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1、2019THE STATE OFTHE WORLDsBIODIVERSITY THE STATE OF THE WORLDsBIODIVERSITTYFOR FOOD AND AGRICULTUREISSN 2412-5474FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTUREFAO COMMISSION ON GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTUREASSESSMENTS 2019SRome,2019COMMISSION ON GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTUREFOOD AND AGRICULTURE
2、ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONSFAO COMMISSION ON GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTUREASSESSMENTS 2019THE STATE OFTHE WORLDsBIODIVERSITYFOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURERequired citation:FAO.2019.The State of the Worlds Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture,J.Blanger&D.Pilling(eds.).FAO Commission on
3、 Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Assessments.Rome.572 pp.(http:/www.fao.org/3/CA3129EN/CA3129EN.pdf)Licence:CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the F
4、ood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)concerning the legal or development status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers,whether or no
5、t these have been patented,does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s)and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO.ISBN
6、978-92-5-131270-4 FAO,2019Some rights reserved.This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO licence(CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO;https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo/legalcode/legalcode).Under the terms of this licence,this work may be co
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9、nsible for the content or accuracy of this translation.The original Language edition shall be the authoritative edition.”Disputes arising under the licence that cannot be settled amicably will be resolved by mediation and arbitration as described in Article 8 of the licence except as otherwise provi
10、ded herein.The applicable mediation rules will be the mediation rules of the World Intellectual Property Organization http:/www.wipo.int/amc/en/mediation/rules and any arbitration will be conducted in accordance with the Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law(U
11、NCITRAL).Third-party materials.Users wishing to reuse material from this work that is attributed to a third party,such as tables,figures or images,are responsible for determining whether permission is needed for that reuse and for obtaining permission from the copyright holder.The risk of claims res
12、ulting from infringement of any third-party-owned component in the work rests solely with the user.Sales,rights and licensing.FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications)and can be purchased through publications-salesfao.org.Requests for commercial use should
13、be submitted via:www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request.Queries regarding rights and licensing should be submitted to:copyrightfao.org.iiiForeword xix Acknowledgements xxiAbbreviations and acronyms xxviiAbout this publication xxxiiExecutive summary xxxviiPart A OverviewChAPter 1 IntrOduCtIOn 31.1 Bi
14、odiversity and the challenges facing global food and agriculture 31.2 What is biodiversity for food and agriculture?41.3 Biodiversity for food and agriculture and global policy agendas 51.4 Assessments of biodiversity for food and agriculture 81.5 Key concepts addressed in this report 10ChAPter 2 rO
15、les And ImPOrtAnCe Of bIOdIversIty fOr fOOd And AgrICulture 17 Key messages 172.1 Introduction 172.2 Ecosystem services 182.2.1 Provisioning services 192.2.2 Regulating and supporting services 202.2.3 Cultural services 222.3 Resilience 232.3.1 Overview of the contributions of biodiversity for food a
16、nd agriculture 242.3.2 Resilience to specific threats 272.3.3 Needs and priorities 342.4 Sustainable intensification 352.4.1 Overview of the contributions of biodiversity for food and agriculture 362.4.2 Needs and priorities 412.5 Livelihoods 412.5.1 Overview of the contributions of biodiversity for
17、 food and agriculture 422.5.2 Needs and priorities 482.6 Food security and nutrition 482.6.1 Availability 492.6.2 Access 502.6.3 Utilization 512.6.4 Stability 522.6.5 Nutrition and food systems 532.6.6 Contribution of wild foods 562.6.7 Needs and priorities 62ContentsivPart b drivers,status and tren
18、dsChAPter 3 drIvers Of ChAnge Of bIOdIversIty fOr fOOd And AgrICulture 65 Key messages 653.1 Introduction 653.2 Overview 693.3 Economic and social drivers 693.3.1 Population growth and urbanization 703.3.2 Markets,trade and value chains 743.3.3 Changing economic,sociopolitical and cultural factors 7
19、63.4 Environmental drivers 783.4.1 Climate change 783.4.2 Natural disasters 833.4.3 Pests,diseases and invasive alien species 873.5 Advances and innovations in science and technology 933.6 Drivers at production-system level 953.6.1 Changes in land and water use and management 953.6.2 Pollution and e
20、xternal inputs 1013.6.3 Overexploitation and overharvesting 1043.7 Policies 1073.8 Drivers of womens involvement in the management of biodiversity for food and agriculture 1093.9 Drivers of traditional knowledge of biodiversity for food and agriculture 111ChAPter 4 the stAtus And trends Of bIOdIvers
21、Ity fOr fOOd And AgrICulture 113 Key messages 1134.1 Introduction 1134.2 Plant,animal,forest and aquatic genetic resources for food and agriculture 1144.2.1 Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture 1144.2.2 Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture 1164.2.3 Forest genetic resources 1
22、174.2.4 Aquatic genetic resources for food and agriculture 1174.3 Associated biodiversity 1194.3.1 Associated-biodiversity species managed for ecosystem services 1204.3.2 Information and monitoring systems on associated biodiversity 1204.3.3 Overview of status and trends 1264.3.4 Associated biodiver
23、sity for pollination 1294.3.5 Associated biodiversity for pest and disease regulation 1344.3.6 Associated biodiversity for soil-related ecosystem services 1404.3.7 Associated biodiversity for water-related ecosystem services 148v4.3.8 Associated biodiversity for natural-hazard regulation 1534.3.9 As
24、sociated biodiversity for habitat provisioning 1544.3.10 Associated biodiversity for air-quality and climate regulation 1574.4 Wild foods 1604.4.1 State of knowledge 1604.4.2 Status and trends 1614.5 Ecosystems of importance to food and agriculture 1714.5.1 Wetlands 1714.5.2 Mangroves 1724.5.3 Seagr
25、asses 1754.5.4 Coral reefs 1774.5.5 Forests 1804.5.6 Rangelands 1834.6 Needs and priorities 186Part C state of managementChAPter 5 the stAte Of use Of bIOdIversIty fOr fOOd And AgrICulture 191 Key messages 1915.1 Introduction 1915.2 Overview of management practices and approaches 1925.3 Ecosystem,la
26、ndscape and seascape approaches 1985.3.1 Overview 1985.3.2 Sustainable forest management 2015.3.3 Ecosystem approach to fisheries and aquaculture 2055.3.4 Agroecology 2085.3.5 Landscape and seascape approaches and management 2125.3.6 Integrated land-and water-use planning 2135.3.7 Needs and prioriti
27、es 2145.4 Restoration practices 2155.4.1 Overview 2155.4.2 Status and trends 2185.4.3 Needs and priorities 2225.5 Diversification in production systems 2235.5.1 Integrated croplivestock systems 2245.5.2 Home gardens 2285.5.3 Agroforestry 2335.5.4 Diversification practices in aquaculture 2415.5.5 Nee
28、ds and priorities 2485.6 Management practices and production approaches 2485.6.1 Organic agriculture 2495.6.2 Low external input agriculture 2515.6.3 Management practices to preserve and enhance soil biodiversity 253vi5.6.4 Conservation agriculture 2565.6.5 Integrated plant nutrient management 2595.
29、6.6 Integrated pest management 2605.6.7 Pollination management 2675.6.8 Forest-management practices 2725.6.9 Needs and priorities 2755.7 The use of micro-organisms in food processing and agro-industrial processes 2755.7.1 Micro-organisms in food processing 2765.7.2 Micro-organisms in agro-industrial
30、 processes 2805.8 Rumen microbial diversity 2875.8.1 Roles and drivers 2875.8.2 Methane emissions 2895.8.3 State of knowledge 2895.8.4 Needs and priorities 2925.9 Genetic improvement 2925.9.1 Domestication and base broadening 2935.9.2 Plant,animal,forest and aquatic genetic resources for food and ag
31、riculture 2955.9.3 Associated biodiversity overview 2975.9.4 Pollinators 2985.9.5 Assisted evolution for reef-building corals 3015.9.6 Needs and priorities 304ChAPter 6 the stAte Of ChArACterIzAtIOn Of bIOdIversIty fOr fOOd And AgrICulture 305 Key messages 3056.1 Introduction 3056.2 Plant,animal,for
32、est and aquatic genetic resources for food and agriculture 3066.2.1 Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture 3066.2.2 Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture 3076.2.3 Forest genetic resources 3086.2.4 Aquatic genetic resources for food and agriculture 3116.3 Associated biodiversity
33、 3126.3.1 Overview 3136.3.2 Country-report analysis 3146.4 Wild foods 3186.4.1 Overview 3186.4.2 Country-report analysis 3216.5 Needs and priorities 323viiChAPter 7 the stAte Of COnservAtIOn Of bIOdIversIty fOr fOOd And AgrICulture 325 Key messages 3257.1 Introduction 3257.2 Plant,animal,forest and
34、aquatic genetic resources for food and agriculture 3267.2.1 Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture 3267.2.2 Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture 3297.2.3 Forest genetic resources 3307.2.4 Aquatic genetic resources for food and agriculture 3327.3 Associated biodiversity 3347.3.
35、1 In situ conservation 3347.3.2 Ex situ conservation 3447.4 Wild foods 3547.4.1 In situ conservation 3547.4.2 Ex situ conservation 3577.5 Roles of protected areas 3597.5.1 Status and trends 3617.5.2 Contribution to conservation of wild species used for food 3627.5.3 Management of biodiversity or foo
36、d and agriculture in protected areas 3667.5.4 Country-report analysis 3677.6 Maintenance of traditional knowledge associated with food and agriculture 3717.7 Needs and priorities 373Part d enabling frameworksChAPter 8 the stAte Of POlICIes,InstItutIOns And CAPACItIes 379 Key messages 3798.1 Introduc
37、tion 3798.2 Stakeholders 3808.2.1 Producers and their organizations 3808.2.2 Suppliers,processors,traders and retailers 3868.2.3 The public sector 3868.2.4 The non-governmental sector 3878.2.5 The general public 3888.2.6 Regional and international organizations 3888.3 Cooperation 3958.3.1 Cooperatio
38、n at national level 3968.3.2 Cooperation at international level 3988.3.3 Needs and priorities 4038.4 Education,training and awareness raising 4048.4.1 Plant,animal,forest and aquatic genetic resources for food and agriculture 4048.4.2 Associated biodiversity 406viii8.4.3 Needs and priorities 4098.5
39、Research 4108.5.1 Institutions involved in research on associated biodiversity 4118.5.2 Needs and priorities 4118.6 Valuation 4128.6.1 Overview of valuation approaches 4138.6.2 State of implementation 4158.6.3 Needs and priorities 4188.7 Incentives 4198.7.1 Overview 4198.7.2 State of adoption 4208.7
40、.3 Needs and priorities 4248.8 Policy and legal frameworks 4258.8.1 Frameworks at international level 4278.8.2 Frameworks at national level 4308.8.3 Climate change policy and programmes 4378.8.4 Frameworks supporting the maintenance of traditional knowledge 4388.8.5 Access and benefit-sharing 439Par
41、t e ConclusionsChAPter 9 needs And ChAllenges 4459.1 Introduction 4459.2 Drivers of change 4459.3 Status and trends 4469.4 Management 4469.4.1 State of use 4469.4.2 State of conservation 4499.5 Policies,capacities and institutions 4509.6 Towards a more diverse and sustainable future 451References 45
42、3ixbOXes1 The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture xxxiiPArt A1.1 Biodiversity for food and agriculture,FAO and the Sustainable Development Goals 71.2 Assessing the state of the worlds genetic resources for food and agriculture 92.1 Projects and programmes supporting livelihoods
43、by promoting biodiversity for food and agriculture examples from around the world 472.2 The Second International Conference on Nutrition Framework for Action 492.3 Voluntary Guidelines for Mainstreaming Biodiversity into Policies,Programmes and National and Regional Plans of Action on Nutrition 532.
