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1、1Pilot Hydrogen Hubsfor Trialling Advanced Aviation in New Zealand3contentsExecutive Summary4Pilot Green Hydrogen Hub36Appendix54Introduction6Rationale for Green Hydrogen Hubs at New Zealand Airports12This document has been prepared on behalf of the New Zealand Government by:Ministry of Business,Inn
2、ovation&EmploymentPO Box 1473,Wellington 6140New Zealandwww.mbie.govt.nz45Executive SummaryNew Zealand has set out goals for achieving net zero GHG(greenhouse gas)emissions(other than biogenic methane)by 2050.In 2019,domestic and international aviation accounted for 6%of New Zealands total gross GHG
3、 emissions.Whilst this is a relatively small contribution compared to other sectors,if NewZealand is to achieve its net zero goal by 2050,domestic and international aviation emissions must be reduced.A range of technologies are being developed to decarbonise aviation hydrogen may play a key role in
4、a number of these technologies.Green hydrogen is seen as one of the most viable zero carbon emission fuel with potential to scale to large aircraft utilising fuel cell,gas turbine and hybrid systems.Increased momentum for hydrogen hubs at airports is largely coming from Europe,with France,Italy and
5、Germany linking into the Airbus European hydrogen hub network.In addition,other countries like Japan and Korea often seen as hydrogen pioneers,are investigating hydrogen hubs at airports.Currently,New Zealand has limited supply of green hydrogen.Green gaseous and liquidous hydrogen production will b
6、e required to enable the transition to zero emissions aviation.Whilst New Zealand has a number of challenges to overcome,by leveraging its advantages,New Zealand has a significant decarbonisation opportunity.A pilot green hydrogen hub is expected to provide local,regional,national and global benefit
7、s to New Zealand.These benefits include:attracting businesses and research and development;supporting wider social,cultural and economic development and regeneration;collaboration amongst industrial stakeholders and the opportunity to re-shape the role of employment land in cities.The pilot green hy
8、drogen hubThe pilot hub at a New Zealand airport will be defined as a physically centralised green hydrogen production facility primarily for airport use with capacity to integrate a number of hydrogen-based services whilst connecting with local community and allowing for future phased expansion.Pri
9、mary airport uses could include green hydrogen supply to airport vehicles,airport energy demand and future aircraft.The pilot hub will likely provide hydrogen for airport ground vehicles first,until hydrogen technology for air transport is developed.Preliminary studies into airport infrastructure an
10、denergy requirementsRamp up of hydrogen infrastructure deployed worldwideWidespread commercial use of hydrogen aircraftPilot H2 HubThe benefits of co-locating hydrogen productionatthe airport or near the airport will help trial,test,anddevelop clean energy technologies foraviation.It will also build
11、 a thriving clean energy ecosystem,reshape the role and function of employment land and upskillthe local labour force.Renewable Generation Ground vehicle usesResearch and DevelopmentOn-site green hydrogen productionEarly 2020sLate 2020sMid 2030sFigure 1:Pilot Hydrogen Hub67The purpose of this report
12、 is to inform the NewZealand Government of the:This report looks to support New Zealands ambition to be a worldleader in the trialling,testing and development of clean energy technologies for aviation,and in theprocess,build a thriving and innovative clean energy ecosystem in New Zealand.Ultimately,
13、the goal is to foster an advanced aviation and cleanenergy ecosystem,attract international R&D investment,and accelerate commercial uptake of newtechnology in NewZealand and globally.A pilot green hydrogen hub at an airport provides the ideal testbed to accelerate the aviation industrys transition t
14、o hydrogen technologies.With access to green hydrogen the airport stakeholders,local businessesand research bodies would be empowered to undertake research studies,trials or even to purchase hydrogen-based technologies.Part 1 of this project addresses two fundamental questions critical to this study
15、.Firstly,to identify the benefits of a hydrogen hub and its positioning at an airport.Secondly,to define what a pilot hydrogen hub at an airport could be.The Part 1 project scope provides a literature review and rationale IntroductionKey elements that could be included withinthe pilot green hydrogen
16、hubRationale behind utilising a pilot green hydrogen hub at NewZealand airport(s)Alamy89HydrogenHydrogen produced though all process forms (grey,blue,green,etc)Green HydrogenHydrogen produced through renewable methods such as electrolysis with zero carbon electricityTRLTechnology Readiness LevelMOUM
