity-based organizations working on GESI-related issues at all the three tiers of the government: federal, provincial, and local. However, they have lesser visibility in remote and backward areas.GESI = gender equality and social inclusion, LGBTI+ = les

52、bian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersexual.1 Gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) is a concept that addresses unequal power relations between women and men and between different social groups (GESI Working Group IDPG Nepal. 2017. A Common GESI Framework. Kathmandu). Gender refers to th

53、e social, behavioral, and cultural attributes, and expectations and norms associated with being male or female. Gender equality refers to how these factors determine the way in which women and men relate to each other and to the resulting differences in power between them. Social inclusion is define

54、d as the process of improving the ability, opportunity, and dignity of people, disadvantaged on the basis of their identity, to take part in society (Inclusion Matters: The Foundation for Shared Prosperity. Washington, DC: WorldBank).2 Dalits refer to “communities who, by virtue of atrocities of cas

55、te-based discrimination and untouchability, are most backward in social, economic, educational, political and religious fields, and deprived of human dignity and social justice” (National Dalit Commission. 2008. Nepal).3 The indigenous people of Nepal are officially described as Indigenous Nationali

56、ties (Adivasi Janajati). The Adivasi Janajatis are defined as distinct communities having their own mother tongues, traditional cultures, written and unwritten histories, traditional homeland and geographical areas, and egalitarian social structures (Government of Nepal. 2002. National Foundation fo

57、r Development of Indigenous Nationalities Act2002. Kathmandu).4 The Madhesis are people of the plains (Tarai) having non-Nepali languages as their mother tongue. Many of these groups share cultural traditions and educational and family ties with people living in the Indian states of Bihar, uttar Pra

58、desh, and West Bengal (International Crisis Group. 2007. Nepals Troubled Tarai region Crisis Group Asia report N136. Kathmandu/Brussels).5 “The third gender refers to people whose gender identity (or self-identification and expression) or sexual orientation (or emotional and sexual attraction to ind

59、ividuals of same or different sex) does not match or does not conform with conventional notions of their “assigned sex” (male or female usually at birth and based on their genitals). These include lesbians, gays, bisexuals, transgender people, and intersexuals, who are known as LGBTI+ in abbreviated

60、 form” (Supreme Court Division Bench Honorable Justice Balram K.C. and Honorable Justice Pawan Kumar Ojha Order Writ No. 917 of the year 2064 BS (2007 AD) on Case of Sunil Babu Pant et al. vs. Nepal Government on 21 December 2007.) Translated by the National Judicial Academy Law Journal. 2008 (2). p

61、p. 261286.2OvErALL CONTExTIntroductionThis introductory chapter provides a brief review of the country context, highlights key points about gender equality and social inclusion (GESI), and provides a brief overview of policy commitments and institutional structures to promote action on GESI. Each su

62、bsequent chapter focuses on agriculture and natural resource management; energy; skills development; transport; urban development; and water, sanitation, and hygiene, respectively. The selected sectors and subsectors reflect the major areas of cooperation between the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and

63、 the Government of Nepal.The sector-focused chapters provide practical resources for ADB and its government partners. Theyaim to assist with GESI mainstreaming in each sector, in accordance with the commitments made by both ADB and the government. Each sector-focused chapter starts with a brief summ

64、ary of the major themes or subsectors of ADBgovernment cooperation, and then provides a brief overview of sector characteristics and challenges. Government commitments to support GESI and institutional mechanisms responsible for GESI in the sector are briefly summarized. GESI issues relevant to sect

65、or activities and outcomes are then set out, substantiated with data and evidence, where possible. Eachchapter concludes with a list of issues and opportunities to consider in sector and project analyses, and discussions with development partners. At the end of each chapter, a tip sheet is added sum

66、marizing sectoral barriers and possible measures to address them.Country ContextNepal is a mountainous, landlocked, and least developed country with a total area of 147,181 square kilometers, 26.41 million population, 125 ethnic groups, and 123 languages, according to the 2011census. Ecologically, t

67、he country is divided into three eco-regions: the mountain, hills, and lowland (plains) Tarai. TheConstitution of Nepal (2015) established a federal structure with three tiers of governmentfederal, provincial, and localwith local governments exercising executive, legislative, and judicial powers. Ad

68、ministratively, Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 753 village and urban municipalities, which include 6 metropolitan cities (Mahanagarpalika), 11 sub-metropolitan cities (upamahanagarpalika), 276 municipalities (Nagarpalika), and 460 rural municipalities (Gaunpalika). A mayor and deputy mayor (m

69、unicipalities) and a chairperson and vice chairperson (rural municipalities) head the local governments. Local units are subdivided into wards, represented by a ward chairperson and four ward members. Out of the four ward members, two must be women and one of the two women must be a Dalit. All local

70、ly elected representatives comprise the village or municipality assemblies, with local legislative power. Each of the countrys 77 districts has a district assembly comprising of the mayors, deputy mayors, chairpersons, and vice chairpersons. The district assembly elects a district coordination commi

71、ttee to act in behalf of the executive branch at the district level. The district coordination committee is comprised of a maximum of nine members chosen from among the members of municipal or rural municipal assemblies, and include a head, a deputy head, at least three women, and at least one perso

72、n from the Dalit or minority community.66 Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and Asia Foundation Partnership on Subnational Governance in Nepal. 2017. Diagnostic Study of Local Governance in Federal Nepal. Kathmandu.3GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC OF SELE

73、CTED SECTOrS IN NEPALThe development indicators of Nepal have improved over the last 2 decades. Nepals Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2019 was 0.579, positioning it at 147 out of 189 countries and territories. However, when the value is discounted for inequality, the HDI falls to 0.430, a l

74、oss of 26%due to inequality in the distribution of the HDI dimension indices.7 Poverty incidence decreased from 42% in 1996 to 25% in 2011 and to 21.6% in 2015.8 Despite the decline in overall poverty levels, disparities based on location and social background have persisted. Around 42% Dalits (Hill

75、 Dalits44% and Madhesi Dalits 38%) and 10% Newars (historical ethnic group inhabitants of the Kathmanduvalley) were below the poverty line in 2011;9 and there was about 16% poverty incidence in urban and 27% in rural areas.10The situation in the provinces varies according to their level of developme

76、nt. Most of Nepals population resides in Provinces 1 and 2, each with more than 20% of the total population. Province 6 is the least populated, with about 6% of the total population. Population under absolute poverty is highest in Province 7 at 34% and the lowest in Province 1 at 12%. But multidimen

77、sional poverty rate is highest in Province 6 at 51% followed by Province 2 at 48%. (Figure 1.1).117 united Nations Development Programme (uNDP). 2019. Beyond Income, Beyond Averages, Beyond Today: Inequalities in Human Development in the 21st Century. Human Development Report 2019. http:/hdr.undp.or

78、g/en/content/2019-human-development-index-ranking.8 uNDP. 2018. Poverty Reduction: Our Focus. http:/www.np.undp.org/content/nepal/en/home/poverty-reduction.html.9 Lawyers Association for Human rights of Nepalese Indigenous Peoples (LAHurNIP). 2014. A Study on the Socio-Economic Status of Indigenous

79、Peoples in Nepal. Kathmandu. https:/www.iwgia.org/images/publications/0712_social-economic-status-of-indigenous-peoples-of-nepal.pdf.10 Central Bureau of Statistics. 2011. Nepal Living Standard Survey. https:/cbs.gov.np/nepal-living-standard-survey-2010-11/.11 Nepal rastra Bank, research Department.

80、 2017. Nepals Demographic, Social, Economic and Fiscal Situation (Provincial Profile). Kathmandu. p. 14. https:/www.nrb.org.np/red/publications/study_reports/Study_reports.Figure 1.1: Provincial Poverty Index (%)Note: Details are in Appendix Table A.28.Source: Ministry of Finance. Economic Survey 20

81、18/19. Table 2 (a). p. 13. Kathmandu, Nepal. https:/mof.gov.np/uploads/document/file/compiled%20economic%20Survey%20english%207-25_208.pdf. 12 20 15 16 18 29 34 19 20 48 12 14 30 51 34 29 Province 1 Province 2 Province 3 Province 4 Province 5 Province 6 Province 7 Nepal Population under a

82、bsolute poverty Multi dimensional poverty rate 4OvErALL CONTExTThe population of Nepal is composed of approximately 31% Khas Arya (dominant hill caste), 27%HillJanajati, 8% Tarai Janajati, 13% Dalit, 15% Madhesi, and 4% Muslims.12 Percentages of social groups indicate that Province 3 has the highest

83、 percentage of Hill Adivasi Janajati group (including Newars, the most advantaged ethnic group in Nepal) at 53% followed by Province 1 at 40%. Provinces 7 and 2 have low population of Hill Adivasi Janajati. Presence of Dalits is highest in Province6 at 23% followed by Provinces 2, 4, and 7 with arou

84、nd 17%. Madhesi, Muslims, and “other backward class” (OBC) reside mainly in Province 2.13 Khas Arya is highest in Provinces 6 and 7, followed by Provinces 3 and 4. The literacy rate is highest in Province 3 at 69% with 82% men being literate. The lowest literacy rate is in Province 2 with 41% and wo

85、men having the least literacy at 39% (Figure 1.2).Nepal is heavily dependent on remittances, which amount to as much as 30% of its gross domestic product (GDP). Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, providing a livelihood for almost two-thirds of the population but accounting for only one-thir

86、d of GDP. Industrial activity mainly involves the processing of agricultural products, including pulses, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain.14 Nepal is planning to graduate from the least developed country (LDC) status by 2022 and transform into a middle-income country by 2030.12 Khas Arya, as defi

87、ned by the Constitution of Nepal 2015, refers to the Chhetri, Brahmin, Thakuri, and Sanyasi (Dashnami) community. See footnotes 2, 3, and 4 for definitions of Dalits, Adivasi Janajatis, and Madhesis.13 “OBC” are one caste group of Madhesi people covering more than 35 sub-caste groups, some of whom a

88、re economically well-off, while others are among the poorest in Nepal. Socially, all the OBC groups typically practice gender-based discriminatory practices. They have a federation and have chosen to call themselves “other backward class.” Government documents have accepted the terminology.14 Index

89、Mundi. 2018. Nepal Economy Profile 2018. https:/ 1.2: Percentage of Literate Women and Men by ProvinceNote: Details are in Appendix Table A.1 and A.2 of this document.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 3.4.1 and Table 3.4.2, pp. 545

90、5).78 39 82 86 73 66 67 92 78 94 95 87 92 92 Province 1 Province 2 Province 3 Province 4 Province 5 Province 6 Province 7 Women Men 5GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC OF SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALThe Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursement in fiscal year (Fy) 20172018 reached

91、 $1,623 million, which was 16% higher than the disbursement in Fy20162017. The share of foreign aid in the national budget was about 22% in Fy20172018. The united Kingdom through its Department for International Development (DFID) disbursed the highest amount ($123.9 million) among bilateral develop

92、ment partners followed by the united States Agency for International Development (uSAID). The World Bank Group disbursed the highest amount ($533.5 million) among multilateral development partners, followed by ADB ($291.7 million), the European union ($116.2 million), the united Nations Country Team

93、 ($65.6 million), and the International Fund for Agricultural Development ($15.8million).15From 1966 to 2018, ADB approved a total lending reaching $592 million, and technical assistance at $8.01 million (including $5.31 million in cofinancing) for projects in transport, urban development and water

94、supply, energy, rural roads, agriculture, and natural resources. In partnership with the government and other stakeholders, ADB has helped reduce poverty and raise incomes of subsistence farmers, marginalized women, and socially excluded Dalit and other indigenous communities.16 A total of $727 mill

95、ion (45%) of ODA disbursement in Fy20172018 was through projects directly or indirectly supportive of gender-related goals.17Key Points about Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in NepalGender equality and social inclusion is a top policy priority of government agencies and development partners in

96、NepalThe new constitution, which was promulgated in 2015, is committed to “ending discriminations relating to class, caste, region, language, religion and gender.”18 The 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) called for the commitment of world leaders and 193 countries, including Nepal, toworking

97、 together toward “a just, equitable, tolerant, open, and socially inclusive world in which the needs of the most vulnerable are met,” ensuring that “no one is left behind.”19various plans and programs, such as the three-and five-year plans (including the Approach Paper of the 15th Five-year Plan cov

98、ering Fy20202024), address GESI issues. The 6th Five-year Plan includes gender, while the 10th Three-year Plan identifies social inclusion as a separate pillar. Eight ministries have developed their operational guidelines to mainstream GESI in their sector. National Action Plans on addressing gender

99、-based violence and human rights are in place. Since 2007, the Government of Nepals 15 Ministry of Finance, International Economic Cooperation Coordination Division, Nepal. 2018. Development Cooperation Report. Kathmandu. p. xii.16 ADB. 2018. Asian Development Bank and Nepal: Fact Sheet. Manila. htt

100、ps:/www.adb.org/publications/nepal-fact-sheet.17 Ministry of Finance, International Economic Cooperation Coordination Division, Nepal. 2018. Development Cooperation Report. Kathmandu. p. xiii.18 The Preamble of the Constitution states, “Ending all forms of discrimination and oppression created by th

101、e feudalistic, autocratic, centralized, unitary system of governance, recognizing the multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-cultural and diverse regional characteristics, resolving to build an egalitarian society founded on the proportional inclusive and participatory principles in ord

102、er to ensure economic equality, prosperity and social justice, by eliminating discrimination based on class, caste, region, language, religion and gender and all forms of caste-based untouchability.” The Fundamental rights under right to Equality states, “No discrimination shall be made in the appli

103、cation of general laws on grounds of origin, religion, race, caste, tribe, sex, physical condition, condition of health, marital status, pregnancy, economic condition, language or region, ideology or on similar other grounds. The State shall not discriminate citizens on grounds of origin, religion,

104、race, caste, tribe, sex, economic condition, language, region, ideology or on similar other grounds.” See Government of Nepal. 2015. Constitution of Nepal. Kathmandu.19 united Nations. 2015. Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Sustainable Development Goals. New york

105、(paragraphs 8 and 9).6OvErALL CONTExTgender-responsive budgeting demands all government interventions to be gender marked as directly or indirectly responsive to womens progress. The LGOA also has mandated provisions to address GESI.Political representation of women and excluded groups has significa

106、ntly improved after restructuring of NepalFor the first time in 20 years, nearly 40,000 officials were elected in local, provincial, and federal parliaments. Women made up nearly 41% (14,352) of those elected in the local governments and more than 33% in the state and federal assemblies, which is hi

107、gher than the global average of womens representation in parliaments (24%).20 A high percentage of women (91%) are in the deputy leadership position (deputy mayor and vice chair) of the local governments. Dalit representation in the current House of representatives is 7% compared to 0.48% in 1991. M

108、adhesis and Janajatis have made significant gains in the first ever provincial elections held in 2017, winning seats above or almost at par with their national population shares.21Gender-, caste- and ethnicity-based inequality and violence are still prevalentDespite decades of progress in Nepal, pat

109、riarchal attitudes and stereotypes that perpetrate inequality against women and excluded groups remain entrenched.22 These have resulted in multiple forms of disadvantage against women and excluded groups.Due to gender inequality within the family, women in general across Nepal have a weaker role in

110、 decision-making compared to men, less control over resources, and often have restrictions on their physical movements as a measure to control them. Even among women, differences in position within the family (mother-in-law, daughters, older or younger daughters-in-law) affect roles, responsibilitie

111、s, and decision-making opportunities.23About 22% of women in Nepal (aged 15 to 49) have experienced physical violence since age 15. Thepercentage of ever-married women who have experienced spousal physical, sexual, or emotional violence is 26%. Of the women who have experienced any type of physical

112、or sexual violence, 66% have not sought any help or talked with anyone about resisting or stopping the violence they experience, indicating silence or passiveness on such forms of violence. Approximately 30% women and 23% men agree that wife beating is justified under specific circumstances (if wive

113、s burn the food, argue with their husbands, go out without telling them, neglect the children, and refuse to have sex with them) (Figure1.3).2420 Inter-Parliamentary union. 2017. Women in National Parliaments, 2017. http:/archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm.21 Governance Facility, Nepal and LAHurNIP. 20

114、18. Federal Nepal, The Provinces, Socio-Cultural Profiles of the Seven Provinces. Kathmandu.22 Individuals and groups are excluded or included based on their identity. Among the most common group identities resulting in exclusion are gender, caste, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and disabi

115、lity status. Hence, excluded groups refer to communities of people who are systematically blocked from (or denied full access to) various rights, opportunities, and resources and are significantly less likely to receive the benefits of development investments because of their gender, caste, ethnicit

116、y, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, and disability (World Bank. 2013.Inclusion Matters: The Foundation for Shared Prosperity. Washington, DC. p. 5). The terms excluded and marginalized are used interchangeably in this document. This document differentiates between the “excluded groups”

117、 (those who are historically excluded and have experienced inter-general exclusion) and “vulnerable groups” (those who are temporarily vulnerable due to the prevailing situation). See GESI Working Group, International Development Partners Group Nepal. 2017. A Common GESI Framework. March.23 M. Lama

118、and O. Gurung. 2012. Social Inclusion Survey, Caste, Ethnic and Gender Dimensions of Socio-Economic Development, Governance, and Social Solidarity. Kathmandu: Central Department of Sociology/Anthropology, Tribhuvan university. p. 167.24 Ministry of Health, Nepal. 2016. Nepal Demographic and Health S

119、urvey. Kathmandu. p. 16.7GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC OF SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALBias against the most vulnerable population of Nepal can constrain growth and equitable distribution of the benefits of development interventions. Dalits are restricted on what they can touch, where

120、they can enter, and which sectors they can work in. Language, geographical isolation or remoteness, and lack of education and information limit the Janajatis access to development benefits. The Madhesis experience political, economic, and social marginalization. While Nepal has recognized people of

121、third gender and acknowledges their existence in official state documents by indicating a space for “Others,” the social unacceptance of different sexual orientations remains.25 The bias against sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, and sex characteristics (SOGIESC) that do not conform

122、 with dominant norms marginalizes the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersexual (LGBTI+) community,26 consisting of an estimated 8% to 10% of Nepals population.27 Persons with disability experience stark marginalizationIn Nepal, about 2% (513,321) of the total population (2.18% men and 1.

123、71% women) have disabilities. Theprevalence is highest in the age group of 60 and above. Persons with physical disability are the highest among those with disabilities (36%), followed by people with no or poor vision (18.4%), and those with hearing problems (15%). Mental disabilities are experienced

124、 by 6% of persons with disabilities (PWDs). Women with vision, hearing, and mental disabilities are higher than men with such physical disabilities (footnote 10).25 The term “third gender” is not preferred by the LGBTI+ community who advocate for trans woman or trans man terminology for the transgen

125、der.26 “SOGIESC” refers to general categorizationsall people have a sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, and sex characteristics. “LGBTI+” refers to people who have a marginalized sexual orientation, gender identity, expression, or set of sex characteristics (uNDP LGBTI Inclusion

126、Index 2017).27 uN WOMEN, uNCT. 2017. Nepal Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) Profile for Humanitarian Action and Disaster Risk Reduction. Kathmandu (updated 31 August 2017).Figure 1.3: Attitude Toward Wife Beating (% who agree with at least one specified reason)Note: Detailed data are in A

127、ppendixes Table A.23 and A.24.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Tables 15.11.1 and 15.11.2, pp. 327328).Women Men 27.5 32.6 26.3 23.4 27.7 28.4 34.3 24.0 22.2 21.9 18.4 17.4 33.9 35.3 Province 1 Province 2 Province 3 Province 4 Province

128、5 Province 6 Province 7 8OvErALL CONTExTHouseholds with PWDs are more economically challenged in terms of their ability for and access to well-paid employment. The household is burdened by high costs of caring and living with PWDs, as well as limited PWD-friendly facilities and services within their

129、 communities. Women with disabilities are subject to more vulnerabilities and experience greater marginalization throughout their lifecycle, including barriers to access of services and fulfillment of their rights to health, education, and decent work. Literacy of PWDs is lower than of those without

130、 disabilities (40% PWDs are literate compared to 61% of those without). There are about 35% of children (aged 5 to 10 years) with disabilities who are out of school compared to the 5% without disabilities, with higher percentage of boys attending than girls with disabilities.28According to governmen

131、t statistics, only about 200,000 have received the disability identity card, which enables them to access government support.29 Disability is a cross-cutting issue that can impact people at any point across their lifespan. Its intersectionality with gender, race, ethnicity, indigenous group identity

132、, migrant worker status, and other characteristics can lead to unique and multiple forms of disadvantage.30Despite progress, development indicators are lower for women and excluded groupsDisaggregated data indicates that women and excluded groups have been unable to benefit equally from Nepals devel

133、opment progress.31 The Nepal Demographic Health Survey (NDHS) 2016 found that 33% of women in Nepal are illiterate, in comparison to only 10% men; and that 40% of Tarai women are illiterate or have no formal education, compared to 20% of women in the Hills and 36% in the Mountains. The literacy rate

134、 of women and men 15 years and older is 56%, with 45% women and 72% men being literate. Hill Brahmins have the highest literacy rate (75.64% with almost 90% literatemen) followed by Newars at 72%. Tarai Dalits have the lowest literacy rate at 28% with only 11% women being literate.A high percentage

135、of women of Hill Dalit (66%) and Hill Brahmin (64%) do paid work while only 37% women of “other backward class” and 35% of Tarai Brahmin and Chhetri do so, indicating the conservative social norms of the Tarai which control womens abilities to access opportunities. More women (71%) than men (52%) ar

136、e not paid for the agriculture related work they perform. More than 60% of Hill Chhetri and Dalit women work without receiving any cash remuneration. Due to prevailing gender norms, women continue to undertake a disproportionate level of unpaid care tasks which in turn constrain their choices of pai

137、d work, including type and location of work.Dalits, Adivasi Janajatis (excluding the advantaged category), “other backward class,” and Muslims have consistently shown low education and health indicators, including higher stunting among children and higher vulnerability to multiple communicable disea

138、ses.32 The population with access to 28 united Nations Childrens Fund Nepal. 2017. Disability in Nepal, Taking Stock and Forging: A Way Forward. Kathmandu. https:/www.unicef.org/nepal/reports/disability-nepal.29 G. Budhathoki. 2017. Disability Sensitive Concept of Local Government. Kathmandu. http:/

139、.np/?tag=status-of-disability-in-nepal.30 World Bank. 2017. Including Persons with Disabilities in Water Sector Operations: A Guidance Note. https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/27542/117306-WP-P161461-PuBLIC-Disabilities.pdf?sequence=5&isAllowed=y.31 World Bank. 2018. Reanalysi

140、s of NLSS 2011 and NDHS 2016 data for the GESI Diagnostic Paper. Kathmandu (The data was prepared to inform World Banks country partnership framework).32 Adivasi Janajatis are categorized into five groups based on literacy rate, housing unit, landholding and other economic assets, educational level,

141、 and population size: (i) endangered, (ii) highly marginalized, (iii) marginalized, (iv) disadvantaged, and (v) advanced. See Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities. 2011. Categorization of Adivasi Janajatis According to their Marginalisation. Kathmandu.9GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DI

142、AGNOSTIC OF SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALany toilets in Nepal in 2011 was 56%. There was wide disparity, with 90% Newars and only 11% Madhesis having this access. Piped water supply systems coverage was 52.3%. There was high income disparity as 63% of the richest quintile households and 28% of the poore

143、st had this access (footnote 10).The 2011 census showed that about 83% of the population still resided in rural areas, and the Nepal Living Standard Survey III (NLSS) showed that 76% of households depended on agriculture for livelihood, and 84% of the labor force involved in agriculture are women. T

144、he land holdings of Dalits are small, and landlessness is extreme among Dalits (15% Hill and 44% Madhesi). Of Hill Dalits, 45% are marginal farmers. Access to land, credit, information, representation and participation, and geographical isolation are major issues in access to resources of women and

145、excluded group farmers.There is low representation of women and excluded groups in government servicesGovernment records show low levels of representation of women and excluded groups in public life. In gazetted positions, there are 10% women and in non-gazetted, 17%.33 In Special Class (which is th

146、e highest class among the civil service positions), there are only 3% women. The Chief Secretary, the highest position within the bureaucracy, has always been held by men. representation of Dalits and of other ethnic groups (excluding Newars) is also minimal. Among the 83,000 personnel in Nepals civ

147、il service, only 0.8% are Dalits, a disproportionate figure considering that they make up 13.8% of the national population. Most Dalit employees serve as non-gazetted lower level staff with limited power and authority. Among these Dalit service holders, nearly 90% are Hill Dalits.34 Among Janajatis,

148、 the Newar subgroup are 7.21% of civil servants, which is more than their 5% share in the population. Other Janajati groups collectively constitute about 12% (Tharus are 3%, others 9%) representation in civil service though they are 32% of the population.35High migration levels contribute to labor s

149、hortages, and have both empowering and disempowering effects on womenFrom 2008 to 2017, Nepal issued 3.5 million labor permits to migrant workers, predominantly for travel to Malaysia and nations of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). remittances comprise more than one-quarter (Nrs699 billion $6.56

150、billion) of national GDP which is the fourth-highest proportion in the world in Fy20162017. About 95% of Nepals labor migrants are men and 5% are women (Figure1.4). Women migrants primarily work as general cleaning laborers, factory workers, and restaurant and hotel workers, while men work as securi

151、ty guards, construction workers, and agriculture laborers.36With high male migration, there is a shortage of workers in agricultural fields or in infrastructure projects. Poverty, limited employment opportunities, and lack of employable skills in rural settings are fueling unsafe internal and extern

152、al migration and human trafficking. There is an increasing migration of women from villages to cities84% of women migrated within Nepal. Nearly two-thirds (64%) ofwomen migrated due to marriage, 11% for studies, 10% for work, and 14% to accompany their family.37 33 A gazetted officer is published in

153、 the official gazette by the government upon direct recruitment or by promotion.34 The Kathmandu Post. 2017. Dalits in Civil Service. Kathmandu. http:/ Samabeshi Foundation. 2017. Inclusion Watch. http:/www.samabeshifoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Inclusion-Watch_English.pdf.36 N. Baruahan

154、d N. Arjal. 2018. Nepalese Labor MigrationA Status Report. Kathmandu. Asiafoundation.org/2018/06/06/nepalese-labor-migration-a-status-report/.37 Ministry of Health and Population. 2016. Nepal Demographic Health Survey. Kathmandu.10OvErALL CONTExTWomen going through irregular or illegal channels of m

155、igration are mostly from indigenous groups. Meanwhile, the women who are left in the villages experience greater responsibilities, autonomy in everyday household decision-making, heightened mobility, and exposure to the outside world. As they participated more in agriculture and economic activities,

156、 they became more empowered.38 However, their time poverty and stress levels have also increased. Social norms are more strictly enforced on them limiting their engagement in the community. These have impacted their social mobility and level of participation in different sectoral committees and othe

157、r decision-making forums. Policy CommitmentsNational CommitmentsThe Constitution, the 14th Three-year Plan, and the 15th Five-year Plan have strong commitments for GESI. Eight sectoral ministries have their own GESI guidelines.39 The Civil Service Amendment Act 2014 embraces inclusivity and provides

158、 that 45% of the employees must comprise 33% women, and 27% Adivasi Janajatis, 22% Madhesis, 9% Dalits, 5% PWDs, and 4% from “other backward class.”The LGOA of 2017 incorporated provisions to promote GESI and recognize it as a function of the local government. It stipulates that planning processes s

159、hould be participatory, and projects directly benefiting women and excluded groups should be recognized as those promoting GESI. Also, the Parliament passed the Disability rights Act in 2017 establishing constitutional directives specifically to protect and support PWDs.38 Multidisciplinary Digital

160、Publishing Institute. 2019. Labour Migration in the Middle Hills of Nepal: Consequences on Land Management Strategies. Geneva. https:/ The eight ministries which have approved GESI guidelines for their sectors include: (i) Federal Affairs and General Administration, GESIPolicy, 2010; (ii) urban Deve

161、lopment GESI Operational Guidelines, 2012; (iii) Forest and Soil Conservation GESI Strategy,2010; (iv)Education Consolidated Equity Strategy; (v) Health GESI Operational Guidelines, 2012; (vi) Agriculture GESI Strategy; (vii)IrrigationGESI Guidelines; and (viii) Physical Infrastructure and Transport

162、 GESI Operational Guidelines, 2017.Figure 1.4: Share of Total Labor Migrants by Sex, Fiscal Year 20082009 to Fiscal Year 20162017FemaleMale96.10 96.60 97.10 94.00 93.85 94.40 95.71 95.42 94.74 3.90 3.40 2.90 6.00 6.15 5.60 4.29 4.58 5.26 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/1

163、6 2016/17 Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Labour and Employment. 2018. Labour Migration for Employment: A Status Report for Nepal: 2015/162016/17. Kathmandu. p. 10.11GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC OF SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALunder the Intergovernmental Fiscal Arrangement Ac

164、t of 2017, the Government of Nepal can provide grants to the state and local governments, including a special grant to uplift or develop the class or community discriminated economically, socially, or in any other form.40The Ministry of Women, Children and Senior Citizens (MOWCSC) prioritizes the ec

165、onomic empowerment of women by ensuring their meaningful participation in project processes, and the elimination of gender-based violence and harmful practices. The Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration has issued various model Acts for local governments integrating GESI.41 Thesemod

166、el acts have been used by the local governments to develop their own policies, regulations, and guidelines.International CommitmentsNepal has ratified 23 international human rights instruments that include international conventions, covenants, and declarations on women, such as Convention on the Eli

167、mination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Beijing Platform for Action, uN Security Council resolutions (uNSCr 1325 and 1820), child rights (Convention on the rights of the Child), ethnic minorities or indigenous peoples rights (International Labour Organization 169), elimination of raci

168、al discrimination (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of racial Discrimination), and welfare and rights of PWDs (Convention for the rights of Persons with Disability CrPD). Nepal has also committed to the SDGs.These international treaties and commitments require Nepal to promote legal, econo

169、mic, social, political, civic, and constitutional equality. uNSCr 1325 calls for womens equal participation in the peace process and in all decision-making positions in a post-conflict situation. The International Labour Organization Convention No. 169, endorsed by the government in 2007, promotes t

170、he rights of Janajatis. The CrPD also provides guidelines for ending all discrimination against PWDs. Similarly, many other international agreements, such as International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) on reproductive health, Education for All, and the SDGs have called for Nepals c

171、ommitment toward achieving targets regarding gender equality and womens empowerment (SDG5) and reducing inequalities (SDG10). Thus, Nepal has an enabling policy environment, but the challenge remains in terms of effective implementation and bringing about gender equality and inclusive transformation

172、s.Institutional Structures to Promote Action on Gender Equality and Social Inclusion IssuesThe responsibility to work on GESI is spread over various institutional mechanisms and structures, from the federal to ward levels of the government (Table 1.1). Apart from the state, there are many non-state

173、actors and identity-based organizations working on GESI-related issues at all the three tiers of governmentfederal, provincial, and local. However, they have lesser presence in remote and backward areas. 40 Government of Nepal. 2017. An Act Made for Intergovernmental Fiscal Arrangement. Kathmandu.41

174、 Ministry of Women, Children and Senior Citizens. 2018. Meeting Notes (Joint Secretary, MWCSC, 20 June). Kathmandu. Some of the model acts serve as guidelines for budgeting for programs against child marriage. See also Program Implementation Guidelines for Micro-Enterprise Development for Poverty re

175、duction, regulation for Municipality Work Performance. https:/mowcsc.gov.np/acts-regulations.12OvErALL CONTExTTable 1.1: Mechanisms to Achieve Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in NepallevelagencyresponsibilityFederalMinistry of Women, Children and Senior CitizensEmpower women, children, and seni

176、or citizens, especially those who are economically disadvantaged, socially deprived, or otherwise underserved.Ministry of Federal Affairs and General AdministrationEnhance access of socially and economically disadvantaged groups, region and community to the service and facility delivered.Empower Dal

177、it, indigenous, Madhesi, Muslim, persons with disability, and ultra-poor people through social mobilization.Ensure inclusive development by enhancing peoples participation in decision-making and planning process.Oversee Social Inclusion and Social Security Section and the different commissions.Minis

178、try of Finance, Gender responsive Budgeting CommitteeIssue guidance on gender-responsive budgeting to be followed by different ministries.National Commissions for specific interest groupsFormulate and monitor policies and programs concerning the rights and interests of specific groups: women, Dalits

179、, indigenous nationalities, Madhesis, Muslims, and Tharus.aNational Inclusion CommissionProtect the rights of Khas Arya, Pichardiaka (“backward”) class, PWDs, senior citizens, laborers, peasants, minority and marginalized communities, people of the Karnali, and the indigent class. The National Human

180、 rights Commission, Election Commission, Public Service Commission, National Natural resources and Fiscal Commissionrecognize GESI as a cross-cutting theme in all activities.ProvincialMinistry of Social DevelopmentAddress GESI-related issues and integrate GESI in the formulation, implementation, and

181、 regulation of provincial level plans, rules, standards, policies, workplan, rehabilitation, monitoring and evaluation, gender-responsive budgeting, and gender audit.local level Municipality/rural MunicipalityDevelop and implement programs for the welfare and overall management of PWDs.bSocial Devel

182、opment SectionDesign, formulate and prioritize policy and plans.Implement GESI-responsive activities; social security schemes; data and information management; and operation and management of care and rehabilitation centers for senior citizens, children, and PWDs.GESI = gender equality and social in

183、clusion, PWD = person with disability.a The Tharu people are an ethnic group (a subgroup of Adivasi Janajati) living in the Tarai of South Nepal. b Buddhathoki. 2017. Disability Sensitive Concept of Local Government. http:/.np/?tag=status-of-disability-in-nepal.Sources: Nepal Constitution 2015, Loca

184、l Government Operation Act 2015, Provincial Business Allocation regulation 2018. In A Common GESI Framework. 2017. GESI Working Group of IDPG (updated in 2019).1314Area of collaborationADB projects have supported agricultural credit, irrigation, hill agriculture, crop intensification, and commercial

185、ization of agriculture, and provided modern tools, techniques, and technology to farmers through community-based cooperatives and water users associations (WUAs). ADB has provided broad-based assistance to the government for the agriculture, natural resources, and rural development sector, worth $1,

186、086.59 million, through 176 projects, which is 19% of its cumulative lending, grant, and technical assistance commitments to Nepal.Sector contextAgriculture is the backbone of Nepals economy, providing livelihood for approximately two-thirds of the population. Agriculture is largely based on low-val

187、ue crops and subsistence production, with only about 17% of output traded in markets. About 66% of Nepals total population are employed in agro-based activities. Women are far more likely to be employed in agriculture than men. About 14% women and 34% men are paid in cash in agriculture work but mor

188、e than 71% women and 52% men are not paid at all.1Technology constraints, a dysfunctional marketing chain, lack of product standardization, subsistence and traditional farming, limited knowledge, and inadequate rural infrastructure are among the key challenges in the agriculture sector. The Governme

189、nt of Nepal and its development partners (i.e., USAID, DFID, World Bank, and ADB) have been promoting the value chain approach to increase production, income, and employment of farmers, including women and excluded group farmers.Low availability of agricultural workers has resulted in reduced farmin

190、g.Gender equality and social inclusion considerations relevant to sector planning and outcomesLimited land is available to women and the excluded groups for agriculture due to high landlessness among them and low land ownership.Year-round irrigation facilities are limited to less than 25% of the ara

191、ble land. Irrigation technologies are generally not designed for womens needs. Efficiency of its use is not optimized. Access to credit for the installation of irrigation systems can be very difficult, particularly for the income poor, unless collateral-free loans are available.AGriculture And nAtur

192、Al reSource MAnAGeMent2AGrIcULTUrE AND NATUrAL rESoUrcE MANAGEMENTLower income farmers, including women and excluded group farmers, highly depend on the quality, quantity, and timely availability of production inputs such as seeds, fertilizer, high quality livestock, and forage seeds. Extension serv

193、ices are inadequate for these farmers.Agriculture value chains have limited recognition of gender and social differences.climate change has more adverse impact on women and excluded groups.Home- and community-based barriers constrain women and excluded groups from sectoral benefits and hinder them f

194、rom assuming leadership roles.Good practices and lessonsPolicy directives are important for inclusion of the target group in agriculture related forums and services and should be accompanied with social mobilization.In-depth poverty and social analysis of the sectoral issues enable identification of

195、 appropriate strategies for different social groups.Specific measures to address the barriers of women and excluded groups enhance their access to benefits to production inputs, irrigation facilities, and benefits.climate change investment has positive socioeconomic impacts on women and excluded gro

196、ups.looking forward: issues and opportunities to considerLimited access to production inputs by women and excluded groups.Low levels of meaningful participation among farmers, particularly women of small and marginal landholdings.Lack of understanding of existing gender- and social-based power relat

197、ions for specific crops. Gender and caste/ethnicity differentiated participation and benefits, and disaggregated data for different stages of the value chain.Further resourcesADB tip sheet on addressing barriers experienced by women and excluded group farmers and integrating GESI in the agriculture

198、sector (Table 2.2).DFID = Department for International Development, GESI = gender equality and social inclusion, USAID = United States Agency for International Development.1 Ministry of Health and Population. 2016. Nepal Demographic Health Survey. Kathmandu.15GENDEr EqUALITY AND SocIAL INcLUSIoN DIA

199、GNoSTIc oF SELEcTED SEcTorS IN NEPALArea of CollaborationADB has provided broad-based assistance to the government for the agriculture, natural resources, and rural development sector, worth $1,086.59 million, through 176 projects, which is 19% of its cumulative lending, grant, and technical assista

200、nce commitments to Nepal.2 ADB projects have supported agricultural credit, irrigation, hill agriculture, crop intensification, and commercialization of agriculture, and provided modern tools, techniques, and technology to farmers through community-based cooperatives. Farmers are encouraged to engag

201、e largely on agricultural value chains and high-value crops (e.g., apple, medicinal and aromatic plants, potato and vegetable seeds, off-season vegetables, wool, and cheese). collection centers for the distribution and efficient marketing of the produce and processing of surplus vegetables were esta

202、blished.Sector ContextAgriculture is the backbone of Nepals economy, providing livelihood for approximately two-thirds of the population, contributing one-third of the countrys GDP, and constituting more than half of its exports.3 Women are more likely to be employed in agriculture than men (70% wom

203、en and 30% men; more than 80% women farmers in Provinces 6 and 7). compared with men, women have minimal presence in professional, technical, and managerial positions (Figure 2.1). 2 ADB. 2017. Nepal: By the Numbers. ADB Data Library. https:/data.adb.org/dashboard/nepal-numbers (accessed 25 June 201

204、8). Dataabout projects and funds are cumulative from 19 December 1996 to 31 December 2017 and cover all assistance. 3 J. Kyle and D. resnick. 2016. Nepals 2072 Federal constitution: Implications for the Governance of the Agricultural Sector. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1589. Washington, Dc: International

205、 Food Policy research Institute (IFPrI). http:/ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15738coll2/id/131009.Note: Details are in Appendix Table A.11 and A.12.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Nepal Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu.Figure 2.1: Occupation by Profession and Se

206、x (%)5.3 12.8 3.8 6.4 10.8 13.2 4.8 8.7 4.1 6.4 4.3 5.7 2.5 8.8 72.5 45.7 78.7 26.8 46.7 21.6 70.5 41.3 75.8 31.2 82.1 49.3 83.7 37.4 Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Province 1 Province 2 Province 3 Province 4 Province 5 Province 6 Province 7 Professional/techni

207、cal/managerial Agriculture 16AGrIcULTUrE AND NATUrAL rESoUrcE MANAGEMENTcereal production (primarily rice and wheat, pulses, minor grains, and maize) contributes about 50% of sector GDP, and livestock accounts for an additional 25%. Agriculture is largely based on low-value crops and subsistence pro

208、duction, with only about 17% of outputs being traded in markets.4 This is also because there is no year-round irrigation to enhance agricultural productivity and commercialization in the agriculture sector. About 66% of the total population of Nepal is employed in agro-based activities (footnote 3).