44、4 The Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition Project 552.5 Food-based dietary guidelines as a tool to promote biodiversity 57PArt b3.1 Human-made grasslands as a cultural and ecological asset 793.2 Links between biodiversity,biodiversity loss and disease risk 873.3 Unsustainably managed production syst
45、ems are a key threat to bird species 974.1 The International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM 1254.2 Birds as indicator species 1254.3 Monitoring total flying insect biomass over 27years in protected areas in Germany 1334.4 The main functional groups of biological co
46、ntrol agents 1364.5 The roles of birds in the supply of supporting and regulating ecosystem services 1374.6 The Netherlands soil biological monitoring programme 1454.7 Pramos a vital provider of water-regulating services under threat 1494.8 Trends in the state of habitats in the European Union 1564.
47、9 Soil carbon assessment initiatives examples from the United States of America 1594.10 FAO global definition of forest 180PArt C5.1 The Convention on Biological Diversitys principles and operational guidelines for the ecosystem approach 1995.2 The concept of sustainable forest management 2035.3 App
48、lication of the ecosystem approach in capture fisheries an example from Panama 207x5.4 Ecosystem approach to fisheries management in Saint Lucia 2075.5 The ten elements of agroecology 2095.6 The Pacific Ridge to Reef approach an example of integrated land and water-use planning 2135.7 Needs and chal
49、lenges in coral-reef restoration 2205.8 The floating gardens of Bangladesh 2245.9 Promotion of home gardens for healthy diets in Solomon Islands 2305.10 Projects and initiatives targeting home gardens examples from around the world 2325.11 Policy and legislative frameworks promoting agroforestry exa
50、mples from around the world 2385.12 Frances Agroforestry Development Plan 20152020 2395.13 Fish polyculture for improved nutrition an example from Bangladesh 2465.14 The Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management 2545.15 Burkina Fasos Operation Manure Pits 2565.16 Conservation agriculture
51、for climate-smart agriculture 2585.17 The Save and Grow approach 2605.18 The pushpull approach 2635.19 Integrated pest management in horticultural production in Almera,Spain 2655.20 Management of stingless bees in Malaysia 2695.21 Enhancing pollinator presence in cassava fields in Ghana 2715.22 Meas
52、ures or steps typically included in reduced-impact logging 2735.23 Global research efforts in rumen microbiology 2905.24 SmartBees:a European project for the conservation of endangered honey-bee subspecies 3006.1 The role of molecular techniques in the characterization of food-processing micro-organ
53、isms 3156.2 Characterization studies on micro-organisms examples from Peru 3176.3 Why undertake genetic data analysis of crop wild relatives and wild food plants?3196.4 Study and development of foods and natural products with potential health benefits in Paraguay 3227.1 The World Information and Ear
54、ly Warning System on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture 3277.2 The Domestic Animal Diversity Information System 3307.3 Marine sanctuaries and monitoring systems examples from Jamaica 3387.4 Marine protected areas in Palau 3397.5 The traditional Hima rangeland management system in Jorda
55、n 3407.6 Agri-environmental schemes supporting cropland and grassland biodiversity examples from Belgium 3417.7 Initiatives supporting the in situ conservation of pollinators in the United States of America 3427.8 Selected species-conservation measures in Ireland 3437.9 Plan of Action for the Conser
56、vation of the Nordic Brown Bee 3457.10 Conservation methods for micro-organisms stored ex situ 3487.11 Cooperation in the ex situ conservation of micro-organisms 350 xi7.12 The culture collection of Mexicos National Genetic Resources Centre 3517.13 The Microbial Biodiversity Directorate of the Ethio
57、pian Biodiversity Institute 3517.14 Micro-organism conservation for improved agricultural production in India 3527.15 The role of Japans National Agriculture and Food Research Organization Genebank in recovering genetic resources after the earthquake of 2011 3537.16 Voluntary Guidelines for the Cons
58、ervation and Sustainable Use of Crop Wild Relatives and Wild Food Plants 3567.17 The IUCN Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas 3677.18 FAOs Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems 3697.19 The role of geographical indications in the maintenance of biodiversity for food and agriculture
59、 3707.20 Maintenance and use of indigenous knowledge examples from Kenya 3717.21 Maintenance and use of traditional practices in the Pacific 3727.22 Womens traditional knowledge for improved food and seed security under climate change 3737.23 Community forest management and development in Ban Banh,V
60、iet Nam 374PArt d8.1 Governance outcomes promoted by small-scale food providers organizations 3828.2 Community control of a coastal ecosystem an example from Senegal 3828.3 Agroforestry under local control an example from Costa Rica 3838.4 The role of a womens group in promoting sustainable fishing
61、an example from Ecuador 3838.5 Contributions of non-governmental organizations to the sustainable management of biodiversity for food and agriculture examples from the Near East 3878.6 Zambias Biodiversity Community Network 3888.7 The Norwegian Genetic Resource Centre and its genetic resources commi
62、ttees 3968.8 Frances Agricultural Biodiversity Observatory 3978.9 The Regional Project for Sustainable Management of Globally Significant Endemic Ruminant Livestock(PROGEBE)3988.10 Appointment of national focal points and participation in the preparation of The State of the Worlds Biodiversity for F
63、ood and Agriculture 3998.11 Transfrontier conservation areas in Southern Africa 4008.12 Resolution 4/2017.The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and its contribution to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals 4028.13 Farmer field schools on integrated pest manageme
64、nt experiences from Nepal 4078.14 The farmer field school approach 408xii8.15 Participatory workshops with local communities in the development of a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System in Chile 4098.16 Incentive schemes promoting sustainable shrimp aquaculture in Viet Nam 4248.17 Integra
65、ted incentive packages for microwatershed development in Brazil 4258.18 Integrated incentive packages in Mexico 4268.19 Binding and soft-law instruments related to port state measures in the capture-fisheries sector 4278.20 Biodiversity and international law 4288.21 Brazils experience in mainstreami
66、ng biodiversity into its Food and Nutrition Security Policy 4348.22 Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Integration of Genetic Diversity into National Climate Change Adaptation Planning 4378.23 The UNFCCC adaptation and mitigation instruments 438xiiitAbles1 Overview of country reports and their regi
67、onal distribution xxxivPArt A1.1 Production-system classification used in this report 152.1 Biological control of invasive alien species through predation,parasitism and herbivory examples from the country reports 322.2 Biological control of invasive alien species through resource competition and ot
68、her antagonistic relationships examples from the country reports 332.3 Species or varieties that are tolerant or resistant to the effects of invasive alien species examples from the country reports 342.4 Potential interventions to support positive interactions in food production systems 38PArt b3.1
69、Drivers of change explored in the country-reporting guidelines 673.2 Reported effects of drivers of change on regulating and supporting ecosystem services,all production systems aggregated 683.3 Number of countries reporting negative,neutral and positive effects of drivers of change on the diversity
70、,availability and knowledge of wild foods 703.4 Reported effects of population growth and urbanization on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem services,by production system 723.5 Reported effects of markets,trade and the private sector on the provision of regulating and supporting ec
71、osystem services,by production system 753.6 Reported effects of changing economic,sociopolitical and cultural factors on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem services,by production system 773.7 Reported effects of climate change on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem
72、 services,by production system 823.8 Natural disasters reported to have had a significant effect on biodiversity for food and agriculture and/or on ecosystem services in the past ten years 853.9 Reported effects of natural disasters on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem services,by
73、 production system 863.10 Reported effects of pests,diseases and invasive alien species on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem services,by production system 883.11 Invasive alien species reported by five or more countries as present in one or more production systems 90 xiv3.12 Repor
74、ted effects of advances and innovations in science and technology on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem services,by production system 943.13 Reported effects of changes in land and water use and management on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem services,by producti
75、on system 1003.14 Reported effects of pollution and external input use on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem services,by production system 1033.15 Reported effects of overexploitation and overharvesting on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem services,by production
76、system 1063.16 Reported effects of policies on the provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem services,by production system 1094.1 Examples of species and genera reported by countries to be managed for regulating or supporting ecosystem services in production systems 1214.2 Species and genera
77、most frequently reported to be managed for multiple supporting and regulating ecosystem services 1234.3 Risk status of associated biodiversity for which a significant threat of extinction or loss is reported 1264.4 Reported trends in the state of provision of regulating and supporting ecosystem serv
78、ices in production systems 1304.5 Examples of associated-biodiversity species or species groups that contribute to pest and disease regulation reported to be under threat 1384.6 The functions of soil organisms 1424.7 Typical numbers of soil organisms in healthy ecosystems 1434.8 Summary of regional
79、extent,trends and uncertainties of soil-biodiversity loss presented in the Status of the Worlds Soil Resources 1474.9 Selected examples of wild food species and genera reported by countries 1634.10 Global forest area change(19902015)181PArt C5.1 Reported levels of adoption of selected management pra
80、ctices and approaches,all production systems aggregated 1935.2 Reported trends in the adoption of selected management practices and approaches,by production system 1965.3 Reported ecosystem,landscape and seascape approaches 2025.4 Restoration measures for wetlands and other aquatic ecosystems 2175.5
81、 Land area under agroforestry(20082010)and trends(20002010),by region 2375.6 Major benefits and challenges of aquaponic food production 2445.7 Indicators of the status of organic agriculture worldwide 2515.8 Environmental and other benefits of implementing the three principles of conservation agricu
82、lture 259xv5.9 Examples of integrated pest management measures 2615.10 Examples of the roles of associated biodiversity in integrated pest management 2646.1 Traits and methods used for characterizing germplasm:percentage of accessions characterized and/or evaluated,by region 3076.2 Degree of charact
83、erization for the five largest crop collections conserved by 27 reporting countries 3076.3 Characters most frequently assessed in 692 evaluations of forest-tree genetic variability reported by countries 3106.4 Known and estimated number of species of soil organisms and vascular plants 3147.1 Associa
84、ted biodiversity species and genera reported to be conserved in situ,by taxonomic group 3357.2 Associated biodiversity species reported to be conserved ex situ,by taxonomic group 3467.3 Wild food species and genera reported to be conserved in situ,by taxonomic group 3557.4 Wild food species and gene
85、ra reported to be conserved ex situ,by taxonomic group 3587.5 IUCN Protected Area Management Categories 3607.6 Number of species in the comprehensively assessed groups of The IUCN Red List with mapped ranges and classified as used for human food 3647.7 Types of designated area reported to be of part
86、icular significance for biodiversity for food and agriculture 368PArt d8.1 Selected regional intergovernmental bodies and multilateral partnerships reported by countries to contribute to initiatives in the management of associated biodiversity 3908.2 Examples of associated-biodiversity management ac
87、tivities reported by international organizations 3948.3 Examples of practices reported to be promoted through the provision of incentives 421xvi fIgures1 Assignment of countries to regions in this report xxxvPArt A1.1 Key developments in the international recognition of the importance of biodiversit