17、emorandum of UnderstandingSAFSustainable Aviation FuelLH2Liquid HydrogenIPCCInternational Panel on Climate ChangeGHGGreenhouse GasCO2-eCarbon Dioxide equivalent emissions MBIEMinistry of Business,Innovation and EmploymentIEAInternational Energy Agencyfor setting up a pilot green hydrogen hub.Assumpt
18、ions The pilot hydrogen hub shall produce green hydrogen(asdefined below,hydrogen produced through renewable methods such as electrolysis with zero carbon electricity)The pilot green hydrogen hub shall have access to 100%renewable electricity.However,New Zealands grid should not be a barrier to init
19、ial deployment of pilot hydrogen hub as grid is approximately 85%green.No detailed economic modelling to be provided.No hydrogen storage regulations have been outlined in New Zealand at time of writing this report.Stakeholder engagement is a critical part of this project.Weanticipate the hydrogen hu
20、b will be led by stakeholders with government in a supporting role.Stakeholder engagement will be led by MBIE.MBIE engaged with a range of stakeholders in government and in the hydrogen sector toexplore potential interest in this scoping study.The scope of the report has been informed by the stakeho
21、lder engagement.Stakeholders mentioned in this report have had the chance to review the report before publication to fact check it and to ensure that no confidential information has been included.DefinitionsHome to strong open export market and New Zealands Founding Documenttrusted trade partnerSupp
22、ort New Zealands ambition to be a world leader intrialling,testing,and developing clean energytechnologiesStable and cross party support for Carbon neutral byH2 government2050renewable electricity by 2030Decarbonised connectivityTreaty of Waitangi 100%renewable electricity 85%Safe,flexible,storable
23、alternativewider regional economicbenefitsFuture zero emission fuel1110Auckland iStockRationale for pilot green hydrogen hubs at New Zealand AirportsNew Zealands commitment to Net Zero1213Rationale for GreenHydrogenHubs at NewZealand Airports Background and Information on Green Hydrogen Hubs Interna
24、tional Stocktake of Green Hydrogen Hubs Rationale for Hydrogen Hubs in New Zealand Rationale for Hydrogen Hubs at Airports New Zealands Competitive and Environmental Advantages New Zealands Challenges and OpportunitiesGetty Images1415Whilst hydrogen is not the sole option to decarbonise aviation,it
25、will play a part in the wider decarbonisation effort alongside electrification and sustainable aviation fuels.Background and Information onGreen Hydrogen HubsAwareness of the effects of fossil fuels on the climate has increased,highlighting the requirement for large scale behavioural changes.This gl
26、obal recognition has sparked a drive to pursue alternate solutions to mitigate and adapt to climate change with the aim of providing a safer,more sustainable and resilient future.Nations around the world have declared climate emergencies.Inthe recent IPCC report,it is outlined that the current estim
27、ate of the remaining carbon budget from 2020 onwards for limiting warming to 1.5C with a probability of 50%has been assessed as 500 Gt CO2,and as 1150 Gt CO2 for a probability of 67%for limiting warming to 2C.Additionally,in 2019,approximately 34%of total net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions c
28、ame from the energy supply sector,24%from industry,22%from agriculture,forestry and other land use,15%from transport and 6%from buildings.1 In cognisance of a required climate response,the KyotoProtocol was developed in 2005 which committed parties to internationally binding greenhouse gas emission
29、reduction targets.The targets set by parties worldwide have become more ambitious and broader across various sectors in recent years.At the COP26 conference in Glasgow,a major outcome was achieved in setting up the International Aviation Climate Ambition Coalition.Rationale for GreenHydrogen Hubs at
30、 NewZealand Airports2 COP 26 International Aviation Climate Ambition Coalition UN Climate Change Conference(COP26)at the SEC Glasgow 2021(ukcop26.org)3 NZ and Japan H2 MOU New Zealand signs hydrogen agreement with Japan|Beehive.govt.nz 4 NZ and Singapore H2 MOU Hydrogen arrangement signed with Singa
31、pore|Beehive.govt.nz5 Germany New Zealand Green Hydrogen R&D Alliance 20 October 2021,Funding in hand for German-NZ Green Hydrogen alliance,News,University of Otago,New Zealand1 IPCC sixth assessment report IPCC_AR6_WGIII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdfThis was in response to the need for international a
32、ction on tackling aviation emissions given the global nature of the sector,of which New Zealand was a signatory.Another outcome was the Zero Emissions Vehicles Transition Council 2022 Action Plan,highlighting global desire to decarbonise ground and air transport.2 Ultimately,both the IPCC report and