209、 About 14% women and 34% men are paid in cash in agricultural work but more than 71% women and 52% men are not paid at all. comparatively payment is better in non-agricultural work where only 8% women and 3% men are unpaid (Figure 2.2).5Technology constraints, a dysfunctional marketing chain, lack o

210、f product standardization and quality control, lack of knowledge, and insufficient rural infrastructure are key challenges faced by the agriculture sector. The value chain approach is being promoted by the government and development partners like USAID, DFID, the World Bank, and ADB, with the aim to

211、 increase production, income, and employment of farmers, including women and excluded group farmers.Policy CommitmentsThe constitution of Nepal mandated policies on agriculture and land reform to increase production and productivity, commercialization, industrialization, diversification and moderniz

212、ation, and protection and promotion of the rights and interests of farmers. Agriculture is listed as a concurrent function across all tiers (federal, provincial, and local) of the government. The right to Food is recognized as a 4 ADB. 2014. Sector Assessment (Irrigation) Summary. community Managed

213、Irrigated Agriculture Project. http:/adb.org/Documents/rrPs/?id=33209-014-3.5 The Labour Law of 2018 sets the minimum wage at Nrs517. About 73.9% of the population employed in agriculture comprises 84.3% of all working women compared to 62.2% for men. Women, on average, are paid 30% less salary comp

214、ared to men, regardless of profession. See Nepal Labour Market Update. 2017. ILo country office for Nepal. Kathmandu. January.Figure 2.2: Income Levels from Agricultural and Nonagricultural Work (%)13.8 34.2 89.3 95.4 71.4 52.6 7.6 2.6 Women Men Women Men Agricultural work Non-agricultural work Cash

215、 Not Paid Note: Details are in Appendix Table A.8 and A.9 of this document.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 3.10.1 and 3.10.2, p. 66).17GENDEr EqUALITY AND SocIAL INcLUSIoN DIAGNoSTIc oF SELEcTED SEcTorS IN NEPALfundamentalright.

216、The 14th Three-Year Plan (20162017 and 20182019) targeted a 5% annual average agricultural growth rate; and the Government of Nepal has allocated Nrs33.71 billion to this sector for FY20182019.6 A budget of Nrs4.77 billion was allocated as grant to improve seeds and plants of tea, coffee, cardamom,

217、areca nuts, potato, banana, and lemon.7 The budget included plans on increasing export of high-value agricultural products, establishment of agricultural knowledge center, increasing the subsidies on agricultural and livestock production and fertilizers, and use of modern technology for agricultural

218、 production.8 Promotion of competitive agricultural value chains to add value and benefits to smallholder farmers and agro-enterprises are included in the plan. The 15th Five-Year Plan aims to (i)ensure food and nutrition security by increasing agricultural production and productivity; (ii)increase

219、employment and income by developing agro-based industries; and (iii) balance the trade of the agricultural sector by developing commercialization and competitiveness.9The Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS), 20152035 of the then Ministry of Agricultural Development is a 20-year vision with four l

220、eading programs: (i) value chain development of agriculture products, (ii) food and nutrition security, (iii) agriculture service extension, and (iv) agriculture research and technology. The main goals of the ADS are to expand access of farmers to agriculture programs, increase investment, reduce po

221、verty, and improve food sufficiency. Provinces 1, 3, and 4 have more than 50% food security while Province 6 has the lowest food security at 23%. Province 6 also has the highest food insecurity at 18% (Figure 2.3).6 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Finance. 2018. Budget Speech of Fiscal Year 2017201

222、8. http:/mof.gov.np/ uploads/document/file/Budget_Speech_207475_201.pdf.7 The Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project was expanded to cover these grants.8 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Finance. 2018. Budget Speech of Fiscal Year 2017/18. p. 20. http:/mof.gov.np/uploads/documen

223、t/file/Budget_Speech_207475_201.pdf.9 Government of Nepal. 15th Periodic Plan of Nepal. https:/ Details are in Appendix Table A.14.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 2.11. p. 42).Figure 2.3: Household Food Security (%)53

224、43 55 56 48 23 38 20 26 16 17 19 18 18 18 20 20 21 22 42 31 9 11 9 6 10 18 13 Province 1 Province 2 Province 3 Province 4 Province 5 Province 6 Province 7 Food secure Mildly food insecure Moderately food insecure Severely food insecure 18AGrIcULTUrE AND NATUrAL rESoUrcE MANAGEMENTFood insecurity can

225、 lead to disability through poor living conditions, malnutrition, and lack of access to health services. Food insecurity and poverty are driven by lack of education and employment opportunities, inadequate access to social services, and unavailability of assistive technologies.10 Hence the agricultu

226、re sector should be strengthened continually to ensure food security. one of the core outputs of the ADS is to establish mechanisms for gender equality and social and geographic inclusion.11 The government enacted the National Agriculture Policy in 2004 as an umbrella policy in the agriculture secto

227、r to guide all sectoral policies. Also, the National Water Plan (2005) aims to provide irrigation facilities and increase: (i) the area of irrigable land from the current 65% to 97% by 2027, (ii) the year-round irrigation coverage from the current 38% of irrigated area to 67%, and (iii) theaverage c

228、ropping intensity within year-round irrigated areas from the current 140% to 193%.12 Broader policies provide the policy framework for the sector, such as the Agribusiness Promotion Policy (2006); commercial Agriculture Policy (2007); Trade Policy (2009); Irrigation Master Plan (20152035); and subse

229、ctor policies, such as the National Seed Policy (1999), the National Fertilizer Policy (2002), and National Irrigation Policy (2003).Institutional FrameworkWith the government systems shift to federalism, the responsibility for agriculture is mainly with the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Developm

230、ent and irrigation is with the Ministry of Energy, Water resources and Irrigation. The Planning and Development cooperation coordination Division of the Ministry has been mandated to institutionalize the principles of gender mainstreaming and inclusion in the agricultural programs run by the Ministr

231、y and its agencies and projects and function as the point of contact related to gender and social inclusion.13 The Department of Water resources and Irrigation has a mandate to plan, develop, maintain, operate, manage, and monitor different modes of environmentally sustainable and socially acceptabl

232、e irrigation and drainage systems from small to larger scale surface systems and from individual to community groundwater schemes. GESI focal persons are nominated in donor funded projects and the government also has institutional arrangements of GESI focal persons in the Ministry and department lev

233、els.14 However, this position lacks authority and resources to function effectively.At the provincial level, the Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and cooperatives is responsible for the agriculture sector while the Ministry of Infrastructure is in charge of the irrigation sector.Each municip

234、ality and rural municipality has an Economy Development Section with an agriculture, livestock, and cooperatives office. Irrigation is under the infrastructure section. GESI responsibilities are with the Social Section of the Ministry of Social Development at the provincial level and the Social Deve

235、lopment Section at the municipality level (Figure 2.4).10 International Disability Alliance, Food and Agriculture organization. 2018. Disability and Food Security: An Unfinished Policy Agenda. http:/www.internationaldisabilityalliance.org/fao-food-insecurity.11 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agric

236、ulture and Development. 2014. Agriculture Development Strategy. Kathmandu. Activities for output 1.5 on “Mechanisms Established for Gender Equality and Social and Geographic Inclusion in the ADS.”12 ADB. 2012. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors, Proposed GrantNepal:

237、 Water Resources Project Preparatory Facility. Manila.13 Planning and Development cooperation coordination Division. 2020. Job Description. Kathmandu. https:/www.moald.gov.np/department/planning-and-development-cooperation-coordination-division.14 Nepal rastra Bank, research Department. 2017. Nepals

238、 Demographic, Social, Economic and Fiscal Situation (Provincial Profile). Kathmandu. p. 14. https:/www.nrb.org.np/red/publications/study_reports/Study_reports.19GENDEr EqUALITY AND SocIAL INcLUSIoN DIAGNoSTIc oF SELEcTED SEcTorS IN NEPALGender Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to

239、 Sector Planning and OutcomesThere is limited land available to women and excluded groupsLimited land is available to the excluded groups, particularly women, in agriculture due to high landlessness among the excluded groups and low land ownership. In Nepal, only 19% of women have some form of legal

240、 ownership rights over land.15 The majority of Dalits are dependent on land for their survival, but 15% of Hill Dalits and 44% of Madhesi Dalits own no land. of Hill Dalits, 45% are farmers of small and marginal landholdings. Less than 50% of Tarai Janajatis have land of their own, majority of them

241、are renting the land they cultivate. on the account of leasing land, Tharu farmers mention, “Wehave taken land on lease from landlords but can cultivate one crop of potato each year only since the landlords grow their cereals in other months of the year.”16 At the provincial level, Province 7 has th

242、e poorest ownership of house and land among women (Figure 2.5).15 Government of Nepal, National Planning commission Secretariat, central Bureau of Statistics. 2012. National Population and Housing Census 2011 (National Report). Kathmandu.16 Focused group discussion with Tharu farmers. GESI Diagnosti

243、c Study. 2 December 2018. Kailali, Nepal.Figure 2.4: Provincial and Local Level Institutional Framework Social DevelopmentGESI = gender equality and social inclusion.Source: Prepared for study by the author, 2019.Economy Development Section(with agriculture, livestock and cooperative office)Infrastr

244、ucture Section (with irrigation)Social Section (with GESI responsibility)Social Development Section(with GESI responsibility)Ministry of Social developmentMunicipality/rural Municipality20AGrIcULTUrE AND NATUrAL rESoUrcE MANAGEMENTReduced agricultural productivity due to limited irrigation facilitie

245、sIn Nepal, 42% of the cultivated land is irrigated. Year-round irrigation facilities are, however, limited to less than 25% of the arable land, reducing productivity and commercialization of the agriculture sector. The 2011 NLSS report shows that 55% of the households have access to irrigation facil

246、ities, which means that nearly half of the households are dependent on rainfall, which exposes them to climate-related risks. The majority of the large, state-financed irrigation projects have benefited larger-scale farmers. community-managed irrigation systems cater to the needs of smallholders. No

247、nconventional irrigation systems, being increasingly used, can help rural women, the poor, and excluded groups meet their practical needs and provide extra income.17 Multiple factors, such as lack of land ownership and lack of access to information, constrain womens use of nonconventional irrigation

248、 technologies. Women are unable to use and benefit from irrigation technologies when these are not designed based on their needs. For instance, specific design features can significantly help women in irrigating the land they work on. Given that it is typically the womens responsibility to collect d

249、omestic water, their involvement in the design of irrigation systems and their access to small-scale irrigation technologies can both reduce their time spent for collecting water, and make more water available for good hygiene practices.18 For the very poor, access to credit for the installation of

250、irrigation systems can be very difficult unless collateral-free loans are available.1917 An irrigation system that includes one or more than one of the following components is nonconventional: drip, sprinkler, treadle pump (manually by feet operated ground water extracting machine), low-cost water s

251、torage (Thai jars, soil-cement or plastic lined) tanks, rainwater harvesting. See K. Bhattarai. 2010. Nonconventional Irrigation Technology Project: An Introduction. Irrigation Newsletter. 58. pp.45.18 E. Bryan and H. El Didi. 2019. Considering Gender in Irrigation: Technology Adoption for Women Far

252、mers. http:/a4nh.cgiar.org/2019/03/18/considering-gender-in-irrigation-technology-adoption-for-women-farmers/.19 In line with the Government of Nepals initiative to provide subsidized loan, banks in Nepal have announced the launch of loan products which are “collateral free” (e.g., Nepal Merchant Ba

253、nk NMB in its microfinance portfolio under the umbrella of “NMB Interest Subsidy Loans” has offered eight loan types, seven of the loans are collateral free. See Share Sansar. https:/ 2.5: Women Ownership (Alone) of House and Land (%)9.3 6.1 7.3 8.6 5.6 5.7 2.8 12.9 11.9 9.5 11.3 9.4 7.3 3.1 Provinc

254、e 1 Province 2 Province 3 Province 4 Province 5 Province 6 Province 7 Who own a house Who own land Note: Details are in Appendix Table A.16 of this document.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 15.4.1, p. 315).21GENDEr EqUALITY AND So

255、cIAL INcLUSIoN DIAGNoSTIc oF SELEcTED SEcTorS IN NEPALHigh costs of agriculture mechanization and inputs to productionThe poor and excluded group farmers experience difficult access to production inputs such as seeds, fertilizer, high quality livestock, and forage seeds. Many times, they lose their

256、profits due to the nonavailability of quality and affordable production inputs. According to a farmer, “We used seeds which just did not give any producewe had no income that year. We go across the border and purchase fertilizers, even though it is very expensive, as it is not available here. We can

257、not compete with the Indian market prices since our produce becomes expensive with high prices of, among others, seeds, electricity, fertilizers.”20 Access to credit is challenging too.Mechanization is being promoted as a key tool to shift from subsistence-level operations to commercial production.

258、The use of mechanized tools aims to increase production quantity and quality. However, most of the designs are not women- or disabled-friendly. Also, excluded group farmers cannot afford the high costs of the equipment and maintenance. High operational costs and/or weak supporting infrastructure mak

259、es it more difficult for them to avail of the equipment. Without appropriate mechanization, it may be challenging for the agriculture sector to shift from subsistence-level operations to commercial ventures.Inadequate extension services for women and excluded group farmersExtension services allow fa

260、rmers to improve their capacity to adopt new seed varieties and technologies and raise more productive livestock. However, as farmers are often perceived to be male, extension agents are more likely to contact men than women. The lack of legal ownership of land by most women, and the official listin

261、g of men as heads of households further put women in a disadvantaged position. As a result, agricultural extension is not directed for women even in areas where they are traditionally responsible, such as in vegetable growing. Additionally, there are not enough junior technical assistants to provide

262、 effective extension services due to limited human resources, coupled by inadequate capacity building and relatively low incentives to extension agents to reach excluded groups.Before federal restructuring, a district agriculture development officer used to provide agriculture extension services, an

263、d there was just one junior technical assistant in a village development committee covering all wards. After restructuring, within municipalities or rural municipalities, the Economy Development Section (with agriculture, livestock and cooperative office) was established, but with limited human reso

264、urces. At the provincial level, there is the Agriculture Knowledge centre with technical staff members as specialists and agriculture extension officers under the Specialist Service Section and the Training and Extension Service Section. Low availability of agricultural workers has resulted in reduc

265、ed farming and rapid urbanization of cities, which in turn, has created more job opportunities in the urban areas. High migration of men to the urban areas resulted in a decrease of agricultural workers in rural communities. Many households are farming less land. With such labor shortages, subsisten

266、ce farmers are unable to move toward commercialization. Women receiving remittance funds choose to move to urban areas where they can find good schools for the education of their children, leaving the land fallow.20 Meeting with Tharu farmers. GESI Diagnostic Study. December 2019.22AGrIcULTUrE AND N

267、ATUrAL rESoUrcE MANAGEMENTMany farmers with disability make important contributions to the day-to-day survival of their households and communities. Despite this, disability remains an underrepresented agenda within the sector. conventional agricultural policies and programs insufficiently involve PW

268、Ds, thus failing to capitalize on the potential contributions of this group as part of the labor force.21Limited capacity of women and excluded groups to take part in leadership roles There is a mandate for 33% representation of women in different users and self-help groups. However, an environment

269、that enables women and excluded groups to perform their leadership responsibilities is lacking. Lack of respect for women and the marginalized who are in executive positions is common. caste-based marginalization and gender-based violence, including psychological violence, spousal violence, and harm

270、ful traditional practices, are key leadership barriers which are also applicable to the agriculture sector. out-migration of men and youth for employment is resulting in increased responsibility for women left in the villages, leading to an even more demanding workload for them.22 Government and par

271、tner agencies need to create enabling environments for the farmers, particularly women and excluded group farmers, to participate in decision-making.Leaseholders and those who are renting land or working as sharecroppers do not always have the right to make decisions in water users associations (WUA

272、s) in the irrigation sector, as membership of WUA requires land titles.23 An effort to provide temporary membership of sharecroppers and leaseholders to enable them to influence water management has been attempted (through an ADB-financed community-Managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector ProjectAdditio

273、nal Financing).24 The WUA constitution includes a provision for meaningful participation of women, and farmers with small and marginal landholdings. However, implementation is still a challenge as this requires landlords to understand and agree on the provision of temporary membership.21 Internation

274、al Disability Alliance, Food and Agriculture organization. 2018. Disability and Food Security: An Unfinished Policy Agenda. http:/www.internationaldisabilityalliance.org/fao-food-insecurity.22 Women are managing agriculture related tasks that were earlier managed by their husbands along with their c

275、are work, which has increased stress and work burden. See Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. 2019. Labour Migration in the Middle Hills of Nepal: Consequences on Land Management Strategies. Geneva. https:/ Disaggregated data about women as sharecroppers, leaseholders or renting land is

276、not available. Women landowners are 19% in Nepal according to census 2011. Ethnic- and caste-discriminated minorities are high among the landless or marginal land holders. SeeJagannath Adhikari. 2008. Land Reform in Nepal. Problems and Prospects. https:/nepal.actionaid.org/sites/nepal/files/land_ref

277、orm_complete_-_done.pdf.24 The community-Managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector ProjectAdditional Financing (cMIASP-AF) focused on the rehabilitation and improvement of farmer-managed irrigation systems (FMIS) in 35 districts of Provinces 1, 2, and 3, and of five agency managed irrigation systems (AMI

278、S) in Provinces 4, 6, and 7. The project empowered the WUAs to manage the rehabilitation of infrastructure, operate and maintain their systems without government support, and distribute irrigation water equitably and adequately throughout the command area. See cMIASP-AF. 2020. Environmental Monitori

279、ng Report. Kathmandu. https:/www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-documents/33209/33209-013-emr-en_4.pdf.23GENDEr EqUALITY AND SocIAL INcLUSIoN DIAGNoSTIc oF SELEcTED SEcTorS IN NEPALLimited recognition of gender and social differences across the agriculture value chainsThere are few, if any, ful

280、ly functioning value chain systems in the agriculture sector in Nepal. Even those which operate effectively (e.g., tea, fruit and vegetable, milk) suffer from constraints that reduce potential efficiency and weak linkages between component value chains, especially in relation to market information a

281、nd lack of overall coordination.25 In this context, the government and development partners need to explicitly examine GESI issues and proactively integrate components and development strategies which will address constraints of women and excluded groups at each step of the value chain (from product

282、ion to marketing, covering various aspects of post-harvest operations and processing). The impact of value chain interventions on the target group should also be identified. For example, value chain analysis of products by a project in Nepal did not specify explicitly the issues and measures for wom

283、en and the marginalized or include elements to help them achieve a better position in the value chain.26 Attitudinal changes (changes at the household and community levels) require linkages between the production and organization level (addressed via certification) and the household or community lev

284、els, which agriculture value chain processes rarely include. No automatic correlation can be assumed between simple participation in value chain interventions and positive changes in household decision-making or shifts in discriminatory social practices without specific interventions.27 Women spend

285、a significant amount of time in irrigation activities, however, their work remains invisible.28 There is a need for integrating irrigation investment with agriculture-related inputs for women and excluded groups to benefit fully from such investment, recognizing that irrigation is a factor of produc

286、tion, not a product itself.More adverse impact of climate change on women and excluded groupsAgriculture has already been adversely impacted by climate change across all regions, ethnic, and income groups. Women and excluded groups are worst affected. Loss of productivity; crop failure; increase in

287、pest infestation; depletion of water sources; change in rainfall pattern; excessive, deficient, and/or unusual rainfall; river and flash floods; risk of epidemics; and risk of glacial lake outburst, floods, landslides, and hailstorms are some of the negative effects of climate change.29 current clim

288、ate-related programs have failed to target the ultra-poor and the landless or the poor with very little land, who live in remote areas far from service institutions.25 ADB. Agricultural Value chain Analysis for the High Mountain Agribusiness and Livelihood Improvement Project of the Government of Ne

289、pal. Unpublished.26 See footnote 13, pp. 2028. The leverage points identified for the reviewed products did not include specific steps to address constraints of women and the excluded.27 The Danish Institute for International Studies. 2010. Evaluation Study: Gender and Value Chain Development. copen

290、hagen. p. 18.28 ADB. 2012. Irrigation: Sectoral Perspectives on Gender and Social Inclusion. Gender and Social Exclusion Assessment 2011. Sectoral Series: Monograph 5. p. 38.29 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agricultural, Land Management and cooperatives; UNDP. 2018. Impact of Climate Change Finan

291、ce in Agriculture on the Poor. Kathmandu. p. 24.24AGrIcULTUrE AND NATUrAL rESoUrcE MANAGEMENTExistence of home- and community-based barriers and social norms that constrain women and excluded groups from accessing sector benefits Women and excluded groups experience barriers at home and in the commu

292、nity, which constrain them from fully enjoying the benefits of their labor. Social and cultural beliefs affect access to resources and services. Gender-based discriminatory practices restrict the ability of women to be informed about available resources, access, and usage, including making responsib

293、le decisions relating to the income they make from their particular enterprises. Gendered decision-making within households, norms for women to seek permission from family gatekeepers, mobility restrictions, time poverty due to gendered division of labor, economic dependence on men, non-affordabilit

294、y of agriculture inputs, and distance to agriculture centers are some of the constraints women experience.Structural issues such as beliefs about womens abilities and norms about womens work, historical neglect of Dalits, and language- and caste-based bias result in wage differences by Dalits, and a

295、dversely impact the effective participation and inclusion of women in the sector. The inability of the income-poor and small-scale producers to compete with larger producers and low labor availability due to high migration have also been impacting the access of the marginalized to sector benefits.Go

296、od Practices and LessonsPolicy directives are important for inclusion of target groups in agriculture related forums and services and should be accompanied with social mobilizationUnder the High Mountain Agribusiness and Livelihood Improvement Project, an ADB-supported project, there were directives

297、 on womens representation in skills development and committees. These directives enabled women to attend training in agribusiness development. of the people trained, 35% were women (from diverse social backgrounds).Policy reforms mandating 33% womens representation in groups provide the opportunity

298、for women to participate in such groups. This must be coupled with specific measures for efficient planning, budgeting, implementation, and monitoring to ensure womens meaningful participation in agriculture and irrigation sector projects. Effective and targeted social mobilization, consultation, an

299、d capacity development can foster meaningful participation of women in decision-making. To get involved in sector activities and decision-making processes effectively, women and excluded groups need confidence building and incentives through training and leadership opportunities (Box 2.1).3030 ADB.

300、2010. Gender Equality Results Case Studies: Nepal. Manila. 25GENDEr EqUALITY AND SocIAL INcLUSIoN DIAGNoSTIc oF SELEcTED SEcTorS IN NEPALIn-depth poverty and social analysis enable a project to identify appropriate strategies for different social groupsHariyo Ban II (funded by USAID and implemented

301、by a consortium including cArE) conducted the study Underlying Causes of Poverty Analysis (UcPA) as a main approach for generating data.31 The study used participatory tools such as (i) social and resource mapping; (ii) power mapping; (iii) dependency analysis; (iv) gender roles, socialization/women

302、 mobility analysis; (v) actors and institution analysis; and (vi) upstream and downstream relationship analysis. It identified poverty pockets, settlements with high concentration of Dalits, and indigenous ethnic groups and other excluded groups. community Learning and Action centers (cLAcs) were id

303、entified as a good practice for organizing and empowering women and excluded groups; building womens knowledge, confidence, and skills to participate in groups; developing more sustainable livelihood opportunities for poor women; improving governance of community groups; and facilitating collective

304、action against gender violence.3231 UcPA consists of different participatory tools and methods to identify locally specific causes of poverty and pathways to address these. The process not only generates data but more importantly explores social structures and forms of discrimination (around economi

305、c class, caste, and gender); access to public resources; power relations; forms of exploitation between different economic and social groups within the location; and larger issues around political processes, governance, and culture of violence at different levels. See B. Bode. 2009. Underlying Cause

306、s of Poverty Analysis and Contributions Towards a Program Approach. Kathmandu: care Nepal.32 cLAcs are like a regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering community Technique (rEFLEcT) circle, a forum where the excluded groups are brought together to identify, analyze, and take actions on issues

307、 that directly affect them. rEFLEcT/cLAcs are found successful in organizing and empowering women and excluded groups for collective action against different forms of discrimination. See cArE Nepal. 2017. Study Report, Social Analysis Identification of Marginalized Segments of the Society and Underl

308、ying Causes of Marginalization in Hariyo Ban II Working Areas. Kathmandu.Box 2.1: Organizing and Mobilizing Women and Excluded GroupsVillage-level cooperatives empower women by encouraging them to form womens groups and receive training in small-scale productionmaking tomato paste, pickles, chips, a

309、nd bamboo handicrafts. “Myheart used to pound whenever anyone from outside came to talk to me, but I am confident now,” says cooperative member radhika Ghimire. She said she learned more about seasonal farming after joining the cooperative. “I plant two to three cycles of crops and this gives me a g

310、ood income. I am no longer dependent on my husband. In fact, I give him money sometimes when he needs it, and I am happy to be paying my childrens school fees.” The group practices savings techniques for their new incomes. “We have individual savings and group savings. We have each started saving Nr

311、s100 ($1.16) a month,” says Deuka Uprety, member of the cooperative. “We plan to engage in productive activities by involving more women with the money collected.” Uprety, who is single, says, “I have a home now and savings for rainy days. With the good income I make from farming, I can afford a bet

312、ter living and food. My health has improved, and I can work more.” She adds that now, women earn more; they are also more confident to participate in other activities such as village cultural festivals. “We recently built a community hall for our (womens group) meetings and events,” she says. “We or

313、ganize prayers and singing on special festival days, which is very healing.”Source: ADB. 2013. Nepal Farming and Agriculture. https:/www.adb.org/results/nepal-farming-and-agriculture.26AGrIcULTUrE AND NATUrAL rESoUrcE MANAGEMENTSpecific measures to address the barriers of women and excluded groups e

314、nhance their access to benefitsVarious projects have adopted targeted measures to ensure access of women and excluded groups to project benefits. This has enabled the target group to deal with their barriers and access resources and services (Box 2.2).The raising Income of Small and Medium Farmers P

315、roject (rISMFP, 20112019), an ADB project extended assistance to existing and new farmer groups. These were predominantly women members and members from excluded groups in districts with very low human development indices. Excluded groups, women, and farmers with disability were given technical supp

316、ort on seeds storing, honey production, and lentils production. rISMFP provided post-harvest enterprises with high value crops and agribusiness training programs, supplier agreements, and support for preparing business plans and subproject proposals. The rISMFP helped develop and disseminate agricul

317、ture market information and build market chains which link buyers to farmer cooperatives, and cooperatives to existing farmer groups with supporting production plans. community Agricultural Service centers and Agricultural resource centers were strengthened to respond to the differing needs and cons

318、traints experienced by excluded groups and women and help widen the available opportunities for them.Box 2.2: Targeted Support for Improved Livelihood Security through AgricultureThe Agriculture Food Security Support Program (AFSP) is an example of effective integration of agricultural development w

319、ith public health, food security, and nutrition. It has been very successful in reaching out to the most excluded households and in focusing on women. Its key focus on supporting farmer field school groups proved to be an effective approach in mobilizing community participation. It has brought about

320、 positive change in terms of crop and livestock development and promoting nutrition and supporting livelihoods security through agriculture. The AFSP successfully targeted and reached women as a priority throughout most activities and contributed to their empowerment. Women farmers benefited directl

321、y from nutrition and health education; they received support and equipment to reduce their workload, and new technologies and technical assistance to grow vegetables and develop livestock livelihoods (poultry, eggs, goats). Womens workload was substantially reduced because of equipment such as corn

322、sellers, seed grading machines, processing mills, and improved cooking stoves. Before the project, it took women several hours to travel to a mill to get their grains processed and a greater amount of time to collect fuel/wood. The mother and child nutrition and health education entry point through

323、Female community Health Volunteers, together with the support to agriculture and livestock activities, has proven very effective in mobilizing women. Aside from providing benefits through AFSP activities, the project has also brought about positive economic, social, and political changes in the comm

324、unities. For example, women started group saving and organized themselves to apply for AFSP grants. With the project help, women were able to open bank accounts in their names. In all-women groups and mixed farmer field school groups, women have held leadership positions.Source: World Bank. 2018. Ne

325、pal Agriculture and Food Security Project: Implementation Completion and Results Report. Kathmandu.27GENDEr EqUALITY AND SocIAL INcLUSIoN DIAGNoSTIc oF SELEcTED SEcTorS IN NEPALClimate change investment has positive socioeconomic impacts on the poor and vulnerable climate-related investments in agri

326、culture have increased productivity of cereal crops. They have developed farmers resilience by supporting multiple cropping and use of drought- and flood-resilient crop varieties. The investments have also helped improve irrigation facilities and promoted the use of organic fertilizer and tunnel far

327、ming.33 Furthermore, it is important to create a platform that will bring together technical consultants, researchers, nongovernment organizations (NGos), and practitioners to share innovative agricultural practices. The platform is also an opportunity for such stakeholders to identify key areas for

328、 collaboration around specific themes such as improved climate services, meteorological and extension services, enhanced adaptive capacity, and vulnerable peoples resilience to external shocks (Box 2.3).34Looking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to ConsiderThis section highlights lessons that merit

329、 consideration by ADB in sector and project analyses and in discussions with government counterparts.Increase access of women and excluded groups to production inputs To increase productivity and graduate the excluded groups, particularly women, from subsistence farming, give them more inputs such a

330、s access to credit, machinery, and technology; new crop varieties; improved techniques, approaches, and methods of protecting crops; and greater access to irrigation and agricultural lands (Table 2.1).33 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agricultural, Land Management and cooperatives; UNDP. 2018. Imp

331、act of Climate Change Finance inAgriculture on the Poor: An Executive Summary. Kathmandu.34 P. Kristjanson. 2014. Gender Sensitive Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices. FAo/MIccA online Learning Event. http:/ 2.3: Gender and Climate Smart Agricultural PracticesBelow are examples of innovative approa

332、ches for climate smart agricultural practices. New information and communication technologies involving communication-based partners and approaches for achieving scale include:farm reality TV-show targeting and informing millions of women, men, and youths on climate smart agricultural technologies;t

333、esting mobile-phone-based equitable agriculture advisory services;improved climate and agriculture information services targeted at women; andparticipatory farmer-led videos giving farmers a chance to share their perceptions, knowledge, and adaptation strategies for a changing climate.Source: P. Kri

334、stjanson. 2014. Gender Sensitive Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices. FAo/MIccA online Learning Event. http:/ AND NATUrAL rESoUrcE MANAGEMENTTable 2.1: Selected Measures to Address Production Input Constraints of Women and Excluded GroupsAccess to landFederal, provincial, and local governments shou

335、ld formulate land-use policy with specific provisions for women and excluded group farmers to improve their access to land. A policy to encourage entitlement of land in womens names should be promoted to improve the status of women. A system of long-term tenancy of government land to women and farme

336、rs with marginal landholdings for cultivation purposes would also support their regular access to land. SeedsA regular supply of seeds to excluded group farmers, including women farmers, through certified seed suppliers is required so that there is timely availability of good quality seeds for them.

337、 Dissemination of localized information about improved seed varieties, suppliers, and price will make them better informed and seek better quality seeds. Womens traditional knowledge of seeds and community seed banks must be promoted for potential replication.FertilizerFor regular supply of good qua

338、lity chemical fertilizers, targeted supply with subsidies for income poor and excluded group farmers, including women, is required. Adequate supply and use of organic fertilizers should be promoted. Training and information regarding soil testing and appropriate mix of chemical fertilizers would enh

339、ance the skills and knowledge of the target group. There must be increased access to information on fertilizers and fertilizer outlets among excluded group farmers, including women.Extension servicesAlternative methods need to be adopted for extension services to farmers, particularly women, and rem

340、ote communities. Information should be disseminated in local languages and at appropriate times of the day. Adiverse group of leader farmers and agro-vet workers need to be trained and authorized to work as extension agents.Irrigation facilitiesWomen and farmers with marginal holdings should be enco

341、uraged to use small holder irrigation technologies, such as sprinkler, treadle pump, rainwater harvesting, and drip. Subsidized electricity for use of pumps for irrigation would be helpful in addressing gender and income-based barriers.Access to credit or financeA system to provide collateral free l

342、oans to excluded group farmers, particularly women, and expansion of formal financial institutions (cooperatives, banks) in rural locations would increase their access to finance. Loan processing systems need to be simple and understood by the semi-literate or illiterate. Women and excluded group fa

343、rmers need to be informed about loans and provided with technical assistance for preparing business proposals and loan applications. Access to marketInvest in strengthening the bargaining power of women and excluded group farmers to deal with market actors. Promote and subsidize establishment and fu

344、nctioning of collection and market centers. Work with families and/or communities to improve mobility of women and enable Dalits to use such centers. Provide improved market information to them.LivestockGive women and excluded group farmers better access to quality livestock through targeted distrib

345、ution of improved animal breed, expansion of animal exchange programs, loan fund and targeted loan schemes, training for better livestock management practices, and increased coverage of agro-vet services. To address barriers in marketing livestock productsespecially by gender- and caste-based onesgr

346、oup selling to private and public institutional buyers should be promoted along with advocacy campaigns with family and community gate keepers. Source: Human resource Development centre. 2014. Draft Framework to Identify Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Indicators for Agriculture Programming. Pa

347、per submitted to South Asia Social Development Unit, World Bank. Kathmandu.Enable meaningful participation of women and excluded group farmersThe ability of women, Dalit, farmers with disability, and farmers with marginal landholdings to influence decisions in groups, cooperatives, and marketing net

348、works must be strengthened. Social mobilization for empowerment and shifts in discriminatory practices are necessary, otherwise the excluded will not be able to access and use the production inputs equitably. The income poor are very rarely organized. This results in their low voice to claim rights,

349、 and the potential socioeconomic impacts of different schemes are very limited for them. Mobilization combined with information dissemination 29GENDEr EqUALITY AND SocIAL INcLUSIoN DIAGNoSTIc oF SELEcTED SEcTorS IN NEPALand community education can be extremely effective in building the voice of wome

350、n and excluded groups and strengthen their capacity to influence decisions. Policy frameworks are necessary to ensure participation of target groups in marketing networks and channels. The local and indigenous knowledge and practices of different communities, their cultural practices, beliefs, and i

351、deologies need to be understood to avoid reinforcing inequities. A space for the excluded groups to share their experiences and influence decisions should be created.Integrate gender equality and social inclusion across the agriculture value chain The primary mechanisms for enhancing value chain per

352、formances are by reducing costs, making products uniquely valuable for consumers, using appropriate technology, and enhancing collaboration between stakeholder organizations. In each step, GESI aspects need to be analyzed, identified, and addressed.35 The following may be considered: Gain an accurat

353、e understanding of existing gender and social-based power relations for specific crops. Labor allocation, returns, and ownership along the chain can be determined using the following information: (i) gender and caste or ethnicity differentiated participation and benefits, and (ii) disaggregated data

354、 for different stages of the value chain regarding who has access to different resources, who puts in the labor, and who has the authority to decide. qualitative and quantitative information should be collected and analyzed to understand the various stages of the value chain. Assess structural and i

355、nstitutional barriers based on gender and social roles and norms that limit access to resources and opportunities along the value chain. Both structural barriers (e.g., mobility restriction, gender biased work division, and gender- and caste-based violence) and technical barriers (e.g., limited awar

356、eness and skills regarding better quality cropping, use of fertilizers, and storage of produce) need to be addressed through planned interventions, differentiating between the issues experienced by different groups of people (e.g., women, Dalits, and PWDs). Provide interventions that can strengthen

357、livelihood and voice empowerment of women and excluded groups and contribute in the reduction of discriminatory practices. Strategic and market-driven solutions with transformative potential should be budgeted and implemented. Monitoring and evaluation systems to measure outcomes, such as proportion

358、 of increased sales and yields of women and excluded group farmers, should be used to identify successes and areas of improvement (Table 2.2) (footnote 34).35 USAID. 2010. A Guide to Integrating Gender into Agricultural Value Chains. Washington Dc. p. 4. https:/www.fsnnetwork.org/sites/default/files

359、/gender_agriculture_value_chain_guide.pdf.30AGrIcULTUrE AND NATUrAL rESoUrcE MANAGEMENTTable 2.2: Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Perspectives in the Agriculture SectorBarriersActions to Address the BarriersLimited access to production inputs (seeds, fertilizers)Increas

360、e seed and fertilizer quality awareness interventions for women and excluded group farmers. Strengthen capacity of women and excluded group farmers to collect, grow, and store seeds. Manage supply of seeds and fertilizers. Increase awareness about soil tests to determine the quality of soil and type

361、 of seeds farmers need to buy and plant to ensure optimal and efficient use of agricultural land.Limited availability of irrigated landreview existing land policies and push for reforms that will allow long-term tenancy systems on government land for women and excluded group farmers. Mobilize commun

362、ity-based irrigation systems toward improved access and efficient use of irrigated facilities.Access to employment, finance, and creditSupport the creation of inclusive employment and income generation opportunities in agro-food value chains. Mobilize women farmers savings groups. Expand formal fina

363、ncial institutions (cooperatives, banks) in rural locations; disseminate information about the availability of credits and loans.Inadequate extension servicesProvide incentives for extension agents to serve target communities. Enhance agricultural extension services to address the training needs of

364、farmers with disabilities. conduct training of trainers with womens groups so they can roll-out the services to other self-help groups in their community.Low agency to make service providers accountable for good quality servicesEstablish guidelines or procedures for information, consultation, and gr

365、ievance resolution to allow excluded groups to make their voices heard and ensure adequate attention and support for their needs, such as regular supply of seeds and fertilizers. Strengthen the capacities of self-help groups to voice their rights and access resources. Promote the full participation

366、of person with disabilities in decision-making processes around agriculture and irrigation.Inadequate gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) mainstreaming across value chainsconduct a GESI analysis of division of labor, access to resources, and decision-making authority along the value chain. P

367、rovide women, farmers with marginal landholdings, and farmers with disability with agro-technical, entrepreneurial, and business management skills to expand their livelihoods. Upgrade agricultural technologies to meet the specific requirements of workers with disability.Adverse impact of climate cha

368、nge Assess impacts, coping strategies, and capacities; and develop creative interventions using information and communication technologies.Discriminatory gender and social norms constraining women and excluded groups from accessing sector resources and opportunitiesPromote social marketing and gende

369、r equality; womens empowerment; and social inclusion awareness raising for women, their families, and communities to reduce gender-related discriminatory practices. conduct exposure visits, interactive discussions, and demonstration.Limited transformative elements in project design, design and monit

370、oring framework, and GESI action plansFormulate results in project plans and log frames with the aim to improve assets, capabilities, and voice of women and excluded groups. They must address formal and informal practices that are inequitable and discriminatory and aim to transform existing structur