88、y for food and agriculture 62.1 Damage and loss to agriculture sectors caused by specific types of abiotic hazard(20062016)292.2 The sustainable livelihoods analytical framework 432.3 Types of wild-food use reported by countries 59PArt b3.1 Reported climate change-related threats to associated biodi
89、versity,(A)by region and(B)by production system 813.2 Global trends in the occurrence of natural disasters 1980 to 2017 843.3 Invasive alien species reported by countries to be impacting biodiversity for food and agriculture,A)by type of organism and(B)by region 924.1 Regulating and supporting ecosy
90、stem services for which associated biodiversity is reported to be managed,by sector of production 1244.2 Reported threats to associated biodiversity,by region 1274.3 Reported trends in associated biodiversity,by production system 1284.4 The soil food web 1414.5 Map of the Soil Biodiversity Index 144
91、4.6 Map of potential threats to soil biodiversity 1444.7 Global risk status of invertebrates in the classes Bivalvia,Holothuroidea,Maxillopoda and Polychaeta 1524.8 Global risk status of species included in The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,by habitat 1574.9 Number of wild food species reporte
92、d,by type and region 1624.10 Examples of wild plants reported to be used for food 1644.11 Production systems and environments in which wild food species are present and harvested,by type 1654.12 Reported trends in the status of wild food species,by region 1664.13 Reported trends in the status of wil
93、d food species,by type 1664.14 Risk categories of wild foods for which a significant threat of extinction or loss is reported,by region 1674.15 Reported threats to wild foods species 1684.16 Number of species classified as used for human food on The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,by type and ri
94、sk category 1694.17 Global distribution of mangroves 1734.18 Interconnectivity between coastal ecosystems 1734.19 Global distribution of seagrasses 176xvii4.20 Global status of reef-building corals 1794.21 Annual change in forest area(19902015)1824.22 Global distribution of ruminant livestock produc
95、tion systems 1844.23 Global grasslands suitable and unsuitable for crop production and share of land use 186PArt C5.1 Perceived impacts on biodiversity for food and agriculture of various management practices and approaches 1975.2 The ten principles that characterize the landscape approach 2005.3 Le
96、gal and policy frameworks on agroecology 2115.4 Commitments to the Bonn Challenge 2195.5 Livestock and crop integration:from a linear to a circular bioeconomy 2255.6 An example of an aquaponic system 2435.7 Rumen microbial fermentation 2885.8 Motivation for and steps involved in the assisted-evoluti
97、on approaches in corals 3026.1 Reported progress in the implementation of(A)phenotypic and(B)molecular characterization in livestock species of economic importance 3096.2 Status of characterization or evaluation of associated biodiversity species reported to be conserved ex situ,by region 3166.3 Wil
98、d foods in the FAO/INFOODS Food Composition Database for Biodiversity 3206.4 Status of identification and characterization of differences within wild food species reported by countries,by type 3217.1 Reported objectives for the in situ conservation of associated biodiversity 3367.2 Reported actions
99、for the in situ conservation of associated biodiversity 3377.3 Reported objectives for the ex situ conservation of associated biodiversity 3477.4 Reported objectives for the in situ conservation of wild foods 3577.5 Progress of global coverage of protected areas 3617.6 Geographic distribution of the
100、 terrestrial,marine and coastal protected areas of the world 3627.7 Protected area coverage of species in the comprehensively assessed taxonomic groups of The IUCN Red List with mapped ranges and classified as used for human food 3657.8 Protected area coverage of species in the comprehensively asses
101、sed taxonomic groups of The IUCN Red List with mapped ranges and classified as threatened and as used for human food 366PArt d8.1 Elements of the TEEBAgriFood Evaluation Framework 4168.2 Examples of sources of incentives to support sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity 420 xixForewordOur
102、food and agricultural systems depend in countless ways on the plants,animals and micro-organisms that comprise and surround them.Biodiversity,at every level from genetic,through species to ecosystem,underpins the capacity of farmers,livestock keepers,forest dwellers,fishers and fish farmers to produ
103、ce food and a range of other goods and services in a vast variety of different biophysical and socio-economic environments.It increases resilience to shocks and stresses,provides opportunities to adapt production systems to emerging challenges and is a key resource in efforts to increase output in a
104、 sustainable way.It is vital to efforts to meet the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)of the 2030 Agenda.Over the last two decades,FAO has prepared country-driven global assessments of the genetic resources of crop plants,livestock and forest trees.An assessment covering aquatic genetic resources w
105、ill shortly be published.What has been missing to date has been an assessment of how biodiversity as a whole contributes to food and agriculture,including“associated biodiversity”,the myriad components of biodiversity that support food and agricultural production by providing services such as pollin
106、ation,pest control,soil formation and maintenance,carbon sequestration,purification and regulation of water supplies,reduction of disasters threats,and the provision of habitat for other beneficial species.The urgency of closing knowledge gaps in this field is underlined by the mounting evidence tha
107、t the worlds biodiversity is under severe threat and by the ever-growing challenges facing food and agriculture,including particularly those related to the impacts of climate change.The publication of The State of the Worlds Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture is therefore a significant and timely
108、 milestone.Like all the global assessments prepared under the auspices of FAOs Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,a key characteristic of this report is its country-driven nature.Ninety-one countries prepared and submitted reports on the state of their biodiversity for food and
109、 agriculture and its management,focusing particularly on associated biodiversity and its role in the supply of supporting and regulating ecosystem services and on wild species that are sources of food.The reporting process provided an opportunity for countries to identify needs and priorities in ter
110、ms of promoting the sustainable use and conservation of these resources,both at national level and internationally.Parts of the global report make sombre reading.It is deeply concerning that in so many production systems in so many countries biodiversity for food and agriculture and the ecosystem se
111、rvices it provides are reported to be in decline.The foundations of our food systems are being undermined,often,at least in part,because of the impact of management practices and land-use changes associated with food and agriculture.It is also abundantly clear that the state of knowledge of many com
112、ponents of biodiversity,including in particular invertebrates and micro-organisms,is very inadequate and that this contributes to their neglect.The good news is that many management practices and approaches that rely on the maintenance of abundant and diverse biological communities,or that can other
113、wise be considered biodiversity friendly,are attracting growing interest and in many cases are becoming more widely adopted.xxThe importance of biodiversity and its roles in the food and agriculture sector is increasingly being acknowledged in international policy agendas.This recognition needs to b
114、e translated into action.Key tasks include addressing the drivers of biodiversity loss within the food and agriculture sector and beyond,strengthening in situ and ex situ conservation measures,and increasing the uptake of management practices that promote the contributions of biodiversity to sustain
115、able production.Coordinated and collaborative action on the part of the international community is essential.This report will make a valuable contribution to these efforts and to raising awareness of the vital importance of biodiversity to food and agriculture.Jos graziano da silvaFAO Director-Gener
116、alxxiAcknowledgementsThe preparation of The State of the Worlds Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture required the dedication,time and expertise of many individuals,and the collaboration and support of many governments and institutions.The country reports submitted by 91 countries were the primary s
117、ources of information.FAO wishes to thank the respective governments and the hundreds of individuals involved,in particular the National Focal Points.Gratitude is also expressed to those who contributed to the preparation of the reports submitted by international organizations.The preparation of the
118、 report would not have been possible without the financial and in-kind support of Germany,Norway,Spain and Switzerland.The report was prepared by FAO.The reporting and preparation process was coordinated by Julie Blanger,with the assistance of Dafydd Pilling and Kim-Anh Tempelman,in FAOs Secretariat
119、 of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.The work was facilitated and supported by current and former Secretaries of the Commission,Irene Hoffmann and Linda Collette,and by current and former officers of the Secretariat,Anna Asfaw(seconded by the Government of Germany),Ladina
120、 Knapp(seconded by the Government of Switzerland),Dan Leskien,Damiano Luchetti and Miriam Widmer(seconded by the Government of Switzerland).Core contributors to the analysis of the country reports and the drafting,editing and/or finalization of report included Agns Bernis-Fonteneau,Cordula Hinkes(se
121、conded by the Government of Germany),Manuel Pomar Cloquell,Marcela Portocarrero-Aya,Suzanne Redfern,Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy and Miriam Widmer.The work was further supported by a number of interns,Davide Albeggiani,Poljanka Johnson,Agathe Mansion-Vaqui,Michael Ruggeri,Angus Wilsdon,Lilly Zeitler a
122、nd Sabrina Zhang.Administrative and secretarial support was provided by Nathalie Bramucci and Cintia Pohl.The database of country-report data was designed,created and loaded by Enrico Anello,under the supervision of Giorgio Lanzarone of FAOs Information Technology Division.Franois Fauteux1 processed
123、 and compiled all taxonomic information contained in the database.Over 175 individuals contributed to the preparation of the report as authors,contributors and reviewers.Details are provided in the table below,section by section.Significant contributions were provided by staff from many divisions wi
124、thin FAO.The manuscript was further reviewed by David Cooper2(Parts A,B and C),Nigel Dudley,3 Toby Hodgkin,4 Patrick Mulvany5(Parts A and D)and Mary Taylor6(Parts B and C).All members of the Commission Secretariat also contributed to the reviewing process.Text boxes were prepared by Peer Berg,7 Kasp
125、ar Bienefeld,8 Teresa Borelli,9 Martin Brink,10 Stuart Butchart,11 Georgina Chandler,12 Gonzalo Eiriz,13 Franois Fauteux,1 Hasan Gezgin,14 Linn Fenna Groeneveld,7 Kim Holm Boesen,15 Danny Hunter,9 Mohd Fahimee Bin Jaapar,16 Rosliza Jajuli,16 Malene Karup Palne,15 Amir Kassam,17 Patricia Larbouret,18
126、 Birgitte Lund,15 Tom Moore,19 Serge Morand,20 Daniela Moura de Oliveira Beltrame,21 Christophe Pinard,18 Maryam Rahmanian,Ana Islas Ramos,Gamini Samarasinghe,22 Florence Tartanac,Emilie Vandecandelaere,Anja Laupstad Vatland,23 Pierre Velge24 and Victor W.Wasike.25 Additional material for the prepar
127、ation of text boxes was provided by Widegnoma Jean de Dieu Nitiema26 and Thembinkosi Gumedze.27The thematic study Biodiversity for food and agriculture and ecosystem services was prepared by Dafydd Pilling.The study Biodiversity for food and agriculture:the perspectives of xxiismall-scale food provi
128、ders was prepared by Patrick Mulvany,Bob Brac de la Perrire,Maryam Rahmanian and Angela Cordeiro(International Planning Committee for Food Sovereignty,Agricultural Biodiversity Working Group).The study The contributions of biodiversity for food and agriculture to the resilience of production systems
129、 was prepared by Ashley Duval,Dunja Mijatovic and Toby Hodgkin(Platform for Agrobiodiversity Research).The study Contributions of biodiversity to the sustainable intensification of food production was prepared by Ian K.Dawson,Simon J.Attwood,Sarah E.Park,Ramni Jamnadass,Wayne Powell,Terry Sunderland
130、,Roeland Kindt,Stepha McMullin,Peter N.Hoebe,John Baddeley,Charles Staver,Vincent Vadez,Sammy Carsan,James M.Roshetko,Ahmed Amri,Eldad Karamura,Deborah Karamura,Paulo van Breugel,Md.Emdad Hossain,Michael Phillips,Ashok Kumar,Jens-Peter B.Lilles,John Benzie,Gerhard E.Sabastian,Beatrice Ekesa,Walter O
131、cimati and Lars Graudal(CGIAR).The document entitled Study on the linkages between protected areas and the conservation of biodiversity for food and agriculture was prepared by Natasha Ali,Brbara Goettsch,James Hardcastle,Sara Oldfield and Yichuan Shi(International Union for Conservation of Nature).