33、 the COP26 outcomes highlight that more is required to drive down emissions and at an accelerated pace to mitigate further environmental deterioration.Various methods of decarbonisation have been developed,trialled,and deployed.Green hydrogen has gained strong global interest and is increasingly see
34、n as a major mitigation method to decarbonise energy and other industrial sectors.When hydrogen is generated by renewable energy sources,it is a zero carbon energy vector,which offers a safe,flexible,storable alternative to fossil fuels.Due to hydrogens gravimetric energy density,it is pursued as a
35、future zero emission alternative for long distance transport.In addition,hydrogens potential to decarbonise a range of sectors has garnered increased research and development.Innovative solutions are being developed that enable and embed hydrogen integration across sectors this has the advantage of
36、leveraging system wide decarbonisation.To enable the use of hydrogen to decarbonise infrastructure,green hydrogen production facilities are required.A hydrogen hub is a physically centralised hydrogen production facility with capacity to enable the integration of several hydrogen-based services to d
37、ecarbonise multiple systems simultaneously.This report will outline the definition of a pilot green hydrogen hub in relation to its primary integration and primary use case with a New Zealand airport.There has been progress worldwide to set up hydrogen hubs,particularly in proximity to airports.Coun
38、tries such as Germany,France,Italy,Denmark,USA,Korea,Australia and the UK have agreed memorandums of understanding with key aviation industry stakeholders including aircraft manufacturers,airport and airline operators to enable the development of hydrogen hubs.This signifies the beginning of a shift
39、 in aviation fuelling infrastructure worldwide.New Zealands recent actions include publishing a Hydrogen Vision and signing Memorandums of Understanding with Japan3 and Singapore4 for cooperation on hydrogen technology.Thishas encouraged Japanese companies such as Obiyashi to invest in pilot hydroge
40、n projects in NewZealand,such as at the Ports of Auckland.From a research and development perspective,an international green hydrogen alliance has been formed between Germany and New Zealand,with the University of Otago co-leading.5This section of the report aims to set out the rationale for setting
41、 up a pilot hydrogen hub at airport(s)in New Zealand.It includes information on why hydrogen hubs are being considered;stocktake of international hydrogen hubs at airports;the potential benefits to New Zealand and its aviation industry;and NewZealands advantages,challenges,and opportunities with reg
42、ards to green hydrogen hubs.In addition to the benefits to global aviation industry in terms of advancing the use of hydrogen in what is otherwise a hard to abate sector.1617In addition,New Zealand and South Korea have signed a Letter of Intent to progress a partnership to investigate the developmen
43、t of a large-scale liquid hydrogen supply chain from New Zealand to South Korea.The study is aimed at identifying the economic feasibility and core technologies required to develop the liquid hydrogen supply chain using renewable electricity in New Zealand with the green hydrogen imported into South
44、 Korea for distribution to a range of consumers.6This signifies increased direction and momentum behind utilising hydrogen within New Zealands infrastructure across sectors.International stocktake of Green Hydrogen HubsGlobally,the demand for green hydrogen supply and hydrogen hubs at airports is gr
45、owing.Notably,in Europe,Airbus,Air Liquide and VINCI Airports have formed a partnership to create an airport network for hydrogen aircraft.7 Airbus,one of the major aircraft manufacturers,view hydrogen as a promising zero-emissions technology to reduce the aviation industrys impact on the climate.8
46、They have announcedambitions to develop the worlds first zero-emission commercial aircraft by 2035,which includes three ZEROe concepts.The concepts are hybrid hydrogen aircraft,meaning they utilise liquid hydrogen combustion with oxygen through modified gas turbine engines and are complemented with
47、hydrogen fuel cells to generate electric power.9 For hydrogen aircraft to be a possibility for the aviation industry to decarbonise,green hydrogen supply will be required at airports.The on-site production and liquefaction of hydrogen could be a promising option for airports to meet their individual
48、 energy needs,ground transport fleet fuel needs and zero emission aircraft needs.Co-locating the hydrogen production at the airport or near the airport would eliminate the need for transport to and from off-site hydrogen production facilities,which would further reduce emissions.This would enable th