371、al frameworks that disadvantage women and/or excluded groups.Source: Table prepared for this study, 2019.3132Area of collaborationADB has been a leading partner in Nepals power sector and its support is focused on on-grid and off-grid projects, including generation, transmission, and distribution pr

372、ojects. ADB also works on increasing energy access, rehabilitating small hydropower plants, and supporting other clean energy interventions. ADB has provided loans, grants, and technical assistance through 69projects in the energy sector amounting to 19% of its investments in Nepal from 1966 to 2018

373、.Sector contextScattered settlements and complex topography make the provision of electricity through the national grid challenging. The main sources of energy are biomass fuels, oil products, coal, and hydropower. Majority of Nepals population live in rural areas, where access to energy facilities

374、is minimal and energy consumption pattern is dominated by traditional biomass fuels. Indoor air pollution thus exists.Hydropower has the largest development potential but less than 2% of the total commercially exploitable generation potential has been exploited. Commercial use of electricity is not

375、commonly practiced since energy supply has been insufficient even for household consumption.Gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) considerations relevant to sector planning and outcomesLimited access to finance, appliances, information, training, and education constrain women and excluded grou

376、ps from accessing energy sources.Decision-making regarding energy products and services is usually with men and advantaged groups and dictated by social norms.Lack of access to modern energy sources increases work burden and susceptibility to illnesses of women and excluded groups, especially lower

377、income people. Challenges constrain women and excluded group entrepreneurs from productive end use of energy.There is limited integration of GESI dimensions in all elements of energy planning and policymaking.Institutional capacity of the sector has to be strengthened to work on GESI issues.EnErGy3E

378、NErGyGood practices and lessonsSpecific approaches to increase access of local people, especially women and excluded groups are necessary.Technologies, which benefit women and excluded groups, can have multiple benefits.It is important to engender utilities as women and excluded groups face structur

379、al barriers to participation in the power sector, including underrepresentation in employment, especially in technical, higher-paying positions and leadership roles. Looking forward: Issues and opportunities to considerIncrease access to modern forms of energy for women and excluded groups.Mainstrea

380、m GESI in energy projects and in different phases of electricity generation, transmission, and distribution.Ensure participation of women and excluded groups in energy plans, programs, and decision-making.Promote productive end use of energy by women and excluded groups.Further resourcesADB tip shee

381、t on addressing barriers experienced by women and excluded groups and on integrating GESI in the energy sector (Table 3.2).GESI = gender equality and social inclusion.Area of CollaborationADB has provided assistance to Nepals energy sector through 69 projects amounting to $1,213.98million which is 1

382、9.19% of its lending, grant, and technical assistance commitments to Nepal (asof31December 2018).1 ADB has been the leading partner2 in Nepals power sector, focusing particularly on on-grid support which has amounted to $521 million.3 On-grid and off-grid ADB funded projects, including generation, t

383、ransmission, and distribution, such as in Kaligandaki have contributed immensely to the energy sector in Nepal. The projects have helped increase energy access and rehabilitate small hydropower plants; supported clean-energy interventions, such as solar street lighting and energy-efficient lighting;

384、 strengthened energy sector institutions; and assisted rural electrification projects with the participation of local communities. 1 ADB. 2018. Cumulative Lending, Grant, and Technical Assistance Commitments. ADB Data Library. https:/data.adb.org/dataset/cumulative-lending-grant-and-technical-assist

385、ance-commitments.2 World Bank is also supporting five big projects worth $341.9 million. See World Bank. 2018. Country Overview. http:/www.worldbank.org/en/country/nepal/overview#2.3 ADB. 2017. Nepal Energy Sector Assessment, Strategy and Road Map. Manila. 33GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAG

386、NOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALSector ContextIn Nepal, the scattered settlement and complex topography make it challenging to provide electricity through the national grid alone. According to 2011 census, 81% of Nepals total population of 26,494,504lived in rural areas, where access to energy fa

387、cilities is minimal and energy consumption pattern is dominated by traditional biomass fuels such as fuelwood, agricultural residues, and animal waste. The main sources of energy in Nepal are biomass fuels, oil products, coal, and hydropower. Among these, hydropower has the largest development poten

388、tial of 83,000 megawatts (MW) and commercially exploitable hydropower generating potential of about 42,000 MW (footnote 3). However, by the end of fiscal year (fy) 2016, existing hydropower stations had a total installed capacity of only 802.4 MW, or less than 2% of the total commercially exploitabl

389、e generation potential (figure3.1) (footnote 3).The Annual Household Survey 2016 reports that electricity has become the primary source of lighting for Nepals householdsas 76.3% of the households are using electricity, 93.1% in urban areas and 64.9% in rural areas. for the country as a whole, fuelwo

390、od is the predominant energy carrier, accounting for more than 75% of consumption. In rural Nepal, more than 92% of total cooking energy consumed is traditional biomass, of which fuelwood constitutes 75%. In 2016, in urban areas, 53.3% households were using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and 37.9% we

391、re using fuelwood for cooking.4 renewable energy is being promoted by the government, and 12% of the population have access to electricity through renewable energy sources.5 use of solar energy, mostly by rural households, has also increased in 20142015 from 10.3% to 13.4% households. Solar energy i

392、s used by 20.8% rural and 2.5% urban households, and by 20.7% of the poorest quintile (footnote 4).4 Central Bureau of Statistics. 2016. Annual Household Survey (Major Findings), 2015/16. Kathmandu.5 ADB. 2015. Gender Review of National Energy Policies and Programs in Nepal. Manila. https:/www.energ

393、ia.org/cm2/wp-content/ uploads/2016/05/Gender-review-NEPAL.pdf.83,000 42,000 802.4 Development potential Commercially exploitable Existing capacity Figure 3.1: Hydropower Potential in Nepal (megawatt)Source: ADB. 2017. Nepal Energy Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map. Manila.34ENErGyThe govern

394、ment and its development partners have been providing financial and technical support to increase energy access in rural areas both for household consumption and commercial use. Around 30 MW of electricity has been generated from mini- and micro-hydro schemes. More than 1.5million households have be

395、nefited from different renewable energy sources for cooking, lighting, and productive use but still Nepals average annual per capita electricity consumption is about 163 kilowatt-hours (kWh), one of the lowest consumptions in South Asia.6 Despite its vast energy potential, Nepal suffers from a sever

396、e energy supply crisis, especially in the rural areas. Commercial use of electricity is not commonly practiced since energy supply has been insufficient even for household consumption.Policy FrameworkSDG 7 aims to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. TheCons

397、titution of Nepal directs the government to “ensure reliable supply of energy in an affordable and easy manner, and make proper use of energy, for the fulfillment of the basic needs of citizens, by generating and developing renewable energy.” The Government of Nepal through its five- and three-year

398、plans has been attempting to promote both on-grid and renewable energy, and has formulated several policy instruments for the energy sector.7 While GESI has not been adequately integrated in all policies, the policies after 2006 have been more sensitive to GESI issues (Table 3.1). 6 Eglitis-media. 2

399、018. World-data.info. https:/www.worlddata.info/asia/nepal/energy-consumption.php.7 Some key policies impacting the sector include The Hydropower Development Policy 2001; Hydropower Studies Guidelines, Department of Electricity Development, December 2003; Electricity Act 1992; Electricity regulation

400、s 1993; Water resource Act1992; Water resources rules 1993; renewable (rural) Energy Policy 2006; Subsidy Policy for renewal Energy 2009; rural Energy Subsidy Delivery Mechanism 2009 and 2013; LandreformsAct (SixthAmendmentBill), (2071) 20142015; Land Acquisition Act 1977; NationalWater Plan 2005; E

401、nvironment Protection Act 1997; and Environment Protection rules 1997.35GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALTable 3.1: Potential for Addressing Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Issues inSelected Energy-Related Policies and/or Legislations Recognition of Ex

402、isting Conditionsrecognition of Existing ConditionsProcedural/Implementation ConsiderationsEnhancement of Impacts/BenefitsDifferential needs, capacities, and usageExisting societal inequitiesBarriers to participation and decision-makingImprove access and choicesEnsure affordabilityEnhance participat

403、ionEnhance voice and agencyWelfareEfficiencyEmpowermentWater resource Act 1992/rules 1993 Electricity Act 1992/regulations 1993 National Environment Impact Assessment Guidelines, 1993 Environment Protection Act 1997/rules 1997 Local Self Governance Act, 1999 Hydropower Development Policy, 2001 Commu

404、nity Electricity Distribution By-Laws 2003 rural Energy Policy, 2006 renewable Energy Subsidy Delivery Mechanism, 2016renewable Energy Subsidy Policy, 2016 Land Acquisition, rehabilitation, and resettlement Policy for Development Projects, 2015 GESI Policy of AEPC = Present to a large extent, = Pres

405、ent partially but not substantial enough, = Almost or fully absent AEPC = Alternative Energy Promotion Centre; GESI = gender equality and social inclusion.Source: ADB. 2017. Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment of the Energy Sector: Enhancing Social Sustainability of Energy Development in

406、 Nepal. Manila.The renewable Energy Subsidy Policy 2016 (an updated version of 2013) provides subsidies for micro-hydropower, improved water mill, solar energy (home systems, mini-grids, grid connections), biogas, biomass energy, wind energy, and windsolar hybrids to encourage households of the poor

407、, Dalits, and other excluded groups to use renewable energy. The subsidy amount differs according to technology and the region, with higher subsidy being offered for remote areas. The subsidy covers 40% of the total cost: 30% comes from credit and around 30% from private sector investment and/or com

408、munity or households contribution (cash or in kind). It may vary and covers up to 80% depending on the technology.An important policy that impacts the sector is the Land Acquisition, resettlement and rehabilitation Policy 2015. It lays out consultations, programs, and preferential employment procedu

409、res for project-affected families belonging to groups such as Dalits, Adivasi Janajatis, and single women. rural 36ENErGyelectrification became a priority subsector from the Tenth Plan (20022007) onwards, which sets concrete goals for rural electrification: 55% of all households were to have electri

410、city by the end of plan period (though this was not achieved). rural electrification requires land acquisitions to be handled sensitively, to address gender issues, and ensure that compensation funds can be accessed by both women and men.Institutional ArrangementsThe Ministry of Energy, Water resour

411、ces and Irrigation governs the development and implementation of energy, including its conservation, regulation, and utilization. It develops and operates electricity projects including hydropower projects. In 2018, the portfolio of the ministry was enlarged with the addition of water resources and

412、irrigation. The Department of Electricity Development is responsible in developing and promoting the electricity sector. The Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) is responsible for the generation, transmission, and distribution of electric power. The Environment and Social Studies Department of NEA is

413、responsible for social and environmental issues but not specifically for GESI. The Water and Energy Commission formulates policies and strategies for the water resources and energy sector and has a secretariat. The Alternative Energy Promotion Centre aims to promote the use of alternative and/or ren

414、ewable energy technology and has a GESI mainstreaming policy and a functional GESI team. Since the federal restructuring, the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport (MOPIT) has assumed the responsibility for energy issues at both provincial and municipal levels. The responsibility for GES

415、I issues lies with the Ministry of Social Development at the provincial level, and the social development section at the municipal and rural municipal levels.Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and OutcomesLimited access to appliances, information, trainin

416、g, and education constrain women and excluded groups in accessing energy sourcesWomen and excluded groups are often hindered from using energy even when the physical infrastructure is available. The lack of finance; limited availability of affordable appliances; and inadequate information, training

417、or education inhibit their access to electricity.8 for example, obtaining subsidized electricity connection or LPG registration may require a bank account and extensive paperwork, which places women and excluded groups at a disadvantage. The ability to pay for energy technologies or make cash contri

418、butions and payments affects those with limited assets and access to credit. The poor require wage labor employment for their daily survival and hence it is challenging for them to provide voluntary labor. Additionally, if the households are at a distance, installation costs increase, which income-p

419、oor families are unable to afford. for women, dependence on male family members or technicians, for even small repairs of energy technologies, restricts their control over such technologies.9 Information is often accessible only to local leaders. When communities are informed, 8 S. Dutta et al. 2017

420、. Energy Access and Gender Getting the Right Balance. Washington DC. p. 3. http:/documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/4630730/pdf/115066-BrI-P148200-PuBLIC-fINALSEArSfGenderweb.pdf. World Bank/ENErGIA/International Network on Gender and Sustainable Energy.9 I. Mahat. 2006. Gender and rural

421、Energy Technologies: Empowerment PerspectiveA Case Study of Nepal. Canadian Journal of Development Studies. Ottawa: university of Ottawa. p. 540.37GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALvarious processes need to be followed, and the necessary funds need to be rai

422、sed for the project. Lack of complete information and inability to access processes to make service providers accountable render the target group vulnerable. Attesting to this issue, community people say, “We paid the earlier team of the cooperative five years ago, but electricity did not come. We d

423、id not know how to bring the contractor back. A new committee is now in place and trying to bring electricity to the area.”10Decision-making regarding energy products and services is usually with men and advantaged groups and dictated by social normsHousehold heads (usually men in Nepal except in wo

424、men headed households) and prevailing gender norms generally determine what energy sources will be used, when and by whom, and within what budget.11 Energy products and services are typically not designed in collaboration with the end user; hence the experiences of women and the excluded groups do n

425、ot influence the design of the products, decreasing the likelihood of their being accepted and used by the target group. Women and excluded groups are particularly disadvantaged in situations of shortages and unavailability of electricity for social uses such as drinking water, lighting for educatio

426、n, media for information, and refrigeration for health clinics, as well as for productive uses such as water pumping for irrigation, agro-processing, and income-generating applications. The ownership of renewable energy technologies is usually with advantaged men, as women and excluded groups lack f

427、inancial resources, information, and training, and they are mostly not well represented in decision making at all levels.In households that can afford rice cookers and mixer and/or grinders, women do have a say in their purchase as these appliances support their traditional responsibility of cooking

428、. The funds required to purchase such appliances has to be agreed to by the primary breadwinner of the household.12 Within households, decisions dictated by gender and social norms determine what form of lighting or fuel will be used. Despite provision of improved cooking stoves, fuelwood is still p

429、referred due to cultural and preferred cooking habits. A village woman from an ethnic group relates “I need to use large utensils in my household, so I have to use my mud-stove even though the improved cooking stove is there” (footnote 10). rice cookers are not permitted as the power supply of the p

430、roject is insufficient. The barriers faced by women and excluded groups in influencing decisions made by government agencies, users committees, and construction companies have not been well addressed. Lack of access to modern energy sources increases work burden and illnesses of women and persons wi

431、th disabilitiesIn rural Nepal, women play a significant role in the biomass energy systems, fetching fuel for household use and microenterprises. Women and girls, especially of low-income and rural households, are often forced to walk long distances in search of fuelwood where other energy sources a

432、re unavailable. Cooking and processing food without improved energy can also take several hours. fetching fuel, fodder, and water for homes, and manual grinding or pounding of grains or tubers to prepare food 10 focused group discussion with women. GESI Diagnostic Study. 4 December 2018. Ghodaghodi,

433、 Kailali, Nepal.11 In 2011 census, 25.73% households are headed by women. See CBS. 2011. Nepal Population and Housing Census, 2011. Kathmandu.12 frontiers in Energy research. 2019. Rice Cookers, Social Media, and Unruly Women: Disentangling Electricitys Gendered Implications in Rural Nepal.https:/ww

434、w.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenrg.2018.00140/full38ENErGyare heavy tasks that demand an inordinate amount of time and effort, usually for women, since these responsibilities fall on them (footnote 10). The lack of social awareness on alternative or potential energy sources and the need to pur

435、chase these constrain the use of energy by rural women, whose labor is considered cheaply available.The substantial amount of time and effort spent in fuel collection leads to missed opportunities for employment, education, and self-improvement. Womens health also suffers from the smoke from burning

436、 biomass as a cooking fuel. Some evidence indicates that women and girls are at risk of sexual violence when they collect fuel and water or when they are outside after dark, especially in the absence of community lighting.13 Women face long-term health problems, such as respiratory and eye diseases

437、due to the traditional fuel cycle causing indoor air pollution, and backaches and prolapsed uterus from carrying heavy loads.14 Biofuel smoke increases the risks of breathing-related ailments such as acute lower respiratory infections, as well as having adverse effects on birth weight. A study revea

438、ls that stunting prevalence among children with exposure to biofuel smoke was about twice as high as those without exposure.15A global research states that the annual energy bills of families living with persons with disability (PWDs) is 50% more than those without PWDs.16 In developing countries wh

439、ere 80% of PWDs live, many of them use traditional forms of energy inside their houses, negatively impacting their health. This health issue points to the importance of their access to modern forms of energy.17Challenges constrain women and excluded group entrepreneurs from productive end use ofener

440、gyStudies find that once homes are electrified, women in Nepal can spend evenings on handicraft work which can provide them additional income. Also, research reveals that families are more likely to adopt modern technologies if they have benefits for income generating efforts;18 but for productive e

441、nd use of energy, women and excluded groups experience various constraints. They find it challenging to access funds to meet both investment and recurring costs of enterprises. Microfinance institutes are wary of funding this target group and have limited reach in remote areas. Women are forced to l

442、ocate their enterprises at home due to gender-based norms restricting their mobility, reproductive responsibilities, and permission to interact with the public domain. While this helps them to combine household chores and income generation, they are often at a distance from energy sources. The marke

443、t linkages, the network needed to market products, and the energy requirements for using different media to advertise products are not easily accessible to women and excluded group entrepreneurs.13 r. rewald. 2017. Energy and Women and Girls: Analyzing the Needs, uses, and Impacts of Energy on Women

444、 and Girls in the Developing World. Oxfam Research Backgrounder Series. https:/www.oxfamamerica.org/explore/researchpublications/energy-women-girls.14 uN Women report on SDGs. 2018. Turning Promises into Action. New york. p. 14.15 . 2018. Stunting in Nepal: Kitchen Smoke Adding Fuel to the Fire. htt

445、ps:/ M. George et al. 2013. The Energy Penalty: Disabled People and Fuel Poverty. Leicester: university of Leicester. pp. 2734.17 S. Kajima. 2017. Energy and Disability. Paper prepared for the 5th Expert Group Meeting on Monitoring and Evaluation for Disability-Inclusive Development. united Nations

446、Department of Economic and Social Affairs.18 I. Mahat. 2004. Implementation of Alternative Energy Technologies in Nepal: Towards the Achievement of Sustainable Livelihoods. Ottawa: university of Ottawa. https:/ Implementation_of_alternative_energy_technologies_in_Nepal_towards_the_achievement_of_sus

447、tainable_livelihoods.39GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALGESI dimensions are not fully integrated in energy planning and policymakingThe active participation of women and excluded groups in planning and decision-making processes is limited in most on-grid pr

448、ojects. This restricts the potential project benefits and the advancement of the GESI agenda. While ADB-financed projects categorized as gender equity (GEN) or effective gender mainstreaming (EGM) include GESI action plans, these plans do not fully address structural issues of inequity, thus, restri

449、cting women and excluded groups from fully benefiting from the projects.19 Projects of NEA and the government usually do not have such plans, and hence, integration of GESI issues in planning and policymaking has been limited.20In off-grid energy projects supported by donors, participation of locals

450、 is better, as these projects follow a more inclusive process; but generally, the influence of women and excluded groups on the projects agenda is inadequate. The level of participation is at the most physical labor, limited to a few days. Every house in the village usually gives free labor for the

451、required number of days that the managing committee decides. Most of the ideas and knowledge needed for an effective participatory exercise remains with selected groups of people.21Institutions in the energy sector have limited capacities to work on GESI issuesA review of the functions and responsib

452、ilities of NEA, Nepals public entity responsible for generation, transmission, and distribution, indicates requirement of institutional strengthening to implement projects that are sensitive to GESI. further, GESI has to be adequately integrated to those projects which require environmental and soci

453、al impact assessments.22 AEPC has a GESI mainstreaming strategy and has instructions in job descriptions of officers to ensure that GESI is integrated in the preparation of the annual budget and programs; monthly, trimestral, and yearly progress reports; and monitoring and evaluation reports. Howeve

454、r, staff diversity and skills have to be enhanced to ensure GESI mainstreaming in all aspects of the project.23Good Practices and LessonsVarious initiatives have been implemented in the sector which have enhanced benefits for women and excluded groups and generated lessons.Specific approaches to inc

455、rease access of local people to energy The Community rural Electrification Program of Nepal is an effort to reach the local population (Box 3.1). While it has supported local people to access electricity, the mechanisms have limited space for the beneficiaries to voice their requirements or concerns

456、. Some of the constraints discussed earlier are not adequately addressed in the program.19 Nepal Energy funds, AEPC. 2018. Meeting notes with National Association of Community Electricity users-Nepal. Kathmandu.20 Nepal Electricity Authority. 2018. Meeting notes with Nepal Electricity Authority staf

457、f. Kathmandu.21 Intermediate Technology Consultants. 1999. Participative Planning of Off-Grid Electricity Supplies. London. https:/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08d98ed915d3cfd001b00/r6249.pdf22 World Bank. 2018. Getting to Gender Equality in Energy Infrastructure: Lessons from Electrici

458、ty Generation, Transmission, and Distribution Projects. Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) Technical Report 012/18. Washington, DC.23 ADB. 2018. Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment of the Energy Sector: Enhancing Social Sustainability of Energy Development in Nepal. Mani

459、la. p. 25.40ENErGyBox 3.1: Community Rural ElectrificationThe Government of Nepal has supported the Community rural Electrification Program (CrEP) since 2003, revived it in 2013 and executed it through the Community rural Electrification Department (CrED), Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA). The prog

460、ram aims to facilitate access to electricity by the rural population through national grid extension or densification. NEA is leading the program as the main implementing partner and supervisor of the fund. The program allows community-based organizations, represented by the local communities, to bu

461、y electricity in bulk from NEA and sell it within the catchment area by utilizing the existing or newly constructed distribution networks. The regulation provides for any type of community rural electrification entity (CrEE)company, electricity cooperative, nongovernment organizations, users associa

462、tionto enter into agreement with CrED, NEA.These CrEEs are required to contribute 10% of the project cost to get connected to the grid and the remaining 90% (previously 80%) is provided by the government via NEA. After electrification, NEA supplies the electricity and the CrEEs are responsible for t

463、he operation and management of the distribution network, collection of revenues from villagers, and payment for bulk power purchased from NEA. TheCrEE has the flexibility to set up the tariff, but they are not allowed to take higher than the normal charge. Consumers have a sense of ownership of such

464、 projects because the project cost is financed together by the government and the community. By December 2017, 55 CrEEs received loans and 47 were connected to the grid providing electricity services to 535,000 households. With the support of Energising Development, Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internat

465、ionale Zusammenarbeit GmbH, 525 small infrastructures and 3,042 micro, small, and medium enterprises were established.The CrEEs also have assisted women entrepreneurs. for example, in response to the request of the Women Economic EmpowermentNepal Project of ENErGIA and Hivos, CrEEs recommended or li

466、nked women entrepreneurs to local financial institutions. CrEEs negotiated concessions for women entrepreneurs, such as discount on service charges and lower interest rates. Through the project, 227women entrepreneurs obtained loans worth 223.056 from 35 different local financial institutions. Simil

467、arly, ADB has assisted CrEEs through technical assistance projects linked to the energy loan projects. ADBs ongoing support to Power Transmission and Distribution Efficiency Enhancement Project is working with 15 CrEEs to promote gender equality and social inclusion in accessing and supporting produ

468、ctive end use of clean energy technologies and services by 500 women. = euros.Sources: NEA. 2019. Annual Report. Kathmandu. p. 81; EnDev Nepal. 2018. Community Rural Electrification. http:/endev-nepal.org/sites/default/files/publications/2018-02/EnDev_Nepal_On-grid_factsheet.pdf; S. Dutta. 2018. Sup

469、porting Last-Mile Women Energy Entrepreneurs: What Works and What Does Not. ENErGIA, The International Network on Gender and Sustainable Energy.https:/sun-connect-news.org/fileadmin/DATEIEN/Dateien/New/Supporting-Last-Mile-Women-Entrepreneurs.pdf; and ADB. 2017. Report and Recommendations to the Pre

470、sident: Power Transmission and Distribution Efficiency Enhancement Project. Manila. https:/www.adb.org/projects/documents/nep-50059-002-rrp.41GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALMultiple benefits of technologies for women and excluded groupsThe Biogas Support

471、Program has reduced the workload of women and girls and enabled them to engage in more productive activities (Box 3.2).Box 3.2: Biogas Support ProgramIn 1975, the government launched a biogas program providing interest-free loans. The sector developed with further funding and technical support of th

472、e principal stakeholders, such as AEPC (responsible for policy formulation), Biogas Sector Partnership Nepal (BSP-N) (responsible for management and monitoring), and Nepal Biogas Promotion Association (responsible for installation). BSP-N has played a role in changing the lives of women and excluded

473、 groups in rural areas. These changes have been brought about by deliberate actions such as encouraging womens participation in training for supervisors and masons, and management of installation companies, through women-friendly event management; provision of additional installation subsidies to si

474、ngle women, the poor, and remote areas; enhancing income through sensitization on use of bio-slurry in vegetable farming, fish and pig raising; and financial education and access to finance through cooperatives.BSP-N calculated in 2017 that due to reductions in the use of fuelwood and kerosene, as w

475、ell as in chemical fertilizers, the annual financial savings totaled Nrs345,700 per household per year ($3,457). Additionally, six companies were now being managed by women, employing women as managers, supervisors, and masons. A dedicated program, Biogas Support Program (BSP) Nepal, was launched in

476、 1992. The BSP disseminated more than 250,000 biogas plants which are mostly used for cooking and lighting (in selected areas). Thetechnology has benefited more than 260,889 households and is said to have reduced the workload of women and girls by about three hours per day. This saved time is used f

477、or education, income generation activities, and leisure. BSP has increased womens ownership of biogas plants by 23% and their ownership of assets through establishment of women-owned construction companies. This has increased savings and credit transactions, which in turn, expanded womens access to

478、capital. The success of the program is credited to its targeting the income poor section of the population and the various measures it applied to mainstream GESI. These measures include engaging microfinance organizations to provide seed money to enterprises led by women and excluded groups; focused

479、 trainings for women as users of technology, enabling them to undertake repair and maintenance activities and become supervisors/owners of construction companies; and capacity development of staff and partners on GESI, code of conduct against any form of discrimination, and poverty sensitive project

480、 monitoring.BSP=Biogas Support Program, BSP-N=Biogas Sector Partnership Nepal, GESI=gender equality and social inclusion.Sources: I. Shakya. 2017. Gender Analysis of the Nepal Biogas Programme. Urban Agriculture Magazine 32. Urban Food-Waste-Energy Nexus and the Private Sector. pp. 3335; and uNDP. 2

481、013. Annual Progress Report, Renewable Energy for Rural Livelihood Program. Kathmandu.Engendering utilitiesWomen and excluded groups face structural barriers to participation in the power sector, including under representation in employment, especially in technical, higher-paying positions and leade

482、rship roles. The utilities in Nepal also lack diversity in their personnel. Increasing Womens Participation in the Power 42ENErGySector through Human Resources Interventions: A Best Practices Framework identifies good practices in addressing gender across human resource dimensions, such as attractin

483、g and/or hiring employees, compliance and reporting compliance, human resource policies, payroll and administration, employee development system, financial benefits, risk management, and separation and/or retirement (Box 3.3).2424 rTI International. 2018. Produced by rTI International for uSAIDs Off

484、ice of Energy and Infrastructure, Energy Division within the Bureau of Economic Growth, Education and Environment. Washington DC. https:/web.archive.org/web/205/ https:/www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/gender-equity-energy-sector-best-practices.pdf.Box 3.3: Best Practices

485、for Engendering UtilitiesCorporate-level commitment to gender equity. The Women-Owned Small Business federal Contracting Program was implemented in Pakistan. The goal of the Government of Pakistan is to award at least 5%of all federal contracting dollars to women-owned small businesses each year.Int

486、ernship program. The Energy Sector Internship Program of uSAID in Pakistan received a huge response with many of the applicants being young women. ultimately, 20 women from varying disciplines and income levels were selected. The internship program provided these women with an opportunity to gain on

487、-the-job training in a male-dominated profession in Pakistan, and gain access to a network of young graduates in the energy sector.Source: rTI International. 2018. Produced by rTI International for uSAIDs Office of Energy and Infrastructure, Energy Division within the Bureau of Economic Growth, Educ

488、ation and Environment. Washington DC. https:/pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00KWT8.pdf.How Mindtree supports employees with childcare needs. To encourage and enable parents to stay employed, Mindtree in India offers an extensive set of child-related benefits, including subsidized workplace childcare; a “B

489、abys Day Out” facility to allow parents to bring their children to work in emergency situations; enhanced maternity leave; paternity leave; a program to help women navigate pregnancy, maternity leave, and their return to work; and flexible work options for returning mothers. As Mindtrees chief finan

490、cial officer Jagannathan Chakravarthi explains, “If we want gender diversity, we have to offer childcare; if women are forced to choose between work and childcare, they will choose their kids.”Source: rTI International. 2018. Produced by rTI International for uSAIDs Office of Energy and Infrastructu

491、re, Energy Division within the Bureau of Economic Growth, Education and Environment. Washington DC. https:/www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/87df44f4-c322-484e-87a0-4e4bbfdc1a04/Mindtree_Layout+1.pdf?MOD=AJPErES&CVID=lXu8DEX.Gender equity in utilities. uSAIDs Engendering utilities program has strengthened

492、 energy utility operations by:identifying and implementing gender equity best practices that helped them meet their core business goals while providing tangible economic opportunities for women; andpartnering with seven electric distribution companies in five countriesGeorgia, Jordan, Kenya, Macedon

493、ia, and Nigeriato collaboratively design tailored interventions to improve gender continued on next page43GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALLooking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to ConsiderThis section highlights the key issues and opportunities that mer

494、it consideration by ADB in sector and project analyses, and potential collaborations with government counterparts and other key stakeholders. Increase access to modern energy services for excluded groups, particularly womenIt is important to increase the access to modern energy services (e.g., smart

495、 meters, smart appliances, renewable energy resources, and energy efficient resources) for excluded groups, particularly vulnerable women, to improve their life quality, reduce illnesses caused by pollution, and address time poverty issues arising from lack of energy. for instance, the use of induct

496、ion stoves is smoke-free, promotes clean cooking, and saves the time that women can use for other activities. Also, the induction stove is easy to use and can be operated by any member of the household.outcomes within their organizations and develop action plans to incorporate gender equity in their

497、 business practices. At the end of the project, all seven partner utilities drafted, adopted, or implemented policies on: addressing gender equity and equal employment opportunities; conducting equal pay salary gap analyses; setting up systems to collect sex-disaggregated employment and employee sat

498、isfaction data, to inform corporate decision-making; adopting behavior-based interviewing techniques to reduce bias in hiring processes, and engaging educational institutions in outreach activities; investing their own time and $500,000 in aggregate and in-kind contributions to implement interventio

499、ns; and expanding their efforts through outreach to local communities, with three utilities extending outreach to national leaders.Most utilities saw increases in women training participants, interns, job applicants, and trainee hires. utilities also saw more women promoted and identified as high po

500、tential for succession planning, increasing the number of women in succession plans from 83 in 2015 to 387 in 2017. Outreach activities motivating both women and men students to attend training increased from 66 educational institutions in 2015 to 77 in 2017.Source: uSAID. 2017. Engendering utilitie

501、s: Strengthening utilities through Gender Equality Initiatives. California. https:/www.usaid.gov/energy/engendering-utilities.Box 3.3 continued44ENErGyAs their mobility is constrained, PWDs have different energy needs and usage time. To optimize their mobility around the household, they require esse

502、ntial energy assistive technologies (e.g., Braille displays note takers, screen readers, simplified mobile phones, digital hearing aids, and electrical wheelchair) for independent living. Mainstream GESI in energy projects and across phases of electricity generation, transmission, and distributionMa

503、instreaming GESI in all aspects of a project cycle is required for projects and programs to be beneficial for excluded groups, particularly women. There is a need to integrate GESI dimensions in different phases of electricity generation (pre-construction, construction, post-construction), transmiss

504、ion, and distribution. This needs to be done from the very first step of a project so that even in the initial surveys and mapping, GESI-related issues are identified and included in the succeeding tasks of project description and/or design, assessments, costing, construction planning and schedule,

505、and environment impact assessment. Some aspects for GESI integration in the different phases are discussed below.25At pre-construction stage, it is important that the GESI analysis determines who has access to what resources and opportunities, and what are the requirements to increase access to asse

506、ts and benefits of women and excluded groups. Identify excluded groups, including women, for the purpose of skills training and development in view of potential access to employment opportunities during construction stage. Project teams must conduct timely consultation with community women and men a

507、cross socioeconomic groups in all stepsfrom inception to project design and implementationand ensure dissemination of key project information (i.e., specifics, cost estimates, and schedule) to all so they are properly informed. These activities can boost support for the project. Gender and power rel

508、ations analyses to identify the social practices constraining and/or supporting women and the gender differentials in decision-making power will also help the project team identify strategic interventions toward increasing womens level of participation and strengthening their decision-making power.A

509、t construction stage (covering agreement with civil contractor for civil works and monitoring), the conditions of contract with the civil contractor must include provisions for employment opportunities for the excluded groups, particularly eligible women to work as laborers, sub-contractors, supplie

510、rs, and skilled workers. The provisions for childcare facilities and breastfeeding time, among many other women-friendly facilities, encourage women workers to be more productive. Company policies for protection against violence/sexual abuse, including equal pay for labor, can create a safer and sec

511、ure working environment for women workers. The civil construction contractors must take steps to fully inform the community of the potential employment opportunities available for excluded groups, particularly women community members. Additional community consultations on income generating activitie

512、s that the project can bring, and better use of potential savings from there can be organized.At post-construction phase, sustainability of the interventions is crucial to ensure continuity of project benefits. Employment of local people as project staff and creating platforms to increase their repr

513、esentation in different forums and/or committees reflect the projects intention to ensure 25 Human resource Development Centre (HurDEC) Pvt. Ltd. 2014. Background Report on GESI Impacts of Kaligandaki Hydropower Project. Kathmandu.45GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS

514、 IN NEPALownership of development benefits to the community. The community women and men must be duly and timely informed about the project office, its functions, and accountabilities. Gender inclusive dimensions must be integrated in human resource policies and systems.for transmission (covering ro

515、ute map, estimated cost and time), identify what are the community and individual assets (e.g., land, equipment, and facilities) that will be impacted by the transmission line route and its right of way. Identify possible community development activities and conduct strategic consultations with the

516、community, including women, PWDs, and excluded groups, regarding the route-map, project impacts, and due compensation where applicable. Disaggregated information about who is affected by the proposed route and affirmative actions for women and excluded groups are required.for distribution (covering

517、customer mapping, tariffs), determine subsidy for the extremely poor women and men of all social groups; consult the community on who are not receiving electricity; and disaggregate index of consumers to identify who are getting electricity and who are not and why not. Existing policy instrumentssuc

518、h as affordable tariffs, subsidies, schemes, and revolving funds that provide cheap credit for connectionshould be adopted to target women and excluded groups of consumers in the lower consumption band.26With support from ADB, the NEAs Board endorsed its GESI strategy and operational guidelines. The

519、se guidelines aim to mainstream GESI in all aspects of NEAs policies, project design and implementation process, and institutional structure.Ensure participation of women and excluded groups in energy plans, programs, and decision-makingIt is important to ensure that women and excluded groups can pa

520、rticipate meaningfully to influence sector policies and programs. Social mobilization combined with information dissemination and community education has been proven effective in raising the voice of women and excluded groups and their capacity to influence decisions. Where communities have been mob

521、ilized to reflect on the social norms that perpetuate untouchability, gender bias or violence against women, there has been an increase in access to services and greater involvement in community-level planning for these groups. Setting quotas for women and excluded groups in user groups and committe

522、es, along with creating training opportunities, has ensured their representation and participation in development activities, and strengthened their access to resources and benefits. Still, further efforts are needed to reach excluded groups, in particular women members, and promote their representa

523、tion in key decision-making positions in executive bodies and their ability to influence decisions in the energy sector (footnote 5). PWDs should be included in national governing bodies working on energy access. Awareness within ministries needs to be raised and interministerial coordination promot

524、ed to address fuel and energy poverty among PWDs.2726 r. Mohideen. 2018. Energy Technology Innovation in South Asia: Implications for Gender Equality and Social Inclusion. ADB South Asia Working Paper Series No. 61. Manila. 27 uN. 2018. Disability and Development Report Realizing the Sustainable Dev

525、elopment Goals By, For and With Persons with Disabilities. Newyork.46ENErGyPromote productive end use of energy by women and excluded groupsA range of advisory services (covering strategic planning, investments, operations and logistics, financial planning and analysis, marketing and sales and proje

526、ct development, and training) should be provided to energy-based enterprises led by women and excluded groups. Consistent support and mentoring can address the different barriers women and the excluded experience. Working with this target group requires a process-oriented approach to be available at

527、 their doorstep since they have mobility restrictions and high time poverty. Women and excluded groups typically start with small energy businesses, as they have limited access to credit and have low risk-taking abilities in addition to the gender and caste- or ethnicity-based disadvantage they expe

528、rience (Box 3.4 and Table 3.2).Box 3.4: Ramite Khola Solar Mini-Grid ExperienceThe ramite Khola Solar Mini-Grid subproject of South Asia Sub-regional Economic Cooperation Power System Expansion Project (Off-Grid Component, AEPC) has provided all households (which were previously without any electric

529、ity) in the area (which has rai and Dalit population) with electricity through a solar mini grid. Eight households (soon two more will also join) have received 40% subsidy (forDalits and single women it is 50% subsidy) to start enterprises. Three women benefited, one is running a tailoring shop, ano

530、ther a beauty parlor, and one a grinding mill. The chair of the solar mini-grid committee, an Adivasi Janajati, started a photo studio which has helped the local public a lot as they do not need to go down to town for such services. The vice chair, a Dalit, has started a gold and silver jewelry shop

531、. Most of the enterprises are growing and earning a respectable income for the entrepreneurs using solar energy. Source: GESI Diagnostic Study. 2018. field visit. ramite Khola, Morang. Nepal.47GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALTable 3.2: Tip Sheet on Integra

532、ting Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Perspectives into Analysis and Planning in the Energy SectorBarriersActions to Address the BarriersLack of finance, appliances, information, training, and education constrain women and excluded groups from accessing energy sourcesAdopt focused interventions

533、to increase access of women and excluded groups to resources.Lack of access to modern energy sources increases work burden and illnesses of women and excluded groupsIncrease access to energy sources. raise awareness about the harm caused by traditional energy sources and ways to reduce their use. Co

534、nsider the extra energy costs and other needs that PWDs are facing.Challenges constrain women and excluded groups of entrepreneurs from productive end use of energyAddress barriers, such as finance market, time, knowledge, and technical skills, to enable income generation from energy use.Decision-ma

535、king regarding energy products and services is usually with men and the non-excluded groups, and dictated by social normsStrengthen capacity of women and excluded groups for them to be better informed about sector issues and participate in discussions and decision-making forums. Advocate with the ad

536、vantaged to be open and listen to others.There is limited integration of GESI dimensions in all elements of energy planning and policymakingAdopt GESI mainstreaming as an approach and address GESI issues in each step from situation assessment to evaluation. Engage PWDs in the energy planning process