132、See respective studies for authors individual affiliations.The layout was designed and implemented by Chiara Caproni.The draft report was made available for review by members and observers of the Commission.Comments were received from Argentina,Bangladesh,Brazil,Canada,France,Georgia,Germany,Japan,J
133、ordan,Mexico,the Russian Federation,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Thailand,Tunisia and the United States of America.The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants and the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity also provided comments.Listing every person by name is no
134、t easy and carries with it the risk that someone may be overlooked.Apologies are conveyed to anyone who provided assistance but whose name has been omitted.Chapter/sectionAuthors and contributors(alphabetical order)(affiliations are provided below the table;fAO if not indicated)Entire reportJulie Bl
135、anger and Dafydd Pilling(eds.)PArt A OvervIeWChapter 1.IntroductionEntire chapterJulie Blanger,Dafydd Pilling,Kim-Anh Tempelman and Pablo Tittonell,28 with contributions from Devin Bartley,Paul Boettcher,Stefano Diulgheroff,Simon Funge-Smith,Bonnie Furman,Jarkko Koskela,Graham Mair,Chikelu Mba and S
136、hawn McGuireReviewers:Vera Agostini,Frdric Castell,Anneli Ehlers,29 John E.Fa,30 Giulia MuirChapter 2.Roles and importance of biodiversity for food and agriculture2.2 Ecosystem servicesDafydd Pilling,drawing on FAO(2019)2.3 ResilienceAgns Bernis-Fonteneau and Dafydd Pilling,drawing on Duval et al.,(
137、2018),with contributions from Toby Hodgkin,4 Rebeca Koloffon and Sylvie Wabbes-Candotti2.4 Sustainable intensificationAgns Bernis-Fonteneau and Dafydd Pilling,drawing on Dawson et al.(2018a),with contributions from Pablo Tittonell282.5 LivelihoodsDavid Colozza and Dafydd Pilling,with contributions f
138、rom Nigel Dudley3 and Cordula Hinkes2.6 Food security and nutritionJulie Blanger,Dafydd Pilling and Lilly Zeitler,with contributions from Vaishali Bansal,31 Agns Bernis-Fonteneau,Ruth Charrondiere,Dalia Mattioni,Giulia Muir,Vikas Rawal,31 Florence Tartanac and Doordarshni Thokchom31Reviewers:Simon A
139、ttwood,9,32,33 Edmundo Barrios,Caterina Batello,Badi Besbes,Eric Blanchart,34 Paul Boettcher,Teresa Borelli,9 David Colozza,Ian Dawson,35,36,37 Ashley Duval,4 John E.Fa,30 Simon Funge-Smith,Bonnie Furman,Nao Furuta,38 Rodolphe Gozlan,20 Danny Hunter,9 Rebeca Koloffon,Jarkko Koskela,Maria Hernandez L
140、agana,Dunja Mijatovic,4 Avetik Nersisyan,Florence Poulain,Maryam Rahmanian,Beate Scherf,Nadia Scialabba,Pablo Tittonell,28 Sylvie Wabbes-Candotti and Liesl Wiese xxiiiPArt b drIvers,stAtus And trendsChapter 3.Drivers of change of biodiversity for food and agriculture3.2 OverviewJulie Blanger,Toby Ho
141、dgkin4 and Lilly Zeitler3.3 Economic and social drivers3.4 Environmental drivers3.5 Advances and innovations in science and technology3.6 Drivers at production system level3.7 PoliciesMarcela Portocarrero-Aya,Pablo Tittonell28 and Lilly Zeitler,with contributions from Julie Blanger,Agns Bernis-Fonte
142、neau,David Colozza,Nigel Dudley,3 Toby Hodgkin,4 Dafydd Pilling,Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy Michael Ruggeri and Kim-Anh Tempelman3.8 Drivers of womens involvement in the management of biodiversity for food and agricultureMichael Ruggeri3.9 Drivers of traditional knowledge of biodiversity for food and
143、 agricultureMiriam WidmerReviewers:Edmundo Barrios,Caterina Batello,Marcio Castro de Souza,David Colozza,Amber Himes-Cornell,Maria Eleonora DAndrea,Liseth Escobar Aucu,Nicole Franz,Bonnie Furman,Maurizio Furst,Beatrice Grenier,Baogen Gu,Eva Kohlschmid,Regina Laub,Szilvia Lehel,Gregoire Leroy,Dalia M
144、attioni,Chikelu Mba,Shawn McGuire,Rebecca Metzner,Jamie Morrison,Kwang Suk Oh,Florence Poulain,John Ryder,Nianjun Shen,Ilaria Sisto,Markos Tibbo and Joseph Zelasney Chapter 4.The status and trends of biodiversity for food and agriculture4.2 Plant,animal,forest and aquatic genetic resources for food
145、and agricultureDafydd Pilling,drawing on FAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),with contributions from Devin Bartley,Roswitha Baumung,Paul Boettcher,Stefano Diulgheroff,Simon Funge-Smith,Bonnie Furman,Jarkko Koskela,Gregoire Leroy and Chikelu Mba4.3 Associated biodiversity4.3.1 Associated biodiversity
146、species managed for ecosystem services4.3.2 Information and monitoring systems on associated biodiversity4.3.3 Overview of status and trendsJulie Blanger and Kim-Anh Tempelman4.3.4 Associated biodiversity for pollinationHien Ngo39 and Kim-Anh Tempelman,with contributions from Michael Ruggeri4.3.5 As
147、sociated biodiversity for pest and disease regulationVladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy,with contributions from Markus Knapp40 and William Settle4.3.6 Associated biodiversity for soil-related ecosystem servicesAgns Bernis-Fonteneau and Alberto Orgiazzi,41 with contributions from Liesl Wiese4.3.7 Associated
148、biodiversity for water-related ecosystem servicesMarcela Portocarrero-Aya,with contributions from Dafydd Pilling4.3.8 Associated biodiversity for natural-hazard regulation4.3.9 Associated biodiversity for habitat provisioning4.3.10 Associated biodiversity for air-quality and climate regulationAgns B
149、ernis-Fonteneau,with contributions from Dafydd Pilling and Michael Ruggeri4.4 Wild foodsJulie Blanger,with contributions from Natasha Ali,38 Brbara Goettsch,38 Poljanka Johnson,Lilly Zeitler and Sabrina Zhang4.5 Ecosystems of importance to food and agriculture4.5.1 Wetlands4.5.2 Mangroves 4.5.3 Seag
150、rasses4.5.4 Coral reefs Marcela Portocarrero-Aya,with contributions from Anne-Maud Courtois,Nigel Dudley,3 Dafydd Pilling,Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy and Elaine Springgay4.5.5 ForestsOrjan Jonsson,Jarkko Koskela,Lars Gunnar Marklund,Anssi Pekkarinen,Leticia Pina,Kristina Rodina and Sheila Wertzxxiv4.
151、5.6 RangelandsIrene Hoffmann4.6 Needs and prioritiesDafydd Pilling and Kim-Anh TempelmanReviewers:Vera Agostini,Jose Aguilar Manjarrez,Edmundo Barrios,Eric Blanchart,34 Junning Cai,Viridiana Alcntara Cervantes,John E.Fa,30 Kim Friedman,Simon Funge-Smith,Bonnie Furman,Maurizio Furst,Jarkko Koskela,Re
152、gina Laub,Szilvia Lehel,Tom Moore,19 Anne Mottet,Florence Poulain,Bronwen Powell,42 Nadia Scialabba,Ilaria Sisto,Philip Thornton,43 Madeleine J.H.van Oppen,44,45 Lauren Weatherdon46 and Xinhua YuanPArt C stAte Of mAnAgementChapter 5.The state of use of biodiversity for food and agriculture5.2 Overvi
153、ew of management practices and approachesJulie Blanger and Toby Hodgkin45.3 Ecosystem,landscape and seascape approaches5.3.1 OverviewKim-Anh Tempelman5.3.2 Sustainable forest managementJarkko Koskela5.3.3 Ecosystem approach to fisheries and aquacultureMarcela Portocarrero-Aya5.3.4 AgroecologyVladimi
154、r Shlevkov-Pronskiy and Pablo Tittonell28 5.3.5 Landscape and seascape approaches5.3.6 Integrated land-and water-use planning5.3.7 Needs and prioritiesKim-Anh Tempelman5.4 Restoration practicesBlaise Bodin2 and Marcela Portocarrero-Aya5.5 Diversification in production systems5.5.1 Integrated cropliv
155、estock systemsDario Lucantoni and Anne Mottet,with contributions from Dafydd Pilling5.5.2 Home gardensDavid Colozza5.5.3 AgroforestryJonathan P.Cornelius,35,56 Jules Bayala,35 Trent Blare,35 Delia Catacutan,35 Ann Degrande,35 Roeland Kindt,35 Beria Leimona,35 Sarah-Lan Mathez-Stiefel,35,57 Andrew Mi
156、ccolis,35 Devashree Naik,35 Javed Rizvi,35 James M.Roshetko35 and Leigh Ann Winowiecki355.5.4 Diversification practices in aquacultureKim-Anh Tempelman,with contributions from Lionel Dabbadie,Simon Funge-Smith,Alessandro Lovatelli,Dafydd Pilling and Michael Ruggeri5.5.5 Needs and prioritiesToby Hodg
157、kin45.6 Management practices and production approaches5.6.1 Organic agricultureVladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy,with contributions from Nadia Scialabba and Helga Willer475.6.2 Low external input agricultureVladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy,with contributions from Dafydd Pilling and Pablo Tittonell285.6.3 Managem
158、ent practices to preserve and enhance soil biodiversityAlberto Orgiazzi41 and Miriam Widmer 5.6.4 Conservation agricultureVladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy,with contributions from Amir Kassam175.6.5 Integrated plant nutrient managementHugo Fernandez Mena and Debra Turner5.6.6 Integrated pest managementVlad
159、imir Shlevkov-Pronskiy,with contributions from William Settle5.6.7 Pollination managementHien Ngo39 and Kim-Anh Tempelman5.6.8 Forest-management practicesJarkko Koskela,with contributions from Jonas Cedergren5.6.9 Needs and prioritiesToby Hodgkin45.7 The use of micro-organisms for food processing an
160、d agro-industrial processesDafydd Pilling,drawing on Alexandracki et al.(2013)and Chatzipavlidis et al.(2013),with contributions from Nelson Lima48xxv5.8 Rumen microbial diversityGraeme Attwood,49 Peter H.Janssen,49 Sandra Kittelmann,49 Sinead Leahy 49,50 and Christina Moon495.9 Genetic improvement5
161、.9.1 Domestication and base broadeningToby Hodgkin45.9.2 Plant,animal,forest and aquatic genetic resources for food and agricultureDafydd Pilling,drawing on FAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),with contributions from Devin Bartley,Paul Boettcher,Stefano Diulgheroff,Simon Funge-Smith,Jarkko Koskela,Ch
162、ikelu Mba and Arshiya Noorani 5.9.3 Associated biodiversity overviewJulie Blanger,Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy and Miriam Widmer5.9.4 PollinatorsYves Le Conte51 and Robert J.Paxton52 5.9.5 Assisted evolution for reef-building coralsMadeleine J.H.van Oppen,44,45 with contributions from Ken Anthony44 an
163、d Line K.Bay445.9.Needs and prioritiesToby Hodgkin4Reviewers:Vera Agostini,Elizabeth Bach,53 Edmundo Barrios,Roswitha Baumung,Fenton Beed,Kaspar Bienefeld,8 Eric Blanchart,34 Paul Boettcher,Lucrezia Caon,Jonas Cedergren,Viridiana Alcntara Cervantes,Richard Coe,35 Sandra Corsi,Rosa Cuevas Corona,Marj
164、on Fredrix,Theodor Friedrich,Simon Funge-Smith,Bonnie Furman,Maurizio Furst,Barbara Gemmill-Herren,35 Cristina Grandi,47 Juan J.Jimnez,54 Amir Kassam,17 Johannette Klapwijk,40 Markus Knapp,40 Jarkko Koskela,Regina Laub,Szilvia Lehel,Chikelu Mba,Douglas McGuire,Shawn McGuire,Soren Moller,Anne Mottet,
165、Tipparat Pongthanapanich,Maryam Rahmanian,Rosa Rolle,Beate Scherf,Ilaria Sisto,Carolina Starr,Philip Thornton,43 Randolph Thaman,55 Pablo Tittonell,28 Liesl Wiese and Xinhua YuanChapter 6.The state of characterization of biodiversity for food and agriculture6.2 Plant,animal,forest and aquatic geneti
166、c resources for food and agricultureDafydd Pilling,drawing on FAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),with contributions from Devin Bartley,Roswitha Baumung,Paul Boettcher,Stefano Diulgheroff,Simon Funge-Smith,Toby Hodgkin,4 Jarkko Koskela,Graham Mair and Chikelu Mba6.3 Associated biodiversityJulie Blang