49、e possibility for airports to become future energy ecosystems with hydrogen production at their core,as illustrated in Figure 1.10Rationale for Green Hydrogen Hubs at New Zealand Airports6 NZ and Korea H2 Letter of intent New Zealand seeks to develop large-scale liquid hydrogen exports(h2-)7 Europea
50、n hydrogen hub at airport network Airbus Looks to Build European Airport Network for Hydrogen Aircraft with New Partnership-Aviation Today8 Airbus hydrogen ambition Hydrogen|Airbus9 Airbus ZEROe ZEROe-Zero emission-Airbus 10 Airbus Hydrogen Hub at Airport Concept image Tomorrows airports:future ener
51、gy ecosystems?|Airbus Beijing Daxing AirportSeoul Incheon AirportTokyo Narita AirportOsaka Kansai AirportShanghai AirportsSingapore Changi AirportKochi Cochin AirportBrisbane AirportLyon AirportParis AirportsKirkwall AirportHamburg AirportBerlin AirportMilan AirportVenice AirportCopenhagen AirportGr
52、oningen EeldeAirportCalifornia AirportsEdmonton AirportSantiago AirportFigure 2:Map of global hydrogen hub at airports examplesA snapshot of global airports that are progressing hydrogen projects.STOCKTAKE OF INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT HYDROGENHUBSAccording to the World Energy Councils 2021 working paper
53、 on national hydrogen strategies,12 countries had published hydrogen strategies and a further 19 countries were still to do so.11 These strategies outline each countrys national approach to develop a successful hydrogen economy to meet hydrogen production ambitions by a specified time.11 World Energ
54、y Council National Hydrogen Strategies published:Working Paper:Hydrogen on the Horizon:National Hydrogen Strategies|World Energy Council1819Germany is focusing on local green hydrogen production and will also be importing from the Middle East,North Africa,Australia and Chile.Significant pursuits are
55、 also being made from Asia,with Japan and South Korea being seen as hydrogen pioneers.Japan and South Korea were the first to introduce the idea of a hydrogen economy and have focused efforts on industry and transport to decarbonise at scale.Japan has projected a hydrogen requirement of 3 million to
56、nnes per year by 2030 and 20 million tonnes per year by 2050.This includes mobility targets of 200,000 fuel cell electric vehicles by 2025 and 800,000 fuel cell electric vehicles by 2030,in addition to 320 hydrogen fuelling stations by 2025 and 900 by 2030.To achieve this Japan will be relying heavi
57、ly on hydrogen imports.Japan has committed USD 2.7 billion to develop an international hydrogen supply chain.16 South Koreas industrial conglomerates have announced a combined investment of USD$36.3 billion in the hydrogen value chain by 2030.The South Korean Ministry of Trade,Industry and Energy ha
58、s reported a USD$1.07 billion investment for the following:to establish a green hydrogen production cluster in NorthJeolla Province;a blue hydrogen production cluster in Incheon;a hydrogen storage and transportation cluster in Gangwon Province;a hydrogen mobility cluster in Ulsan and a hydrogen fuel
59、 cell cluster in North Gyeongsang Province.17 China,Japan,and South Korea are leaders in fuel cell technology and are increasingly shifting towards hydrogen cars,trucks and buses,including rolling out refuelling infrastructure.Having a hydrogen supply chain offers advantages over battery electric ve
60、hicles due to similarities to existing fuel supply chains such as LNG.China,USA,Russia,and India have yet to publish national hydrogen strategies,but have been noted due to their geo-political influence.Their initial policy announcements illustrate their ambition to transition to hydrogen.China is t
61、he largest hydrogen producer in the world(mainly grey hydrogen).In 2020,Chinas hydrogen production accounted for roughly a third of the worlds total.It is estimated that China will require an estimated 130 million tonnes of hydrogen per year by 2050.18 As shown in Table 16 in the Appendix,China is a
62、lready considering hydrogen use at airports with information available for Shanghai Airport.The USA has made slow progress to advance green hydrogen deployment,largely due to resistance from their oil and gas sector.The USAs return to the Paris Agreement will likely mean growth of its blue hydrogen
63、production,as this will take advantage of their significant carbon storage capacity.Within the USA,California,Texas,and Louisiana are recognised as the major hydrogen producing states.12 CSIRO International Hydrogen Policy publications International HyResource(csiro.au)13 European green deal A Europ
64、ean Green Deal|European Commission(europa.eu)14 EU Hydrogen strategy EUR-Lex-52020DC0301-EN-EUR-Lex(europa.eu)15 EU 2030 green hydrogen targets EU 2030 Green Hydrogen Target Requires Huge Renewable Power()16 Japan Hydrogen Strategy Japans Hydrogen Industrial Strategy|Center for Strategic and Interna