537、. raise awareness of policymakers on differing forms of disability and PWDs energy needs. Policymakers must proactively reach out to PWDs to identify their needs.Institutions in the sector have limited capacities to work on GESI issuesPromote institutional arrangements on specific location of GESI r

538、esponsibility, integration of GESI in job descriptions and/or terms of references, staff diversity, analytical and responsive GESI skills of staff, GESI criteria in staff performance evaluation, and a positive work environment.Discriminatory gender and social norms constrain women and excluded group

539、s from accessing sector resources and opportunitiesConduct social marketing and raise awareness of women, families, and communities on the benefits of accessing energy. Organize exposure visits and interactive discussions and support learnings on how traditional inequitable practices are changed. Pr

540、ovide access to electricity in schools to increase the use of assistive technology in education and enhance opportunities for students with disability to participate equally in educational systems.GESI = gender equality and social inclusion, PWDs = persons with disabilities. Source: Table prepared f

541、or this study.4849Area of collaborationInitial support of ADB focused on reforms in primary and secondary education. Since 2002, ADB has been supporting the technical education and vocational training (TEVT) sector.ADB assisted the education sector through 54 projects, which is 14.4% of its cumulati

542、ve lending, grant, and technical assistance commitments to Nepal from 1966 to 2018. Sector contextThe Constitution has identified TEVT as a means for preparing skilled human resource which is essential for Nepals economic growth. It has directed that special provisions be made for excluded groups in

543、 TEVT.The Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training provides certified Technical School Leaving Certificate programs of 18 months, 3-year diploma programs, and a variety of short-term training courses. Vocational trainings are also offered by 12 other ministries.Wide educational dispar

544、ities exist, and poor literacy rates challenge the ability of women and excluded groups to enhance their technical and vocational skills. Gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) considerations relevant to sector planning and outcomesStrong social and gender norms and heavy burden of unpaid care

545、work limit skills building and employment options of women and excluded groups.Social acceptance and employers acceptance of women and excluded groups in nontraditional sectors can be a challenge.Labor force participation of women and excluded groups is high primarily as unskilled and low paid worke

546、rs.Trainees and employers have negative perception about vocational education or training.Service providers show less interest in and low priority for training women and excluded groups.SkIllS DEvElopmEnt4GENDEr EquALITy AND SoCIAL INCLuSIoN DIAGNoSTIC of SELECTED SECTorS IN NEpALGood practices and

547、lessonsSpecial measures to promote skills training and employment of women and excluded groups are needed, such as setting of enrollment targets for equitable access to training, enhancing support for both pre- and post-training to facilitate transition into waged employment or self-employment, and

548、opening up opportunities for women in nontraditional industries/skills.Various strategies to encourage and prepare women and excluded groups for skills training and employment are required. Structural gender-based constraints need to be addressed with orientation of families and decision makers as t

549、hey limit options of women in selection of training and employment. Caste-based bias restricts employment opportunities; hence, employers orientation is important.looking forward: Issues and opportunities to considerMarket feasibility studies and alignment of demand and supply are essential for bett

550、er employment of trained women and the excluded.Targeted courses can facilitate access of women and excluded groups to different sectors, including nontraditional sector.Setting targets in training courses and ensuring quality should be balanced.preparation and sensitization of service providers on

551、GESI is needed for effective training and employment of women and excluded groups.TEVT service providers require policy directives, incentives, and systematic follow up and monitoring to ensure GESI aspects are integrated in their services.Along with technical focus, it is important to do parental e

552、ducation and work with society toward elimination of discriminatory norms.Further resourcesADB tip sheet on addressing barriers experienced by women and excluded group and integrating GESI in the skills development sector (Table4.1).GESI = gender equality and social inclusion, TEVT = technical educa

553、tion and vocational training.50SkILLS DEVELopMENTArea of Collaborationfrom 1996 to 2018, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) supported Nepals education sector covering primary and secondary education and vocational education and training. The intervention included 54projects amounting to $912.70 millio

554、n,1 which is 14.4% of its cumulative lending, grant, and technicalassistance commitments.2 Initial support focused on reforms in primary and secondary education. Also, ADB has been supporting the countrys technical education and vocational training (TEVT) sector. The high unemployment rate and lack

555、of opportunities for economic and social mobility were recognized as primary causes of conflict and poverty. To reduce poverty rate and income inequality, it was vital to increase the employment rate and income level of workers, especially those belonging to excluded groups. In 2002, the Government

556、of Nepal requested ADB to prepare a project to enhance TEVT to promote broad-based and inclusive social and economic development through sustainable human development. Improved TEVT access and quality would enable unskilled youth to avail themselves of income opportunities.Sector ContextPolicy Commi

557、tmentsThe policy and institutional framework for GESI in TEVT is positive in Nepal. The Constitution has identified TEVT as a means for preparing skilled human resource, which is essential for Nepals economic growth.3 It has directed that special provisions should be made for Dalits in TEVT.4 To ens

558、ure inclusive and equitable access to quality technical education and vocational skills development, the 15th five-year plan (fy20192020 to fy20202024) envisions increasing access and developing a master plan with the establishment of an integrated fund for TEVT.5The 15th five-year plans objectives

559、are to: (i) guarantee the right to work by gradually reducing semi-unemployment, underemployment, and unemployment; (ii) develop a competitive workforce by increasing opportunities for training and skills development; and (iii) make foreign employment more productive, safe, disciplined, and regulate

560、d. The Approach paper to the 15th plan emphasizes skills development of youth and people at risk of trafficking.6 It targets 500,000 people to be vocationally and technically skilled annually. under the Act relating to rights of persons with Disabilities (2017), the government provided for the estab

561、lishment of vocational trainings for and concessional loans to pWDs who wish to do business.71 ADB. 2018. Asian Development Bank Member Fact Sheet, Nepal: 2018 Committed Loans, Grants, and Technical Assistance. https:/www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/27783/nep-2018.pdf. Data about project

562、s and funds is cumulative from 19 December 1996 to 31 December 2018 and covers all assistance.2 ADB. 2019. Cumulative Lending, Grant, and Technical Assistance Commitments. https:/data.adb.org/dataset/cumulative-lending-grant-and-technical-assistance-commitments (accessed 27 December 2019). 3 Constit

563、ution of Nepal. 2015. part-4 Directive principles, policies and obligations of the State. policies relating to basic needs of the citizens state “to prepare human resources that are competent, competitive, ethical, and devoted to national interests, while making education scientific, technical, voca

564、tional, empirical, employment and people-oriented.” 4 Constitution of Nepal. 2015. Special provision shall be made by law for the Dalit in technical and vocational education (part-3 fundamental rights and Duties, Clause 40. rights of Dalit, point 2). 5 National planning Commission, Government of Nep

565、al. 2017. 15th Five-Year Plan Approach Paper (Section 7.2 Education). kathmandu. p. 182. https:/www.npc.gov.np/images/category/15th_plan_Approach_paper2.pdf.6 Government of Nepal, National planning Commission. 2019. Approach Paper to 15th Plan. kathmandu. https:/www.npc.gov.np/images/category/15th_p

566、lan_Approach_paper2.pdf.7 Government of Nepal. 2017. The Act relating to rights of persons with Disabilities, 2074 (Chapter 6). Skill Development and Employment. http:/www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/archives/20833.51GENDEr EquALITy AND SoCIAL INCLuSIoN DIAGNoSTIC of SELECTED SECTorS IN NEpALThe Technic

567、al Education and Vocational Training policy (2012) identifies five key objectives, one of which is the inclusion of socially underprivileged, regionally backward, and economically poor classes of the society in TEVT programs. A central feature of the 2012 TEVT policy is the promotion of access and i

568、nclusion of excluded groups in skills enhancement by preparing appropriate training packages and offering incentives through scholarships, free quotas, minimum fee, and easy loans. The main aim of the CTEVT Strategic plan (20142018) is to implement the provisions of the 2012 TEVT policy. one goal is

569、 to expand TEVT programs to ensure access and equity, as well as geographical balance of programs; enforce affirmative action for women and excluded groups;8 and implement TEVT programs for special need populations.The new Labor Act of 2017 mandates gender equality and non-discrimination at work, an

570、d provides for 98-day maternity leave (with up to 60 days fully paid) and 15 days fully paid paternity leave.9 In case of sexual harassment, section 132 of the Labor Act states that services of the perpetrator may be terminated on the basis of the seriousness of offense. The National Employment poli

571、cy 2015 identifies inadequate skills development and diverse barriers for youth and other social groups as some of the major problems and challenges in national employment. This policy targeted women, youth, Adivasi Janajati, Dalits, Madhesis, and other excluded communities or regions to address exi

572、sting inequalities; and incorporated their concerns into the policy formulation. Specific policies such as policies related to objective 2 (“improve the quality of employment by gradually transforming informal employment into formal employment”), include various directives for the youth, women, Adiv

573、asi Janajatis, and other excluded communities, and for programs to gradually eliminate gender, geographical, and caste-based inequalities in employment.10Various other acts have positive provisions such as the Education Act and regulations (2002), which emphasizes womens representation in management

574、, and has arranged scholarships for girls; and the Gender Equality Act 2006, which made amendments to discriminatory provision to further protect womens rights. one of the stated objectives of the Industrial policy 2011 is to increase employment through promoting opportunities for self-employment an

575、d developing industrial skills and entrepreneurship. It also aims to improve youth employment under special strategies.The Government of Nepal allocated more than Nrs3 billion in fy20182019 for the prime Minister Employment program, which aims to provide jobs for 500,000 Nepalese.11 However, there a

576、re no clear provisions for targeting excluded groups.128 Affirmative action is the practice or policy of favoring individuals belonging to groups known to have been discriminated against previously (in the context of allocation of resources or different opportunities). https:/ Labour Act. 2017. Clau

577、se 6 of Article 2. Labour Act 2017 prohibits discrimination on grounds of sex, caste, religion, language, ideology, pregnancy and disability. Clause 7 has provisions for equal pay for equal value of work. Clause 33 of Article 7 directs employers to provide safe transport facilities for women during

578、evening and night duty. Article 16 clause 108 specifies representation of women. other supportive clauses for women include easier work for pregnant women and leave on International Womens Day. http:/www.lawcommission.gov.np.10 Ministry of Labour and Employment. National Employment Policy. 2015. pol

579、icies for objective 2 are: 11.2 “Credit, information and business development services for the youth, women, indigenous nationalities and marginalized communities will be made more accessible to help them start cottage, small and medium industries;” 11.4 “a policy will be adopted through which the p

580、oor and marginalized communities can get involved in income-generation activities through these small financial institutions.”11 Government of Nepal, Ministry of finance. 2018. Budget Speech 201819. kathmandu.12 Meeting with sector expert. GESI Diagnostic Study. 2018. kathmandu.52SkILLS DEVELopMENTI

581、nstitutional Structure of TEVTformal TEVT in Nepal includes the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT), which provides certified Technical School Leaving Certificate (TSLC) programs of 18 months, 3-year diploma programs, and a variety of short-term training courses accredite

582、d by the CTEVT and other agencies, under the Ministry of Education (Box 4.1).Though public financing of TEVT has increased over time, it is largely subsumed under the education budget, and is small. for example, in fy20162017, the allocated budget for TEVT was 1.87% of the total MoE budget and other

583、 government departments have nominal expenditure on TEVT.13The TEVT section in the MoE is responsible for coordinating the 12 ministries conducting vocational trainings and working with two key committeesthe TEVT policy Coordination Committee and the TEVT Technical Coordination Committee. The Techni

584、cal Coordination Committee has an explicit responsibility to ensure that GESI aspects are addressed in the programs they coordinate.14 CTEVT has a GESI unit under its research and Information Section and has appointed a staff as GESI coordinator. The authority and resources required for GESI coordin

585、ator to substantively influence the work of the organization is inadequate. There is no mechanism by which the planning and budgeting processes can be informed of GESI issues; and the GESI coordinator is not invited to the meetings where such decisions are taken.1513 World Bank. 2017. Project Apprai

586、sal Document on Enhanced Vocational Education and Training Project II, Nepal. kathmandu. p. 5.14 Ministry of Education. 2018. Meeting with Undersecretary of TEVT Development Unit, personal communication. kathmandu.15 Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT). 2018. Meeting note

587、s with CTEVT Coordinator, GESI Unit. kathmandu.Box 4.1: Institutions for Skills Development in NepalThe Ministry of Education is the apex body for all educational organizations and is responsible for the development of education in the country. Within this purview, it has the responsibility to super

588、vise the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT). There are altogether 40 technical education and vocational training (TEVT) institutions under the Ministrys direct contract. CTEVT, formed under the Council for TEVT Act 1989, is responsible for managing and accrediting TEVT p

589、rovision, determining TEVT policy, coordinating training providers, and testing and certification. It is also responsible for conducting TEVT.The National Skills Testing Board (NSTB) under CTEVT provides testing and certification of skills. NSTB has developed National occupational Skills Standards f

590、or 237 occupations based on International Labour organization guidelines. It also manages the Nepal Vocational qualifications framework.The Ministry of Labor and Employment is responsible for employment policy, legislation, and regulation, and prepares migrants before their departure for foreign job

591、s. It also conducts TEVT.In addition to CTEVT, TEVT is delivered by private institutions, technical institutions of universities, secondary schools, and government agencies associated with various ministries and training programs supported by national and international nongovernment organizations.CT

592、EVT = Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training, NSTB = National Skills Testing Board, TEVT = technical education and vocational training.Source: uNDp. 2015. SKILLS Program Document. kathmandu.53GENDEr EquALITy AND SoCIAL INCLuSIoN DIAGNoSTIC of SELECTED SECTorS IN NEpALGender Equality

593、 and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and OutcomesSituation of women and excluded groups in the education sectorliteracy and employment status of women and excluded groups is lower than of dominant groupsThe literacy rate of population 15 years and older in Nepal is 56%, w

594、ith men at 72% and women at 45%. Caste or ethnic disparities are high with literacy rate of Hill Brahmins at 76%, and Madhesi Dalits at 29%. only 11% Madhesi Dalit women are literate. Within the Janajati group, Newars have the highest literacy rate at 72.2%, and Tarai Janajatis (excluding Tharus, a

595、subgroup of Adivasi Janajatis who are 55% literate) have the lowest at 50%.16 The literacy rate of Muslims is 43% with only 28% literate Muslim women. These wide educational disparities indicate the challenges that women and excluded groups experience in enhancing their technical and vocational skil

596、ls (figure 4.1).Children are dropping out of school because boys either migrate or help with family farm work, and girls either help in the household or marry early. Nepals early marriage rates are one of the highest in the region, with 18% of women aged 20 to 49 years having married before the age

597、of 15, and 49% of women aged 20 to 49 years having married before the age of 18.17 In Nepal, married girls are 11 times more likely to be out of school compared to their unmarried peers, and early marriage is cited as the second most common reason for school dropout for girls aged 15 to 17, and the

598、most common reason for school dropout for women aged 20 to 24. Additionally, it is often difficult for low income students to pursue further studies as secondary schools charge monthly fees in grades 11 and 12.18 These realities result in limited employability of students, particularly of women and

599、excluded group students. for students who left school without a school-leaving certificate and marketable skills, and are unemployed, training is necessary to avail of income opportunities to help them move out of poverty.16 World Bank. 2018. Country Level Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assess

600、ment, Re-analysis of Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS) data. kathmandu (Annex 2, Table 6.1 Education and Literacy). 17 Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics. 2014. Population Monograph. kathmandu. http:/cbs.gov.np18 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education. 2016. School Sector Devel

601、opment Plan 20162023. 1.3 key Issues and Challenges (subsection on Equity and Access). kathmandu. p. 13.Figure 4.1: Literacy Rate in Nepal (%)Source: World Bank. 2018. Reanalysis of NLSS Data. kathmandu.56.4 71.6 44.5 75.6 28.6 72.2 50.0 42.7 NepalMenWomenHillBrahminMadhesiDalitNewars Terai Janajati

602、s(excluding Tharus)Muslim 54SkILLS DEVELopMENTAccording to the Nepal Demographic Health Survey (NDHS) 2016, 57% of women and 78% of men are currently employed. The employment rate in Nepal is around 68% (figure 4.2). This means 32% of the countrys working age population, aged 15 to 64, are either un

603、employed or voluntarily inactive.19 The labor market sees entry of at least 512,000 youths per year, according to the Economic Survey of the Ministry of finance.20 In 2011, the male working age population was 58%, and the female working age population was 62%. A population growth projection conducte

604、d by the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) shows that by 2021, the working age population will increase from 58% in 2011 to 64% in 2021 for men and from 62% and 67% for women.21 Nepal is going through a phase of demographic dividend as growth of the working age population is higher than the growth

605、of the total population, and currently has a historically high young working age population which is an opportunity for the TEVT sector.22Although the share of women in the working age population is high, their employment in the formal sector is low. In the informal and private sectors, their employ

606、ment is high, but the wages are lower for the same type of job compared to their male counterparts. Besides, young girls often start working at an early age for virtually no wage.23 Women are less likely than men to be employed in professional, technical, and managerial occupations (6% versus 10%),

607、clerical services (2% versus 6%), sales and services (13% versus 23%), skilled manual labor (6% versus 15%), and unskilled manual labor (3%versus13%).24 19 World Bank. 2018. Jobless Growth? South Asia Economic Focus. Spring 2018. https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29650 License: CC By 3

608、.0 IGo. Washington DC.20 The kathmandu post. 2018. Nepals Employment Rate Highest in South Asia. kathmandu. http:/ uNfpA Nepal. 2017. Population Situation Analysis of Nepal (with respect to sustainable development). p. 7. https:/nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Nepal population Situation

609、Analysis.pdf.22 uNfpA Nepal. 2017. Nepal Population Situation Analysis: Executive Summary. kathmandu. p. 3.23 uNfpA Nepal. 2017. Nepal Population Situation Analysis (with respect to sustainable development). kathmandu. p. 15.24 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Su

610、rvey. kathmandu.Figure 4.2: Employment Rate (%)Source: World Bank. 2018. South Asia Economic Focus, Spring 2018: Jobless Growth? Washington, DC: World Bank. https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29650. License: CC By 3.0 IGo.68 57 78 Nepal Women Men 55GENDEr EquALITy AND SoCIAL INCLuSIoN D

611、IAGNoSTIC of SELECTED SECTorS IN NEpALSituation of women and excluded groups in tEvtCTEVT and/or NSTB have tested about 348,566 candidates and certified 269,573 individuals in different occupations at different levels up to 14 July 2017.25 Between 2000 and 2010, the number of TEVT graduates increase

612、d from 15,000 to 80,000 per year and the number of technical schools offering TSLC or diploma programs increased from 150 to over 400. Short-term training programs offered increased from 45 to more than 225, and the average number of certifications by the NSTB increased multifold per year.26from 201

613、4 to 2017, a total of 54,423 individuals received diploma level training from CTEVT and 177,680were trained for TSLC level. Special program for excluded groups (Janajati, Dalit, Muslims, and other excluded groups) had a total of 2,444 graduates from 2010 to 2014, and 2,100 were studying under the pr

614、ogram. out of the 2,444 students, 69% were Dalits, 18%wereMuslim, and the remaining 12% were from other excluded groups. About 51% chose the nursing certificatecourse, 21% took an 18-month assistant nurse midwife (ANM) course, and 16% enrolled in the 29-month ANM course. The rest of the courses had

615、minimal number of students.27Due to a lack of comprehensive national program for vocational training for pWDs, there have been limited interventions for equipping them with skills. The pWDs have received vocational trainings with residential facilities from the Ministry of Women, Children and Senior

616、 Citizens (then Social Welfare) since 2001 but the coverage has been very small. Gender stereotyping and perceptions about women-friendly occupations result in higher presence of women in traditional occupations like tailoring and their minimal presence in nontraditional sectors like electrician tra

617、ining. Caste and ethnic groups participation in training and education programs is limited, and more individuals from the advantaged groups access these programs.28There is low participation among excluded groups due to the lack of social preparation needed to train them. Most of the time, the types

618、 of trades selected for central level training are not attractive to excluded groups.29 They continue to face economic hardship in traveling to and staying in training venues. regional inequality in skills development opportunities is likely to become more visible in the federal structure.30 There h

619、as been very little effort to work on existing skills sets (such as those of Dalits) and help them develop in their traditional occupations (e.g., shoe making and pottery crafts).31 25 CTEVT/NVqS (Swiss Contact). 2018. Tracer Study of Skill Test Graduates, Final Report. kathmandu. p. 1 (Disaggregate

620、d data is unavailable).26 World Bank. 2016. World Development Indicators. In Enhanced Vocational Education and Training Project II, PAD. kathmandu.27 of the students, 5% took certificate level normal physician course, 3% students completed Diploma in Civil Engineering, 2% Veterinary Junior Technical

621、 Assistants, 1% Civil Sub-overseer, and 1% Diploma in Agriculture.28 k. Bhatta. 2016. Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Vocational Education and Training. Journal of Advanced Academic Research (JAAR). 3(2). July. rajasthan, India: Department of Sociology, Mewar university.29 ADB. 2013. Project

622、 Completion Report, Skills for Employment, Nepal (Appendix 2). Manila. p. 24.30 World Bank. 2017. Project Appraisal Document on Enhanced Vocational Education and Training Project II, Nepal. kathmandu. p. 4.31 TEVT. 2018. Meeting with Hari Pradhan, TEVT expert. kathmandu.56SkILLS DEVELopMENTStrong so

623、cial and gender norms and heavy burden of unpaid care work limit skills building and employment options of women and excluded groupsEntrenched norms regarding work suitable for women and excluded groups restrict their employment opportunities. Employers may adhere to conventional beliefs that women

624、are not suitable for nontraditional jobs and that Dalits will not be accepted in certain sectors. for instance, bias based on caste restricts Dalits from certain sectors as untouchability is still practiced.32In Lamjung, the service providers convinced Dalit applicants that the training course for w

625、aiters was not for them.for adolescent girls and women, access to technical schools in central locations is a challenge as parents are unwilling to permit their daughters to travel or stay away from home. Additionally, mobility of girls and women is challenged by the inadequate security system.Spend

626、ing on technical education is considered more appropriate for sons rather than for daughters as they are regarded as primary bread winners. Technical work is also considered a “hard skill” work and not suitable for women. The courses and curriculum reinforce these structural patriarchal values encou

627、raging women students to choose subjects considered suitable for their gender roles, such as nurse, tailor, and beautician. In school year 2016/2017, though about 51% of the total students enrolled in CTEVT were girls, they were studying gender-stereotyped subjects. Girls enrollment in health-relate

628、d subjects was 71%; in engineering related subjects, 13%; agriculture and science, 38%; hospital management, 29%; and entrepreneurship development and social works, 100% (figure 4.3).3332 Meeting with gender officers of different projects. GESI Diagnostic Study. 2018. kathmandu.33 CTEVT. 2017. Annua

629、l Report 2016/17. kathmandu. p. 5.Figure 4.3: Womens Enrollment in Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training Subjects, Fiscal Year 20162017 (%)71 13 38 29 100 Health Engineering Agricultureand scienceHospitalmanagement Entrepreneurship development and social worksSource: CTEVT. 2017. A

630、nnual Report 2016/17. kathmandu.57GENDEr EquALITy AND SoCIAL INCLuSIoN DIAGNoSTIC of SELECTED SECTorS IN NEpALThere were women who had stopped work or changed from a nontraditional trade (e.g., as a mason or plumber) because of household obligations or familys disapproval of their current employment

631、.34 unpaid care work, which is primarily womens responsibility in Nepal, reduces womens available time for employment and other income generating activities. This impacts their course and skills selectionrelated to paid work at home or not far from home (footnote 34). for Dalits, such caste-based di

632、scriminatory practices and norms similarly curtail their opportunities (footnote 32).for Dalits, food and beverage related trades are traditionally not considered caste-friendly. for example, after vocational training, a participant who was working in a bakery in kathmandu had to hide her caste iden

633、tity.In Accham, a milk collection center closed down because the community did not patronize the milk collected by Dalits.Social acceptance and employers acceptance of women and excluded groups in nontraditional sectors is a challengepoor literacy, lack of technical “hard” skills and poor “soft” ski

634、lls,35 combined with market and employers bias, constrain opportunities of women and excluded groups in sectors and subsectors (Box 4.2).34 Employment fund. 2015. Learning Series: T&E Observations and Strategies Regarding Women in Non-traditional Trades. https:/web.archive.org/web/208/htt

635、p:/www.employmentfund.org.np/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/TE-observations-and-Strategies-of-Women-in-non-traditional-trades.pdf.35 Soft skills are the necessary and basic personal and social skills people must have in order to do most jobs. https:/ied.eu/importance-soft-skills-existing/.Box 4.2: Chall

636、enges in Nontraditional TradesChallenges encountered by women in nontraditional trades include the belief of their families and community members that women should not be doing “mens work” and the belief of the society that they cannot do the job. They must gain the trust and confidence of customers

637、 and employers that they can carry out the tasks effectively. Empowered women overcome this challenge by honing and proving their skills. However, there are many women who remain unemployed because they fail to get the permission of their families, usually their husband or in-laws; or they lack the

638、confidence to take on a job or be self-employed in a nontraditional trade.With regards to womens employment, differences exist between the community from the hills (calledpahadi in Nepal) and the Madhesi community in the Tarai. In Madhesi culture, numerous practices inhibit women from leaving their

639、homes to go to work in the bazaar or out in the fields. The families totally prohibit women from interacting with men other than their family members. It was better to train Madhesi women in trades such as poultry and vegetable growing where they do not have to leave or travel far from their own hom

640、es to engage in nontraditional trades. for women of hills origin (i.e., pahadi women), social rules are not so conservative but the gender realities of care work burden and inability to travel and leave home for long periods are real constraints.Source: Employment fund/Helvetas. 2015. Note on Nontra

641、ditional Trades for Women. kathmandu. https:/www.s4ye.org/agi/pdf/project_Design/factsheet%20T&E%20strategies.pdf. 58SkILLS DEVELopMENTunder the ADB Skills for Employment project, a total of 59,129 (including 53.8% women) candidates completed short-term skills training, meeting the target of providi

642、ng market-oriented short-term skills training to at least 60,000 trainees. The project completion report (pCr) of the Skills Development project (SDp) indicated that of the 47,284 graduates, 76% (35,992) were gainfully employed and of which 40% were women and 72% were from excluded groups. Women wer

643、e less gainfully employed as many jobs were not perceived to be suitable for them such as chef, driver, wall painter, and mason.36 programs which offer electrical wiring or mason training often saw minimal or no women applications. for instance, in a house wiring training, there were only two women

644、out of 15 participants.37Labor force participation of women and excluded groups is high but primarily as unskilled and lowpaid workersWomen were 51.8% of the total labor force in Nepal in 2017.38 Womens participation in the labor force is high mainly because of their participation in agriculture sec

645、tor as wage laborers. A larger proportion of women (84%), compared to men (62%), are engaged in agricultural work, household-based extended economic activities, and maintenance work.39 Three quarters of the unpaid family labor force are women.The number of women in the nonagricultural sector is very

646、 low due to lack of skills, education, and mobility; household responsibilities; and inadequate time to seek opportunities or to participate in skills and capacity development activities. They also lack financial resources and have low risk-taking ability due to their dependence on family members. A

647、griculture is the most dominant source of livelihood for many social groups. Around 75% of the households in groups like Hill Chhetri and Tarai Janajati mainly rely on agriculture and related activities for livelihood. Dalits have the highest dependence on casual labor (52%).40Trainees and employers

648、 have negative perception about vocational education and trainingThere is a perception that TEVT is meant only for lower income strata and for excluded groups and low skilled people, and not for children of well-off and educated families. This suggests that only poorly qualified and low skilled peop

649、le are available in the market.41 The School-to-Work Transition Survey, Nepal (2008) shows that, while vocational education or training has helped the youth get into permanent or career jobs, they still consider vocational education or training less respectful. Employers also give higher level of im

650、portance to academic qualifications. The credibility of the training provided by TEVT institutes is also questioned. The trained graduates do not have the workplace level skills that employers look for, hence, the perception toward the TEVT graduates is negative (Box 4.3).4236 ADB. 2018. Skills Deve

651、lopment Program: Quarterly Progress Report (JanuaryMarch 2018). kathmandu.37 SASEC/ADB. 2018. Fourth Quarter Reporting (as of March 2018) of South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation-Power System Expansion Project (SASEC), Status of GESI Action Plan Implementation. kathmandu.38 World Bank. 2017. W

652、orld Development Indicators: Labor Force Structure. http:/wdi.worldbank.org/table/2.2.39 Government of Nepal, CBS/NpC. 2008. Labor Force Survey 2008. kathmandu.40 o. Gurung and M.L. Tamang. 2014. Nepal Social Inclusion Survey 2012, Caste, Ethnic and Gender Dimensions of Socio-economic Development, G

653、overnance and Social Solidarity. kathmandu: Central Department of Sociology/Anthropology, Tribhuvan university. p. 17.41 Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). 2018. Consultation meeting with Dr. usha Bhandari. kathmandu.42 Meetings with different stakeholders. GESI Diagnostic Study. Ju

654、ne 2018. kathmandu.59GENDEr EquALITy AND SoCIAL INCLuSIoN DIAGNoSTIC of SELECTED SECTorS IN NEpALService providers show low priority and less interest in training women and excluded groupsService providers have low commitment in building the skills of women and excluded groups because they perceive

655、working with them as an extra burden.43 The reluctance of employers and structural constraints (care work, safety and security, caste-based bias) deter the service providers who then take tokenistic measures but do not put intensive efforts to ensure these people are as employable as others.Good Pra

656、ctices and LessonsSpecial measures to promote skills training and employment of women and excluded groupsTo ensure that women and excluded groups can access skills development efforts, specific measures should be in place, such as representation of women in various courses, employment in nontraditio

657、nal fields, expanding access to technical education, and specific interventions that effectively caters to the marginalized groups (Box 4.4).Strategies to encourage and prepare women for skills training and employment Employment fund (a project implemented by Helvetas and funded by DfID Nepal) deman

658、ded its service providers that at least a certain percentage of women trained by them (preferably in nontraditional skills) would be employed after the training. The technical education service providers learned that strategies were needed to motivate women and prepare them for employment (Box 4.5).

659、43 Meeting with GESI Adviser, Centre for International Studies and Cooperation (CECI). GESI Diagnostic Study. June 2018. kathmandu.Box 4.3: Importance of Skills TestingThe Tracer Study of Skill Test Graduates surveyed 1,498 skills-tested graduates and 43 employers in the construction and hospitality

660、 sectors. results show that 68% of the respondents belonged to the construction sector, which had 73% men. on the other hand, women marginally led at 51% in the hospitality sector. outof 1,498 graduates, 39.13% were found employed, either in Nepal or in a foreign country; 18% self-employed; and the

661、remaining 42.87% unemployed. out of 565 respondents employed in Nepal, 11.3% received less than the minimum salary specified by the Labor Law (Nrs9,700). The respondents claimed that personal networking with employer was key to finding and securing employment. Thiswas supplemented by their experienc

662、e and skills certificates from the National Skill Testing Board. Theemployers were positive about skills certificates as it assured them that a candidate had the basic skills, job ethics, and good behavior. Source: CTEVT/Nepal Vocational qualifications System (NVqS) (Swiss contact). 2018. Tracer Stu

663、dy of Skill Test Graduates: AReport. kathmandu.60SkILLS DEVELopMENTBox 4.4: Measures to Increase Access of Women to Skills TrainingThe Skills Development project (20132019) funded by ADB (grant of $20 million) and the Government of Nepal ($5 million) supported the development of a market-responsive,

664、 social, and gender-responsive technical education and vocational training (TEVT) system. The project adopted a gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) action plan, with specific GESI activities under each of the project outputs. Theproject aimed to ensure that women and members of excluded grou

665、ps had equitable access to short-term technical education and vocational training and equal access to long-term TEVT by setting enrollment targets. In addition, service providers were mandated to provide enhanced pre- and post-training to facilitate womens and excluded groups transition into waged e

666、mployment or self-employment (target of employing 40% women and 30% excluded). The project focused on the need to create opportunities for women in nontraditional industries, such as construction, where there were skill shortages, and to make up for the loss of skilled Nepalese men working overseas.

667、The project recruited GESI experts to provide technical support in implementing the GESI action plan. AGESI officer (whose education level is Intermediate in Commerce and gazette III class) was also nominated to lead the day-to-day management. GESI was under the responsibility of a regional monitori

668、ng officer who was trained and assigned as GESI officer. GESI elements were integrated in request for proposal, bidding, and evaluation criteria; hence GESI was mainstreamed in the service provider selection process and contract signing. The memorandum of understanding included GESI principles in al

669、l activities, particularly in trainee mobilization and selection, training operation, and training materials on supporting gainful employment of women and excluded groups. GESI training for the management staff, coordinator, and trainers was made mandatory to the school. Hence, all related staff wer

670、e trained.Source: Council of Technical Education and Vocational Training. 2019. Skills Development project: project Evaluation Study, final report. kathmandu.The Enhanced Vocational Education and Training (EVENT) I (20112015) of the Ministry of Education (funded by World Bank) aimed to expand the su

671、pply of skilled and employable labor by increasing access to quality training programs and by strengthening the TEVT system in Nepal. The project incorporated special incentives for trainers who provided training for women and excluded groups. The project also initiated the practice of having a Wome

672、n Window with the aim to train women in nontraditional trades. EVENT I benefited a significant number of womenout of 73,392 trainees provided with short-term training, 41% were women. Through the Women Window, the project also trained 5,025 women in 15different types of nontraditional skills. Majori

673、ty of the women (1,071) signed up for training to become a building electrician, followed by those seeking to become junior poultry technician and junior computer hardware technician. This special focus on expanding access to technical education and vocational training of poor women, and young peopl

674、e from excluded groups and lagging regions, is underpinned by robust communication, outreach, engagement, and feedback strategies.EVENT = enhanced vocational education and training, GESI = gender equality and social inclusion, TEVT = technical education and vocational training.Source: World Bank Nep

675、al. 2015. EVENT I Reports. kathmandu.61GENDEr EquALITy AND SoCIAL INCLuSIoN DIAGNoSTIC of SELECTED SECTorS IN NEpALLooking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to ConsiderThis section highlights key learnings that merit consideration by ADB in sector and project analyses and in discussions with governm

676、ent counterparts.Market feasibility studies and alignment of demand and supply requirements are essential for better employment of trained women and excluded groupsfeasibility and market studies are needed for the training to be better aligned to requirements and become more useful. Approximately 11

677、4,000 students attend long-term and short-term courses in Nepal annually;44 but the tracer study shows that of the respondents covered in the study, almost 44 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education. 2017. Comprehensive TEVT Annual Report. kathmandu.Box 4.5: Strategies to Include Women in Nontrad

678、itional TradesSituation analysis. Conduct research and analysis in each specific location before doing training in the communities and ensure that the community members will be able to continue to work in the trade.Counseling and exposure visits. provide a clear orientation about the training and th

679、e trade before enrolling women in nontraditional trade training. Counsel before and after the training to prepare women and their families for future employment. This should include visits to womens homes to talk to them and exposure visits to the workshops so that women and their families are more

680、aware and can select possible options.Life skills training before trade training. Life skills training (for 5 days) before the trade training would help women to build the confidence and awareness they need, since historical disadvantage and years of subordination psychologically constrain womens so

681、cial skills of dealing with the public domain.Family engaged in the trade. Women trained in trades which had family members find work in the same trade much easier.Engaging business owners. Another strategy was to engage business owners on a freelance basis as trainers for the training. They would t

682、hen hire women trainees as employees after completion of the training.Workshops offered by training and employment service providers. Some training and employment service providers were companies with workshops that had trained and employed women.On-the-job training and tools. on-the-job training wa

683、s a crucial strategy to offer women with employment for 6 months and work experience after the completion of their training. provision of tools to women encouraged them to take training in nontraditional trades.Diversification of trades. Training in more than one trade and usually in several trades

684、that are both traditional and nontraditional helps women in finding employment. If women are trained in only one sector of specialized trades, such as hospitality, it is challenging for them to find employment. Source: Helvetas-Swiss Development Cooperation, Government of Nepal, Department for Inter

685、national Development, World Bank Group. 2015. Learning Series: Training and Employment Service Providers Observations and Strategies regarding Women in Nontraditional Trades. kathmandu.62SkILLS DEVELopMENT43%were unemployed.45 The discrepancy between skills and labor market needs is a critical facto

686、r in preventing women and excluded groups from finding or maintaining stable employment as they tend to have less education, fewer skills, and less mobility than men and dominant social groups. A better understanding of what market exists for what types of skills is needed. A situation analysis in e

687、ach specific location before doing training in the communities is essential to realize whether the training will have any impact and whether the trainees can work in the trade.46Targeted courses can facilitate access of women and excluded groups to different opportunities, including in the nontradit

688、ional sectorTargeted courses for skills development provide opportunities for women and excluded groups to improve their skills and employability. Special efforts for their intake by CTEVT resulted in an increase in the number of trainees from such social background. Without explicit targets for exc

689、luded groups, not as many trainees from the groups would have benefited from skills training. A national curriculum of vocational training for pWDs should be developed with intensive engagement of pWDs themselves. The possible training courses that could be designed and provided for pWDs include, bu

690、t are not limited to, computer software operation skills (basic office package), computer maintenance (hardware and software), mobile repair and maintenance, secretarial service and reception, and graphic design.47Another key learning from the projects has been that targets should not be uniform acr

691、oss all training areas. The nature of the trade, target beneficiaries level of interest, training location, population density of excluded groups, and market readiness should be properly assessed before setting trade-specific targets.48To facilitate the transition into waged employment or self-emplo

692、yment of women and excluded groups, the ADB-supported Skills Development project (SDp) provided pre-and post-training support.49 opportunities were also developed for women in nontraditional industries, such as construction, where there are skill shortages due to absence of Nepalese men working over

693、seas.Specific support and affirmative action facilitate the involvement of women in male-dominated trades and link them with credit institutions, information, resources, and services so that they can capitalize on opportunities. Counseling and business literacy training is required to support their

694、self-employment. According to the experience of Employment fund, some nontraditional trades require timely counseling, including motivation and advocacy visits, which exposes women and family gatekeepers to key information that can provide them options to engage in skills development training or emp

695、loyment. As a result, nontraditional trades such as mobile repair and bamboo crafts-making are gradually being perceived as more acceptable for women.50 Counseling was found essential as 45 CTEVT. 2018. Tracer Study of Skill Test Graduates: A Report. kathmandu.46 Employment fund, Helvetas-SDC, Depar

696、tment for International Development, World Bank Group. 2015. Learning Series: T&E Observations and Strategies Regarding Women in Non-Traditional Trades. kathmandu (Disaggregated data is unavailable).47 M. prasai. 2010. Relevant Vocational Trainings for the Persons with Disabilities in Nepal. https:/

697、 ADB. 2013. Project Completion Report, Skills for Employment Project. Manila.49 The Skills Development project was initiated on 24 october 2013 and closed on 15 January 2019.50 The Employment fund in Nepal provides short-term skills training to women and men aged 1640 years. It was implemented by He

698、lvetas and Nepals Ministry of Energy and funded by SDC, DfID, and WBG.63GENDEr EquALITy AND SoCIAL INCLuSIoN DIAGNoSTIC of SELECTED SECTorS IN NEpALa specific strategy to prepare women and their families for womens employment after the training. Motivational and advocacy visits and exposure of women