167、er,Dafydd Pilling and Miriam Widmer 6.4 Wild foodsJulie Blanger6.5 Needs and prioritiesDafydd Pilling and Miriam WidmerReviewers:Vera Agostini,Edmundo Barrios,Abram Bicksler,Ruth Charrondire,John E.Fa,30 Bonnie Furman,Maurizio Furst,Amber Himes-Cornell,Jarkko Koskela,Regina Laub,Szilvia Lehel,Nelson
168、 Lima,48 Graham Mair,Sarah Najera Espinosa,Arshiya Noorani,Dave Nowell,Beate Scherf and Ilaria Sisto Chapter 7.The state of conservation of biodiversity for food and agriculture7.2 Plant,animal,forest and aquatic genetic resources for food and agricultureDafydd Pilling,drawing on FAO(2010a,2014a,201
169、5a,forthcoming),with contributions from Devin Bartley,Roswitha Baumung,Paul Boettcher,Stefano Diulgheroff,Simon Funge-Smith,Bonnie Furman,Toby Hodgkin,4 Jarkko Koskela,Graham Mair and Arshiya Noorani7.3 Associated biodiversityJulie Blanger,Dafydd Pilling,Mary Taylor6 and Miriam Widmer,with contribut
170、ions from Toby Hodgkin4 and Vladimir Shlevkov-Pronskiy7.4 Wild foodsJulie Blanger7.5 Roles of protected areasNatasha Ali,38 Brbara Goettsch38 and James Hardcastle,38 with contributions from Michael Ruggeri and Kim-Anh Tempelman7.6 Maintenance of traditional knowledge associated with food and agricul
171、tureMiriam Widmer7.7 Needs and prioritiesDafydd PillingReviewers:Vera Agostini,Natasha Ali,38 Edmundo Barrios,Abram Bicksler,Yoshihide Endo,Bonnie Furman,Amber Himes-Cornell,Maurizio Furst,Jarkko Koskela,Regina Laub,Szilvia Lehel,Graham Mair,Arshiya Noorani,Beate Scherf and Ilaria SistoPArt d enAblI
172、ng frAmeWOrKsChapter 8.The state of policies,institutions and capacities8.2 StakeholdersDafydd Pilling and Michael Ruggeri,with contributions from Julie Blanger,Nigel Dudley,3 Miriam Widmer and Angus Wilsdon8.3 CooperationDafydd Pilling,with contributions from Simon Funge-Smith8.4 Education,training
173、 and awareness raisingDafydd Pilling,drawing on FAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),with contributions from Devin Bartley,Paul Boettcher,Nigel Dudley,3 Simon Funge-Smith,Bonnie Furman,Shawn McGuire,Arshiya Noorani and Hugo Wilsonxxvi8.5 ResearchCordula Hinkes,with contributions from Nigel Dudley38.6
174、ValuationCordula Hinkes,with contributions from Nigel Dudley,3 Lucy Garrett and Dafydd Pilling8.7 IncentivesLucy Garrett,Bernardete Neves and Daniela Ottaviani8.8 Policy and legal frameworks8.8.1 Frameworks at international levelDan Leskien8.8.2 Frameworks at national levelDafydd Pilling,drawing on
175、FAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),with contributions from Devin Bartley,Paul Boettcher,Bonnie Furman,Simon Funge-Smith,Shawn McGuire,Arshiya Noorani and Hugo Wilson8.8.3 Climate change policy and programmesDonagh Hennessy8.8.4 Frameworks supporting the maintenance of traditional knowledgeMiriam Wid
176、mer8.8.5 Access and benefit-sharingDan LeskienReviewers:Edmundo Barrios,Paul Boettcher,Junning Cai,Stefano Diulgheroff,Simon Funge-Smith,Bonnie Furman,Maurizio Furst,Kathryn Garforth,2 Amber Himes-Cornell,Rebeca Koloffon,Regina Laub,Szilvia Lehel,Dan Leskien,Dalia Mattioni,Shawn McGuire,Beate Scherf
177、 and Ilaria Sisto PArt e COnClusIOns Chapter 9.The way forwardEntire chapterJulie Blanger,Dafydd Pilling and Kim-Anh TempelmanReviewers:Vera Agostini,Edmundo Barrios,Bonnie Furman,Jarkko Koskela,Graham Mair and Beate Scherf1 National Research Council,Canada.2 Convention on Biological Diversity.3 Equ
178、ilibrium Research,United Kingdom.4 Platform for Agrobiodiversity Research.5 Centre for Agroecology,Water and Resilience,United Kingdom.6 University of the Sunshine Coast,Australia.7 NordGen Farm Animals.8 Lnderinstitut fr Bienenkunde Hohen Neuendorf,Germany.9 Bioversity International.10 Wageningen U
179、niversity,the Netherlands.11 BirdLife International.12 Royal Society for the Protection of Birds,United Kingdom.13 Ministerio de Agricultura,Alimentacin y Medio Ambiente,Spain.14 Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies,Turkey.15 Ministry
180、 of Environment and Food of Denmark,The Danish Agricultural Agency,Denmark.16 Malaysia Agriculture Research and Development Institute,Malaysia.17 University of Reading,United Kingdom.18 Ministre de lagriculture et de lalimentation,France.19 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,United Stat
181、es of America.20 Centre de coopration internationale en recherche agronomique pour le dveloppement,France.21 Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition Project,Brazil.22 Plant Genetic Resources Center,Department of Agriculture,Sri Lanka.23 Brown Bee Network.24 Secrtariat Gnral des Affaires Europennes Comit
182、 interministriel de lagriculture et de lAlimentation,France.25 Genetic Resources Research Centre,Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization,Kenya.26 Ministre de lAgriculture et de la Scurit alimentaire,Burkina Faso.27 National Plant Genetic Resources Centre,Eswatini.28 Instituto Nacional
183、de Tecnologa Agropecuaria,Argentina.29 Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit,Germany.30 Center for International Forestry Research.31 Society for Social and Economic Research,India.32 University of East Anglia,United Kingdom.33 World Wildlife Fund,Singapore.34 Institut de Recherche
184、pour le Dveloppement,France.35 World Agroforestry Centre.36 Scotlands Rural College,United Kingdom.37 CGIAR Consortium.38 International Union for Conservation of Nature.39 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.40 Koppert Biological Systems.41 European Commi
185、ssions Joint Research Centre.42 Pennsylvania State University,United States of America.43 International Livestock Research Institute.44 Australian Institute of Marine Science,Australia.45 University of Melbourne,Australia.46 UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre.47 IFOAM Organics Inter
186、national.48 European Culture Collections Organization.49 AgResearch Limited,New Zealand.50 New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Centre,New Zealand.51 Institut national de la recherche agronomique,UR406 Abeilles&Environnement,France.52 Martin-Luther-Universitt Halle-Wittenberg and iDiv,Ge
187、rmany.53 Colorado State University,United States of America.54 Instituto Pirenaico de Ecologa,Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas,Spain.55 University of the South Pacific,Fiji.56 James Cook University,Australia.57 University of Bern,Switzerland.xxviiAbbreviations and acronymsAbO Agricultu
188、ral Biodiversity Observatory(France)Abs access and benefit-sharingAgrA Alliance for a Green Revolution in AfricaAIds acquired immune deficiency syndromeAmber Adaptive Management of Barriers in European RiversAngr animal genetic resources for food and agricultureAPCrm Association of Fishermen of the
189、Rural Community Mangagoulack(Senegal)Aqgr aquatic genetic resources for food and agricultureAseAn Association of Southeast Asian NationsAsfIs Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information SystemAu African UnionbCA biological control agentbCCm Belgian Co-ordinated Collections of Micro-organismsbfA biodi
190、versity for food and agriculturebfn Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition ProjectbgCI Botanic Gardens Conservation InternationalbIngO Breeding Invertebrates for Next Generation BiocontrolbIO_sOs BIodiversity Multi-Source Monitoring System:from Space to SpeciesbIsQ Biological Indicator of Soil Quality(
191、Netherlands)bluP best linear unbiased predictionbrC biological resource centreCAbI Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences InternationalCAbrI Common Access to Biological Resources and InformationCAmPfIre Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources(Zimbabwe)Cbd Convention on Biologica
192、l DiversityCePf Critical Ecosystem Partnership FundCIAt International Center for Tropical AgricultureCIfOr Center for International Forestry ResearchCIP International Potato CenterCItes Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and FloraCms Convention on the Conservation
193、of Migratory Species of Wild AnimalsCOmet CarbOn Management Evaluation ToolCOmIfAC Commission of Central African ForestsCOnAbIO Biodiversity Commission(Mexico)COussA Conservation and Sustainable Use of Soil and Water(Mexico)CrP Conservation Reserve Program(United States of America)CsO civil society
194、organizationCsP Conservation Stewardship Program(United States of America)CtI-Cff Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs,Fisheries and Food SecuritydAd-Is Domestic Animal Diversity Information SystemdIAs Database on Introductions of Aquatic SpeciesdnA deoxyribonucleic acidebA Endemic Bird Areaxxvi
195、iiebCC European Bird Census CouncilebI Ethiopian Biodiversity InstituteeCCO European Culture Collection OrganizationembarC European Consortium of Microbial Resource CentreseOdham Earth Observation Data for Habitat Monitoringeu European Unioneur eurofAntA Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance III P
196、rojectfAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsfAOstAt FAO Statistical Databasefbdg food-based dietary guidelinesfgr forest genetic resourcesfmnr farmer-managed natural regenerationfrA Global Forest Resources Assessmentfs farmer schoolfsC Forest Stewardship CouncilgbrCn Global Biol
197、ogical Resource Centre NetworkgdP gross domestic productgef Global Environment Facilitygemstat Global Water Quality Database and Information Systemgems/Water Global Environment Monitoring System for FreshwatergIAhs Globally Important Agricultural Heritage SystemsgIs geographic information systemgrC
198、Global Rumen CensushIv human immunodeficiency virusIbge Brazilian Institute of Geography and StatisticsICCA Indigenous and Community Conserved AreaICIPe International Centre of Insect Physiology and EcologyIff Intergovernmental Forum on ForestsIfOAm International Federation of Organic Agriculture Mo
199、vementsImArPe Marine Institute of PeruImtA integrated multitrophic aquacultureIndC intended national determined contributionInfOOds International Network of Food Data SystemsInIA National Institute of Agricultural Innovation(Peru)InrA National Institute for Agricultural Research(France)InteCrAl Inte
200、grated Eco Technologies and Services for a Sustainable Rural Rio de Janeiro(Brazil)Invest Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and TradeoffsIPbes Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem ServicesIPf Intergovernmental Panel on ForestsIPlC indigenous peoples and lo
201、cal communitiesIPm Integrated pest managementIPm-ffs farmer field school on integrated pest managementIPnm integrated plant nutrient managementIPOA-Iuu International Plan of Action to Prevent,Deter and Eliminate Illegal,Unreported and Unregulated FishingIPPC International Plant Protection Convention