65、tional Studies(csis.org)17 South Korea Hydrogen strategy Hydrogen law and regulation in South Korea|CMS Expert Guides18 China Hydrogen policy Hydrogen law and regulation in China|CMS Expert GuidesAccording to CSIRO HyResource at the time of writing this report,18 countries had released national hydr
66、ogen strategies including UK,Canada,Germany,Japan,South Korea,Chile,France,Spain and Morocco.Other countries such as Finland and Paraguay have released roadmaps and China and India have released policy guidelines,with ambitions to release national strategies in near future.12 Spain,Portugal,Hungary,
67、and Norway have national hydrogen strategies published,however no hydrogen hub at airport information was found.Out of the countries that have released national hydrogen strategies,the potential for hydrogen hubs at airports has been investigated(where information has been publicly available).Append
68、ix 5.1 compiles information regarding plans for hydrogen hubs at airports globally.Please note this is not exhaustive and is illustrated to highlight the scale of demand and potential for hydrogen at airports in the near future.A snapshot of global airports that are progressing hydrogen projects is
69、shown in Figure2.Further details about the activities at each airport can be found in Appendix,p56.INTERNATIONAL STOCKTAKE OF AIRPORT HYDROGEN HUBS SUMMARYTwenty international airports with hydrogen projects have been included in this report.However,this number is likely to increase given the intern
70、ational drive to curb greenhouse gas emissions,ambitious announcements from key stakeholders within the aviation industry and increased scrutiny over carbon emissions via international travel.Increased momentum for hydrogen hubs at airports is largely coming from Europe,with France,Italy and Germany
71、 linking into the Airbus European hydrogen hub network.Europe has set the stage for hydrogen scale-up with:The European Green Deal which outlines EUR 0.6 trillion investment to achieve no net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050 while decoupling economic growth from resource use.13 The EU Hydrogen
72、Strategy outlining key actions such as releasing a call for proposals for green airports and ports under Horizon 2020 funding and steering the development of key pilot projects that support hydrogen value chains.14 EU focus is on increasing electrolyser capacity for green hydrogen production and exp
73、anding its use to industrial sectors and transport-targeting 40 GW of electrolyser capacity by 2030.15 Norway and the Netherlands are pursuing both blue and green hydrogen.Southern Europe is prioritising the scale up of green hydrogen production,due to its high solar irradiance.Rationale for Green H
74、ydrogen Hubs at New Zealand Airports2021Significant developments in other countriesUNITED KINGDOMNo publicly available information on hydrogen hubs at airports has been found for the United Kingdom other than the hydrogen combined heat and power installation at Kirkwall Airport in Orkney.The UK view
75、s hydrogen as a significant energy vector to decarbonise the aviation industry and strives to become a centre of hydrogen aviation innovation.Outside of aviation the UK has already deployed a substantial number of hydrogen research and development projects.23 The aviation sector has already received
76、 substantial backing from the UK Government to investigate technology options.Aerospace Technology Institute,a collaboration between UKgovernment and industry has already invested 1.6 billion to fund research and development.One of the key projects,FlyZero,aims to realise zero-carbon emission commer
77、cial aviation by 2030.Hydrogen formed a significant part of the FlyZero studies,with their reports concluding that liquid hydrogen presents the most suitable fuel for commercial aviation.The FlyZero studies considered a broad range of matters including the impacts on airports,airlines and airspace a
78、nd the required changes to operations and infrastructure.ZeroAvia the company trialling and developing hydrogen powered aircraft is based in the UK and works closely with over 50 consultant partners worldwide to develop both new hydrogen aircraft and hydrogen-powered engine options for current airfr
79、ames.24 Hypoint has opened an aviation technology innovation location are further developing air-cooled fuel-cells for small-sized rotary craft such as drones and air taxis and is in partnership with ZeroAvia for larger scale engines.25 ZeroAvia plans to work with industry partners to build out the
80、refuelling ecosystems for hydrogen at airports globally.Shell is a fuelling partner,and ZeroAvia has also partnered with Octopus Hydrogen to help power its current flight-testing programme in the UK.In addition,ZeroAvia is developing one of the worlds first commercial zero-emission routes from Londo