699、 and family gatekeepers were important strategies also for a more informed selection of options.Setting targets for women and excluded groups in training courses and ensuring quality should be balancedSetting a quota for the participation of women and excluded groups in training courses is needed, o

700、therwise their presence is minimal or completely absent in some sectors. SDp has set enrollment targets for women and excluded groups to increase their equitable access to short-term technical education and vocational training and equal access to long-term TEVT. However, experience of SDp suggests t

701、hat quality may have been compromised at times, in the attempt to fulfill required targets, with participants being enrolled without full assessment of their ability or potential to use the acquired skills (though government pCr data demonstrates that 17,082 women, representing 86.4% of the total wo

702、men enrollees in Level 1, Level 2, and midlevel training courses of the SDp, were found gainfully employed).51Preparation and sensitization of service providers on GESI is needed for effective training and employment of women and excluded groupsorientation of the service providers is crucial to enha

703、nce their understanding and skills to address GESI issues in their work. The trained service providers in projects promoted GESI principles in all their operations, specifically in mobilization, training, and the incorporation of GESI in training manuals. This kind of preparation and sensitization h

704、as not been done as a routine practice in all training courses. The lack of preparation activities or in-depth, regular orientation of service providers results in inadequate attention to issues of women and excluded groups. Discriminatory values and beliefs of service providers determine their prio

705、rities and what kinds of services they provide to whom, hence it is important to orient and sensitize them.Making the training facilities more GESI-friendly would create an enabling environment for more women and excluded groups to proactively enroll and participate in trainings. A GESI-friendly fac

706、ility involves having separate toilets for women and men, provisions for childcare facilities including accommodation for child caretaker, sanitary pads for emergency use, and if possible arranging accommodation or partnering with institutions that provide short-term staythese were undertaken in ADB

707、-supported skills development projects. When recruiting instructors and managers, affirmative action to encourage women instructors and instructors from excluded groups would promote higher numbers of women and excluded groups to attend training courses. Widespread communication and outreach campaig

708、ns in multiple languages and different forms of media are necessary to make information easily accessible to women and excluded groups, who many times, are unable to participate due to lack of information.52 Information campaigns with womens associations and identity-based organizations or community

709、 stakeholders are required to increase awareness and social acceptance of the community-wide benefits achieved from skilling women and excluded groups.5351 Meeting with the project Director, Skills Development project. July 2018. kathmandu.52 ADB. 2013. Skills Development project (20042012). Project

710、 Completion Report. kathmandu.53 Swiss Development Cooperation. 2006. Gender and Skills Development Report. Geneva.64SkILLS DEVELopMENTTEVT service providers require policy directives, incentives, and systematic follow up and monitoring to ensure GESI aspects are integrated in their servicesIt is im

711、portant to systematically work with service providers at different levels to institutionalize GESI in service delivery, GESI-related policy provisions, financial arrangements, and skills and systems strengthening. GESI should be mainstreamed in TEVT-related policies, institutional mechanisms, and tr

712、aining courses. Strategies such as including GESI responsibilities in provisions of agreements with service providers and basing financial arrangements or assistance on compliance with GESI provisions are needed. for example, Employment fund pays the final installment for a training implemented by a

713、 training and employment service provider (TESp) only after it verifies the number of trainees gainfully employed (defined as a monthly income of Nrs4,600) 6 months after the completion of the training.provisions to incentivize service providers for employment of women and excluded groups are necess

714、ary. The World Banks Enhanced Vocational Education and Training project (EVENT I andII) incentivized the sector through scholarships and subsidization of the cost of training and skills test.54 SDp implemented varied placement incentives based on perceived degree of difficulty with employment genera

715、tion and job placement.55 While SDp included GESI provisions in TESp selection criteria, stricter monitoring procedures are required to ensure effective implementation by TESps and the project implementation unit.Dedicated staff with responsibility for GESI mainstreaming is necessary to provide tech

716、nical response, and to identify and optimize emerging opportunities to achieve GESI results. Systems to program and budget with GESI aspects and to maintain disaggregated data are also needed.Along with technical focus, it is important to do parental education and work with the society to gradually

717、eliminate discriminatory normsA key learning is that technical skills building is insufficient for women and excluded groups to benefit from their training. for example, Employment fund targeted women and trained them as masons. Many women masons received the opportunity to work in the reconstructio

718、n of their villages that were affected by the 2015 earthquake. But when the work was completed, they could not market their skills and work in other areas because of gender-based constraints such as unpaid care work and mobility restrictions. Safety and security issues also constrain their ability t

719、o seek employment elsewhere.56Without parental permission, it is difficult for girls and young women to select courses which are nontraditional. In SDp, some parents did not allow girls to enroll in a welding course as it would spoil their looks which was important for their marriage.57 Skills progr

720、ams need to educate young women 54 EVENT 1 (20112015), EVENT 2 (20172022). International Development Association project appraisal document on a proposed credit for SDr42.7 million ($60 million) to Nepal for the Enhanced Vocational Education and Training project II. 8 September 2017.55 placement bon

721、uses vary according to the perceived degree of difficulty with employment services and job placement of the following four categories: (A) women from discriminated groups, Dalit, Adivasi, disadvantaged Janajati, Madhesi, Muslims and women who are widows, physically disabled, remote rural dwellers or

722、 landless Tarai dwellers; (B) economically poor women not referred to under category A and economically active women who wish to upskill from level 1 to level 2; (C) men from discriminated groups, Dalit, Adivasi, disadvantaged Janajati, Madhesi, Muslims and women who are widows, physically disabled,

723、 remote rural dwellers or landless Tarai dwellers; (D) economically poor men not referred to under category C and economically active women who wish to upskill from level 1 to level 2. See ADB. 2013. project Administration Manual. Nepal Skills Development Project. kathmandu.56 Meeting with a trained

724、 mason. GESI Diagnostic Study. 15 July 2018. Sindhuli, Nepal.57 Interview with Skills Development project team. 21 June 2018. kathmandu.65GENDEr EquALITy AND SoCIAL INCLuSIoN DIAGNoSTIC of SELECTED SECTorS IN NEpALand their families about the relative returns of different trades and encourage them t

725、o go to higher-paying fields. young women are channeled into traditionally women-friendly trades that are less lucrative and lack sufficient market demand. The Employment fund successfully overcame this by incentivizing the training providers to focus on employment. To address such structural constr

726、aints, project components require to integrate interventions such as advocacy with women, excluded groups, family and community gatekeepers, and service providers (Table 4.1).Table 4.1: Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Perspectives in the Skills Development SectorBarrier

727、sActions to Address the BarriersDiscriminatory gender and social norms constraining women and excluded groups from accessing sector resources and opportunitiesConduct social marketing and raise the awareness of women, families, and communities on the benefits of skills development.prepare persons wi

728、th disability (pWDs) and their families in using learned skills efficiently for income opportunitiesorganize exposure visits, interactive discussions, and demonstration.poor information access by women and excluded groups to technical educational vocational training (TEVT) courses and job prospectsC

729、onduct information campaigns and use different mediums and appropriate languages.request local community facilitators and groups to inform communities regarding courses, employment prospects, and other relevant information.Limited social acceptance of women and excluded groups in nontraditional trad

730、esCarry out advocacy, demonstration, and counselling to transform negative perceptions of “nontraditional skills” for women, Dalits, and other excluded groups.Limited gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) mainstreaming in policy and institutional arrangements of TEVT sectorSupport government a

731、t all levels (federal, provincial, and local) to review and develop policies supporting skilled employment of women and excluded groups.Mainstream gender in TEVT institutional system: policy, programs, and budgetary processes.Establish monitoring and evaluation systems for TEVT with disaggregated da

732、tabase. Skills training not aligned with market needsConduct labor market analysis to determine training needs and opportunities for women and excluded groups.Expensive technical and vocational coursesprovide scholarships, easy loans, and subsidized fees for women and excluded groups.Establish quota

733、s and other affirmative measures to increase excluded groups participation in skills training.provide mobile training camps to ease access and reduce costs.Limited mainstreaming of GESI aspects in training coursesreview and revise (as required) training curriculum, delivery modalities, registration

734、procedures, and evaluation forms to incorporate GESI aspects. Train instructors and trainers on GESI so that they can recognize and respond to GESI issues during the training.continued on next page66SkILLS DEVELopMENTBarriersActions to Address the BarriersInappropriate training environmentuse safe,

735、disabled-friendly accommodation and hostel facilities for students, such as separate housing facilities for boys and girls.Ensure availability of separate toilets, transportation systems, zero tolerance to sexual harassment, and due respect for participants and staff irrespective of their class and

736、ethnicity. provide childcare and breastfeeding facilities for women trainees who are young mothers.Make appropriate adjustments of methodology and timing.Lack of interest among service providers and employers to promote women and excluded groups in the sectorInform service providers and employers ab

737、out the governments affirmative action policies and programs in TEVT.Incentivize service providers and employers through various strategies such as subsidization of training and skills test costs.prepare and sensitize stakeholders about inequalities between social groups and how addressing gender an

738、d caste or ethnic-based bias contributes to countrys progress.Low employment prospects of women and excluded groups in higher paid sectors.Implement systematic apprenticeship programs to provide opportunities to newly skilled trainees, especially from excluded groups, to practice their skills as int

739、erns or apprentices.Set up job counseling centers within all TEVT institutions with special capacity to advise students from different genders, caste, ethnicity, geographic location, and economic class. Introduce diversified nontraditional programs specially geared for women, Dalits, pWDs, and stude

740、nts of other excluded groups.Develop partnership with labor market key stakeholders, employers, government, and the private sector to guarantee job availability for graduates.GESI = gender equality and social inclusion, TEVT = technical education and vocational training, pWD = person with disability

741、. Source: Table prepared for this study.Table 4.1 continued6768Area of collaborationADB assisted Nepals transport sector through 65 projects, valued at 18.32% of its cumulative lending, grant, and technical assistance commitments from December 1966 to December 2018.Improvements to strategic urban an

742、d rural roads, including roads in remote regions, account for most of the investment. Areas of collaboration between ADB and the Government of Nepal also include enhanced transport connectivity within Nepal and with neighboring countries, transport policy, and capacity of transport institutions.Sect

743、or contextThe most popular modes of transport in Nepal are road transport and aviation. The nations often difficult terrain has made a large section of the population dependent on walking. Nepal has a road network which serves as a basic road connector and requires regular maintenance, upgrading, an

744、d further connection to other districts. Gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) considerations relevant to sector planning and outcomesGender and caste/ethnicity differentials in travel patterns and resources determine the use of road infrastructures and transport modalities. Gender and disable

745、d-friendly road infrastructures are limited, constraining the mobility of these groups.Multiple roles and competing demands result in women minimizing their travel time and choosing work opportunities at shorter distances from home.Opportunities in the labor or employment market are affected by acce

746、ssibility differences. Income opportunities in the transport construction sector are not equitably available to all due to differential capacities.Despite increased representation among women and excluded groups, their voice is still limited, and they are unable to influence decisions in transport p

747、lanning.Good practices and lessonsPolicy provisions, capacity building, and institutional mainstreaming in the road transport sector facilitate effective GESI integration (e.g., training of staff, appointment of focal persons, promotion of gender- and disabled-friendly infrastructure)Making improved

748、 transport access increase economic opportunities for women and excluded groups requires additional measures (e.g., providing them with access to financing to open new businesses alongside improved road networks.)TrAnSporT5TrANSPOrTLooking forward: Issues and opportunities to considerIt is essential

749、 to identify and analyze differentiated transport needs and gaps.Livelihood and entrepreneurial opportunities in transport services and roadside amenities need to be GESI-responsive.Affordable modes of transport for all, especially for women and excluded groups, should be promoted.Socioeconomic impa

750、cts should be analyzed and introduced in appraisal tools as alternative transport evaluation criteria for estimating benefits and costs (e.g., using accessibility, mobility, and health effects as indicators instead of travel time).Further resourcesTip sheet on addressing barriers experienced by wome

751、n and excluded groups and integrating GESI in the transport sector (Table 5.1).GESI = gender equality and social inclusion.Area of CollaborationTransport has been a lead sector in the partnership between ADB and the Government of Nepal. ADB has provided assistance to the sector with 65 projects wort

752、h $1,158.92 million,1 which is 18.32% of its cumulative lending, grant, and technical assistance commitments to Nepal from December 1966 to December 2018.2 Improvements to strategic urban and rural roads, including roads in remote regions, account for most of the investment. Other areas of collabora

753、tion between ADB and the government include enhanced transport connectivity within Nepal and with neighboring countries, transport policy, and capacity of transport institutions.Sector ContextThe nations often difficult terrain has made a large section of the population dependent on walking. The mos

754、t popular modes of transport in Nepal are road transport and aviation. Others include ropeways and one railroad. During the past 5 years, Nepals transport sector has grown at an average rate of 7%. Currently, the sector accounts for 11% of real GDP. The transportation industry directly provides empl

755、oyment to almost 20,000 people.3 The Nepal transportation system depends largely on the road network. The country has a total road network of 80,078 kilometers (km). Out of former 75 districts, only 67 districtheadquarter roads are linked with all-weather roads. Two district headquarters, Humla and

756、Dolpa, are not yet connected by road.4 Most of these roads work only as basic road connectors and 1 ADB. 2018. Nepal by the Numbers. ADB Data Library. https:/data.adb.org/dashboard/nepal-numbers (Data about projects and funds is cumulative from 19 December 1996 to 31 December 2017 and covers all ass

757、istance).2 ADB. 2018. Cumulative Lending, Grant, and Technical Assistance Commitments. ADB Data Library. https:/data.adb.org/dataset/cumulative-lending-grant-and-technical-assistance-commitments (accessed 27 December 2019).3 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Industry, Office of the Investment Board,

758、Investment Board Nepal. 2017. Transportation Sector Profile. Kathmandu. p. 4 (Disaggregated data is unavailable).4 Department of roads, Nepal. http:/dor.gov.np/home/page/ssrn-2015-16.69GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALrequire regular maintenance, upgrading,

759、 and further road connection to other districts (footnote3). The length of Strategic road Network in fy20152016 was 12,898 km of which black-topped was the highest with 6,823 km and graveled the lowest at 2,044 km. Earthen roads were 4,030 km (footnote4). Half of the population now enjoys access to

760、paved roads. Travel time, on average, has dropped to nearly 80%.5 In hill areas, one-third of residents walk more than four hours to reach an all-season road and this is worse in the mountain regions (figure 5.1).Nepals railway line has a total length of 57 km, out of which only 5 km is currently op

761、erating. Thecountry has one international airport and 56 domestic airports. Although comparatively expensive, air transport facilitates tourism and trade because it is safer, reliable, and cost effective.Policy and Institutional FrameworkThere are policies and laws regulating the sector, some of whi

762、ch are discussed below from a GESI perspective. The two key ministries at the policy level are the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport (MOPIT) for strategic roads and the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation for air transport. The regulatory and implementation bodies are MOP

763、ITs three departments (roads, railways, and Transport Management), Department of Local Infrastructure (DOLI), and Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal. The road Board Nepal is responsible for raising funds for road maintenance.Strategic roads networkMOPIT has been executing strategic roads, railways, a

764、nd transport management sector programs throughout the country. following national mandates, it approved GESI Guidelines in 2017 and is working on its implementation. Other sectoral policies do not specify GESI aspects explicitly, such as the following:5 World Bank. 2017. Strengthening Connectivity

765、in Nepal. http:/www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2016/02/17/strengthening-rural-connectivity-in-nepal.Figure 5.1: Situations of Roads in Nepal, Fiscal Year 20152016 (kilometer)Source: Government of Nepal, Office of the Investment Board and Ministry of Industry. 2017. Transportation Sector Profile.

766、Kathmandu. https:/ibn.gov.np/uploads/files/Sector/Transportation_Sector%20Profile.pdf.12,8986,8234,030Black-toppedGraveledEarthen70TrANSPOrT The Public Works Directives guide the overall infrastructure development of the country. Areview of the Public Works Directives indicates that GESI issues have

767、 not been specifically addressed in other sections except for social assessment. There is so limited recognition in the description of roles and responsibilitiesin planning, implementation, and post-implementation stages, or of project staff and committeesthat a more specific mandate of provision fo

768、r effective inclusion is necessary. Aspects such as hiring of consultants or coordination with other agencies also do not reflect an understanding that different strategies or qualifications recognizing different competencies could result in a more diverse profile of consultants or partner agencies.

769、 The general and sector procedures have demanded assessment of the target group needs and social-environmental constraints which provide space for GESI related analysis. The guidance has stated that social inequalities and gender issues be assessed. In the Conditions of Contract for Works of Civil E

770、ngineering Construction prepared by the International federation of Consulting Engineers, the duties and authorities of engineers and contractors and the contractual agreements are detailed but there is no mandate for GESI integration. The roles of key officers, contractors, contract agreements, the

771、 construction site provisions, and the engagement of labor are some areas that require directives for addressing GESI. The PublicPrivate Partnership Policy (2015) aims to enhance publicprivate sector investment for public infrastructure services through the adoption of the publicprivate partnership

772、(PPP) model. It prioritizes physical infrastructures and transportation (roads, bridges, airports, railways, cable cars, ropeways, and all ports) for PPP projects.6 The policy requires full or partial capital investment of private entities for the purpose of construction, rehabilitation or moderniza

773、tion of infrastructure services with responsibilities to operate, maintain and deliver infrastructure services. The public sector, on the other hand, is required to provide the legal framework and necessary support for implementation and to have the oversight responsibilities (footnote 6). There are

774、 no provisions to promote an enabling environment for addressing issues of women and excluded groups in the different stages of the PPP process. The Private financing in Build and Operation of Infrastructures Act (2006) states that involvement and financing of the private sector is important in the

775、build, operation and transfer of infrastructures in consistency with the liberal economic policy pursued by the country.7 This act has several chapters with provisions relating to project implementation, including rights and facilities of licensee and formation of committees. The project coordinatio

776、n committee is mandated to work with the concerned local government unit and include a woman member for monitoring projects.6 Government of Nepal, Ministry of finance. 2015. PublicPrivate Partnership Policy, 2072 (2015). (unofficial English translation). Kathmandu.7 Government of Nepal. 2006. Privat

777、e Financing in Build and Operation of Infrastructures Act, 2063. Kathmandu. www.moppw.gov.np71GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPAL The main thrust of the Public Procurement Act 2007 (which has been recently amended)8 is to establish legal provisions to make th

778、e procedures, processes, and decisions relating to public procurement more open, transparent, objective, and reliable; and obtain the maximum returns of public expenditures in an economical and rational manner by promoting competition, fairness, honesty, accountability, and reliability in public pro

779、curement processes.9 furthermore, it aims to ensure good governance by enhancing the managerial capacity of public entities in procuring goods, consultancy services, and other services, and in ensuring equal opportunity for producers, sellers, suppliers, construction entrepreneurs, or service provid

780、ers to participate in public procurement processes without any discrimination. However, the act does not recognize that women and excluded groups experience structural constraints in accessing procurement processes and participating as suppliers, service providers, or entrepreneurs. No provisions ha

781、ve been made to encourage or promote their equitable participation in public procurement processes. Similarly, the Public Procurement regulation (2007) does not have provision on GESI issues.10rural roads networkThe Department of Local Infrastructure Development (DOLI, previously DOLIDAr), which is

782、under the Ministry of federal Affairs and General Administration (Ministry of federal Affairs and General Administration, previously Ministry of federal Affairs and Local Development MOfALD), is responsible for rural transport and development in Nepal. The DOLI adopts the Local Infrastructure Develo

783、pment Policy which recognizes and considers GESI. The ministry has its own GESI policy, and its provisions must be effectively integrated in all local infrastructure development projects.Environmental and Social Management FrameworkThe 2007 Environmental and Social Management framework (ESMf) and it

784、s addendum of 2013 has a number of provisions for women and excluded groups such as removal of gender-biased wages, fair payment to women laborers, establishment of grievance offices, tracking of number of women employed (at least 30% employment reservation for women), and specific strategy to promo

785、te good opportunities for vulnerable groups and women. The public consultation framework has specified numerous measures to ensure the participation and inputs of women and excluded groups.11 8 The Public Procurement Act 2007 (2063) (the “PPA”) and Public Procurement rules 2008 (2064) (the “PPr”) de

786、al with the requirements and procedures relating to public procurement in Nepal. The first Amendment to the PPA has been introduced on 14 July 2016 (2073-03-30 B.S.), referred to as the “first Amendment.” Subsequent to the first Amendment, certain provisions of the PPr have also been amended notably

787、 by: (i) fourth Amendment dated 19 December 2016 (2073-09-04), and (ii) fifth Amendment dated 9 March 2017 (2073-11-26), collectively called as the “PPr Amendments.” While some processes have been relaxed and selected public entities exempted from competing with private organizations, there are no p

788、rovisions addressing the specific barriers of women and excluded groups. See Pioneer Law Associates. Legal News: Amendment to Public Procurement Law. http:/ Government of Nepal. The Public Procurement Act, 2063 (2007). http:/ppmo.gov.np/image/data/files/acts_and_regulations/public_procurement_act_20

789、63.pdf.10 Government of Nepal. 2007. The Public Regulation. http:/ppmo.gov.np/image/data/files/acts_and_regulations/public_ procurement_rules_2064.pdf.11 Measures include holding separate meetings with women and excluded groups during both the environmental and the social impact assessment; at least

790、 30% of employment reserved for women; women are adequately participating, and fairly paid for similar type of work as men, and that there is no child labor; women are fully informed of the process and procedures of resettlement, and the opportunities and rights they have from potential sources of i

791、ncome. Contractors need to be made liable to observe gender quota in awarding jobs to unskilled labor. See Government of Nepal. 2017. Environment and Social Management Framework. Chapter 5: Public Consultation Framework. Kathmandu.72TrANSPOrTOutcomelevel indicators have been included, such as partic

792、ipation of women and excluded groups in users committees, road construction employment contracts, employment in commercial enterprises, change in ownership over assets, and status in decision-making and mobility.12policy provisions for persons with DisabilitySection 4 of the Constitution, which list

793、s the governments directive principles, policies, and responsibilities, has a provision for safe, well-managed, and disabled-friendly transportation sector to ensure easy and equitable access to transportation services for all citizens. The recently promulgated People with Disabilitys rights Act 201

794、7 further establishes the rights of PWDs, including the right to mobility and the right to access all public facilities. Nepal has also signed international conventions for PWDswhich require the government to provide adequate facilities for universal access. The five-year Strategic Plan for road, ra

795、il and Transport Sector (20732078) recently prepared by MOPIT requires all urban roads to be pedestrian and PWD-friendly. The uN Convention on the rights of Persons with Disabilities (uNCrPD), which Nepal signed and ratified in 2010, has a provision on accessibility (Article 9).13After Federal restr

796、ucturingAfter federal restructuring, the Department of roads was given authority to do procurement and construction of road infrastructure for all strategic roads. for other rural and municipal roads, the concerned municipalities have authority to procure all the works within their boundaries. for p

797、rovince level roads connecting more than one municipality, the provincial governments may establish infrastructure department to procure and do construction works.14Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and OutcomesSituation of women and excluded groups in t

798、he sectorInequitable access to paved and dirt roadsAccording to NLSS 2011, the mean travel time of 51% households to the nearest paved road was less than 30 minutes. A disaggregated analysis of NLSS data indicates that a wide disparity exists between the access of different social groups to paved ro

799、ads (Box 5.1).1512 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport. 2017. Environmental and Social Management Framework: A Guide to the Environmental and Social Issues Associated with New Road Construction and Upgrading (Final Version). Kathmandu. http:/dor.gov.np/home/publica

800、tion/gesu-publication/force/environmental-and-social-management-framework.13 Article 9 of UN Convention for Rights of Persons with Disability states “To enable persons with disabilities to live independently and participate fully in all aspects of life, States Parties shall take appropriate measures

801、 to ensure to persons with disabilities access, on an equal basis with others, to the physical environment, to transportation, to information and communications, including information and communications technologies and systems, and to other facilities and services open or provided to the public, bo

802、th in urban and in rural areas.” See uN CrPD. Article 9. Accessibility. https:/www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities/article-9-accessibility.html.14 Meeting with World Bank procurement specialist. 27 April 2018. Kathmandu.15 LAHurNIP. 2014. A

803、Study on the Socio-Economic Status of Indigenous Peoples in Nepal. Kathmandu. https:/www.iwgia.org/images/publications/0712_social-economic-status-of-indigenous-peoples-of-nepal.pdf.73GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALMeasures enabling local communities to u

804、se constructed roads have been limited, hence a research was conducted. The study reveals that the hill regions, cash-poor subsistence farmers, and women are the least able to afford transport services or to take advantage of the access to service outlets.16The road system in Nepal often lacks footp

805、aths, and those that exist are often in poor condition, blocked by vehicles, rubbish, vendors or roadside furniture, and are lacking in ramps and other features that would assist PWDs. It is often unsafe to cross the road because of poor compliance to traffic rules, a high proportion of two- and thr

806、ee-wheel vehicles, and deteriorating road surfaces. These problems affect the safety and access of all people using the road, and present a significant challenge to PWDswho may have a greater need for a smooth and continuous path and lesser speed when crossing roads, and have sensory impairments tha

807、t constrain their perception and prediction of emerging traffic situations.17Limited recognition in transport planning of local movement of goods and people, and differentiated needs of women, pWDs, and excluded groupsOften transport tasks in rural areas do not require people to move along the distr

808、ict-level road networks (e.g., to access water facilities, education, finance, health centers, and markets). Local transport links, using local paths, and relying on walking and head-loading or using intermediate means of transport is more common than using main roads and motorized transport. Conven

809、tional transport planning does not take into consideration this local movement of goods and people due to lack of recognition of the differences in the needs and interests of citizens, particularly PWDs.16 K. Molesworth. 2005. The Impact of Transport Provisions on Direct and Proximate Determinants o

810、f Access to Health of Women. Basel, Switzerland: university of Basel. 17 Global Health Action. 2018. Addressing Transport Safety and Accessibility for People with a Disability in Developing Countries: A Formative Evaluation of the Journey Access Tool in Cambodia. https:/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ art

811、icles/PMC6237176/.Box 5.1: Access to Paved Roads of Different Social GroupsAround 75% of Newar households and 61% of Hill Brahmin households have access to paved roads within 30 minutes while only 56% of Tarai Janajati and 45% of Hill Chhetri households have access to such roads within 30 minutes. A

812、bout 80% households of Hill Brahmins, 70% of Hill Chhetri, and 69% of Hill Dalit can reach the nearest dirt or earthen roads within 30 minutes. People in the Tarai have better access to dirt roads. Hill indigenous peoples have the least access to dirt roads, with only 64.5% able to access a dirt roa

813、d within 30 minutes from their homes. Many must spend more than 3 hours to reach the nearest dirt road. The Janajati groups, in particular, experience geographical isolation due to their remote settlements. Historically, Janajati groups, such as Magars, Limbus, rais, and Tamangs, have lived in settl

814、ements that are remote and farthest from the district headquarters.Source: LAHurNIP. 2014. A Study on the Socio-Economic Status of Indigenous Peoples in Nepal. Kathmandu. https:/www.iwgia.org/images/publications/0712_social-economic-status-of-indigenous-peoples-of-nepal.pdf.74TrANSPOrTWomens ability

815、 to use roads and other transport means is impacted by household structures, family composition and size, household roles as well as mobility and transport burden.18 They often carry a heavier burden in terms of time and effort spent on transport, while having less access and control over resources.

816、 In some communities, existing cultural norms prohibit women from taking advantage of improved access to transportation. for example, rural Muslim and Madhesi women do not generally travel out of the village while they do so within their communities especially for household related tasks, and thus d

817、o not equally use improved road access.The requirements of PWDs are inadequately recognized and addressed during transport planning. for instance, space and ramps for wheelchairs and facilities for the visually and hearing impaired are often unavailable, and the design of curbs and road gradients do

818、 not meet the requirements of people living with disabilities. The transport plans have not so far identified and addressed the barriers faced by PWDs in reaching and accessing a transport stop, intersections, and crossings; getting a vehicle, boarding, and arriving to the destination; and in dealin

819、g with public transport staff who are not sensitive to the needs of the disabled.Differential capacities of women and pWDs in road construction employmentopportunities Women and PWDs are at a disadvantage in manual work required for road construction which are perceived as “heavy,” as they have diff

820、erent physical capacities and their outputs in physically strenuous tasks are considered minimal. There is often a distinction between “heavy” versus “light” work whereby the definitions are based on cultural norms of work rather than the actual difficulty and physical exertion required for such wor

821、k.19 Additionally, contractors are reluctant to recruit women workers due to poor safety and security conditions in the work place. Work sites for road construction are far from villages, and the environment in labor camps can be at times unsafe for women. Due to the need for daily wages, the poor a

822、re unable to benefit from short-term employment opportunities in rural road construction where payment is generally once every two weeks or monthly. Safe accessible road networks for PWDs are also underdeveloped in Nepal.20Poor skills for construction related tasks result in limited opportunities fo

823、r women and excluded groups. Appropriate skills that can give confidence to contractors to recruit women for specific tasks require investment in strengthening capacity, such as on-the-job training. Due to a lack of capable human resource from the target group, a gap exists between their low skills

824、and the available employment for skilled works.2118 N. Sultana and I. Mateo-Babiano. 2017. Transport Disadvantage and Gender Issues in South Asian Countries: A Systematic Literature Review. Ho Chi Minh City.19 r. Holmes and N. Jones. 2011. Public Works Programmes in Developing Countries: Reducing Ge

825、ndered Disparities in Economic Opportunities?. International Conference on Social Cohesion and Development. Paris. http:/www.oecd.org/dev/pgd/46838043.pdf.20 World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and Department for International Development. 2012. Gender and Social Exclusion Assessment 2011 Sectoral S

826、eries: Monograph 6 on a Rural Infrastructure. Kathmandu.21 Meeting with Geographic and Environment Support unit, Department of roads. 18 June 2018. Kathmandu.75GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALStrong challenges for women contractorsThere are more than 300 w

827、omen who are registered as contractors in Nepal, but only a few of them actively pursue construction as a career.22 There are many women who are small contractors managing $5,000 to $10,000 worth of works. Their capacities need to be strengthened to manage larger scale construction. There are a rang

828、e of issues women experience as contractors (Box 5.2).Gender and caste and/or ethnicity differentials in travel patterns and resources determine use of road infrastructures and transport modalitiesWomen, especially rural women, have travel needs which require them to make short local trips, with mul

829、tiple stops for various tasks such as water and fuelwood collection, dropping children to school, visiting nearby health facilities, carrying agricultural produce to local markets, and going for wage labor to neighboring areas. Global research has established that women are responsible for a disprop

830、ortionate share of the households transport burden with limited access to available means of transport.23These journeys can be made more difficult if pathways or services are planned without regard to such patterns or if fares penalize short journeys or multiple stops. The transport planners have no

831、t so far addressed the structural issues of work burden and time poverty of women and the poor.24 Transport costs are another important concern as women and the poor have lower incomes, with women having more limited claims on household resources.PWDs experience disadvantage and marginalization due

832、to inadequate disabled-friendly infrastructure. Designs that could support the mobility of people with different disabilities are not integrated in road infrastructure, and vehicles are not disabled-friendly.22 Meeting with the president of federation of Contractors Association of Nepal. 24 June 201

833、8. Kathmandu.23 World Bank. 2014. Gender, Travel and Job Access: Evidence from Buenos Aires. https:/pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d1ee/bb650ccf4c6926d49894f200702994b4d588.pdf?_ga=2.83324950.1416792073.1591.1591676658.24 ADB. 2015. Sri Lanka: Gender Equality Diagnostic of Selected Sectors,

834、 Transport: National, Provincial, and Rural Roads. Manila. p. 40.Box 5.2: Issues of Women ContractorsIt is a huge challenge to work as a woman contractor because of lack of support from the federation of Contractors Association of Nepal. There is no recognition that women, along with their professio

835、nal work, must manage home and care responsibilities as well as safety and security issues. for women contractors, a major challenge is to manage the financial resources required to win contracts or bids. At least $500 to $1,000 is needed to bid (depending on the size of the contract). Collateral is

836、 needed before the advance of 20% is made once bids are approved. To raise sufficient funds in order to continue work when payments are delayed is difficult, and a credible reputation has to be built before institutions forward loans to women contractors. A wide range of skills is needed from managi

837、ng labor to working with senior government officials. The ability to manage site work, human resources, and financial assets is essential.Source: Meeting notes. 19 June 2018. Interview with Kamala Bhattarai, woman contractor. Kathmandu.76TrANSPOrTMultiple roles and competing demands result in women

838、and the low-income group minimizing their travel time and choosing work opportunities at shorter distances from homeunpaid care work, subsistence agriculture, and social and cultural norms define womens time use resulting in their high work burden. These constrain their travel options and reduce the

839、ir flexibility to identify and participate at different levels of transport sector activities or seek employment opportunities, which in turn, interfere with their household management tasks.for the poor, the compulsion to earn daily wages forces them to engage in paid work that results in time pove

840、rty for other tasks. It restrains them from accessing employment opportunities which would not pay them immediately. They are unable to participate in capacity development events or decision-making forums due to the pressure of daily survival.Opportunities in the labor or employment market are affec

841、ted by accessibility differencesDue to the travel options available, women and the poor are geographically limited to a smaller number of opportunities and jobs. The mobility provided by the transportation system can increase options for employment and the ability to consider opportunities which req

842、uire higher commute time. forwomen and the poor, this is especially significant as otherwise the selection of possible employment is constrained from the beginning of an individuals job search. A few jobs available locally with poorer remuneration are sometimes the only options available. The employ

843、ment opportunities in neighboring areas are out of bounds due to the time and costs involved and, for women, the gender norms that disadvantage their mobility options.Income earning opportunities in the transport construction sector are not equitably available to allThere are numerous income-earning

844、 opportunities in the transport sector, however, women have been mostly engaged as unskilled laborers as are men of excluded groups. Disaggregated data on people employed at different levels of skilled and unskilled construction works of projects in Nepal are unavailable. The common practice is for

845、women and excluded groups to be mostly employed as unskilled labor. There is high wage differential between skilled and unskilled labor. Opportunities for construction work do not arise unless there are specific interventions targeting women and excluded groups.Despite increased representation, wome

846、n and excluded groups have limited voice and inability to influence decisions in transport planningThe planning of transport projects reflects limited attention to the priorities and requirements of women and excluded groups, including people of lower income groups and PWDs. The focus is on roads ra

847、ther than on the network of footpaths and footbridges that many rely on, or on making the construction process PWD-friendly. The affordability and reliability of transport, which can support mobility, have not been considered in transport planning. This reflects the minimal presence of women and exc

848、luded groups in decision-making processes.Due to policy directives, there have been efforts to increase representation of women and excluded groups in users committees (when formed, usually only for rural roads). However, without the more substantive transformations needed to enable them to influenc

849、e decisions, women and excluded groups in the user communities are often less represented; hence, their voice is limited in decision making. Nevertheless, quota for their representation in such committees is in practice and needs to be continued with additional capacity development.77GENDEr EquALITy

850、 AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALGood Practices and LessonsMeasures to improve transport access can increase economic opportunities for women andexcludedgroupsThe removal of bottlenecks, such as high transportation costs or lack of credit mechanisms, contributes to increa

851、sed transport related business opportunities. Examples of good practice in transport projects include providing women and excluded groups with access to financing to pursue transport-related businesses, such as farm-related transport activities; liberalizing the provision of transport services to im

852、prove service quality and frequency that will lower transport costs for women micro-entrepreneurs; and opening of new businesses by women alongside improved road networks.25Policy provisions, institutional strengthening, and capacity development can facilitate effective GESIintegration in the transp

853、ort sectorProjects supported by ADB, World Bank, and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) in Nepal have demonstrated that policy provisions are required to address GESI issues in transport projects. Many countries have developed gender equality policies and worked on strengthening

854、capacities (Box 5.3).recently, Sajha yatayat, a public transportation bus system in Nepal serving Kathmandu and its surrounding valley, has introduced PWD-friendly buses which are equipped with ramps, and the doors and gangways are wide enough for wheelchairs. The buses also have space for parking a

855、nd strapping wheelchairs.25 World Bank Group. 2010. Mainstreaming Gender in Road Transport: Operational Guidance for World Bank Staff.Transport Paper Series; No. TP-28. Washington DC. p. 24. https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/17455.Box 5.3: Gender in Transport Policies and Institutional

856、 Structuresuganda demonstrates a good practice in legal and policy provisions and a supportive institutional structure at national and district level to mainstream gender equality. road sector programs and projects in uganda have continuously addressed gender issues. A gender management plan was dev

857、eloped to mainstream gender at the Ministry of Transport. The plan focuses on building stakeholders capacity, development of a communications strategy, and establishment of a monitoring system.Source: World Bank. 2013. Lessons Learned from Ugandas Gender Mainstreaming Policy in the Road Sector. Wash

858、ington DC.At the project level, Perus Second rural roads project exemplifies a good practice in gender capacity building. The Provias Descentralizadothe implementing agencyplayed an active role in developing an inclusive, demand-driven transport planning model based on participatory project design a

859、nd implementation. Theagency trained its staff on gender awareness and appointed regional gender focal points to help track continued on next page78TrANSPOrTLooking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to ConsiderStrategic and rural roads and bridge projects implemented by the government demonstrate th

860、at it is essential to mainstream GESI in transport sector interventions, as only then efforts are made to bring about transformative changes. Examples of these efforts are ensuring that women and disadvantaged groups (i) participate in consultations on rural and strategic road and bridge constructio

861、n to identify their needs; (ii) work in a conducive environment covering safety, insurance, and child care; (iii) are employed with equal wages; (iv) are proportionately represented in decision-making within user committees; and (v) are trained in construction-related activities.26 These initiatives

862、 need to be systematically implemented in all transport sector programs. 26 Wise Nepal. 2017. Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Transport Projects in Nepal - Policy Brief. London: reCAP for DfID. https:/www.gov.uk/dfid-research-outputs/gender-mainstreaming-in-transport-projects-in-nepal-policy-brief. Ba

863、sed on research in ramechhap and Okhaldhunga Districts in Nepal.gender-related indicators. Training and education around gender mainstreaming contributed toward increasing womens participation in roadworks and related projects. Gender quotas in rural roads committees, procurement processes, and the

864、road maintenance system based on community-based microenterprises also significantly benefited the implementation and monitoring aspects of the project.Source: World Bank. 2010. Mainstreaming Gender in Road Transport: Operational Guidance for World Bank Staff, Transport Paper. Kathmandu. p. 20.In Ne

865、pal, the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport developed the Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) Operational Guidelines with ADBs technical support. The GESI guidelines provides guidance for mainstreaming GESI in the ministry and its sectors to ensure that a GESI-responsive appro

866、ach is adopted to improve access of women and excluded groups to resources and benefits from the sector and to institutionalize GESI programmatically and institutionally. Provisions from the guidelines include hiring women contractors, allocating a certain percentage of project budget for auxiliary

867、works targeted to women and excluded groups, promoting skilled employment of the target group, and providing GESI-friendly work environments.Source: Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport. 2017. Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Operational Guidelines 2017. Kathmandu.The South Asia Sub