202、xxixIPPm integrated production and pest managementIPr intellectual property rightsIPsI International Partnership for the Satoyama InitiativeIsCAAP International Standard Statistical Classification of Aquatic Animals and PlantsIuCn International Union for Conservation of NatureIuu illegal,unreported
203、and unregulatedKbA Key Biodiversity AreasKeeP Kakamega Environmental and Education Programme(Kenya)KenrIK Kenya Resource Center for Indigenous KnowledgeleAf Linking Environment and FarmingleIA low external input agricultureler land equivalent ratiolI-bIrd Local Initiatives for Biodiversity,Research
204、and Development(Nepal)mArs Managing Aquatic ecosystems and water Resources under multiple StressmasAgro Sustainable Modernization of Traditional Agriculture(Mexico)mAt mutually agreed termsmds Ministry of Social Development and Hunger Alleviation(Brazil)meA Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentmerCes Mari
205、ne Ecosystems Restoration in Changing European SeasmIrrI Microbial Resource Research Infrastructuremsdn Microbial Strain Data NetworknAPA national adaptation programme of actionnArO National Agriculture and Food Research Organization(Japan)nbA Niger Basin AuthoritynfP national forest programmengO no
206、n-governmental organizationnIbIO Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy ResearchnOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(United States of America)nvs natural vegetative stripsOeCd Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPAA Food Acquisition Programme(Brazil)PAAP Programme for th
207、e Acquisition of Productive Assets(Mexico)PdnA Post-Disaster Needs AssessmentPefC Programme for the Endorsement of Forest CertificationPelum Participatory Ecological Land Use Management AssociationPersAgA Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of AdenPe
208、sA Strategic Project for Food Security(Mexico)PesAgrO-rIO Agricultural Research Enterprise of the State of Rio de Janeiro(Brazil)PgrfA plant genetic resources for food and agriculturePIC prior informed consentPlAnAPO National Plan for Agroecology and Organic Production(Brazil)PnAd National Household
209、 Sample Survey(Brazil)PnAe National School Meals Programme(Brazil)PnAn National Food and Nutrition Policy(Brazil)xxxPrOgAn Sustainable Livestock Production and Management for Livestock and Beekeeping(Mexico)PrOgebe Regional Project for Sustainable Management of Globally Significant Endemic Ruminant
210、LivestockPrOmAf Project of Support for the Productive Chain of Corn and Bean Producers(Mexico)PrOnAf National Programme for Strengthening Family Farming(Brazil)PrOnAfOr National Forest Programme(Mexico)Psm port state measurePursn Sustainable Use of Natural Resources Programme(Mexico)Qtl quantitative
211、 trait locusredd+Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation redesmI Spanish Micro-organisms NetworkrefOrm REstoring rivers FOR effective catchment ManagementrIl reduced-impact loggingrIvm National Institute for Public Health and the Environment(Netherlands)rnA ribonucleic acidrsPb
212、Royal Society for the Protection of BirdssAdC Southern African Development CommunitysAf Portuguese and Spanish abbreviation of“agroforestry system”sAgI Secretariat for Evaluation and Information Management(Brazil)sAlt sloping agricultural land technologysbsttA Subsidiary Body on Scientific,Technical
213、 and Technological Advicesdg Sustainable Development GoalsebrAe Brazilian Micro and Small Enterprises Support ServiceseeA System of Environmental Economic AccountingsnP single nucleotide polymorphismsoW state of the worldteeb The Economics of Ecosystems and BiodiversityteebAgfood TEEB for Food and A
214、griculturetev total economic valuetfCA transfrontier conservation areatrIPs Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property RightsubInIg Policy Research for Development Alternative(Bangladesh)uKnCC United Kingdom National Culture Collectionun United NationsunAlm National Agrarian University La Molina
215、(Peru)unCCd United Nations Convention to Combat DesertificationunCed United Nations Conference on Environment and Developmentun environment United Nations Environment ProgrammeuneP-WCmC UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring CentreunesCO United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organ
216、izationunfCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Changeunff United Nations Forum on Forestsun-redd United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing CountriesuPOv International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of
217、 PlantsusAId United States Agency for International Developmentusd United States dollarxxxiusdA United States Department of AgricultureWAves Wealth Accounting and the Valuation of Ecosystem ServicesWfCC World Federation for Culture CollectionsWhC World Heritage ConventionWIeWs World Information and
218、Early Warning System on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and AgricultureWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWIser Water bodies in Europe:Integrative Systems to assess Ecological status and RecoveryWtA willingness to acceptWtO World Trade OrganizationWtP willingness to payxxxiiAbout this pub
219、licationbackgroundThis report presents the first global assessment of biodiversity for food and agriculture(BFA).It complements other global assessments prepared under the auspices of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture(see Box 1),which have focused on the state of genetic r
220、esources within particular sectors of food and agriculture.scope and contents of the reportThe State of the Worlds Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture(SoW-BFA)addresses the sustainable use,development and conservation of BFA worldwide.BFA is taken to include the diversity of animals,plants and mic
221、ro-organisms at the genetic,species and ecosystem levels that sustain structures,functions and processes in and around production systems and provide food and non-food agricultural products.The report consists of the following five parts.Part A Overview:Chapter 1 describes the context for the assess
222、ment and presents key concepts and definitions used.Chapter 2 provides an overview of the contributions that BFA makes to the supply of multiple ecosystem services,to livelihoods,to the resilience of production systems,to the sustainable intensification of food and agricultural production,and to foo
223、d security and nutrition.Part b drivers,status and trends:Chapter 3 discusses the major drivers of change affecting BFA.Chapter 4 presents an analysis of the status and trends of BFA,including a discussion of the state of knowledge in this field.Part C state of management:Chapter 5 considers the sta
224、te of use of BFA,including discussions of landscape,seascape and ecosystem approaches,diversification in production systems,and management practices that utilize BFA or are considered to promote its conservation and sustainable use.This chapter also addresses the roles of micro-organisms in food pro
225、cessing,in agro-industrial practices and in the digestive processes of ruminant Box 1the Commission on genetic resources for food and AgricultureWith 178 countries and the European Union as its members,the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture provides a unique intergovernmental f
226、orum that specifically addresses biological diversity for food and agriculture.The main objective of the Commission is to ensure the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from its use,for present and future ge
227、nerations.The Commission guides the preparation of periodic global assessments of the status and trends of genetic resources and biological diversity for food and agriculture.In response to these assessments,the Commission develops global plans of action,codes of conduct or other policy instruments
228、and monitors their implementation.The Commission raises awareness of the need to conserve and sustainably use biological diversity for food and agriculture and fosters collaboration among countries and other relevant stakeholders to address threats to this biodiversity and promote its sustainable us
229、e and conservation.xxxiiianimals.Finally,it includes a discussion of breeding(genetic improvement)activities for various categories of BFA.Chapters 6 and 7,respectively,address the state of characterization and conservation efforts for BFA.Part d enabling frameworks:Chapter 8 describes the state of
230、policies,institutions and capacities that support the conservation and sustainable use of BFA.Part e Conclusions:Chapter 9 presents a discussion of needs and challenges in the management of BFA.the reporting and preparatory processAt its Eleventh Regular Session,in 2007,the Commission adopted a numb
231、er of outputs and milestones to be addressed in its Multi-year Programme of Work,1 including the presentation,at its Sixteenth Regular Session,of the SoW-BFA.2 The Commission stressed that the preparation of the report should be based on information from country reports and should also draw on thema
232、tic studies,reports from international organizations and inputs from other relevant stakeholders,including centres of excellence in developing countries.It further stressed that the report should focus on interactions between sectors and on cross-sectoral matters,taking full advantage of existing in
233、formation sources,including sectoral assessments.It also suggested that priority be given to information not available in existing sources.At its Sixteenth Regular Session,which was held in 2017,the Commission considered a draft of the SoW-BFA and requested FAO to finalize it,taking into account com
234、ments submitted by Members and Observers,by the end of 2018.Inputs to the reportThe main sources used to prepare the SoW-BFA were as follows:Country reportsIn June 2013,FAO invited countries to officially nominate national focal points to lead the preparation of country reports to be submitted to FA
235、O to support the preparation of the SoW-BFA.FAO prepared guidelines to support the development of country reports.The guidelines outlined the suggested content of the report and provided questions to assist countries with their analysis and with the development of each section of the report.The guid
236、elines were made available in all six official FAO languages(Arabic,Chinese,English,French,Russian and Spanish),both in read-only form and as a dynamic version into which countries could enter their responses in order to generate a preformatted country report.3Between March and May 2016,in response
237、to a request by the Commission at its preceding session,FAO organized a series of informal regional consultations at which countries and other stakeholders could share knowledge and information on the state of BFA and discuss needs and priorities with respect to its conservation and sustainable use.