81、n to Rotterdam the Hague Airport in conjunction with Royal Schiphol Group.ZeroAvia will begin flight-testing of its hydrogen-electric powertrain using its Dornier-228 testbed aircraft.This work,part of the HyFlyer II project,will deliver a fully certified 600kW model for aircraft of up to 19-seats i
82、n 2024 and is supported by the UK Governments Department for Business,Energy and Industry Strategy(BEIS),Aerospace Technology Institute(ATI)and Innovate UK through the ATI Programme.The company plans to scale up its technology to 40-80 seat aircraft by 2026,with ground tests of the 1.8 megawatt powe
83、r plant prototypes starting this year.26 California leads in green hydrogen efforts and plans 1,000 hydrogen refuelling stations by 2030.The USA has released a hydrogen roadmap that outlines a competitive hydrogen industry which can meet 14%of USA energy demand by 2050.19 In addition,US based airlin
84、e Delta signed a Memorandum of Understanding to become the first US based airline to collaborate with Airbus on the research and development of hydrogen-powered aircraft and supply chain infrastructure required to make the transition.20 In India,the growth of hydrogen has been driven by industry,for
85、 example the Indian Oil Corporation and Reliance is looking atblue hydrogen.Thegovernment has announced aims to utilise the countrys vast renewable resources to produce green hydrogen.As part of their upcoming hydrogen strategy,international transmission charges will be waivered for 25years for gree
86、n hydrogen and ammonia projects commissioned before 30 June 2025.21 TheIndian Oil Corporation is establishing two green hydrogen production facilities and aim to fuel 10%of their refining processes with hydrogen by 2030.They have also partnered with Cochin International Airport to build a green hydr
87、ogen plant using on-site solar to fuel local buses.Russias hydrogen strategy outlines them as a world leader in hydrogen export,targeting 20%of the global market by 2030 with 2 million tonnes per year by 2035 and 15-50 million tonnes per year by 2050.Russia is exploring all hydrogen options:blue in
88、its oil and gas regions;green in areas with hydropower;yellow with nuclear powered electrolysis.It plans to export blue hydrogen from the sub-Arctic region and green hydrogen and ammonia from the Far East,mainly aimed at export to China and Japan.22 19 USA Hydrogen policy Hydrogen law and regulation
89、 in the US|CMS Expert Guides20 USA Delta Airlines and Airbus Hydrogen fuel A Decarbonized Future for Flight:Delta and Airbus Collaborate to Pull Forward The Future ofHydrogen Fuel-Hydrogen Central(hydrogen-)21 India interim hydrogen announcement(6)Indias new interim H2 strategy will push down cost o
90、f green hydrogen by up to 75%by 2030 LinkedIn22 Russia hydrogen policy RUSSIAS HYDROGEN UP|Energy Central23 UK Hydrogen projects Hydrogen in the UK-Hydrogen UK(hydrogen-uk.org)24 ZeroAvia https:/ HyPoint facility opening https:/ Zero Avia ZeroAvia|ASL Aviation|Zero Emission Freight OperationsRationa
91、le for Green Hydrogen Hubs at New Zealand Airports2223Rationale for Hydrogen Hubs in New ZealandNew Zealand has set out goals for net zero emissions of all GHG(other than biogenic methane)by 2050.In 2019,domestic and international aviation accounted for 6%of NewZealands total gross GHG emissions.Whi
92、lst this is a relatively small contribution compared to other sectors,if New Zealand is to achieve its net zero goal by 2050,domestic and international aviation emissions must be reduced.Green hydrogen is considered by leading industry experts to be the most viable zero carbon emission fuel with pot
93、ential to scale to large aircraft utilising fuel cell,gas turbine and hybrid systems.To enable the deployment of green hydrogen systems at airports,supply of hydrogen is required.Currently,NewZealand has limited supply of green hydrogen and therefore,green gaseous andliquidous hydrogen production wi
94、ll be required to enable the transition to zero emissions aviation and reduce New Zealands aviation GHG emissions.Setting up pilot green hydrogen hubs at airports can aid the net zero transition and consequently provide additional benefits.NEW ZEALAND GHG EMISSION TARGETSThe key reason decarbonisati
95、on initiatives are being deployed worldwide is to mitigate the effects of climate change.Nations worldwide are setting greenhouse gas emission goals to enable this mitigation.NewZealand has set domestic targets under the ClimateChange Response Act to achieve:Net zero emissions of all GHG other than
96、biogenic methane by 2050 24 to 47 per cent reduction below 2017 biogenic methane emissions by 2050,including 10 per cent reduction below 2017 biogenic methane emissions by 2030In addition,New Zealand has set a Nationally Determined Contribution target to reduce net emissions by 50%of net emissions b