868、regional Economic Cooperation road Connectivity Project has integrated GESI aspects in its design and monitoring framework. for example, output indicators demand disaggregated data regarding road safety features that are friendly to elderly people, women, children, and person with disabilities at ap

869、propriate locations. Awareness raising sessions on preventive human trafficking were conducted for about 2,000 communities with 50% women; and around 30% women participated in tree plantation programs.GESI = gender equality and social inclusion.Source: ADB. 2016. Project Administration Manual of the

870、 South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation roads Improvement Project. Manila.Box 5.3 continued79GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALIdentify and analyze differentiated transport needs and gapsGender and social impact analysis should be incorporated into all

871、transport planning and project implementation. This will enable the sector to facilitate the movement of different modes of transport (motorized, nonmotorized) based on mobility needs of citizens of diverse social profiles. Gender-differentiated roles result in significant differences in trip purpos

872、e and distance, transport mode, and other aspects of travel behavior. In addition to accessing the labor market, women use transportation to take care of their households and families, which shapes their travel requirements. Hence, the significant role which transport plays in the lives of women and

873、 people from excluded groups must be studied and integrated into transport planning and works.Based on such analysis, travel needs, patterns, concerns, priorities, preferences, and personal safety parameters of women and excluded groups (e.g., PWDs) need to be included in the design of transport pro

874、jects and services. Transport investments that are designed with GESI dimensions can bring significant benefits to women, not only in terms of increased access to employment, markets, education, and health services, but also in terms of caretaking and household responsibilities that the majority of

875、women holdultimately contributing to the wellbeing of the community at large.27A multidisciplinary team from the planning stages, including engineers, sociologists, social development specialists, gender specialists, economists, and anthropologists, can provide a better representation of the infrast

876、ructure, social, and economic needs of individuals and the community, and offer a comprehensive analysis for transport planning.MOPIT also requires formulating and enforcing urban street standards with universal designs that are applicable to all citizens and wherein PWDs can have better accessibili

877、ty at the same time.Create GESI-responsive livelihood and entrepreneurial opportunities in transport services and roadside amenitiesThe transport sector is key to economic activities, and the development process within the sector provides opportunities for employment. Targeted efforts are required t

878、o ensure that women and excluded groups access such benefits. Various projects have provisions for increasing employment opportunities for women (Box 5.4).A major challenge is to improve the skills of women and excluded groups so that they can access higher paid skilled job opportunities in the tran

879、sport infrastructure and management sectors. focused capacity development interventions would support those interested to grow in the field.27 C. Crespo-Sancho. 2015. Why We Need Gender Strategies in the Transport Sector. Washington DC: World Bank. https:/www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/09/why-we-need-g

880、ender-strategies-in-the-transport-sector/.80TrANSPOrTBox 5.4: Employment Opportunities by Sector ProjectsThe World Banks flagship Strengthening National rural Transport Program has adopted a GESI approach (also guided by the road Maintenance Guideline 2016) to address poverty and create employment o

881、pportunities for women and excluded groups.a The project employs 2,708 road maintenance workers, mainly women, who maintain 5,421 km of roads in 36 districts. The workers are recruited from the poorest households situated along the road sections to be maintained. Each road maintenance group consists

882、 of four to five workers in charge of 8 to 10 kilometers of road sections. They are specifically responsible for routine and recurrent maintenance, as well as emergency maintenance. Payments are made through bank transfers based on performance of the workers. Occupation, safety and health aspects ar

883、e carefully addressed, and workers are provided with protection equipment. Additionally, the banks provide livelihood enhancement services, such as loans and skills development training, to the road maintenance group workers.a The guidelines focus on generating employment opportunities for excluded

884、groups within the programs zone of influence. under the social criteria, it clearly mentions that preference must be given to female candidates, and states that transport infrastructures should have all-women maintenance workforce where possible. If not, at least 33% of the workforce needs to be wom

885、en and 40% should come from the disadvantaged groups (e.g., Dalit and Janajati).Source: Diagnostic study meeting notes. 2018. Interview with project coordinator, Strengthening National Rural Transport Programme. Kathmandu.Nepals rural Access Programme, supported by the Department for International D

886、evelopment, is designed as a poverty and GESI-focused project. The programs geographic coverage, the midland far West of Nepal, has some of the highest poverty levels and the largest percentage of female headed households in the country due to isolation and migration. About 87,700 individuals living

887、 in the mid and far West of Nepal have better access to new roads as a result of the project. In addition, 2.1 million people have sustained income from maintenance of existing roads. Labor-based targeting ensures that all workers are poor (under the national poverty line) and come from excluded gro

888、ups. As a result, among road maintenance group members, 44% are women and 68% are Dalits and Janajatis. Around 41% of workers from the road building groups are women and 25% are Dalits.Jobs for women has been a focus under the Connect market program (a component of the rural Access Programme) which

889、has increased the incomes of 3,382 households. for instance, the unilever Nepal HamriDidis initiative has enabled 228 poor women to start their own small businesses, and increase their incomes by up to Nrs13,000. The project is now seeking to scale up this initiative with unilever. The team is also

890、testing Yuva Vayus approach wherein lead women farmers would provide services to other farmers.The Karnali Employment Programme (KEP) also targets the lower income and excluded groups. The DfID technical assistance has helped improve KEP systems in registering more than 18,000 workers, and enable KE

891、P to better target work for women, introduce electronic payment, speed payment times, and increase multiyear entitlements.DfID = Department for International Development, GESI = gender equality and social inclusion.Source: DfID Nepal. 2017. Rural Access Program 3: Annual ReviewSummary Sheet 2017. Ka

892、thmandu. p. 5.81GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALProvide affordable modes of transport for women and excluded groupsAffordability and accessibility are key aspects to be considered when formulating public policies to improve equity in transport. Systematic

893、sex-disaggregated data on modes of transport is lacking. Existing evidence suggests that in rural areas, the main transport mode of poor people, particularly women, is walking, especially where affordable public transport options are lacking. Inurban areas, women are less likely to drive than men an

894、d more reliant on public transport. The number of motor vehicles registered in Nepal was reported at 45,667 units as of July 2016 (of which cars and jeeps were 28,361, and bus and minibuses were 8,978).28 Data about women owners and drivers is unavailable but it can be safely assumed that very few w

895、omen have access to private cars, increasing their dependence on others and limiting their travel possibilities. Gender differences in commute speeds and distances are reduced when women have access to a car.29 Travel choices are determined by income and made in the context of unequal power relation

896、s within and among households and communities.Greater investments in GESI-responsive public transportation systems and urban infrastructure (suchas lanes and sufficient street lighting) are needed to reduce reliance on private passenger vehicles and to provide women and excluded groups with reliable

897、, affordable and safe travel choices.30Develop alternative transport evaluation criteriaProjects should analyze socioeconomic impacts and use them as alternative transport evaluation criteria for estimating benefits and costs (e.g., using accessibility, mobility, and health effects as outcome indica

898、tors instead of travel time). Evaluations in the transport sector focus on economic efficiency and do not measure the distributional impacts of projects and programs. A change of focus from infrastructure itself to the needs of individuals and the community, particularly those who utilize transport

899、systems, would enable women and excluded groups to benefit more from the transport sector. Capturing the complexities and dynamics of the shifts in their lives due to the investments in the sector can provide data on project effectiveness. The results of mixed methods impact evaluations can provide

900、examples of project design and execution that address GESI mainstreaming in transport, with the possibility of scaling up successful interventions and solutions (Table 5.1).28 Census and Economic Information Center. 2017. Nepal Number of Motor Vehicles Registered. https:/ T. Peralta-quiros et al. 20

901、14. Gender, Travel and Job Access: Evidence from Buenos Aires. Buenos Aires. https:/pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d1ee/bb650ccf4c6926d49894f200702994b4d588.pdf?_ga=2.83324950.1416792073.1591.1591676658.30 uN Women. 2018. Turning Promises into Action. http:/www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquart

902、ers/attachments/sections/library/publications/2018/sdg-report-gender-equality-in-the-2030-agenda-for-sustainable-development-2018-en.pdf?la=en&vs=5653.82TrANSPOrTTable 5.1: Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Perspectives into the Transport SectorBarriersActions to Address

903、the BarriersTransport systems do not respond to differential needs and priorities of women and excluded groups as voices of women as transport users are often not heard in consultative processes and there is no critical mass of women to influence transport planning.aAnalyze transport requirements of

904、 women and excluded groups based on the domestic responsibilities of women and their ability to travel in terms of distance, number of times, and monetary cost.Consult with women and excluded groups in planning and decision-making related to transport projects (e.g., selection of road alignment, phy

905、sical design features, safety designs, user ticketing systems and fees).Build capacity of transport authorities and project management staff on gender equality and social inclusion (GESI).Advocate among policy makers the use of nonmotorized and intermediate modes of transport.Nonwork travel needs ar

906、e not recognized or addressed by the sector.Provide higher quality of mobility in off-peak and off-trunk routes. Colocate retail, child and health care, and municipal services (e.g., bill payments) at transport hubs; this can lower the penalty associated with such responsibilities. Provide feeder ro

907、ads, trails, and tracks for easing work burden and head-loading.Limited skills, time flexibility, and inability to afford transport costs constrain women and excluded groups from capturing economic opportunities from improved transport.Appropriate schemes to enable women and excluded groups to acces

908、s improved transport (e.g., reduced transport costs, subsidies for transport of agriculture and other products).The ADB-funded Pilot Border Trade and Investment Development Project in Papua New Guinea: Affordable Access to Health Services provides cash transfers to the female head or female adult of

909、 households to cover the costs of womens bus travel to the nearest hospital on the condition that they present evidence that they accessed prenatal and postnatal care.bPromote capacity development measures, such as scholarships, training, and apprenticeship, for women students interested in transpor

910、t-related careers.Lack of safe, reliable transport, combined with discriminatory gender and social norms, constrains employment opportunities for women and excluded groups.Provide social facilities (e.g., child care center, tracks/trails, market place, and storage spaces)and roadside amenities along

911、 the rural or strategic road networks.Promote gender equality and social inclusion-responsive physical designs (e.g., reserved seats, height-of-steps requirements, and panic buttons).Conduct campaigns, raise public awareness, and adopt advocacy measures to remove discriminatory norms and promote saf

912、ety from sexual harassment.Lack of required skills constrains employment opportunities.Invest in skills strengthening of women and excluded groups with a focus on possible employment opportunities before, during, and after construction phases.Minimal presence of women contractors in the sectorInclud

913、e priority to women contractors as a criterion in contractor selection. Develop arrangements to award contracts to those who include women and excluded groups as team members.ccontinued on next page83GENDEr EquALITy AND SOCIAL INCLuSION DIAGNOSTIC Of SELECTED SECTOrS IN NEPALBarriersActions to Addre

914、ss the BarriersPhysical impairment may limit access to transport and activities.Make disabled-friendly infrastructure design an integral part of planning and design. Ensure accessibility of transport and services so that mobility constraints of PWDs are addressed. Physical accessibility in public tr

915、ansportation needs improvement.Provide access to information and services for persons with physical, psychosocial, intellectual, neurological, and/or sensory disabilities. Train transporters on providing accessible transportation services.a ADB. 2013. Gender Tool Kit: Transport Maximizing the Benefi

916、ts of Improved Mobility for All. Manila. p. 5.b ADB. 2009. Papua New Guinea: Pilot Border Trade and Investment Development Project. Manila.c Government of Nepal, Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport. 2018. Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Operational Guidelines 2017. Kathmandu.Sourc

917、e: Table prepared for this study.Table 5.1 continued8485Area of collaborationVarious ADB urban development projects have supported municipal infrastructure investments, urban planning, and institutional strengthening to improve the sectors service to Nepalese citizens. Urban infrastructure projects

918、have supported the development of urban plans and policies that reflect greater disaster risk resilience, improved land management, and regional development.Sector contextNepal is one of the top ten fastest urbanizing countries in the world with a projected annual urbanization rate of 1.9%.Urbanizat

919、ion in Nepal is dominated by a few large and medium cities with an excessive population concentration in the Kathmandu Valley.Rapid urbanization has contributed to problems of unemployment, poverty, inadequate health care, poor sanitation, informal settlements, environmental degradation, poor infras

920、tructure, insecure tenure, and underserviced community settlements. The negative consequences of urbanization are disproportionately borne by poor working women and men, young, and old. These result from high living densities, overcrowded and inadequate housing, environmentally hazardous living cond

921、itions, and rising incidences of urban violence and inadequate basic services.Gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) considerations relevant to sector planning and outcomesDesign of urban areas and services do not reflect gender and social differentiated needs.Poor urban living conditions compr

922、omise the health of women and excluded groups, especially those living in informal settlements. Women are primarily responsible for all forms of waste disposal, leading to exposure to different health risks, a problem that is aggravated when no formal waste disposal services exist.Women and excluded

923、 groups have limited engagement in the design of urban space, waste disposal, and recycling facilities.There are limited interventions to address discriminatory gender and social norms.UrbAn DEvElopmEnt6GeNDeR eqUAliTy AND SociAl iNclUSioN DiAGNoSTic of SelecTeD SecToRS iN NePAlGood practices and le

924、ssonsProject design informed by a socioeconomic and gender analysis and with GeSi related project indicators has the potential to reduce barriers of women and excluded groups.Alternative and conscious efforts are needed for women and excluded groups to benefit from urban development programs.Strengt

925、hening the governments institutional capacity is important for mainstreaming GeSi in urban development.looking forward: Issues and opportunities to considerintegrate GeSi in urban planning.create GeSi-responsive legal frameworks and regulations for urban development.Design GeSi-responsive municipal

926、infrastructure.enhance institutional capacity of relevant stakeholders on GeSi.Further resourcesADB tip sheet on addressing barriers experienced by women and excluded groups and integrating GeSi in the urban development sector (Table 6.1).GeSi = gender equality and social inclusion.Area of Collabora

927、tionAs of December 2018, ADB has funded 57 projects worth $1.12 billion (which is 17.6% of its total lending, grant, and technical assistance lending) for the water and other urban infrastructure and services sector of Nepal.1 Various ADB urban development projects have supported municipal infrastru

928、cture investments, urban planning, and institutional strengthening to improve quality of life, sustainability, economic growth, and competitiveness in Nepal (since 1989, 27 projects were specifically on urban development).2 Urban infrastructure has improved flood management, mobility, and solid wast

929、e management, and supported the development of urban plans and policies that reflect greater disaster risk resilience, improved land management, and regional development.1 ADB. 2018. Cumulative Lending Grant and Technical Assistance Commitments. The chapters on urban development and water supply, sa

930、nitation and hygiene have the same data regarding cumulative support since ADB has WASH within its urban development sector support. The consultations in Nepal with the ADB Nepal Resident Mission and WASH experts identified the need to have separate chapters on urban development and WASH due to the

931、significant work done in WASH in Nepal. While attempts have been made to reduce the overlap between the two intervention areas, some data and discussions have had to be repeated. See ADB. Nepal by the Numbers. https:/data.adb.org/dashboard/nepal-numbers.2 ADB. 2018. Urban Development Projects in Nep

932、al 19892018. https:/www.adb.org/projects/country/nep/sector/water-and-other-urban-infrastructure-and-services-1065?terms=urban+nepal (accessed 14 february 2018).86URBAN DeVeloPMeNTSector ContextNepal is one of the least urbanized countries in Asia, however, the pace of its urbanization over the last

933、 decades has been faster and is likely to remain so. for the period 20142050, the country is projected to remain among the top ten fastest urbanizing countries in the world with an estimated annual urbanization rate of 2%.3 in 2017, the share of the total population living in urban areas was 19%.4 U

934、rbanization is dominated by a few large and medium cities with an excessive population concentration in the Kathmandu Valley. The urban population distribution is uneven across the country. High urban growth is occurring in Kathmandu valley, Pokhara valley, inner Tarai valleys, and in market and bor

935、der towns located on highway junctures between the eastWest highway and the five main NorthSouth corridors. Rapid urbanization has contributed to problems of unemployment, poverty, inadequate health, poor sanitation, informal settlements, environmental degradation, poor construction, insecure tenure

936、, and underserviced housing plots.5According to the Nepal living Standards Survey (fy20102011), 16% of urban population was below the poverty line compared to 25% nationally. A higher proportion of men (compared to women) own a house or land. Urban women are more likely than rural women to own a hou

937、se (9% versus 6%) and land (13% versus 9%). About 95% of urban population have access to electricity (figure 6.1).in the Annual Household Survey 2016, about two-third households (67%), dominantly in urban and poorest quintile group, reported to have no access to sewerage facilities. The proportion o

938、f households with access to underground drainage facility was only about 11%. About 13% had open drains. Most of the urban households (93%) as well as rural households (81%) have access to mobile phones. in urban areas, email and/or internet was used by 20%, and cable TV by 56%.3 S. Bakrania. 2015.U

939、rbanisation and Urban Growth in Nepal. GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report 1294. Birmingham, UK: GSDRc, University of Birmingham.4 H. Ritchie and M. Roser. 2019. Urbanization. OurWorldInData.org. https:/ourworldindata.org/urbanization5 e. Peter and M. Roberts. 2016. leveraging Urbanization in South Asia:

940、 Managing Spatial Transformation for Prosperity and livability. South Asia Development Matters. Washington, Dc: World Bank.Figure 6.1: Women Ownership of House and Land in Rural and Urban Areas (%)9 13 6 9 House Land Urban Rural Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Nepal Demographi

941、c and Health Survey. Kathmandu.87GeNDeR eqUAliTy AND SociAl iNclUSioN DiAGNoSTic of SelecTeD SecToRS iN NePAlUrbanization can contribute to robust economic development and social mobility. However, unplanned and mismanaged urbanization results to high living densities, growth of informal settlements

942、, environmentally hazardous living conditions, and rising incidences of urban violence. Poor urbanization also leads to inadequate access to basic services such as safe and affordable water; sanitation; drainage; electricity; solid waste management; and education, health, and social services.6 These

943、 adverse impactsare largely and disproportionately borne by poor women and men, and the young and old.Policy FrameworkThere are positive GeSi provisions guiding the urban development sector in Nepal. Apart from the broader rights of equality and social justice guaranteed by the constitution of Nepal

944、 (2015), the right to appropriate housing for all citizens has also been promised. landless and homeless Dalits are guaranteed land and homes, respectively. House and land for livelihood or employment must be provided for the rehabilitation of bonded labors, landless people, and informal settlers. P

945、roperty rights for women are also guaranteed. The 14th Three-year Plan (fy20162017 to fy20182019) proposed the full integration of sewerage, on-site sanitation, and solid waste management in all urban schemes and specifically endorsed cost recovery from consumers. The 2017 National Urban Development

946、 Strategy, in line with the 2007 National Urban Policy and 1996 National Action Plan on Housing and Urban Development and the National Shelter Policy, provided guidance for urban development and planning. The five guiding principles include principles about inclusivity. it calls for cities to be soc

947、ially inclusive thus integrating ethnicity or caste, class, and gender in nurturing the citys social and cultural diversity, as well as for raising awareness and sensitivity of the excluded groups including the youth, elderly and PWDs, and women in general. The guidance enjoins the cities to address

948、 the poors basic needs in education, health, housing, and transportation. Social inclusion calls for identifying and including concerns of women and excluded groups from geographically isolated areas in infrastructure planning. incentives and facilities are provided for the private sector to offer a

949、ffordable rental housing. for effective community engagement, inclusive settlements and community-based organizations are to be promoted. Strategies for social inclusion include identification of socioeconomic issues and consideration of spatial characteristics of the urban poor, particularly in dev

950、elopment programs and planning for the urban poor (housing, infrastructure, and transportation). for improved urban governance, GeSi mainstreaming in urban institutions and social accountability through public hearing, public audit, and social audit are to be implemented. The Peoples Housing “Janata

951、 Awas” Program implementation Guideline (2016) identified target groups covering 43 districts and included different models such as transitional homes (rental) and joint ownership. The GeSi operational Guidelines of the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) 2013 also provides guidance on mainstreamin

952、g GeSi in the sectors, including urban development and building construction.6 UN HABiTAT. 2012. Gender Responsive Urban Planning and Design. https:/unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Gender-Responsive-Urban-Planning-and-Design.pdf. p. 1. 88URBAN DeVeloPMeNTInstitutional ArrangementsThe MoUD e

953、stablished institutional structures and mechanisms with GeSi responsibilities including the Social coordination Unit at MoUD and its departments. GeSi units were established with social development officers in regional and divisional, subdivisional, or district offices. Various training and capacity

954、 development efforts strengthened the skills of MoUD staff.7After the restructuring under the new federal government, the urban development sector responsibilities have been assumed by the Ministry of Physical infrastructure Development at the provincial level. At the urban municipality level, the u

955、rban infrastructure development division is responsible for the sector, including road and transport management, hydropower, electricity, street lighting, irrigation and water induced disasters, information and communication, facilities management and drinking water supply sections, and publicprivat

956、e partnership unit. GeSi responsibilities are with the Ministry of Social Development in the provinces and the social development section in the municipalities.Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and OutcomesSelected key issues impacting women and excluded

957、 groups in the urban development sector are discussed below.Design of urban areas and services do not reflect gender- and socially-differentiated needsThe location of facilities and services and the structure of urban spaces often pose difficult challenges for women and excluded groups including peo

958、ple with lower mobility, such as children, older people, and PWDs. There are limited multifunctional urban spaces to accommodate the daily multitasking responsibilities of women and excluded groups. cities and small towns in Nepal need community facilities within short travel distances to and from w

959、ork, childcare, and schools such as stores and services, safe pedestrian lanes, and accessible public transportation systems.Poor women living in insecure neighborhoods are more likely to commute at late or early hours to and from work, or to and from school or training institutions. When safe, secu

960、re, and affordable options are not readily available, women and excluded groups may forego trips resulting in poorer access to services and higher unemployment because the costs of transport can be greater than the benefits of employment. The different priorities of women and excluded groups in term

961、s of services and infrastructure are insufficiently reflected in urban policy or investments.informal settlers, the extremely poor, and landless people face different realities and problems, such as lack of services and subsidies, which are provided to only those with legal status or those who are f

962、ormal settlers; lack of land for toilet construction; and inability to contribute 10% to 20% of the cost of a facility. These requirements need to be considered when services are planned. Due to poor public services, private suppliers are sought at a very high cost.7 Meeting with the Ministry of Urb

963、an Development team. GeSi Diagnostic Study. 20 June 2018. Kathmandu.89GeNDeR eqUAliTy AND SociAl iNclUSioN DiAGNoSTic of SelecTeD SecToRS iN NePAlPoor urban living conditions compromise the health of informal settlers, especially women Women, children, the elderly, and PWDs are all vulnerable to lac

964、k of clean and affordable water, poor sanitation, inadequate housing, and overcrowding in poorly developed urban spaces such as slums or informal settlements.8 People living in poor urban environments have a higher risk of disease or injury and exposure to crime. This can affect their ability to sus

965、tain a livelihood. lack of adequate and affordable housing and security of tenure results in increased vulnerability of women.9 There is little provision to ensure that communities understand the health hazards associated with handling particular types of waste and the implications of this to the he

966、alth of women and children. Women are primarily responsible for all forms of waste disposal leading to exposure to different health risks, a problem that is aggravated in the absence of proper solid waste management. Engagement of women and excluded groups in the design of urban space, waste disposa

967、l, and recycling facilities is limitedPublic engagement in urban governance and community development of women and excluded groups isstill significantly hindered by lack of recognition of worth and potentials and cultural and domestic constraints. Urbanplanning needs to reflect the sociocultural nee

968、ds of all people, including women and excluded groups. Themunicipal infrastructure designs are often planned without thorough consultation with women and excluded groups. lack of needs mapping results in urban development plans and infrastructures that do not meet the specific needs and priorities o

969、f men and women from urban poor areas and communities, including those of the vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly. lower income people living in informal settlements are further excluded from new infrastructure investments and extensions of existing service networks as their issues ar

970、e not taken into consideration during construction design.engagement of women and excluded groups in local planning can impact the effectiveness of the design of urban cities. The plans should consider their needs particularly for transport and infrastructure for water and waste management. Women, a

971、s prime users of housing and human settlements, often have insights that can improve city plans, prevent project failures, and wastage of resources. While there have been efforts over the last decade to increase the participation of women and excluded groups in local planning processes (e.g., throug

972、h social mobilization efforts, mandated settlement level consultations, and community-based forums), the quality of their participation is in question. The influence of women and excluded groups in urban planning, design, and implementation is still limited.10involvement of the social development se

973、ction of the municipalities in Nepal is highly limited in the planning and budgeting processes, despite the presence of a higher number of elected representatives from diverse backgrounds after the federal restructuring. There is limited GeSi responsiveness among staff and minimal number of women st

974、aff members in municipalities which also contributes to low engagement of women and excluded groups in urban development processes.118 UN Human Settlements Programme. 2012. Gender and Urban Planning: Issues and Trends. Nairobi. p. 3.9 UN HABiTAT. Gender Responsive Urban Planning and Design. p. 18. h

975、ttps:/unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Gender-Responsive-Urban-Planning-and-Design.pdf. 10 field work. GeSi Diagnostic Study. 2123 November 2018. Morang and Kailali.11 Meeting notes. GeSi Diagnostic Study. 20 June 2018. Kathmandu.90URBAN DeVeloPMeNTThere are limited interventions to address

976、discriminatory gender and social norms impacting thesectorUrban development projects in Nepal have included GeSi-related activities. examples are ADBs Regional Urban Development Project, integrated Urban Development Project, and Secondary Town Urban environment improvement Project, and the World Ban

977、ks emerging Towns Project. Many ADB and World Bank urban development projects had a community development componentimplemented by a nongovernment organizationwhich included the construction of small infrastructure (toilets, private drinking water), and training of women and excluded groups in liveli

978、hood enhancement. Provisions for 33% representation of women in different forums are included in project documents but implementation has been a challenge, especially in getting women to assume decision-making positions. A project manager notes that “During each reporting time, we have to report the

979、 fact that targets were not met. ithas been too challenging to get women engineers, supervisors, and contractors for construction works.”12 Similarly, there is still a gap in terms of meaningful engagement of women and excluded groups in forums and committees. The women who are in decision-making le

980、vels (a vital position in user groups) are unable to influence decisions as, according to views shared in the discussions, at times they are not well informed or are not listened to by men in the committees. Apart from problems in implementing existing provisions, there are limited project activitie

981、s to change discriminatory gender and social norms. Activities to change social practices which constrain women and excluded groups to access projects resources and opportunities are usually not included in the project itself.Good Practices and LessonsThere are various measures implemented in the se

982、ctor to address gender and inclusion issues. Some are discussed below.Project design informed by socioeconomic and gender analysis and with GESI related project indicators can reduce the barriers experienced by women and excluded groupsSocioeconomic and gender analysis is usually conducted to identi

983、fy existing efforts and needed measures to increase project impact for excluded groups. ADBs Regional Urban Development Project (RUDP) had conducted such analysis. TheWorld Banks emerging Towns Project identified the risks of elite capture of funds and projects and limited involvement of Dalits, Jan

984、ajatis, and women. GeSi aspects were integrated in projects with dedicated activities and indicators. for instance, the results framework of the RUDP included GeSi specific targets for gender and PWD-friendly municipal offices; construction of sex segregated public, community, and school toilets; at

985、 least 33% representation of women in committees established for community development programs; women and vulnerable groups given priority in awareness-raising and skills training programs; and a GeSi unit established or strengthened in project municipalities. Thesespecific measures ensure that the

986、 project has worked to address the barriers experienced by women and excluded groups and provided some benefits to them.13 lessons from such efforts indicate that along with directives, internalization by staff and stakeholders about GeSi is essential; otherwise, implementation gaps could be high, o

987、r project benefits could be lower than expected.12 Meeting with Bharat Neupane, Project Manager, Secondary Towns integrated Urban environmental improvement Project (STiUeiP). GeSi Diagnostic Study. 23 November 2018. Biratnagar. 13 ADB. 2014. Regional Urban Development Project: Socio-Economic Survey

988、2014. Kathmandu.91GeNDeR eqUAliTy AND SociAl iNclUSioN DiAGNoSTic of SelecTeD SecToRS iN NePAlAlternative and conscious efforts are needed for women and excluded groups to benefit from urban development programsProjects have included directives for the representation of women and excluded groups in

989、different committees and have worked through civil society organizations to increase their access to project resources and opportunities. They have allocated specific budgets for targeted activities. The World Banks emerging Towns Project, which ran from 2011 to 2017, had GeSi-specific targets with

990、at least 35% of the capital expenditures set aside for localized pro-poor and/or community-oriented schemes targeted at vulnerable groups, women, and children. institutional development program for municipalities included tasks such as strengthening community and/or citizen orientation of the munici

991、pality with emphasis on vulnerable groups like Janajatis, Dalits, and women. At project closure, 55% of the beneficiaries were women and 50% were from excluded groups, which are higher than the targets of 35% and 10%, respectively.ADB-supported projects also worked with NGos on community development

992、 programs which enabled women and excluded groups to receive project benefits. Without a specific component for community development, households headed by women and excluded groups would not have benefited from small infrastructure works or livelihood skills development. Nepals Janata Awas Program

993、was clear in its targeting and had specified the target group in its guideline (Box 6.1).A key learning from the project is the need to adopt measures that would support accurate identification of target households and the need to provide full support to extremely poor groups. Appropriation of land,

994、 which could be included in municipal maps, and additional infrastructure, such as sewerage facilities, are other aspects that should be addressed in the future.14People without security of tenure have no access to basic services since government services are linked to legal ownership of land or hou

995、se. To address the issues of landless people, municipalities in 14 Ministry of Urban Development. Building consultants Pvt. ltd. 2014. Final Report on the Assessment of Mid and Far Western Region Peoples Housing Program: Implementation Challenges and Recommendations for Improved Implementation. Kath

996、mandu.Box 6.1: Janata Awas (Peoples Housing)The Janata Awas (Peoples Housing Project) identified the following as the target group: (i) highly marginalized Dalits like Dom, Musahar, chamar, Dusadh, Khatwe, and other Dalits; (ii) poor and marginalized Muslims; (iii) highly endangered and marginalized

997、 ethnic groups such as chepangs, Rautes, and Kusundas; and (iv) other ethnic groups and communities. During the selection process, the guidelines recommend giving priority to the aged, single women, orphans, and physically disabled heads of households. The governments poverty card served as a refere

998、nce for selecting and identifying the poor. The guideline requires 10% contribution from the beneficiaries; but in cases of the ultra-poor, single women, and the disabled, it can be waived by the decision at the district level committee. Alternative technologies and earthquake resistant technologies

999、 are to be adopted for new houses.Source: Ministry of Urban Development. 2016. Peoples Housing Janata Awas Programme Implementation Guideline 2016. Kathmandu.92URBAN DeVeloPMeNTindia and the Peoples Republic of china implemented various options to increase tenure security for the poor and delink lan

1000、d security from getting basic services (Box 6.2).Strengthening the governments institutional capacity is important for mainstreaming GESI in urban developmentThe GeSi project of the MoUD demonstrates the significance of strengthening institutional capacity of government agencies and the larger impac

1001、t of such efforts (Box 6.3).Box 6.2: Measures to Increase Tenure Security of the PoorMunicipalities in india adopted the following measures to increase house or land tenure security of the poor:The government has recognized temporary occupancy rights of informal settlements through notification of s

1002、lums (Andhra Pradesh in india).Madhya Pradesh (india) has offered legal ownership of land to all slum dwellers residing in cities prior to a certain date but not allowing sale of property.Meanwhile, the Peoples Republic of china used equity grants (as a mortgage) to get leases on cheap housing built

1003、 by developers and by giving developers special tax rates to encourage development of cheap homes.Source: ADB. 2016. Gender and Social Development consultant, Project Preparation Technical Assistance, Regional Urban Development Project. Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment of Regional Urb

1004、an Development. Kathmandu.Box 6.3: Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Project of Ministry of Urban Development, NepalThe Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) received grant support from ADB under the integrated Urban Development Project to implement the gender equality and social inclusion (GeSi)

1005、project. Theproject aimed to mainstream GeSi and enhance GeSi mainstreaming capacity of the MoUD and the departments, regional directories, and divisional or subdivisional offices under the ministry. Also, a GeSi section (now known as the Social coordination Section) was created at the ministry leve

1006、l. it was headed by a senior sociologist, and accompanied by an engineer, a section officer, and an assistant officer. A GeSi consultant team was recruited to assist the section. The MoUD endorsed its own GeSi operational Guidelines (2013) and formed a GeSi steering committee to provide guidance to

1007、the section for the implementation of the guidelines. More than 200 officials from the ministry and two departments, as well as regional and local officials, were trained to use the guidelines.continued on next page93GeNDeR eqUAliTy AND SociAl iNclUSioN DiAGNoSTic of SelecTeD SecToRS iN NePAlLooking

1008、 Forward: Issues and Opportunities to ConsiderThis section highlights key issues and opportunities that merit consideration by ADB in sector and project analyses and in discussions with government counterparts. Integrate GESI in urban planningUrban planning not only identifies land uses but also ide

1009、ally integrates employment with transport and housing to make places work for everyone.15 Hence, it is essential that GeSi aspects are well thought out and integrated in urban planning especially as Nepal is a rapidly urbanizing country. GeSi analysis and sex, caste, and ethnicity disaggregated data

1010、 should inform the planning processes for urban development. consultations with different social groups to identify their priorities and capacities would enable the urban space to be more responsive to their needs. including women and excluded groups in infrastructure decision-making processes and g

1011、iving them the opportunity to participate in governance can improve the way in which water, sanitation, and solid waste are managed. Nepal has adopted participatory planning processes. Some urban projects are using participatory methodologies and socioeconomic surveys to identify priorities of women

1012、 and excluded groups (e.g.,under physical infrastructure and market center, roads and water supply were prioritized in different municipalities; under social infrastructure priorities, birthing center and agriculture collection centers were identified during consultations).16 The priorities identifi

1013、ed through such participatory methods need to be part of the planned investments with appropriate budget and skilled staff to ensure implementation. only when the diverse experiences and needs of women and men are integrated into urban planning and design will it be possible to form inclusive urban

1014、planning procedures, public spaces, and land management (footnote 15).15 UN HABiTAT. 2012. Gender Responsive Urban Planning and Design. p. 4. https:/unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Gender-Responsive-Urban-Planning-and-Design.pdf.16 MoUD. 2015. Socio Economic and Gender Analysis. Second inte

1015、grated Urban Development Project. Kathmandu.Both the Department of Urban Development and Building construction and the Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (this department was moved to the new Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation in 2016) also established GeSi desks under senior sociologists.