238、The informal regional consultations also served to support national focal points in the finalization of their country reports.As background documentation for each informal regional consultation,FAO prepared a draft regional synthesis report based on the country reports that had thus far been submitt
239、ed.The regional synthesis reports were subsequently finalized based on feedback received from the participants of the informal regional consultations and on additional country reports received.By 30 June 2017,the deadline set by the Commission,91 country reports had been received(see Table 1).1 CGRF
240、A-11/07/Report,paragraph 90.2 CGRFA-14/13/Report,paragraph 14.3 The dynamic questionnaire was made available in Chinese,English,French,Russian and Spanish.xxxivReports from international organizationsIn April 2016,FAO invited 55 international organizations to report on their activities related to th
241、e management of BFA and provided them with a standardized questionnaire for the preparation of their reports.Responses were received from the following organizations:Africa Rice Center;African Union Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources;African Union Commission,Department of Rural Economy and Agr
242、iculture;Bioversity International;Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute;Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International;Global Crop Diversity Trust;IFOAM Organics International;Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture;International Atomic Energy Agency;Interna
243、tional Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas;International Center for Tropical Agriculture;International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology;International Food Policy Research Institute;International Fund for Agricultural Development;International Institute of Tropical Agriculture;In
244、ternational Maize and Wheat Improvement Center;International Union for Conservation of Nature;International Rice Research Institute;Pacific Organic and Ethical Trade Community;Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity;Slow Food;Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center;U
245、nited Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre;World Agroforestry Centre;World Bank.In addition,Oxfam voluntarily provided a report entitled Womens roles in biodiversity management from lessons to practice and impact:scaling up pathways in peoples biodiversity management,co
246、ntaining case studies from Peru Viet Nam and Zimbabwe.Table 1Overview of country reports and their regional distributionRegionCountriesafrica(19)angola,burkina Faso,Cameroon,Chad,eswatini,ethiopia,Gabon,Gambia,Guinea,Kenya,Mali,Niger,Rwanda,Senegal,Sierra leone,Togo,United Republic of Tanzania,Zambi
247、a,Zimbabweasia1,2(9)afghanistan,bangladesh,bhutan,China,India,Malaysia,Nepal,Sri lanka,Viet Nameurope and Central asia(23)belgium,bulgaria,belarus,Croatia,Denmark,estonia,Finland,France,3 Georgia,Germany,Hungary,Ireland,Malta,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Turke
248、y,United Kingdomlatin america and the Caribbean(16)argentina,bahamas,brazil,Costa Rica,ecuador,el Salvador,Grenada,Guyana,Jamaica,Mexico,Nicaragua,Panama,Paraguay,Peru,Saint lucia,SurinameNear east and North africa(13)algeria,egypt,Iraq,Jordan,lebanon,Morocco,Oman,Qatar,Saudi arabia,Sudan,Syrian ara
249、b Republic,United arab emirates,YemenNorth america(1)United States of americaPacific(10)Cook Islands,Fiji,Kiribati,Nauru,Niue,Palau,Papua New Guinea,Samoa,Solomon Islands,TongaNotes:1 The Lao Peoples Democratic Republic submitted as a country report its National Agro-biodiversity Programme and Actio
250、n Plan II(20152025).Selected information from this report is presented.2 Selected information from the country report of Japan,submitted in 2018,is presented.3 France submitted a draft report.xxxvThematic studiesThe following four thematic studies providing in-depth analysis of specific topics relev
251、ant to BFA were prepared for the SoW-BFA:Biodiversity for food and agriculture:the perspectives of small-scale food providers;The contributions of biodiversity for food and agriculture to the resilience of production systems;Contributions of biodiversity to the sustainable intensification of food pr
252、oduction;Biodiversity for food and agriculture and ecosystem services.Regional synthesis reportsAs described above,the series of informal regional consultations held in 2016 involved the preparation of a regional synthesis report for each region where consultations were held.The contents of these sy
253、nthesis reports served as source material for the global analysis presented in the SoW-BFA.State of the world reportsThe subsections of the SoW-BFA that address plant(crop),animal(livestock),forest and aquatic genetic resources draw heavily on the respective global assessments(state of the world rep
254、orts)published or in preparation under the auspices of the Commission.Other sourcesIn addition to the sources mentioned above,the SoW-BFA draws on a range of literature and data sources.The latter include FAOs statistical database FAOSTAT,4 the FAO/INFOODS Food Composition database for biodiversity,
255、5 the Domestic Animal Diversity Information System,6 the World Information and Early Warning System on Plant Genetic Resources for 4 http:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/5 http:/www.fao.org/infoods/infoods/tables-and-databases/faoinfoods-databases/en/6 http:/www.fao.org/dad-is/en/FIGURE 1Assignment of count
256、ries to regions in this report Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Africa Asia Near East and North Africa North America Pacific Source:FAO.SoB_book_dtp3.indb 3504/02/19 09:21xxxviFood and Agriculture7 and The International Union for Conservation of Natures Red List of Threatened
257、Species.8regional classification of countriesThe assignment of countries to regions for the purposes of the SoW-BFA follows the regional groupings used in FAO statistics and for election purposes(Figure 1).Seven regions are distinguished:Africa;Asia;Europe and Central Asia;Latin America and the Cari
258、bbean;Near East and North Africa;North America;and Pacific.7 http:/www.fao.org/wiews/en/8 https:/www.iucnredlist.org/xxxviiExecutive summaryWhat is biodiversity for food and agriculture?Biodiversity is the variety of life at genetic,species and ecosystem levels.Biodiversity for food and agriculture(
259、BFA)is,in turn,the subset of biodiversity that contributes in one way or another to agriculture and food production.It includes the domesticated plants and animals raised in crop,livestock,forest and aquaculture systems,harvested forest and aquatic species,the wild relatives of domesticated species,
260、other wild species harvested for food and other products,and what is known as“associated biodiversity”,the vast range of organisms that live in and around food and agricultural production systems,sustaining them and contributing to their output.Agriculture is taken here to include crop and livestock
261、 production,forestry,fisheries and aquaculture.1About this reportThe State of the Worlds Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture provides an assessment of biodiversity for food and agriculture(BFA)and its management worldwide,drawing on information provided in 91 country reports(prepared by over 1 300
262、 contributors),27 reports from international organizations and inputs from over 175 authors and reviewers.It describes the many contributions that BFA makes to food security and nutrition,livelihoods,the resilience of production systems,the sustainable intensification of food production and the supp
263、ly of multiple ecosystem services;the major drivers of change affecting BFA;the status and trends of various components of BFA;the state of management of BFA;the state of policies,institutions and capacities that support the sustainable use and conservation of BFA;and needs and challenges in the man
264、agement of BFA.Key findings1.biodiversity is essential to food and agricultureBiodiversity for food and agriculture is indispensable to food security,sustainable development and the supply of many vital ecosystem services.Biodiversity makes production systems and livelihoods more resilient to shocks
265、 and stresses,including to the effects of climate change.It is a key resource in efforts to increase food production while limiting negative impacts on the environment.It makes multiple contributions to the livelihoods of many people,often reducing the need for food and agricultural producers to rel
266、y on costly or environmentally harmful external inputs.The country reports highlight the importance of biodiversity,at genetic,species and ecosystem levels,to efforts to address the challenges posed by diverse and changing production systems.Many emphasize the role of diversification using multiple
267、species,integrating the use of crop,livestock,forest and aquatic resources,and conserving and managing habitat diversity at landscape or seascape scale in promoting resilience,improving livelihoods and supporting food security and nutrition.1 For the purpose of the country-reporting process,biodiver
268、sity for food and agriculture was defined as follows:“the variety and variability of animals,plants and micro-organisms at the genetic,species and ecosystem levels that sustain the ecosystem structures,functions and processes in and around production systems,and that provide food and non-food agricu
269、ltural products.”More information on key concepts is provided in Section 1.5.xxxviii2.multiple interacting drivers of change are affecting biodiversity for food and agricultureWhile a range of drivers of change are having major negative impacts on biodiversity for food and agriculture and the ecosys
270、tem services it delivers,some provide opportunities to promote more sustainable management.Analysis of the country reports and the wider literature indicates that BFA is affected by a variety of drivers operating at a range of levels:major global trends such as changes in climate,international marke
271、ts and demo-graphy give rise to more immediate drivers such as land-use change,pollution and overuse of external inputs,overharvesting and the proliferation of invasive species.Interactions between drivers often exacerbate their effects on BFA.Demographic changes,urbanization,markets,trade and consu
272、mer preferences are reported to have a strong influence on food systems,frequently with negative consequences for BFA and the ecosystem services it provides.However,such drivers are also reported to open opportunities to make food systems more sustainable,for example through the development of marke
273、ts for biodiversity-friendly products.Many of the drivers that have negative impacts on BFA,including overexploitation,overharvesting,pollution,overuse of external inputs,and changes in land and water management,are at least partially caused by inappropriate agricultural practices.The driver mention
274、ed by the highest number of countries as having negative effects on regulating and supporting ecosystem services is changes in land and water use and management.Loss and degradation of forest and aquatic ecosystems and,in many production systems,transition to intensive production of a reduced number
275、 of species,breeds and varieties,remain major drivers of loss of BFA and ecosystem services.Countries report that the maintenance of traditional knowledge related to BFA is negatively affected by the loss of traditional lifestyles as a result of population growth,urbanization and the industrializati
276、on of agriculture and food processing,and by overexploitation and overharvesting.Policy measures and advances in science and technology are largely seen by countries as positive drivers that offer ways of reducing the negative effects of other drivers on BFA.They provide critical entry points for in
277、terventions supporting sustainable use and conservation.However,policies intended to promote the sustainable management of BFA are often weakly implemented.3.biodiversity for food and agriculture is declining Many key components of biodiversity for food and agriculture at genetic,species and ecosyst
278、em levels are in decline.Evidence suggests that the proportion of livestock breeds at risk of extinction is increasing,and that,for some crops and in some areas,plant diversity in farmers fields is decreasing and threats to diversity are increasing.Nearly a third of fish stocks are overfished and a
279、third of freshwater fish species assessed are considered threatened.Countries report that many species that contribute to vital ecosystem services,including pollinators,natural enemies of pests,soil organisms and wild food species,are in decline as a consequence of the destruction and degradation of
280、 habitats,overexploitation,pollution and other threats.Key ecosystems that deliver numerous services essential to food and agriculture,including supply of freshwater,protection against hazards and provision of habitat for species such as fish and pollinators,are declining rapidly.Knowledge of associ
281、ated biodiversity,in particular micro-organisms and invertebrates,and of its roles in the supply of ecosystem services needs to be improved.While a large amount of information has been accumulated on the characteristics of the domesticated species used in food and agriculture,many information gaps r
282、emain,particularly for species,xxxixvarieties and breeds that are not widely used commercially.Information on wild food species is also often limited.Many associated-biodiversity species have never been identified and described,particularly in the case of invertebrates and micro-organisms.Even when
283、they have,their functions within the ecosystem often remain poorly understood.Over 99 percent of bacteria and protist species remain unknown.For several types of associated biodiversity,including soil micro-organisms and those used for food processing,advances in molecular techniques and sequencing
284、technologies are facilitating characterization.Several countries have active programmes for characterizing soil micro-organisms using molecular methods.In many countries,however,gaps in terms of skills,facilities and equipment constrain opportunities to benefit from these developments.Monitoring pro
285、grammes for biodiversity for food and agriculture remain limited.Assessment and monitoring of the status and trends of BFA at national,regional and global levels are uneven and often limited.Even in developed regions,where the population trends of many species are well monitored and there are numero