97、elow the gross 2005 level by 2030.31 In the Governments emissions reduction plan published in May2022,three emissions budgets were set out from 2022 to 2035 with a total emissions budget of 20 Mt CO2e,as shown in Table 1.Table 1:New Zealand Emissions Budget Budget Period-30203
98、1-35All Gases,(AR5)290 Mt CO2e305 Mt CO2e240 Mt CO2eAnnual Average72.5 Mt CO2e61 Mt CO2e48 Mt CO2eAUSTRALIAAustralia has budgeted AUD$500 million to develop seven green hydrogen hubs,a clean hydrogen certification scheme and carbon capture and storage infrastructure in line with the Australian Natio
99、nal Hydrogen Strategy launched in 2019.27 The Asian Renewable Energy Hub plans to install 26 GW of renewable solar and wind generation capacity in the Pilbara in northern Western Australia.Up to 23 GW of this energy will be used to generate green hydrogen and ammonia for export to Asia.The first 15
100、GW are expected to begin construction in 2026 with export from 2028.28 NORTH AFRICAEgypt is expected to release a hydrogen strategy in June 2022 and have five active hydrogen projects underway,including electrolysers,storage facilities and a liquid hydrogen hub at Port Said to support export.29 The
101、country aims to have 4 GW of generation capacity by 2030 with plans to convert existing gas pipelines to allow transport directly to Europe.30Morocco established the National Hydrogen Commission in 2019 with the goal of becoming a world leader in hydrogen production and export.The country was also i
102、dentified by the International Renewable Energy Agency as one of the top five countries that could emerge as global hydrogen suppliers.Morocco aims to have a 100MW electrolyser in operation by 2025 and focus on exports to Europe.26 Zero Avia ZeroAvia|ASL Aviation|Zero Emission Freight Operations27 A
103、ustralian Government announces$500m hydrogen hub and carbon capture package to support greenhouse targets(.au)28 Asian Renewable Energy Hub https:/ Egypt hydrogen strategy https:/www.power- Egypt hydrogen export https:/ New Zealands greenhouse gas emissions targets Greenhouse gas emissions targets a
104、nd reporting|Ministry for the Environment32 New Zealand emissions reduction plan Emissions budgets and the emissions reduction plan|Ministry for the EnvironmentRationale for Green Hydrogen Hubs at New Zealand Airports2425NEW ZEALAND GHG EMISSIONSNote:2019 is taken as the representative year of carbo
105、n emissions due to the impacts on the COVID-19 pandemic on New Zealand activities.In 2019,the New Zealand transport sector emitted 14,655 kt CO2-e emissions,17%of the total 81,617.06 kt CO2-e emissions across all sectors.Transportemissions are predominantly road transport,with domestic aviation acco
106、unting for 1,025.06 kt CO2-e emitted,7%of the total reportedtransport emissions and 1%of total emissions.33 Figure 3 illustrates New Zealands emissions contributions by sector in 2019.Energy 23.61%Waste 4.06%Transport 17.96%Agriculture 48.42%Industrial Processes 5.96%Figure 3:New Zealands emissions
107、by sector in 2019%ACCOUNTING FOR INTERNATIONAL CARBON EMISSIONSThe IPCC guidelines for the preparation of greenhouse gas inventories and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)reporting guidelines outline that emissions from international aviation and maritime transport,kno
108、wn as international bunker fuel emissions,should be calculated as part of the national greenhouse gas inventories of parties,but should be excluded from national totals and reported separately.34In 2019,New Zealands total international bunker fuel greenhouse gas emissions were 4,912.4 kt CO2-e with
109、international aviation contributing 79.2%of this with 3,893.6 kt CO2-e emissions.International aviation emissions are 3.8 times greater than domestic aviation emissions.35 When considering domestic and international aviation emissions together,they account for 6%of New Zealands total gross greenhous
110、e gas emissions.36NEW ZEALAND AIRLINE GHG EMISSIONSAir New Zealand is the largest airline operator in New Zealand.Operating domestic and international flights.When considering Air NewZealand emissions in 2019:37 Air New Zealands emissions in 2019 equalled 3.9 tonnes CO2.As illustrated by Air New Zea
111、lands emissions spread,air transport is the largest contributor to aviation emissions.Therefore,a method to decarbonise air transport is required to tackle aviation GHG emissions.DECARBONISATION PATHWAY GREEN HYDROGENThe Aerospace Technology Institute led a project called FlyZero,which produced arep
112、ort investigating zero-carbon emission commercial flight.The report published in March 2022,concluded that green liquid hydrogen is the most viable zero carbon emission fuel with potential to scale to large aircraft utilising fuel cell,gas turbine and hybrid systems.38 This is due to liquid hydrogen