1016、 They developed annual GeSi action plans in fiscal year 20142015 and received government funding for implementation. Actions by the ministrys GeSi section to implement the GeSi guidelines included reviewing policies, strengthening mechanisms for GeSi mainstreaming into planning and monitoring activi

1017、ties, supporting the capacity development of staff, developing GeSi training modules and toolkits, and monitoring and measuring GeSi performance against targets.GeSi = gender equality and social inclusion, MoUD = Ministry of Urban Development.Source: MoUD. 2017. Social coordination Section Reports 2

1018、017. Kathmandu.Box 6.3 continued94URBAN DeVeloPMeNTTraining of government and municipal officials, engineers, and contractors on universal design of urban facilities would assist them to make cities and services friendly for all citizens including women, PWDs, and other excluded groups.17Create GESI

1019、-responsive legal frameworks and regulations for urban developmentlegal frameworks and regulations are needed at federal, provincial, and local levels to: (i) facilitate economic opportunities for women and men engaged in the urban informal sector; (ii) foster safe and secure environments for all re

1020、sidents, including women and excluded groups; (iii) provide GeSi-inclusive land management tools for security of tenure and housing, and secure the right to the city facilities of slum dwellers and informal settlers; (iv) incorporate GeSi features in the design of municipal infrastructure; (v) provi

1021、de staggered utility connection costs and tariffs, subsidies for the poorest households, and equitable resettlement and compensation plans; and (vi) promote the development of policies and programs that will address violence against women and girls in public and private spheres, which impacts their

1022、access to urban services and resources. ensuring that women and the landless have legal status for their tenure is an important factor in obtaining basic services. Regulations are also required to ensure that womens unpaid work in the care economy is supported through appropriate mixed-land use plan

1023、ning and relevant municipal services, such as childcare.The importance of positive policies is demonstrated by indias Street Vendors Bill 2012 (Protection of livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending), which is one of the pivotal efforts in the world to protect street vendors rights at the level o

1024、f national law (footnote 15).Design GESI-responsive municipal infrastructureThe constructed infrastructure should promote the active participation in social and economic activities and encourage employment of women and excluded groups, including PWDs, the elderly, and individuals with limited mobili

1025、ty. Proper drainage and solid waste management reduces environmental contamination and contributes to better health for all. These facilities need to be accessed by slum and poorer settlements of urban spaces also, not only by the elite of the cities. No garbage and better-managed wastewater in the

1026、streets of a town promote better mobility. Safe and secure places for walking or playing; well-lit roads and lanes; adequate potable water and toilets; safe, frequent, and affordable transportation; and health, school, and recreation services can decrease caregiving responsibilities of families, esp

1027、ecially of women, and improve their safety and security. Adequately sized and designed dwellings (with at least one bedroom, toilet and bathroom, and well-ventilated kitchen) can reduce exposure of household members, especially women and girls, to indoor air pollution from cooking, and exposure of c

1028、hildren to sexual abuse. A GeSi-friendly city therefore takes into consideration the housing design; pedestrian-friendly design and child, women, and disabled-friendly public transport; positioning of public water taps for ease of use by elders and smaller persons; disabled-friendly, smooth and even

1029、 paths; parks with seats and benches; clearly visible signages; safe restrooms; and projects geared to specific needs of women and excluded groups.17 National federation of DisabledNepal. https:/nfdn.org.np/article/access-to-transport-services-for-people-with-disabilities-in-kathmandu/.95GeNDeR eqUA

1030、liTy AND SociAl iNclUSioN DiAGNoSTic of SelecTeD SecToRS iN NePAlEnhance institutional capacity on GESIAs illustrated by the GeSi project of MoUD, for urban development to be more responsive to the needs of women and excluded groups, it is essential to strengthen the institutional capacities of gove

1031、rnment agenciesespecially the recently restructured local government unitsand relevant stakeholders. To benefit excluded groups, GeSi needs to be integrated into planning, budgeting, management, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of urban development projects. Skills and capacities of releva

1032、nt staff and decision makers to identify and respond to GeSi issues of urban development should be enhanced. for instance, extending piped water supply and sewerage networks into informal and unplanned settlements poses physical and technical challenges. Technical teams need to identify innovative s

1033、olutions that can be accessed by women and excluded groups in those areas. institutional policies and strategies should be implemented to ensure women and excluded groups can directly participate in and benefit from urban development programs (Table 6.1).Table 6.1: Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Eq

1034、uality and Social Inclusion Perspectives into Urban DevelopmentbarriersActions to Address the barriersGender and social differentiated needs are not reflected in the design of urban areas and services.conduct gender equality and social inclusion (GeSi) analysis and produce sex, caste and ethnicity,

1035、and disability disaggregated data to inform the design and planning processes for urban development.The location of facilities and services and the structure of urban spaces often pose difficult challenges for women and excluded groups.Use participatory methodologies and socioeconomic surveys to ide

1036、ntify the priorities and needs of women and excluded groups, including persons with disability (PWDs).Urban policy or investments on services and infrastructure that have been identified by women and excluded groups as their top priority are inadequate.incorporate priorities identified through parti

1037、cipatory methods into the planned investments with appropriate budget and skilled staff to ensure implementation. Women and excluded groups have poor access to services; and safe, secure, and affordable options are not readily available and are not elderly- or disabled-friendly.Develop safe and secu

1038、re places for walking or playing; well-lit roads and lanes; adequate potable water and toilets; safe, frequent, and affordable transportation; and health, school, and recreation services.Poor urban living conditions compromise the health of women and excluded groups.ensure access of proper drainage

1039、and solid waste management by informal and poorer settlements of urban spaces also, not only by the elite of thecities.Private suppliers provide services at high cost as alternative to poor public services.Provide temporary occupancy rights for informal settlers and give developers special tax rates

1040、 to encourage cheaper services.Public engagement in urban governance is still significantly hindered by unequal regard, cultural, and domestic constraints. formulate legal frameworks and regulations at federal, provincial, and local levels to facilitate participation of women and men of excluded gro

1041、ups in the urban informal sector and to provide them with economic opportunities.continued on next page96URBAN DeVeloPMeNTbarriersActions to Address the barriersPoor, women, and excluded groups, particularly those living in informal settlements, are not sufficiently consulted on municipal infrastruc

1042、ture designs and planning, and housing programs for the poor.Adopt participatory and consultative approaches, increasing participation of poor, women and excluded groups, in municipal planning. Prioritize women, elderly, differently abled and childrens needs when designing housing programs for the p

1043、oor.The involvement of social development section of the municipalities in Nepal is highly limited in the planning and budgeting processes. Strengthen institutional capacities of local governments/municipalities, especially the social development sections, for urban development to be more responsive

1044、 to the needs of women and excluded groups in the planning and budgeting processes.There is limited GeSi responsiveness among staff and minimal number of women staff members in municipalities.Adopt strategies toward increasing staff diversity and strengthening the capacity of municipal staff on GeSi

1045、.inclusion of women in policy provisions ischallenging.include social mobilization and awareness programs as project components to increase understanding of women, families, and communities about the importance of their participation in decision-making. invest in capacity strengthening of women to i

1046、ncreasetheir influence in the meetings.Projects have limited activities that intend to change discriminatory gender and social norms.incorporate in the projects design and monitoring framework and GeSiaction plan, activities which can further reduce discriminatory practices and improve social norms

1047、or behaviors toward women and excluded groups.GeSi = gender equality and social inclusion.Source: Table prepared for this study.Table 6.1 continued9798Area of collaborationSince 2000, ADB has been working with the Government of Nepal to improve water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in the countrys s

1048、mall urban centers through a series of Small Town Water Supply and Sanitation Support Programs.ADB has contributed in strengthening Nepals urban sector policy, regulation, and institutional framework for water and sanitation service delivery; and supported municipalities in improving infrastructure

1049、and services, including water supply, septage management and sanitation, and solid waste management. ADB has also supported rural communities in developing water supplies and community-based organizations for subsequent operations and maintenance.Sector contextAccess to drinking water and sanitation

1050、 is a fundamental right of citizens according to the Constitution (2015). Around 64% of Nepals population uses safely managed sanitation services, and 95% uses safely managed drinking water services (Nepal Demographic Health Survey 2016).A large percentage of the population suffers from waterborne d

1051、iseases due to low quality drinking water and inadequate sanitation facilities. Alarge segment of the Tarai population depends on shallow groundwater and wells, with arsenic contamination as a major issue. Drinking water is inadequate. Sewer drains are directly discharged into rivers without any pri

1052、or treatment. Sludge is also discharged into public drains. Solid waste management is an increasing problem in urban areas. Water supply systems in rural and semi-urban towns are more community managed than central water supply systems. Water sector institutions struggle to achieve operational and f

1053、inancial sustainability because of low tariffs, poor asset management, and inadequate institutional capacity.WAter, SAnitAtion, And Hygiene7WATer, SANiTATioN, AND HyGieNegender equality and social inclusion (geSi) considerations relevant to sector planning and outcomesinability to pay for constructi

1054、on or sanitation services or use assets to build toilets negatively impact low income communities and informal settlers.There is limited recognition of gender, child and disability differentiated requirements of WASH services.issues in pit emptying and fecal sludge treatment services have significan

1055、t impact on poor urban communities. Lack of access to appropriate water, sanitation, and hygiene services increases vulnerabilities of women and girls to violence of varying forms.Gender and social norms constrain access of women and excluded groups to information and employment opportunities in the

1056、 sector.good practices and lessonsSubsidized connections to piped water supply and output-based aid for sanitation infrastructure support coverage of poor and vulnerable households.it is essential to effectively incorporate gender and social analysis and actions in projects, along with disaggregated

1057、 indicators.Looking forward: issues and opportunities to considerWASH must be viewed as a service to all, including women and excluded groups, rather than just an infrastructure.Discriminatory gender, caste, and ethnicity- differentiated labor as well as access to resources and decision-making autho

1058、rity need to be addressed.An adaptive, process-oriented approach that is empowering and responsive to the needs of women and excluded groups is important.GeSi-supportive policies, institutional arrangements, programming, and monitoring are essential.ensure meaningful and equal participation in leade

1059、rship among women and excluded groups.Further resourcesADB tip sheet on addressing barriers experienced by women and excluded groups and integrating GeSi in the WASH sector (Table 7.3).GeSi = gender equality and social inclusion, WASH = water, sanitation, and hygiene.99GeNDer equALiTy AND SoCiAL iNC

1060、LuSioN DiAGNoSTiC of SeLeCTeD SeCTorS iN NePALArea of CollaborationThe water and sanitation sector, including in urban areas, has been a major focus of collaboration between ADB and the government. As of December 2018, ADB has funded 57 projects worth $1.12billion in Nepal (which is 17.6% of its tot

1061、al lending, grant, and technical assistance lending) for the water and other urban infrastructure and services sector.1 improved access to drinking water has been the lead area of investment. Since 2000, ADB has been working with the government to improve WASH in the countrys burgeoning small urban

1062、centers through a series of Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Support Projects (STWSSSPs). The goal is, by the end of the third project in 2021, more than 1.24 million people in 69 urban centers across the country would have benefited from the program. The project also aims to strengthen Nepal

1063、s urban sector policy, regulation, and institutional framework for water and sanitation service delivery.2 The approaches and lessons learned from the small-towns model are also being institutionalized through the governments cofinancing (Sahalagani) program currently implemented by the Department o

1064、f Water Supply and Sewerage using the governments internal financial resources.3ADB worked with the Ministry of urban Development (which included drinking water and sanitation department before a separate Ministry of Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation was formed) to develop and implement GeSi oper

1065、ational Guidelines. ADB has supported municipalities in improving infrastructure and services, including water supply, septage management and sanitation, and solid waste management. rural communities have been supported in developing water supplies and community-based organizations for subsequent op

1066、erations and maintenance.Sector ContextPolicy and Institutional FrameworkPolicy commitmentsThere are strong national and international mandates for inclusive WASH services in Nepal. Access to drinking water and sanitation is a fundamental right of citizens, according to the Constitution (2015), stat

1067、ed in Article 35 (4), “every citizen shall have the right of access to safe water and sanitation.” The goal is to ensure sustainable delivery of water supply and sanitation services for which payment, through taxes and transfers or directly through affordable tariffs, would be necessary.4 The 15thPe

1068、riodicPlan(2019/20202024/2025) aims to provide basic drinking water and sanitation services to 99% of the population, and expand medium- and high-quality services in the Plan period. The plan commits to implement (i) improve public health through safe, secure, and accessible drinking water and sanit

1069、ation services; (ii) maintain environmental sanitation by providing access to basic sanitation services to all citizens by managing 1 ADB. 2018. Cumulative Lending Grant and Technical Assistance Commitments. The chapters on urban development and WASH have some overlap as the data regarding ADB suppo

1070、rt for WASH is within the urban development sector. See ADB. Nepal: By the Numbers. https:/data.adb.org/dashboard/nepal-numbers.2 ADB. 2017. Tapping the UnreachedNepal Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Projects: A Sustainable Model of Service Delivery. Kathmandu. p. 1. 3 Sahalagani Kary

1071、akram (Joint investment Program) is one in which there is 50:50 cost-sharing between local consumers and the government. See GWP Nepal, Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha (JVS). 2018. Water Nepal: A Historical Perspective. September. Kathmandu.4 Constituent Assembly Secretariat. 2015. Constitution of Nepal (unof

1072、ficial translation). Kathmandu.100WATer, SANiTATioN, AND HyGieNehigh levels of human waste and sewage; (iii) ensure climate change and disaster management-friendly WASH services; and (iv) strengthen capacity of the federal, state and local governments for sustained provision of water and sanitation

1073、services.Since 2009, various policies have directed for increased participation of women and excluded groups in water and sanitation user groups in planning, implementation, ownership of systems, and operation of services. Some of these policies are the National urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sec

1074、tor Policy (2009), the Sanitation and Hygiene Master Plan (2011), and the National urban Water Supply and Sanitation Policy (2014). The policies aim to address the rights and needs of women and excluded groups through proportional representation and increasing their role in decision-making, and to i

1075、dentify urban poor and vulnerable groups requiring special assistance through social mapping. Strategies such as output-based aid (oBA), financing for poor and marginalized settlements, connection costs for poor and disadvantaged groups built into the total scheme costs, and consultations during tar

1076、iff setting were implemented. As a step toward addressing equity in access to WASH services, four disadvantaged groups are identified in WASH plans: (i) poor populations, (ii) indigenous populations, (iii) ethnic minorities, and (iv) PWDs, including people living with PWDs.The 15-year Water Supply,

1077、Sanitation and Hygiene Sector Development Plan (20162030) mandates that child, gender and disabled (CGD)-friendly facilities be available as part of improved services, with sufficient supply of water, separate toilets for boys and girls, handwashing with soap, and menstrual hygiene management (MHM).

1078、5 it directs that priority should be given to women and excluded groups in cross subsidy mechanisms and to projects that mainstream GeSi in large and medium systems. under this plan, 0.065% (Nrs597,000) of the total cost (Nrs915,383,910) has been allocated to GeSi interventions.6 it emphasizes the i

1079、mportance of strengthening facilities for water security, sanitation, waste collection, and sanitary landfill sites; adoption of 3r (reduce, reuse, and recycle); and establishment of a dedicated solid waste management unit in municipalities.in addition to national policies, international commitments

1080、 such as the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and New urban Agenda have emphasized the need for water and sanitation services in urban areas. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 includes achievement of universal access to sanitation and emphasizes that special efforts are required to address

1081、 the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations. urban WASH has a strong policy mandate for GeSi, but field level implementation has been a challenge. Some key issues include unavailability of disaggregated data; deep-rooted biased attitudes of some policy makers and implementers; l

1082、ack of meaningful participation of women who can influence decision-making processes; and lack of user-friendly, GeSi-compliant structural design of WASH facilities.75 Child, gender, and differently abled (CGD) friendly features:(i) Child friendly features include water taps, knobs and latches of to

1083、ilet doors and windows at suitable heights and convenience for children at different ages. (ii) in gender friendly features, the toilet should be located in a safe and secure place and the door, windows and ventilation should safeguard privacy. in addition to water in schools and other public instit

1084、utions, the toilet should have facilities for maintaining menstrual hygiene management. for example, a bucket with cover or lid inside the toilet or an incinerator attached just outside the toilet is essential. (iii) Disabled-friendly toilet should include a ramp up to toilet, sufficient space for a

1085、 wheelchair in the passage, hand railing in the passage and, within the toilet cubicles, appropriate types of seating arrangements and support on the toilet.6 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation. 2016. 15-year Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Sector Development Plan (201

1086、62030). Kathmandu.7 Meeting notes. 2018. Meeting with Department of Water Supply and Sanitation, July 12, 2018. Kathmandu101GeNDer equALiTy AND SoCiAL iNCLuSioN DiAGNoSTiC of SeLeCTeD SeCTorS iN NePALInstitutional Structure for WASHThe Constitution of Nepal has envisaged complete decentralization of

1087、 all aspects of planning, implementation, operation, and maintenance of WASH projects to the federal, provincial, and local tiers of government. Water supply systems in Nepal are managed by the water users and sanitation committees both in the rural and semi-urban areas. Systems in large towns are m

1088、anaged either by the Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) or management board in line with Water Supply Management Board Act 2006. Small-towns are managed by the Water users and Sanitation Committees (WuSCs). The collected tariff should be adequate to operate and maintain the systems. The progressi

1089、ve tariff system is helping to give value to water and addressing the needs of the urban poor.8The Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation with its various institutions are responsible for WASH related service delivery.9 The former WASH-Coordination Committees (WASH-CCs) became defunct with the intr

1090、oduction of the federal governance structure, and projects and programs now have to establish linkages with the new WASH-CCs formed by the ward and the municipalities. As ward level WASH-CCs are yet to be formed by many ward offices, the existing projects work in coordination with municipalities to

1091、implement and sustain ongoing WASH initiatives. Water sector institutions struggle to achieve operational and financial sustainability because of low tariffs, poor asset management, and 8 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation, Sector efficiency improvement unit (Seiu). 2016. N

1092、epal Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Sector Development Plan (20162030). Kathmandu.9 Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, Melamchi Water Supply Development Board, Project implementation Directorate, Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board, Nepal Water Supply Corporation, Kathmandu Up

1093、atyaka Khanepani Limited, rural Water Supply and Sanitation fund Development Board, Water Supply Tariff fixation Commission.Table 7.1: Urban Water and Sanitation Service Providers Institution Models in NepalUrban AreasCurrent Service AreaLegislative/ institutional FrameworkFunctions PlanningConstruc

1094、tiontariff SettingoperationsMunicipalitiesKathmandu Valley, Bharatpur, Hetauda, Kavre, Dharan, ButwalWSMB Act (2006)WSMB and municipalityContractor/ WSMBWSTfC Act (2006)Service ProvidersLarge to medium-sized towns21 townsNWSC Act (1989, 2007 amendment)NWSCNWSCWSTfC Act (2006)NWSCSmall-towns69 STWSSS

1095、P towns plus others supported by cofinancing program of the Government of Nepal and other funding partnersupdated 15-year plan for small-towns water and sanitationLocal bodiesContractor/ WuSCsWuSCsWuSCsNWSC = Nepal Water Supply Corporation, STWSSSP = Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Pr

1096、oject, WSMB = Water Supply Management Board, WSTfC = Water Supply Tariff fixation Commission, WuSC = Water users and Sanitation Committees.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation. 2016. Draft National WASH Sector Development Plan. Kathmandu.102WATer, SANiTATioN, AND HyGi

1097、eNeinadequate institutional capacity.10 All municipalities may not have a WASH section, but the component is monitored by the environment Section. They do not have a GeSi focal person. GeSi is a responsibility of the municipality either through the environment Section or Women Development Section.Ge

1098、nder Equality and Social Inclusion Considerations Relevant to Sector Planning and OutcomesSituation of women and excluded groups in the sectorDespite significant progress, there are income, gender, caste, ethnicity, and locational disparities in the level of access to WASH services by people from di

1099、fferent social groups in Nepal, including in urban areas.11 Approximately 15% of the population in Nepal have no access to improved water sources. Sectorfigures show generally high coverage rates for all groups in accessing drinking water but disparities in sanitation service delivery exist, particu

1100、larly between income levels and across social groups.There is a high correlation between access to toilets and poverty levels. The Annual Household Survey 2016 states that 99% of the richest quintile have access to toilets while 43.5% of the poorest group have no toilet facilities. Poverty is a stro

1101、ng barrier as poorer households have limited access to project information and resources, and limited time for project construction and attending meetings. Asfinancial contributions are challenging for them, the poor often contribute the bulk of the labor. There are inadequate data to assess the exa

1102、ct number of PWDs who face water scarcity and lack of access. However, there is evidence that points to the relative marginalization and invisibility of this population in water sector development programs.12Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS) 2011 shows that 56% of the population has access to toi

1103、lets in Nepal. About 90% Newars and 85% Hill Brahmans have this access while only 28% Madhesi “other backward castes” and 11% Madhesi Dalits have access to toilets. Piped water supply systems coverage is 52.3%. There is high income disparity as 63.4% of the richest quintile households and 28.5% of t

1104、he poorest have access to piped water supply systems. There are high disparities between urban and rural areas too. in 2016, around 95% of the population used safely managed drinking water services while 65% used safely managed sanitation services, including a handwashing facility with soap and wate

1105、r (figure 7.1).The 2018 data from the Department of Water Supply and Sanitation (DWSS) shows that about 99% of the total population have access to basic sanitation facilities and 88% have access to basic water supply facilities. By the end of 2018, a total of 63 districts of Nepal achieved status of

1106、 open free Defecation zones. Almost all people living in hill and mountain belts have access to basic sanitation facility. Coverage of sanitation facility in Tarai is at 93% which is 6% below the national coverage. Disparity in sanitation exists within Tarai districts with eight districts having les

1107、s than 30% coverage to basic sanitation while people in other districts have more than 62% coverage.1310 ADB. Nepal: Third Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project. Sector Assessment (Summary): Water and other urban infrastructure and Services. unpublished.11 on 30 September 2019, Nepa

1108、l was declared an open defecation free (oDf) country. 12 World Bank. 2017. Including Persons with Disabilities in Water Sector Operations: A Guidance Note. https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/27542.13 The Himalayan Times, Nepal. Water Supply, Sanitation Coverage Remains Stagnant. Kathman

1109、du. https:/ equALiTy AND SoCiAL iNCLuSioN DiAGNoSTiC of SeLeCTeD SeCTorS iN NePALDisparity exists in water supply facility of the seven provinces of Nepal (Table 7.2). The coverage of water supply facility is lowest (70.45%) in Province 6, which is mainly composed of remote and mountain districts. T

1110、he population of Province 3 with access to basic water supply service is 90%. Twenty-four districts have water supply coverage of more than 90%, and only four districts have coverage below 80%. Almost all households in three districts like Kailali, Dadeldhura, and Manang have access to basic water s

1111、upply facility.1414 C. B. Budhathoki. 2019. Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Situation in Nepal: A review. Journal of Health Promotion. Kathmandu.Figure 7.1: Access to Water and Sanitation (%)94 49 71 24 5 65 21 96 45 67 28 5 64 11 95 47 70 25 5 65 15 Population using safely manageddrinking wat

1112、erPopulation usingpiped water*Population withwater onpremisesPopulation whocan access waterwithin less than30 minutesPopulation whocan access waterin 30 minutesor longerPopulation usingsafely managedsanitation services,including ahandwashing facility with soap and waterHouseholds withno toilet facil

1113、ityUrban Rural Total *Annual Household Survey fy20152016. pp. 9099.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Nepal Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu.Table 7.2: Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage in Seven Provinces of Nepal (%)ProvinceWater SupplySanitationProvince 185.5595.11Pr

1114、ovince 287.8688.19Province 391.0198.83Province 489.68100.00Province 588.2098.97Province 670.45100.00Province 787.3996.62Nepal87.3996.62Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation, Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, environmental Sanitation Section. 2018. Sanitation Sta

1115、tus of Nepal: Factsheet. Kathmandu.104WATer, SANiTATioN, AND HyGieNeThe School Sector Development Plan (SSDP) 2016 highlights the lack of disabled-friendly WASH facilities as a barrier for children with disabilities to enroll and remain in school. Hence, SSDP 2016 mandated sex-disaggregated and disa

1116、bled-friendly WASH facilities in schools.The current state of menstrual health and hygiene management (MHM) constrains women in Nepal in more than just physical ways. it also generates significant psychological burdens extending from embarrassment in front of peers, hindering them from living a life

1117、 free from shame. Adolescent girls view menstruation and menstrual blood as “impure” and “dirty,” thus they feel ashamed of it.15 Apartfrom the social, cultural, and religious aspects, the severe health impacts associated with the taboos and stigmas of menstrual huts is ignored. Due to the practice

1118、of chhapaudi (menstrual exclusion in which women and girls during their menstruation cycle are isolated in huts), particularly in the far west Nepal, women suffer from pneumonia, diarrhea, and other respiratory tract infections. Additionally, there is an absence of strategic plans on how to identify

1119、 and address the barriers faced by groups who experience multiple levels of marginalization (e.g., income poor and Dalit women living in remote areas).Majority of the population still suffers from waterborne diseases due to low quality drinking water and inadequate sanitation facilities. Piped water

1120、 is only intermittently available in most areas of the country (urban: 35%; rural: 30%), and most systems need repair. A large segment of the Tarai population depends on shallow groundwater and wells; arsenic contamination of the shallow groundwater, first reported in 2003, has become a major issue.

1121、 Drinking water is extremely inadequate. Sewer drains are directly discharged into rivers without any prior treatment. Sludge is also discharged into public drains. Water conservation is not a priority. Solid waste management is an increasing problem in urban areas. only a few small-towns have forma

1122、l solid waste collection, usually weekly or biweekly, by a mini-tractor and trailer. None of the small-towns has sanitary landfill (footnote 10). These sectoral deficits impact negatively on all citizens but more so on women and excluded groups as they are forced to manage with scarce resources. Wom

1123、en, due to traditional work division, are responsible for household management and hence are burdened with managing water for drinking, cooking, and cleaning, and for waste management that has no proper systems. With poor hygiene, illnesses increase, resulting in higher care burden of women. Landles

1124、s people (who are mostly Dalits) do not have space for toilet construction and are forced to use unhygienic sanitation measures.Water supply provisions have largely been for domestic demands, such as drinking, cooking, washing, and other personal hygiene. Nonetheless, planning for water supply servi

1125、ces includes municipal uses of water such as for firefighting, street cleaning, city greeneries, recreation, public drinking, and washing facilities. other institutional and industrial water demands especially of hospitals, schools, hotels, and housings are also incorporated in the planning. However

1126、, the provision of water for these purposes highly depends on water availability. Storage of abundantly available rainwater locally for distribution in dry weather is difficult because of high land prices and difficult terrains. Provision of basic water supply and sanitation services for informal se

1127、ttlers and slum dwellers and for the lower income and marginalized groups have largely been neglected due to legality issues.16 if such facilities are provided, informal settlements may acquire permanent possession of land that they have encroached upon which for many years has deprived these groups

1128、 from basic amenities.15 PSi/Nepal, MirA, and Maverick Collective. 2017. Peer Ethnographic Study on Menstrual Health and Hygiene Management in Nepal. Kathmandu.16 Government of Nepal. 2011. Sanitation and Hygiene Master Plan 2011. Kathmandu. p. 9.105GeNDer equALiTy AND SoCiAL iNCLuSioN DiAGNoSTiC of

1129、 SeLeCTeD SeCTorS iN NePALWith such wide gaps in the sector, gender disparities exist in access, design, construction, and maintenance of water supply and sanitation (WSS) systems. These disparities highlight a pressing need to address the urban sanitation challenge comprehensively, with emphasis on

1130、 slum dwellers and poor communities that have typically been neglected. Without concerted interventions, the prospects of cholera, diarrhea, and worm infections will increase, jeopardizing education, productivity, and the quality of life of all urban dwellers.Social equality, child, gender and disab

1131、led (CGD)-friendly facilities, menstrual hygiene management (MHM), and financial feasibility are key issues in WASH regarding GeSi. The WASH services need to move beyond technical solutions and adopt a more GeSi-oriented approach that considers the existing power relations between men and women, and

1132、 between social groups, and how these influence access to resources and participation in decision-making process.17Gender and caste or ethnicity-based barriersGenerally, women and girls continue to bear the brunt of the responsibility of water collection and maintaining sanitation facilities. it is

1133、therefore they who suffer the most from limited or no access to adequate WASH services. They are also often put at risk when they need to use or access these services. Deficiencies in services result in high costs for excluded groups, especially for women. Womenare disproportionately affected by poo

1134、r water supply because it forces them to spend more time fetching water and fulfilling their household role of caring for those who fall ill from contaminated water. Thisleaves less time for income-generating activities and, in the case of school-aged girls, for study. Disposal of sanitation materia

1135、ls is also a challenge in urban areas. Proper disposal mechanisms are not available in offices and other public places, which limits girls and womens mobility during their menstruation.Caste-based barriers and prejudices exist at public water sources, where the “low caste” people are frequently subj

1136、ected to insults and emotional abuse. in fetching water, Dalit women need to queue and wait for their turn until the “high caste” people have fetched water. They must use a separate water source. They are denied access to the source of water meant for the general public on the grounds of their caste

1137、 which is a gross violation of Dalits right to water, as well as violation of their fundamental and human rights. While there has been a decrease in this practice with the increase of household level drinking water sources, it still exists in rural areas.18Another barrier for women and Dalits is the

1138、ir inability to influence decisions regarding WASH. evenwhen projects ensure that Dalits are included, their time poverty and low self-esteem constrain the quality of their participation and influence in key discussions on water access and development. Language, distance, and mobility are key constr

1139、aints especially for Janajatis living in remote areas. They all face significant extra difficulties in gaining access to information about projects and benefiting from them. Sanitary conditions for poor people in urban areas are aggravated by high-density living, inadequate septage and solid waste m

1140、anagement, and poor drainage. Some key issues experienced by women and excluded groups are discussed below. 17 Government of Nepal. 2016. Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene SDP (20162030). Kathmandu. p. 55.18 Meeting notes. Meeting with WASH experts. GeSi Diagnostic Study. 12 July 2018. Kathmandu.

1141、106WATer, SANiTATioN, AND HyGieNeinability to pay for construction or sanitation services or use assets to build toilets negatively impacts low income communities and informal settlersAccess to sanitation facilities is tied with land space, and therefore limited for certain vulnerable groups such as

1142、 those in informal settlements and low income communities. The government is hesitant to provide WASH facilities to the informal settlers because it would give them permanent residence which would be illegal since they do not have land ownership rights.19 There can be marginalization of specific inf

1143、rastructure requirements in sanitation and solid waste management services for low-income communities. People from marginal low-lying land unsuitable for formal urban development experience delay or unfinished infrastructure. Households and settlement clusters at a distance from headquarters tend to

1144、 be excluded from scheme support because of the higher project costs entailed in reaching those clusters.there is limited recognition of gender, child, and disability differentiated requirements of WASHservicesThere is minimal recognition of the gender differentiated requirements of women and men, c

1145、hildren, and PWDs for WASH facilities and services. Women and men have different requirements from facilities due to biological factors, including menstruation and pregnancy, and social and cultural factors such as expectations around maintaining “dignity” and “modesty.” Women are the main caregiver

1146、s for children, the sick and elderly and hence they need bigger spaces to manage them while using toilets. They also remain at greater risk of harassment and sexual violence than men near public and community toilets if precautions are not undertaken. usually, design of services and toilets do not c

1147、onsider the needs of children and PWDs, which increases their difficulty in using these facilities. Lack of separate and disabled-friendly toilets impacts women and PWDs who are forced to somehow manage without the facility for long hours. Access to sanitation services is also impacted by inability

1148、to pay the use of public toilets by transient or homeless populations; barriers to the access and use of latrines by individuals within households, especially by the disabled or elderly people; and exclusion from the use of community or public facilities such as by transgender individuals.inadequate

1149、 pit emptying and fecal sludge treatment services impact poor urbancommunitiesPoor fecal sludge management, which is prevalent in poor communities, can result in serious health problems including bladder inflations, stomach aches, kidney stones, skin problems, urinary tract infections, jaundice, nau

1150、sea, anxiety attacks, and feelings of social shame. Apart from affecting the health of all, the care work of women also increases. Despite the role of women in hygiene and sanitation at household level, toilet construction programs that provide income-generation opportunities often presume that only

1151、 men will be interested in or suited for those tasks. in semi-urban areas and small-towns, the use of tractors to clean the fecal sludge is usually handled by male contractors. it is important to ensure that the supply chain for sanitation does not fail to meet the excreta disposal needs of other gr

1152、oups. it should not reach only the richer, sewer-based wards.19 However, the National Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Policy 2014 aims to ensure access of women, poor and marginalized groups, informal settlers, and the disabled to water supply and sanitation services. Project implementing agencie

1153、s and service providers will be required to prepare social maps to adequately identify poor communities and informal settlers requiring special assistance to avail the services so that the poor and marginalized people get and remain connected to water supply and sanitation services.107GeNDer equALiT

1154、y AND SoCiAL iNCLuSioN DiAGNoSTiC of SeLeCTeD SeCTorS iN NePALLack of access to appropriate water, sanitation, and hygiene services increases vulnerabilities of women and girls to violence of varying formsWhen women and girls access public toilets, their safety and sense of privacy is threatened by

1155、a number of factors: poor design (e.g., open roofs where men can peek in), poor maintenance (e.g., broken latches and doors), men and boys loitering around public toilet complexes, and inadequate lighting and power failure. Safety concerns limit the mobility of women and guide their behavior and abi

1156、lity to access essential services in their communities and even determine their timing to relieve themselves.20gender and social norms constrain access of women and excluded groups to information and employment opportunitiesGendered norms and roles of women, and caste, ethnicity, and disability-base

1157、d disadvantage restrict the access of women and excluded groups to information, limit their active engagement in social and community work, and limit their opportunity for paid technical work in the WASH sector. The percentage of women, excluded groups, and PWDs engaged in technical jobs is lower th

1158、an that of men. Women do not always receive equal wages, while men (of advantaged social groups) are more involved in higher paying, specialized tasks. The stereotypical division of work restricts options for women in the sector and their involvement in sanitation development and planning.Multiplici

1159、ty of policies and lack of coordination in the sector causes confusionThe WASH sector lacks a strategic and unified plan that expresses the vision of the government in both subsectors. The multiplicity of policies that exist to guide the sector reflects the fragmented institutional setup. Coordinati

1160、on has also been a challenge, with multiple actors continuing to work according to project-driven modalities. Attempts have been made to coordinate efforts across different actorsgovernment, nongovernment organizations, international NGos, and donorsby establishing national and regional coordination

1161、 committees. However, these do not meet regularly or subscribe to a schedule of coordination. The absence of coordination and clear leadership leads to overlapping responsibilities and institutional gaps. While this is a general problem, it can have specific implications on inclusion. Good Practices

1162、 and LessonsSubsidized connections to piped water supply and output-based aid for sanitation infrastructure support coverage of lower income and excluded group householdsThe ADB-assisted Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Support Projects (STWSSSP) of DWSS have implemented the output-based aid

1163、modality and facilitated the outreach to lower income and excluded groups (Box 7.1). The subsidy enabled the lower income group to purchase the materials required for toilet construction and pay for the technician. A woman claims, “We would never have 20 Women in Cities international (Montral, Canad

1164、a; Jagori, New Delhi, india), iDrC Canada. 2011. Gender and Essential Services in Low-Income Communities: Report on the Findings of the Action Research Project Womens Rights and Access to Water and Sanitation in Asian Cities. Montral.108WATer, SANiTATioN, AND HyGieNebeen able to construct the toilet

1165、s if the Nrs10,000 support was not provided. We had to add some resources but now we do not need to wait to relieve ourselves or go to the forest.”21 for piped water connections, connection charges were covered. illnesses have been reduced in the communities, with women having more time to invest in

1166、 productive tasks; they use piped water for drinking and tube well water for other tasks, including vegetable farming. According to a resident: “earlier, the line in front of the health post was always so long. Diarrhea, stomach pain, and other such diseases plagued us. Now the lines are very shorta

1167、 benefit of clean drinking water.”22It is essential to effectively incorporate gender and social analysis and actions in projects along with disaggregated indicators An ADB topical paper Leading Factors of Success and Failure in ADB Urban Sanitation Projects, revealed that of 63 projects reviewed, o

1168、nly seven had gender-specific targets for the sanitation components. More projects should have monitored the gender-specific socioeconomic impacts of ADBs support for urban sanitation. Performance indicators on gender should be incorporated and traced during project implementation. According to the

1169、study, projects with a gender action plan (GAP)a tool used by ADB to ensure gender mainstreaminghave facilitated more effective gender integration because the project design has adopted explicit gender objectives.2321 focused group discussion with Tharu women. GeSi Diagnostic Study. 2018. Shaktinaga

1170、r, Dhangadi, Nepal.22 focused group discussion with mixed group. GeSi Diagnostic Study. 2 December 2018. Sitapur, Dhangadi, Nepal.23 ADB. 2018. Leading factors of Success and failure in Asian Development Bank urban Sanitation Projects. Executive Summary: Independent Evaluation. Manila. p. 31.Box 7.1

1171、: Water and Sanitation for the Poor through Output-Based AidThe Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Projects (STWSSSP) have successfully used a strategy for explicit performance-based grants to deliver last mile connectivity and toilets primarily to poor and vulnerable groups. under the o

1172、utput-based aid (oBA), grants are given to service providers (i.e., water users and sanitation committees) after delivery of the household connections or after the construction of toilets has been verified by an independent agent. Based on the success of the oBA scheme used by the STWSSSP, the gover

1173、nment through its urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Policy 2009 has included oBA as one of the recommended models to facilitate the access of poor people to water supply and sanitation services. Around 10,000 and 4,800 latrines were provided during the first and second project, respectively,

1174、to households living below the poverty line. Based on lessons from first, second, and third projects, water connections are mandatory for all households, with no connection charges for those below the poverty line. Households headed by women account for about 18% of connections on average.oBA = outp

1175、ut-based aid, STWSSSP = Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project.Source: ADB. 2017. Tapping the Unreached: Nepal Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Projects: A Sustainable Model of Service Delivery. Manila.109GeNDer equALiTy AND SoCiAL iNCLuSioN DiAGNoSTiC of SeLeCTeD SeCTo

1176、rS iN NePALiCiMoDs Koshi Basin Program in partnership with Helvetas Nepal has piloted water use master plans (WuMPs) in the mountains, hills, and floodplains of the Koshi basin since 2013 to increase the participation and role of women and excluded groups in local water planning and decision-making.