286、us ongoing research projects on the links between biodiversity and food and agriculture,available data often provide only a snapshot of the status of individual species(or groups of species)in particular production systems,habitats or geographical areas.While it is clear that many components of BFA
287、are declining,lack of data often constrains the planning and prioritization of effective remedial measures.4.the use of many biodiversity-friendly practices is reported to be increasingThe sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity for food and agriculture call for approaches in which genetic
288、resources,species and ecosystems are managed in an integrated way in the context of production systems and their surroundings.In particular for many types of associated biodiversity and wild foods,sustainable use and conservation require in situ or on-farm management integrated into strategies at ec
289、osystem or landscape levels.Ex situ conservation should serve as a complementary strategy.The use of a wide range of management practices and approaches regarded as favourable to the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity for food and agriculture is reported to be increasing.Eighty percent
290、 of reporting countries indicate that one or more of the biodiversity-focused practices on which they were invited to report are being used in one or more types of production system.A much higher proportion of OECD countries than non-OECD countries report the use of these practices.However,it is dif
291、ficult to fully evaluate the extent to which these approaches are being implemented,because of the variety of scales and contexts involved and the absence of data and appropriate assessment methods.Although countries generally indicate that the impacts of the biodiversity-focused practices on divers
292、ity are perceived to be positive,they emphasize the need for more research in this regard,even for practices where research on production issues is well established.Many biodiversity-focused practices are relatively complex and require good understanding of the local ecosystem.They can be knowledge
293、intensive,context specific and provide benefits only in the relatively long term.Many countries note major challenges in up-scaling such practices,and the need to promote them through capacity-development and strengthening policy frameworks.Although efforts to conserve biodiversity for food and agri
294、culture in situ and ex situ are increasing,levels of coverage and protection are often inadequate.Crop,livestock,forest and aquatic genetic resources are conserved in situ through a variety of approaches,xlincluding promotion of their sustainable use in production systems and the establishment of pr
295、otected and other designated areas.However,many species and populations remain inadequately protected.Relatively few in situ conservation programmes are reported to explicitly target associated biodiversity and its roles in the supply of ecosystem services,although such programmes are increasing.Mos
296、t associated-biodiversity species targeted are conserved through the promotion of biodiversity-friendly production practices,the establishment of protected areas,or policy and legal measures aimed at restricting activities that damage biodiversity.Ex situ conservation efforts for BFA are increasing,
297、in particular for plant genetic resources,although many gaps in coverage remain.Much of the diversity present in minor crops,and in livestock,forest and aquatic species,is also not yet secured ex situ.Although limited,public-and private-sector ex situ conservation initiatives for targeted species of
298、 associated biodiversity have been established,with many countries,for instance,holding culture collections of micro-organisms used in agriculture or in agrifood industries.Eight percent of the wild species reported by countries to be used for food are reported to be subject to in situ conservation
299、measures and 13 percent to be conserved ex situ.5.enabling frameworks for the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity for food and agriculture remain insufficientEnabling frameworks for the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity for food and agriculture urgently need to be establi
300、shed or strengthened.Most countries have put in place legal,policy and institutional frameworks targeting the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity as a whole.Policies addressing food and agriculture are reported to be increasingly based on ecosystem,landscape and seascape approaches.Howe
301、ver,legal and policy measures explicitly targeting wild foods or components of associated biodiversity and their roles in supplying ecosystem services are not widespread.Constraints to the development and implementation of effective policy tools include a lack of awareness among policy-makers and ot
302、her stakeholders of the importance of BFA,and in particular wild foods and associated biodiversity,to livelihoods and food security.There is a large knowledge gap in terms of how existing policies are affecting these components of biodiversity and the ecosystem services they provide.Diverging intere
303、sts among stakeholders hamper the development and implementation of laws,policies and regulations,as do shortages of human and financial resources.Research on food and agricultural systems needs to become more multidisciplinary,more participatory and more focused on interactions between different co
304、mponents of biodiversity for food and agriculture.Improvements to the sustainable use and conservation of BFA are often constrained by a lack of understanding of interactions between sectors(crop and livestock production,forestry,fisheries and aquaculture),between wild and domesticated biodiversity,
305、and between the ecological and socio-economic components of production systems.Cooperation across disciplines,and greater involvement of producers and other stakeholders in research projects,can help to overcome these knowledge gaps.Improving the management of biodiversity for food and agriculture a
306、nd enhancing its contributions to ecosystem services call for better multistakeholder,cross-sectoral and international cooperation.Ensuring the sustainable use of BFA requires effective actions by relevant authorities and improved collaboration among a range of stakeholder groups(producers and their
307、 organizations,consumers,suppliers and marketers,policy-makers,and national and international governmental and non-governmental organizations)across xlithe sectors of food and agriculture and between the food and agriculture sector and the environment/nature-conservation sector.The management of BFA
308、 spans international borders and the conventional boundaries between sectors.Frameworks for cooperation at national,regional and international levels in the management of genetic resources are relatively well developed in the individual sectors of food and agriculture.Cross-sectoral cooperation and
309、multistakeholder collaborative activities specifically targeting associated biodiversity and wild foods are less widespread and need to be expanded and strengthened.What needs to be done?Securing and enhancing the multiple roles of BFA will require sustainable use and conservation of the ecosystems,
310、species and genetic diversity that compose it.For this to happen,knowledge of the roles of biodiversity in the ecological processes that underpin food and agricultural production needs to be strengthened,and used to develop management strategies that protect,restore and enhance these processes acros
311、s a range of scales.Establishing effective policy and outreach measures will be needed to support the uptake of management practices that sustainably use biodiversity to promote food and livelihood security and resilience.The country-driven process of preparing The State of the Worlds Biodiversity f
312、or Food and Agriculture has led to the identification of numerous gaps,needs and potential actions in the management of BFA.The next step is to take action.Over the years,the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture has overseen the development of global plans of action for genetic r
313、esources in the plant,animal and forest sectors.Implementation of these instruments needs to be stepped up.Consideration also needs to be given to how the international community can more effectively promote synergies in the management of all components of biodiversity,across these sectors and other
314、s,in the interests of a more sustainable food and agriculture.Part AOVERVIEW31the state OF the WORLDs biODiveRsity FOR FOOD aND aGRiCULtUReChapter 1 Introduction1.1 Biodiversity and the challenges facing global food and agricultureSupplying enough safe and nutritious food for a growing world populat
315、ion poses many chal-lenges.Among the most serious is the need to increase food production globally without under-mining the capacity of the worlds lands and seas to meet the food needs of future generations and to deliver other essential ecosystem services.Despite repeated warnings about the rapid l
316、oss of biodiversity(e.g.MEA,2005a;Steffen et al.,2015)and the mounting evidence of its key role in food security and nutrition(Bommarco,Kleijn and Potts,2013;Cunningham et al.,2013;Diaz et al.,2011;FAO and PAR,2011;Pinstrup-Andersen,2013;Rockstrm et al.,2017;Sunderland,2011;Tittonell et al.,2016;Tsc
317、harntke et al.,2012),pro-duction systems worldwide are becoming ever less diverse in terms of the ecosystems,species and within-species genetic resources they comprise(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a;Khoury et al.,2014;Macfadyen et al.,2015).In many parts of the world,biodiverse agri-cultural land
318、scapes in which cultivated land is interspersed with uncultivated areas such as woodlands,pastures and wetlands have been,or are being,replaced by large areas of monocul-ture,farmed using large quantities of external inputs such as pesticides,mineral fertilizers and fossil fuels.Livestock production
319、 is increasingly becoming geographically separated from crop production,with animals often raised in landless production units,heavily dosed with veterinary drugs and fed on feedstuffs produced elsewhere and transported over long distances(FAO,2009a,2015a;Steinfeld et al.,eds.,2010).Although high le
320、vels of crop and livestock production have been achieved,this has often come at the cost of major disruptions to the integrity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems,of declining opportunities for mutually beneficial interactions between sectors,and of the loss of components of biodiversity that prov
321、ide services such as pollination,pest control and nutrient cycling.Many grasslands are being degraded by excessive or badly managed grazing or being converted for use in crop production or for other purposes(FAO,2011a).The worlds soils and their biodiversity are beset by threats such as erosion,loss
322、 of organic carbon,nutrient imbalances,salinization and contamination with pollutants(FAO and ITPS,2015).Overfishing threatens marine resources world-wide.Changes in fishing activities by international fleets are exerting particular pressure in the waters of some developing countries,in part because
323、 of the use of“flags of convenience”(Ferrel,2005;Miller and Sumaila,2014).As of 2015,an esti-mated 33.1 percent of world fish stocks were being fished at unsustainable levels(FAO,2018a).Overfishing is also affecting many of the worlds lakes and rivers(ibid.).Over recent decades,growing global demand
324、 for fish has increasingly been met by aquacul-ture.Although fish farming offers opportunities to diversify production through polyculture or through integration with other production activ-ities,it is also becoming increasingly intensified.Some systems use non-native species,which creates the risk
325、of escapes that may harm local biodiversity(Lee and Gordon,2006;McGinnity et al.,2003).4Part AOverviewthe state OF the wOrLDs biODiversity FOr FOOD aND aGriCULtUreForest loss represents a major global threat to biodiversity and the supply of ecosystem services such as habitat provisioning,clean wate
326、r,soil conservation and protection,and carbon seques-tration(FAO,2018b).Although rates of loss have decreased(and gone into moderate reverse in some regions),global forest area continues to decline,with the early part of this century seeing net losses in sub-Saharan Africa,Latin America and Southeas
327、t Asia(ibid.).The main cause of deforest-ation in these regions is conversion to agriculture,with illegal logging,fires and fuelwood extraction also contributing(ibid.).Remaining forests are threatened by degradation and fragmentation(Haddad et al.,2015).The food and agriculture sector is a major co
328、n-tributor to greenhouse-gas emissions.For example,livestock production chains are estimated to be responsible for 14.5 percent of anthropogenic greenhouse-gas emissions(FAO,2017a;Gerber et al.,2013).At the same time,climate change poses enormous threats to food and agriculture,includ-ing through it
329、s impacts on the species and eco-systems from soil micro-organisms to coral reefs that underpin production(FAO,2015b).Loss of biodiversity in turn threatens the capacity of eco-systems used for food and agriculture to seques-ter carbon and reduces the options available for modifying production syste
330、ms in the interests of climate change mitigation and adaptation(Chen et al.,2018;Henry et al.,2009;FAO,2015b).As the outcome of the first country-driven global assessment addressing all components of biodiversity of significance to food and agricul-ture across all sectors,this report,prepared by FAO
331、 at the request of its Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,aims to shed light both on the nature of these challenges and on opportunities to address them.It identifies and assesses the contributions that biodiversity makes to the supply of ecosystem services rele-vant to food an
332、d agriculture,to the resilience of production systems,to efforts to intensify pro-duction sustainably,to the livelihoods of farmers,livestock keepers,fishers,fish farmers and forest dwellers,and to food security and nutrition.It documents what is known about the status and trends of these components
333、 of biodiversity,and identifies and assesses the impacts of major drivers of change affecting them.It also documents the state of adoption of management practices and strategies in food and agriculture that use bio-diversity or contribute to its conservation,the state of programmes addressing the characteriza-tion and conservation of components of biodiver-sity relevant to food and agriculture,and