1177、 The participatory and inclusive approach of WuMPs has helped make the water planning process more inclusive. in the absence of such an approach, local water planning is controlled by political elites. Affirmative action adopted by WuMP to ensure participation of women and excluded groups has increa

1178、sed their confidence to a large extent. However, integrating GeSi in the WuMP process remains a challenge because of the sociocultural barriers faced by women and excluded groups. The rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project in Western Nepal Phase ii (rWSSP-WN ii), a bilateral development cooperati

1179、on project funded by the Governments of Nepal and finland, integrates and mainstreams the principles of GeSi in all its activities as a crosscutting objective. The document Human Rights Based Approach (HRBA) and GESI Strategy and Action PlanOperationalizing HRBA and GESI Principles in the Water and

1180、Sanitation Sector provides useful guidance for GeSi mainstreaming. The joint rWSSP-WN and rVWrMP (rural Village Water resources Management Project) HrBA and GeSi Strategy and Action Plan merge both GeSi and human rights-based approach as one comprehensive strategy that provides practical steps in tr

1181、anslating policies and principles into meaningful action with tangible results. ADB and World Bank adopted strategies in preparing the GeSi Action Plan and Vulnerable Communities Development Plan, respectively, to ensure that specific focus is maintained and activities targeting women and excluded g

1182、roups are implemented within a project (Box 7.2).Box 7.2: Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Strategies in Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector ProjectGender equality and social inclusion strategies adopted by the Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project include the followi

1183、ng:Situational analysisSocioeconomic survey, profile, and roster: sex-disaggregated data according to Dalit, ethnic and caste groups. ApproachesSelection of service area through participatory and inclusive approaches. Participation of women in decision-making on location and design of water points a

1184、nd latrines.recruitment of women and men hygiene promoters. At least 15% of project staff are either women or from excluded groups.equal employment opportunities and equal wages to poor women and men. employment records disaggregated by sex.Women and vulnerable groups to participate in project orien

1185、tation, consultations in each tole and ward, and focus group discussions. one separate public toilet with disabled-friendly design installed in strategic places in each town, with womens toilets designed to ensure privacy and safety.continued on next page110WATer, SANiTATioN, AND HyGieNeThe framewor

1186、k for inclusion of Poor and Vulnerable was adopted under the Third Small Town Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project, and subsequently in urban Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project. it outlines the strategy for free water supply connections to 100% of poor and vulnerable households in the

1187、project-towns and provides the identification process and eligibility criteria for beneficiaries and fund flow mechanisms.24Looking Forward: Issues and Opportunities to ConsiderThis section highlights key issues and opportunities that merit consideration by ADB in sector and project analyses, and in

1188、 discussions with government counterparts, especially for improving service delivery. 24 ADB. 2019. Project Administration Manual Nepal: Third Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project Appendix 5: Framework for Inclusion of Poor and Vulnerable Households. Kathmandu. pp. 7881.PoliciesPro

1189、-poor and gender-sensitive guidelines in the constitution of water users and sanitation committee (WuSCs).Structuresinvolve women, Dalit, and Janajati in district level coordination committees for social audits.one of the community mobilizers must be either a woman or from vulnerable groups.Provisio

1190、n of at least 33% women in the WuSC and at least one woman in key positions. Vulnerable groups appropriately represented in general and key positions at WuSC.Project management office is given the responsibility to ensure integration of environmental and social safeguards, including land acquisition

1191、 and gender aspects, as required in all documents, particularly in tender documents.Capacity DevelopmentGender equality and social inclusion training for WuSC members.Women-only project orientation seminars.Sanitation strategy developed as part of the water, sanitation, and hygiene campaign, includi

1192、ng girls menstrual health.WuSC = Water users and Sanitation Committee.Source: ADB.2014. Project Administration Manual, Nepal: Third Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project. Kathmandu. p. 33.Box 7.2 continued111GeNDer equALiTy AND SoCiAL iNCLuSioN DiAGNoSTiC of SeLeCTeD SeCTorS iN NePA

1193、LWASH must be viewed as a service to all, including women and excluded groups, rather than just an infrastructureinvestments in urban sanitation infrastructure can be more effective if they are planned and managed as part of a service delivery chain to all, including women and excluded groupssupport

1194、ed by enabling policies. This means that small-towns or municipalities need effective urban sanitation systems, consisting of sustainable processes and service providers that will ensure the safe capture, storage, transport, and treatment of excreta in a managed and coordinated waynot just investmen

1195、ts in hardware. The focus should be on GeSi-responsive outcomes rather than inputs, which has been the pattern in most projects. The effective and safe management of excreta, rather than the construction of toilets or sewers per se, should be the objective of the service delivery chain. Without effe

1196、ctive management of the wider sanitation service chain (containment, emptying, transport, treatment, and waste conversion or disposal), a sizeable percentage of waste still ends up contaminating the environment. This causes a major public health hazard which has a higher impact on women and excluded

1197、 groups.often, the specific requirements of women and excluded groups are overlooked. Menstrual hygiene management (MHM) facilities need to be integrated and promoted as part of child, gender, and disability-friendly toilets and WASH interventions. Specific MHM facilities should be provided (i.e.,lo

1198、ckable doors, waste management, accessible water for washing, and a maintenance plan). itiscritical that establishing toilets and other facilities be accompanied with proper orientation on use and maintenance, so people would know how to use and care for such facilities. Having safe, well-sited wate

1199、r collection points and well-lit, women- and girl-friendly sanitation facilities, with provision for MHM, would help advance girls secondary education and prevent gender-based violence.Discriminatory gender, caste, and ethnicity differentiated labor; access to resources; and decision-making authorit

1200、y need to be addressedThe focus on providing better facilities like toilet and piped water has improved the condition of life, especially of women. However, structural issues on gender and social inequalities were not addressed substantively in the projects. There have been limited interventions wit

1201、h household heads or advantaged social groups on division of toilet and water related tasks. The discriminatory practices burdening Dalits and other excluded groups (e.g., responsibility given to them to fetch water) constrain their progress. Development interventions, including potential subsidy co

1202、mponents, are important to address structural issues of unequal treatment and subordination of Dalits. even womens water needs for home-based productive tasks are often overlooked, such as cooking food to sell, running tea shops, petty trading, and handicraft production. The focus is on reproductive

1203、 roles of cooking, cleaning, and childcare and not on productive roles which can contribute to a shift in the existing power relations.An adaptive, process-oriented approach that is empowering and responsive to the needs of women and excluded groups is importantWomen and excluded groups are empowere

1204、d when they have control over resources to meet their WASH needs and participate in the provision of WASH services. if they are part of the planning process and are empowered to identify uses of WASH services, they can recognize and respond to issues constraining their progress. Various efforts of e

1205、ngaging the community and working with 112WATer, SANiTATioN, AND HyGieNemunicipal governments in Nepal have indicated that a process-oriented collaborative approach is effective in identifying needs and capacities of women and excluded groups, and enables them to work in coordination with their serv

1206、ice providers (Box 7.3).GESI supportive policies, institutional arrangements, programming, and monitoring are essentialSpecific institutional arrangements are necessary to ensure that GeSi is considered an integral part of efficient and effective planning and implementation. This includes the develo

1207、pment of GeSi policies and procedures, commitment at all organizational levels, and the availability of GeSi expertise and funds for targeted and supportive activities. it is important to promote diversity among service providers as there are very few women in the WSS sector. Simple measures to crea

1208、te a supportive working environment, such as provision of child care and flexible work schedule, can be very effective in attracting and retaining women professionals.To ensure a more systematic and inclusive approach, GeSi-sensitive interventions and monitoring and evaluation indicators disaggregat

1209、ed by sex, caste, ethnicity, regional identity, and location are needed. A rigorous GeSi analysis should support effective programming with adequate financial resources. Guidelines and tools for addressing GeSi in all aspects of a project cycle should be available as technical support for stakeholde

1210、rs.Box 7.3: Methodologies Used During Program ImplementationAs part of a community-led urban environmental sanitation (CLueS) program, data about the extent of water contamination in Nala at each of the key water sources around the community was posted on a public signboard, both shocking participan

1211、ts and motivating them to take action. The community has around 400 households. following the participatory CLueS methodology, the community opted for simplified sewers, together with a small local treatment plant using an anaerobic baffle reactor and a horizontal-flow, gravel-bed filter. A users co

1212、mmittee was made responsible for the long-term operation and maintenance of the system.Source: Practical Action. 2016. Urban Community-Led Total Sanitation: A Potential Way Forward for Co-Producing Sanitation Services. Kathmandu.in Gulariya, Nepal, Practical Action worked through the municipal gover

1213、nment to implement community-led total sanitation (CLTS) in a peri-urban context. They engaged municipal leadership through the project management committee and invested considerable effort in informing and engaging a wide range of stakeholders through training and workshops to ensure they fully und

1214、erstood the CLTS process. Pressure from national government to deliver on national sanitation goals complemented their local efforts and open defecation free (oDf) status was achieved in a population of 60,000more than 50% of whom were practicing oDf in just six months.CLTS = community-led total san

1215、itation, CLueS = community-led urban environmental sanitation, oDf = open defecation free.Source: Practical Action. 2015. Innovations for Urban Sanitation Adapting Community-led Approaches: Case Study 4. Gulariya, Nepal.113GeNDer equALiTy AND SoCiAL iNCLuSioN DiAGNoSTiC of SeLeCTeD SeCTorS iN NePALT

1216、he Local Government operation Act 2017 has entrusted municipalities with the responsibility for water supply and sanitation (WSS) services. Water users associations (WuAs) and water users and sanitation committees (WuSCs) are key bodies for service delivery. At all these levels, GeSi mainstreaming m

1217、ust be a key strategy and competencies of staff and officers should be strengthened to recognize and respond to the barriers experienced by women and excluded groups. Dedicated to the sanitation campaign of Nepal, the National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Center Department of Water Supply an

1218、d Sewerage has developed a manual, Options on Household Toilet Facilities for People with Disabilities and Difficulties 2017.25Meaningful and equal participation in leadership of women and excluded groups should be ensuredThe WuSCs are required to have women (at least 33%) and representatives of eth

1219、nic groups among their members, and for a woman to occupy at least one of the key posts (chair, vice chair, or treasurer). Women generally dominate the position of the treasurer, although they have little or no knowledge on formal accounting and management.26 Strengthening the capacity of women and

1220、excluded groups in these positions is important to ensure that leadership roles are not merely tokenistic or another source of dependency. it is important to identify and address gender, caste and ethnicity related barriers and issues faced by those in leadership roles to enable them to make meaning

1221、ful contributions. forinstance, the time poverty of women needs to be explicitly acknowledged at the beginning of the project and advocacy measures with family members should be adopted.equal representation and engagement of key stakeholders in decision-making, particularly in matters related to pla

1222、nning, implementation, and operation and maintenance, are key factors that can contribute to bridging the gap between high-level decision makers, community leaders (fromadvantaged groups), and women and excluded groups. Collaboration among these stakeholders can provide targeted information and comm

1223、unication opportunities for all the parties involved.Given the federal restructuring in the country, there are 6,743 new wards replacing 32,358 previous wards. in the new structures, the ward WASH coordination committee chairperson can be represented in the municipality or rural municipality. The WA

1224、SH coordination committee and chairpersons of municipality and rural municipality may be represented in the district WASH coordination committee. in the current scenario, the chairperson of local government structures comprised mostly of men (from advantaged groups), therefore there is probability o

1225、f reduced number of women and excluded groups (who reflect the true nature of the community, with each gender, caste, and disadvantaged ethnic group represented) in these WASH coordination committees. Thus, it will be important to promote women and excluded groups for other leadership positions, esp

1226、ecially chairperson, rather than confining them to insignificant posts (Table 7.3).25 National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre, DWSS. 2017. Options on Household Toilet Facilities for People with Disabilities and Difficulties. Kathmandu. https:/snv.org/cms/sites/default/files/explore/down

1227、load/handbook-disabilities-toilet-option-nepal.pdf.26 ADB. 2017. Tapping the Unreached: Nepal Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Projects: A Sustainable Model of Service Delivery. Manila. p. 9.114WATer, SANiTATioN, AND HyGieNeTable 7.3: Tip Sheet on Integrating Gender Equality and Social

1228、 Inclusion Perspectives in the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene SectorBarriersActions to Address the BarriersLimited recognition of gender, child, and disability differentiated requirements of water, sanitation, and hygiene services.Conduct assessment and consultations with women, Dalits, Janajatis, P

1229、WDs, and other excluded groups to identify priorities and prepare project designs that are GeSi-responsive.Lack of access to appropriate water, sanitation, and hygiene services by women, urban poor, and excluded groups.improve accessibility of women, the urban poor, and PWDs to water, sanitation, an

1230、d hygiene services. Provide sex-segregated toilets, regular water supply, better solid waste management services, and assistive technologies, such as specially designed handles for water pumps or toilets, ramps and handrails, and wider doors to fit wheelchairs.inability to pay for construction or sa

1231、nitation services.Promote strategies, such as output-based aid, subsidies, and other creative measures, to address immediate barriers. incentivize willingness to pay by improving water quality and regularity of supply, providing measures to reduce waterborne illnesses, and efficiently managing water

1232、 fetching time.Vulnerabilities of women and girls to violence of varying forms while using water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities.Design facilities with features to increase safety and security of women and girls; promote awareness and strengthen capacity of women in recognizing and resisting vio

1233、lence; and advocate with men and boys to change mindsets regarding gender-based violence.Local power relations and geographical inequalities are critical barriers.identify measures based on mapping of power relations and assessment of geographical barriers. Provide subsidies and other financial meas

1234、ures to reduce costs due to distance or rough terrains. Discriminatory gender and social norms constraining women and excluded groups from accessing sector resources and opportunities.Conduct social marketing and raise awareness of women, families, and communities on reducing discriminatory social p

1235、ractices. organize exposure visits, interactive discussions, and demonstrations to provide opportunities for learnings regarding shifts in social practices.GeSi = gender equality and social inclusion, PWDs = persons with disabilities. Source: Table prepared for this study.115Appendix dAtA on Selecte

1236、d iSSueS:Table A.1: LiteracyWomenprovinceSlc and Aboveno Schooling, primary or Secondary Schooltotalliterate*(%)number of Womencan Read a Whole Sentencecan Read part of a Sentencecannot Read at Allno card with Required languageBlind/ Visually-impairedProvince 127.040.89.821.80.40.2100.077.72,173Prov

1237、ince 212.218.57.861.40.10.1100.038.52,563Province 336.837.47.818.00.00.0100.082.02,732Province 429.048.88.613.60.00.0100.086.41,249Province 522.239.411.027.40.00.0100.072.62,274Province 619.636.410.233.80.00.0100.066.2724Province 719.739.97.333.00.00.0100.067.01,145SLC = School Leaving Certificate.*

1238、 Refers to women with an SLC or higher and women who can read a whole sentence or part of a sentence.Note: Percent distribution of women aged 15 to 49 by level of schooling attended, level of literacy, and percentage literate, according to background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Mini

1239、stry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 3.4.1, p. 54).Table A.2: LiteracyMenprovinceSlc and Aboveno Schooling, primary or Secondary Schooltotalliterate*(%)number of Mencan Read a Whole Sentencecan Read part of a Sentencecannot Read at AllBlind/ Visually-impairedProvince

1240、 135.646.39.88.30.0100.091.7691Province 229.737.411.021.90.0100.078.1795Province 350.536.17.35.90.1100.094.01,009Province 438.651.05.25.20.0100.094.8376Province 526.751.68.613.10.0100.086.9658Province 635.345.910.38.20.2100.091.5203Province 733.951.06.78.30.1100.091.6330SLC = School Leaving Certific

1241、ate.* Refers to men with an SLC or higher and women who can read a whole sentence or part of a sentence.Note: Percent distribution of men aged 15 to 49 by level of schooling attended, level of literacy, and percentage literate, according to background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Min

1242、istry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 3.4.2, p. 55).116APPeNdix Table A.3: Literacy Rates by Ethnic or Caste and Religious Groups (Selected) and Genderethnic/caste and Religious Grouppopulation 6 Years and older(%)population 15 Years and older(%)MaleFemaletotalMaleFe

1243、maletotalHill Brahmins 89.0670.6179.0288.8565.2375.64Hill Chhetris80.2259.9268.9279.1750.5462.88Tarai Castes 58.4830.9243.9261.2724.9741.76Hill dalits69.1549.8758.2463.5838.8448.93Other Hill dalits70.3351.3559.4165.7738.6349.42Tarai dalits47.7316.4631.0149.1711.0328.66indigenous Peoples 73.9655.4763

1244、.8771.6348.5358.64Newar (Hill indigenous Peoples) 85.3966.7275.2885.0261.6572.2Other Hill indigenous Peoples 72.5155.4463.2368.747.7656.89Other (Muslims, etc.) 59.0335.5346.2961.2528.3742.79Total 72.2151.4160.8571.6444.5556.45Source: World Bank. 2018. Country Level Gender Equality and Social Inclusi

1245、on Assessment (Annex 2). Kathmandu.Table A.4: Employment StatusWomenprovinceemployed in the 12 Months preceding the Survey(%)not employed in the 12 Months preceding the Survey(%)totalnumber of Womencurrently employed*not currently employedProvince 159.17.933.1100.02,173Province 238.512.349.1100.02,5

1246、63Province 361.59.029.5100.02,732Province 461.38.929.8100.01,249Province 559.19.931.0100.02,274Province 663.29.926.9100.0724Province 770.112.217.7100.01,145* “Currently employed” is defined as having done work in the past 7 days; includes persons who did not work in the past 7 days but who are regul

1247、arly employed and were absent from work for leave, illness, vacation, or any other reason.Note: Percent distribution of women aged 15 to 49 by employment status, according to background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (T

1248、able 3.8.1, p. 62).117APPeNdix Table A.5: Employment StatusMenprovinceemployed in the 12 Months preceding the Survey(%)not employed in the 12 Months preceding the Survey(%)totalnumber of Mencurrently employed*not currently employedProvince 182.18.99.0100.0691Province 276.49.314.3100.0795Province 379

1249、.17.913.0100.01,009Province 475.66.218.2100.0376Province 576.44.519.1100.0658Province 676.711.511.8100.0203Province 775.47.816.8100.0330* “Currently employed” is defined as having done work in the past 7 days; includes persons who did not work in the past 7 days but who are regularly employed and we

1250、re absent from work for leave, illness, vacation, or any other reason.Note: Percent distribution of men aged 15 to 49 by employment status, according to background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 3.8.2, p. 63).Tab

1251、le A.6: Employment of Currently Married Womencaste and ethnicityRespondent Worked in last 12 Months (%)%in the past Yearcurrently WorkingHave a Job, But on leave last 7 daysHill Brahmin27.26.763.92.3Hill Chhetri23.65.869.41.2Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri622.835.10Other Tarai Caste51.311.137.20.4Hill dalit21

1252、.810.266.21.8Tarai dalit36.715.447.10.8Newar27.28.8622Hill Janajati25.28.664.71.5Tarai Janajati20.914.464.40.3Muslim60.59.929.40.2Other56.513.526.73.3Total31.89.357.71.2Source: World Bank. 2018. Country Level Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment (Annex 2). Kathmandu.118APPeNdix Table A.7:

1253、 Cash Earnings of Currently Married Womenethnicitytype of earnings from Respondents Work (%)not paidcash onlycash and in-Kindin-Kind onlyHill Brahmin49.243.55.91.4Hill Chhetri62.328.95.73.1Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri27.461.33.47.9Other Tarai Caste48.428.413.49.8Hill dalit59.733.64.52.2Tarai dalit17.636.63

1254、213.8Newar35.361.13.10.5Hill Janajati56.136.75.81.4Tarai Janajati52.632.310.34.8Muslim31.642.518.97Other15.174.73.96.3Total51.735.98.53.9Source: World Bank. 2018. Country Level Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment (Annex 2). Kathmandu.Table A.8: Type of EmploymentWomenemployment character

1255、isticAgricultural Work(%)nonagricultural Work (%)total (%)Type of earningsCash only13.889.336.6Cash and in-kind10.12.77.9in-kind only4.70.43.4Not paid71.47.652.2Total100.0100.0100.0Type of employeremployed by family member86.827.969.0employed by non-family member9.438.118.0Self-employed3.934.012.9To

1256、tal100.0100.0100.0Continuity of employmentAll year34.579.248.0Seasonal57.010.443.0Occasional8.510.49.1Total100.0100.0100.0Number of women employed during the last 12 months6,0112,5928,603Note: Percent distribution of women aged 15 to 49 employed in the 12 months preceding the survey by type of earni

1257、ngs, type of employer, and continuity of employment, according to type of employment (agricultural or nonagricultural).Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 3.10.1, p. 66).119APPeNdix Table A.9: Type of EmploymentMenemployment characte

1258、risticAgricultural Work (%)nonagricultural Work (%)total (%)Type of earningsCash only34.295.475.3Cash and in-kind9.71.94.5in-kind only3.40.11.2Not paid52.62.619.1Total100.0100.0100.0Continuity of employmentAll year53.083.073.1Seasonal38.912.721.3Occasional8.04.35.5Total100.0100.0100.0Number of men e

1259、mployed during the last 12 months1,1442,3333,482Note: Percent distribution of men aged 15 to 49 employed in the 12 months preceding the survey by type of earnings, type of employer, and continuity of employment, according to type of employment (agricultural or nonagricultural). Total includes men wi

1260、th missing information on type of employment who are not shown separately.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 3.10.2, p. 66).Table A.10: Employment and Cash Earnings of Currently Married Women and MenAgeAmong currently Married Respon

1261、dentspercent distribution of currently Married Respondents employed in the past 12 Months, by type of earningstotalnumber of Women% employed in past 12 monthsnumber of respondentscash onlycash and in-kindin-kind onlynot paidWomen151949.170422.13.31.872.7100.0346202459.41,68432.04.33.660.0100.01,0012

1262、52965.51,95742.07.63.546.8100.01,281303473.41,72639.47.94.048.7100.01,266353974.11,151037.810.34.847.1100.01,120404475.51,28335.212.54.448.0100.0969454974.21,01128.911.23.856.1100.0750Total68.29,87535.98.53.951.7100.06,733Men151993.66066.11.35.127.5100.056202497.628481.01.71.016.2100.0277252997.4423

1263、79.95.91.412.7100.0412303497.851380.33.31.015.5100.0502continued on next page120APPeNdix AgeAmong currently Married Respondentspercent distribution of currently Married Respondents employed in the past 12 Months, by type of earningstotalnumber of Women% employed in past 12 monthsnumber of respondent

1264、scash onlycash and in-kindin-kind onlynot paid353997.752878.85.51.114.6100.0516404497.846175.77.80.915.6100.0450454995.740768.66.51.723.2100.0390Total97.32,67577.25.21.316.4100.02,602Note: Percentage of currently married women and men aged 15 to 49 who were employed at any time in the past 12 months

1265、 and the percent distribution of currently married women and men employed in the past 12 months by type of earnings, according to age.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 15.1, p. 311).Table A.11: OccupationWomenprovinceprofessional/

1266、technical/ ManagerialclericalSales and ServicesSkilled Manualunskilled ManualAgricultureothertotalnumber of WomenProvince 15.32.812.44.22.572.50.4100.01,455Province 23.81.15.67.03.978.70.0100.01,303Province 310.83.625.09.04.746.70.2100.01,927Province 44.82.115.74.22.870.50.0100.0877Province 54.11.59

1267、.86.12.575.80.2100.01,569Province 64.30.38.62.12.682.10.0100.0529Province 72.50.46.82.44.283.70.0100.0943Note: Percent distribution of women aged 15 to 49 employed in the 12 months preceding the survey by occupation, according to background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of He

1268、alth. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 3.9.1, p. 64).Table A.12: OccupationMenprovinceprofessional/ technical/ ManagerialclericalSales and ServicesSkilled Manualunskilled ManualAgricultureotherdont Knowtotalnumber of MenProvince 112.87.314.211.07.345.71.30.3100.0629Province 26.4

1269、5.223.019.918.726.80.00.0100.0681Province 313.27.433.214.48.421.61.50.2100.0877Province 48.78.021.212.38.541.30.00.0100.0308Province 56.46.119.816.220.331.20.00.0100.0533Province 65.71.521.96.315.249.30.00.0100.0179Province 78.81.723.113.714.337.40.80.1100.0274Note: Percent distribution of men aged

1270、15 to 49 employed in the 12 months preceding the survey by occupation, according to background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 3.9.2, p. 65).Table A.10 continued121APPeNdix Table A.13: Womens Control Over Their Ow

1271、n Earnings and Over Those of Their HusbandsWomens earnings Relative to Husbands earningsperson Who decides How the Wifes cash earnings are usedtotalano.person Who decides How the Husbands cash earnings are usedtotalano.Mainly WifeWife and Husband JointlyMainly Husband otherMainly WifeWife and Husban

1272、d JointlyMainly Husband otherMore than husband 56.731.39.52.4100.022325.841.030.82.4100.0223Less than husband54.931.810.52.9100.02,19219.448.126.85.7100.02,192Same as husband30.652.316.60.5100.040912.162.925.00.0100.0409Husband has no cash earnings or did not work54.235.48.42.0100.0142NANANANANA0Wom

1273、en worked but has no cash earningsNANANANANA014.040.433.312.4100.03,665Women did not workNANANANANA013.842.426.317.5100.03,058Total51.834.511.22.5100.02,98615.343.729.211.8100.09,568NA = Not Applicable.a includes cases where a woman does not know whether she earned more or less than her husband.Note

1274、: Percent distribution of currently married women aged 15 to 49 with cash earnings in the last 12 months by person who decides how the wifes cash earnings are used and percent distribution of currently married women aged 15 to 49 whose husbands have cash earnings by person who decides how the husban

1275、ds cash earnings are used, according to the relation between wifes and husbands cash earnings.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 15.3, p. 314).Table A.14: Household Food SecurityprovinceFood SecureMildly Food insecureModerately Food

1276、 insecureSeverely Food insecuretotalnumber of HouseholdsProvince 152.620.318.09.2100.02,004Province 243.126.419.810.7100.02,014Province 355.016.420.08.5100.02,521Province 456.016.921.16.0100.01,173Province 548.419.222.210.2100.01,793Province 622.517.842.217.5100.0619Province 737.718.031.213.0100.091

1277、5Note: Percent distribution of households by level of food insecurity, according to background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 2.11, p. 42).122APPeNdix Table A.15: Migration StatusprovinceWomenMentotalProvince 120

1278、.419.019.6Province 220.220.420.3Province 320.417.018.3Province 411.712.512.2Province 514.816.815.9Province 64.35.14.8Province 78.79.29.0Total100.0100.0100.0Note: Percentage distribution of women and men who migrated within 10 years before the survey, by selected background characteristics.Source: Go

1279、vernment of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 2.11, p. 30).Table A.16: Ownership of AssetsWomenprovinceowns a House (%)owns land (%)numberAloneJointlyAlone and Jointlydo not own a House (%)totalAloneJointlyAlone and Jointlydo not own land (%)totalProvin

1280、ce 19.31.10.888.8100.012.90.50.386.2100.02,173Province 26.10.30.693.0100.011.90.20.287.7100.02,563Province 37.31.30.391.1100.09.53.00.986.6100.02,732Province 48.60.60.190.8100.011.30.80.387.7100.01,249Province 55.60.30.493.7100.09.40.40.290.0100.02,274Province 65.70.20.393.8100.07.30.10.192.5100.072

1281、4Province 72.80.30.296.8100.03.10.20.296.5100.01,145Note: Percent distribution of women aged 15 to 49 by ownership of housing and land, according to background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu(Table 15.4.1, p. 315).Table

1282、A.17: Ownership of AssetsMenprovinceowns a House (%)owns land (%)numberAloneJointlyAlone and Jointlydo not own a House (%)totalAloneJointlyAlone and Jointlydo not own land (%)totalProvince 121.81.00.077.2100.025.70.60.473.3100.0691Province 216.80.30.083.0100.015.30.41.383.0100.0795Province 316.71.80

1283、.880.7100.019.22.60.477.8100.01,009Province 415.11.41.182.4100.016.61.41.180.9100.0376Province 518.20.60.281.0100.019.60.21.179.2100.0658Province 619.20.10.580.2100.020.30.10.379.3100.0203Province 719.30.20.180.4100.018.20.20.481.3100.0330Note: Percent distribution of men aged 15 to 49 by ownership

1284、of housing and land, according to background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 15.4.2, p. 316).123APPeNdix Table A.18: Ownership of AssetsWomen (House)ethnic/caste/Religious Groupsowns a House Alone or Jointly (%)do

1285、es not ownAlone onlyJointly onlyBoth Alone and JointlyHill Brahmin899.70.90.3Hill Chhetri917.60.90.4Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri87.6111.40Other Tarai Caste93.85.30.30.7Hill dalit93.65.90.30.2Tarai dalit95.24.60.20Newar90.57.81.40.3Hill Janajati92.56.80.40.3Tarai Janajati94.44.20.60.7Muslim91.66.61.10.7Othe

1286、r95.32.32.30Total92.26.70.60.4Source: World Bank. 2018. Country Level Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment (Annex 2). Kathmandu.Table A.19: Ownership of AssetsWomen (Land)ethnic/caste/Religious Groupsowns land Alone or Jointly (%)does not ownAlone onlyJointly onlyBoth Alone and JointlyHil

1287、l Brahmin84.413.51.70.5Hill Chhetri86.911.21.10.8Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri87.310.61.30.8Other Tarai Caste87.711.90.20.2Hill dalit93.46.20.10.2Tarai dalit93.86.200Newar86.910.52.60Hill Janajati89.19.60.90.4Tarai Janajati92.56.40.80.3Muslim89.39.70.60.3Other81.46.412.10Total88.7100.90.4Source: World Bank.

1288、 2018. Country Level Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment (Annex 2). Kathmandu.124APPeNdix Table A.20: Participation in Decision-MakingdecisionMainly WifeWife and Husband JointlyMainly HusbandSomeone elseothertotalnumber of WomenWOMENOwn Health Care23.334.529.112.80.4100.09,875Major House

1289、hold Purchase35.217.821.824.50.7100.09,875Visits to Her Family or Relatives26.828.823.220.60.6100.09,875MENOwn Health Care7.332.352.87.60.1100.02,675Major Household Purchases23.425.030.920.70.0100.02,675Note: Percent distribution of currently married women and currently married men aged 15 to 49 by

1290、person who usually makes decisions about various issues.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 15.9, p. 324).Table A.21: Womens Role in Final Decisions on How to Use Remittancesethnic/caste/Religious Groups (Selected)WifeHusbandBothothe

1291、rtotalHill Brahmins 29.4214.6235.3520.62100Hill Chhetris23.6610.9944.3720.97100Tarai Castes 9.558.5355.1726.75100Hill dalits35.7711.4334.9617.84100Other Hill dalits37.648.229.2824.89100Tarai dalits1.843.2663.1531.75100indigenous Peoples 23.569.345.1621.97100Newar (Hill indigenous Peoples) 32.517.055

1292、0.539.91100Other Hill indigenous Peoples 23.7110.3941.3824.52100Tarai indigenous Peoples 17.947.154.2520.72100Other (Muslims, etc.) 2.521.7349.8545.9100Total 22.29.9444.7123.15100Source: World Bank. 2018. Country Level Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment (Annex 2). Kathmandu.125APPeNdix

1293、Table A.22: Womens Participation in Decision-Making (%)ethnic/caste/Religious GroupsRespondent AloneRespondent and Husband/partnerHusband/partner AloneSomeone elsePerson Who Usually Decides on Respondents Health CareHill Brahmin27.23628.87.9Hill Chhetri28.729.132.49.1Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri24.543.522.

1294、68.7Other Tarai Caste8.94125.224.4Hill dalit31.725.133.79.5Tarai dalit12.837.225.323.6Newar28.436.529.65.4Hill Janajati31.130.829.68.4Tarai Janajati16.242.330.111.2Muslim15.436.32423.4Other1038.541.66.4Total23.334.529.112.8Person Who Usually Decides on Large Household PurchasesHill Brahmin39.520.519

1295、.419.6Hill Chhetri38.117.821.921.2Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri34.423.821.418.7Other Tarai Caste21.518.125.234.7Hill dalit47.413.520.718.3Tarai dalit30.116.22032.7Newar37.615.717.328.9Hill Janajati42.216.721.319.3Tarai Janajati29.821.421.526.7Muslim25.915.525.332.5Other3022.729.114.7Total35.217.821.824.5Per

1296、son Who Usually Decides on Visits to Family or RelativesHill Brahmin30.531.620.416.9Hill Chhetri30.322.327.918.7Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri24.438.22115.8Other Tarai Caste1235.420.132.2Hill dalit33.121.429.316Tarai dalit15.435.718.928.6Newar37.129.316.116.8Hill Janajati3725.522.714.5Tarai Janajati23.131.42

1297、5.519.6Muslim12.933.422.829.8Other26.938.416.115.2Total26.828.823.220.6Source: World Bank. 2018. Country Level Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment (Annex 2). Kathmandu.126APPeNdix Table A.23: Attitude Toward Wife BeatingWomenprovinceHusband is Justified in Hitting or Beating His Wife if

1298、She(%)Agrees with at least one Specified Reason (%)Brings less or no dowry (%)numberBurns the FoodArgues with HimGoes out without telling Himneglects the childrenRefuses to Have Sexual intercourse with HimProvince 13.16.812.123.42.527.50.82,173Province 28.117.114.625.95.232.62.22,563Province 32.24.7

1299、10.723.72.226.30.82,732Province 40.93.47.221.01.623.40.51,249Province 51.710.111.223.92.227.70.52,274Province 62.86.411.724.22.728.40.2724Province 72.99.512.629.34.534.30.71,145Note: Percentage of all women aged 15 to 49 who agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife for specif

1300、ic reasons, by background characteristics.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 15.11.1, p. 327).Table A.24: Attitude Toward Wife BeatingMenprovinceHusband is Justified in Hitting or Beating His Wife if She(%)Agree with at least one Sp

1301、ecified Reason (%)Brings less or no dowry (%)numberBurns the FoodArgues with HimGoes out without telling himneglects the childrenRefuses to Have Sexual intercourse with HimProvince 11.05.910.719.22.324.00.4691Province 22.915.611.918.14.922.20.5795Province 31.06.18.617.93.521.90.61,009Province 40.41.

1302、76.813.62.118.40.3376Province 51.07.35.614.13.317.40.4658Province 63.111.613.829.38.333.90.8203Province 72.815.511.028.95.435.30.3330Note: Percentage of all men aged 15 to 49 who agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife for specific reasons, by background characteristics.Sour

1303、ce: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 15.11.2, p. 328).127APPeNdix Table A.25: Attitude Toward Wife BeatingWomen (%)ethnic/caste/Religious GroupsnoYesdont KnowBeating Justified if Wife Burns the FoodHill Brahmin98.81.20Hill Chhetri97.42.40

1304、.2Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri95.34.70Other Tarai Caste9460Hill dalit95.23.90.8Tarai dalit92.37.70Newar99.20.80Hill Janajati98.21.80Tarai Janajati96.63.40Muslim91.18.70.2Other97.42.60Total96.53.40.1Beating Justified if Wife Argues with HusbandHill Brahmin95.74.30Hill Chhetri93.56.30.2Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri9

1305、4.55.50Other Tarai Caste83.816.10.2Hill dalit91.38.70.1Tarai dalit82.717.30Newar97.42.60Hill Janajati94.25.60.2Tarai Janajati91.18.90Muslim77.922.10Other97.42.60Total918.90.1Beating Justified if Wife Goes out without Telling HusbandHill Brahmin92.67.30.1Hill Chhetri87.212.60.1Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri91

1306、.68.40Other Tarai Caste87.212.70.1Hill dalit87.612.30.1Tarai dalit81.618.40Newar93.36.50.2Hill Janajati89.110.70.1Tarai Janajati88.911.10Muslim79.520.50Other95.24.80Total88.211.70.1continued on next page128APPeNdix ethnic/caste/Religious GroupsnoYesdont KnowBeating Justified if Wife Neglects the Chi

1307、ldrenHill Brahmin79.8200.2Hill Chhetri74.325.70.1Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri78.621.40Other Tarai Caste77230Hill dalit72.227.60.2Tarai dalit71.928.10Newar8415.60.4Hill Janajati75.124.80.1Tarai Janajati74.125.80.1Muslim68.231.80Other89.310.70Total75.524.40.1Beating Justified if Wife Refuses to Have Sex with

1308、 HusbandHill Brahmin98.80.90.3Hill Chhetri96.33.10.6Tarai Brahmin/Chhetri97.81.50.6Other Tarai Caste95.74.20.1Hill dalit95.64.30Tarai dalit95.44.60Newar97.71.50.8Hill Janajati98.11.70.2Tarai Janajati96.43.20.4Muslim92.17.80.1Other97.42.60Total96.730.3Source: World Bank. 2018. Country Level Gender Eq

1309、uality and Social Inclusion Assessment (Annex 2). Kathmandu.Table A.25 continued129APPeNdix Table A.26: Spousal Physical Violence Against Menethnic/caste/Religious GroupsFemale Respondent ever physically Hurt Husband/partner When He Was not Hurting Her (%)noYesHill Brahmin99.70.3Hill Chhetri98.91.1T

1310、arai Brahmin/Chhetri100.00.0Other Tarai Caste98.71.3Hill dalit98.41.6Tarai dalit99.20.8Newar97.72.3Hill Janajati96.53.5Tarai Janajati98.21.8Muslim98.11.9Other100.00.0Total98.31.7Source: World Bank. 2018. Country Level Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Assessment (Annex 2). Kathmandu.Table A.27: I

1311、ndicator of Womens Empowermentempowerment indicatorparticipates in All decision-Making (%)disagrees with All of the Reasons Justifying Wife Beatingnumber of WomenNumber of Decisions in Which Women Participate10NA71.62,7131-2NA70.93,4403NA72.83,722Number of Reasons for Which Wife Beating is Justified

1312、2038.2NA7,0911-237.3NA2,1223-435.0NA563523.8NA99NA = not applicable.1 See Table 15.10.1 of Ministry of Healths demographic and Health Survey for the list of decisions. excludes decisions on childrens education and use of her inherited asset (pewa).2 See Table 15.11.1 of Ministry of Healths demograph

1313、ic and Health Survey for the list of reasons. excludes the reason bringing less or nodowry.Note: Percentage of currently married women aged 15 to 49 who participate in all decision-making and the percentage who disagree with all of the reasons justifying wife beating, by value on each of the indicat

1314、ors of womens empowerment.Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey. Kathmandu (Table 15.14, p. 331).130APPeNdix Table A.28: Provincial Poverty Index (%)provincepopulation under absolute povertyMulti-dimensional poverty rateProvince 112.419.7Province 219.84

1315、7.9Province 315.312.2Province 415.514.2Province 518.229.9Province 628.951.2Province 733.933.6Nepal18.728.6Source: Ministry of Finance. Economic Survey 2018/19. Table 2(a). p. 13. Kathmandu, Nepal. https:/mof.gov.np/uploads/document/file/compiled%20economic%20Survey%20english%207-25_208.pd

1316、f.Table A.29: Population by Caste and Ethnicity, and Religion by Province (%)provinceKhas AryaHill Janajatitarai JanajatidalitMadhesiMuslimotherProvince 127.8439.7711.039.317.543.590.92Province 24.886.458.4916.3051.8011.580.51Province 337.1052.681.775.661.650.670.45Province 436.1039.262.2717.623.451

1317、.170.14Province 530.0319.5814.8814.0714.56.650.29Province 660.9614.760.5122.920.000.000.85Province 760.023.5017.2512.941.730.234.32Nepal31.2527.287.7012.9415.374.391.07Source: Governance Facility. 2018. Federal Nepal: The Provinces, Socio-Cultural Profiles of the Seven Provinces. Kathmandu (Table 3.

1318、5, p. 79).Table A.30: Human Development Index Values by ProvinceprovinceHdilife expectancyAdult literacyMean Years of Schoolingper capita income (PPP $)Province 10.50468.4565.334.251,184Province 20.42170.4140.882.73922Province 30.54869.7069.305.141,767Province 40.51669.7961.242.731,206Province 50.46

1319、767.6559.185.141,013Province 60.42666.5752.304.50784Province 70.43166.8954.953.61767Nepal0.4968.8059.573.901,160Hdi = human development index, PPP = Purchasing Power Parity.Source: Governance Facility. 2018. Federal Nepal: The Provinces, Socio-Cultural Profiles of the Seven Provinces. Kathmandu (Tab

1320、le 3.6, p. 79).131APPeNdix Table A.31: Area and Population by ProvinceprovinceArea (km2)population 2011Female population (%)literacy RateGovernment expenditure (NRs billion, 2017)totalFemaleMaleProvince 125,9054,534,94352.2365.3063.9479.27206.00Province 29,6615,404,14549.7140.9038.8860.09149.10Provi

1321、nce 320,3005,529,45250.3169.3067.0482.82962.90Province 421,5042,478,25854.3955.6067.7283.54142.60Province 522,2884,473,57652.5159.4058.3375.50191.90Province 627,9841,521,61351.0853.0053.2172.88109.50Province 719,5392,552,51752.2954.9051.9376.37129.90Nepal147,18126,494,50451.501891.90km2 = square kil

1322、ometer, NRs = Nepalese rupees.Source: Bikas Udhyami. 2017. Nepal in Data. Lalitpur, Nepal. https:/ A.32: Caste or Ethnic and Religious Groupsclassification of 125 Social Groups in the 2011 census3 Broad categories5 Social Groups11 disaggregated Social Subgroups205 caste/ethnic/Religious Groups Withi

1323、n 11 GroupsAdivasi Janajati (ethnic Groups)Hill JanajatiAathpariya,* Bahing,* Bantaba,* Bhote, Bote, Brahmu/Baramo, Byasi/Sauka, Chamling,* Chepang/Praja, Chhantyal/Chhantel, danuwar, darai, dolpo,* dura, Ghale, Gharti/Bhujel, Gurung, Hayu, Hyolmo, Jirel, Khaling,* Kulung,* Kumal, Kusunda, Lepcha, L

1324、homi,* Lhopa,* Limbu, Loharung,* Magar, Majhi, Mewahang Bala,* Nachhiring,*Pahari, Rai, Raji, Raute, Samgpang,* Sherpa, Sunwar, Tamang, Thakali, Thami, Thulung,* Topkegola, Walung, Yakkha, Yamphu* NewarNewarTarai Janajatidhanuk, dhimal, Gangai, Jhangar/dhagar, Khawas,* Kisan, Koche, Meche, Munda, Pa

1325、thharkatta/Kusbadiya, Rajbanshi, Satar/Santhal, Tajpuriya, TharuHindu Caste GroupsBrahman/ChhetriHill BrahmanBrahman-HillHill ChhetriChhetri, Thakuri, Sanyasi/dasnamiMadhesi BrahmanBrahman-Tarai, Kayastha, Nurang, RajputMadhesi CasteMadhesi Other CasteAmat,* Badhaee, Baniya, Baraee, Bin, dev, dhandi

1326、,* dhankar/dharikar,* Gaderi/Bhediyar, Hazam/Thakur, Haluwai, Kahar, Kalwar, Kanu, Kathabaniyan,* Kewat, Koiri/Kushwaha, Kori,* Kumhar, Kurmi, Lodh, Lohar, Mali, Mallaha, Natuwa,* Nuniya, Rajbhar, Rajdhob,* Sarbaria,* Sonar, Sudhi, Teli, YadavdalitHill dalitBadi, damai/dholi, Gaine, Kami, Sarki (5)M

1327、adhesi dalitBantar/Sardar, Chamar/Harijan/Ram, Chidimar, dhobi, dom, dushad/Paswan/Pasi, Halkhor, Khatwe, Musahar Tatma/TatwaMuslimMadhesi Musalman, ChurauteOtherMarwari, Jain, Bengali, Punjabi/Sikh* Additional subgroups identified after 2001 census.Source: Central department of Sociology/Anthropolo

1328、gy, Tribhuvan University. 2014. Social Inclusion Atlas of Nepal, Ethnic and Caste Groups. Volume 1. Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University.132Gender equality and Social inclusion diagnostic of Selected Sectors in nepalThis publication presents a gender equality and social inclusion (GeSi) analysis of six p

1329、riority sectors inNepal: agriculture and natural resources management, energy, skills development, urban development, transport and water, and sanitation and hygiene. The publication identifies practical ways in which gender equality, social inclusion, and womens empowerment approaches can be integr

1330、ated into each ofthese sectors. The diagnostic aims to inform the GeSi initiatives of the Government of Nepal, theAsiandevelopment Bank, and other development partners of the country. About the Asian development BankAdB is committed to achieving a prosperous, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable As

1331、ia and the Pacific, while sustaining its efforts to eradicate extreme poverty. established in 1966, it is owned by 68 members 49 from the region. its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.ASIAn DEVELOPMEnT BAnk6 AdB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org