113、 being an energy dense,lightweight,zero carbon emission fuel.By deploying hydrogen production for airport use,whether that is for air transport,airport ground transport or airport energy requirements as a direct effect decreases airport,airline,and in future,domestic and international aviation carbo
114、n emissions.To enable the deployment of green hydrogen systems at airports,supply of green hydrogen is required.Currently,New Zealand has limited supply of green hydrogen and therefore,green gaseous and liquidous hydrogen production will be required to enable the transition to zero emissions aviatio
115、n and reduce NewZealands aviation GHG emissions.33 New Zealand emissions report NZs Interactive Emissions Tracker(mfe.govt.nz)34 Emissions reporting guidelines Emissions from fuels used for international aviation and maritime transport|UNFCCC35 New Zealand energy sector greenhouse gas emissions|Mini
116、stry of Business,Innovation&Employment(mbie.govt.nz)36 New Zealand GHG Inventory 1990-2020 New Zealands Greenhouse Gas Inventory 19902020|Ministry for the Environment34 37 https:/p- FlyZero executive summary FZO-ALL-REP-0003-FlyZero-Executive-Summary.pdf(ati.org.uk)Rationale for Green Hydrogen Hubs
117、at New Zealand AirportsRoad transport 16.07%Domestic Aviation 1.26%Shipping 0.41%Other 0.05%Rail transport 0.17%83.7%emissions are accounted via their international flights16%emissions are accounted via their domestic flights0.3%emissions are accounted via their ground operations include aircraft op
118、erating on ground such as taxiing and maintenance2627Setting up pilot green hydrogen hubs at airports can aid the transition to net zero by kick-starting the uptake of hydrogen-based technologies.POTENTIAL NZ AVIATION HYDROGEN DEMANDIn 2019,domestic aviation contributed 1,025 kt CO2-e and internatio
119、nal aviation contributed 3,893.6 kt CO2-e.This equates to approximately 1.67 million tonnes of jet fuel and if replaced with hydrogen would require a total of roughly 590,000 tonnes hydrogen.To produce this amount of hydrogen(with todays technology),an electrolyser installation of 3,155 MWe would be
120、 required to produce all NZ Aviation hydrogen for 2019.This calculation assumes the electrolyser operates at 72%efficiency with 100%capacity factor.Please note this value is for reference,there are other decarbonisation options that will aid the drive to emissions free aviation.Wider benefits of Hyd
121、rogen HubsIn addition to the key driver of tackling climate change by decarbonising existing infrastructure,other issues can be solved by implementing green hydrogen hubs.These include:ECONOMIC Security of supply-economic resilience of domestic fuel supply.Lack of cooperation between key stakeholder
122、s across sectors The capability for hydrogen to be utilised across multiple end uses creates an opportunity for collaboration and cooperation between companies and investors.Private investor hesitation in hydrogen.Continued investment and promotion of national direction in renewables.SOCIALUnemploym
123、ent and up skilling Greater educational attainment and employment opportunities.POLITICAL International cooperation uncertainties Deployment of a green hydrogen hub signifies to the international community that New Zealand sees hydrogen as a part of the solution for aviation.International carbon emi
124、ssions accounting Regain public trust Public protest at lack of action with regards to climate mitigations.Continue New Zealand green credentials IPCC highlighted carbon emissions per capita not great in New Zealand.Show a path to promote a environmentally conscious country.TECHNICALCollaboration be
125、tween industry and academia to innovative follow-on decarbonisation solutions.ENVIRONMENTALImprove local air quality Reduced particulate matter being emitted will improve the air quality of local area which consequently improves the health and well-being of the local community.39 Rationale for Green
126、 Hydrogen Hubs at New Zealand AirportsRationale for Hydrogen Hubs at AirportsThe largest airports across New Zealand already serve as a hub of business activity for their region.Their existing infrastructure and connectivity mean they are well suited to accommodate a pilot green hydrogen hub and to
127、initiate the transition for the aviation sector and the local region.A range of technologies are being developed to solve the zero-emissions aviation challenge.Hydrogen plays a key role in a number of these technologies.An airport pilot hub(s)would play a vital role in upskilling the aviation workfo
128、rce to safely handle hydrogen on airport.Ground service vehicles and back-up power offer an immediate opportunity to decarbonise airport operations,with aircraft uses expected to grow over the medium and long-term.ESTABLISHED HUBS OF ACTIVITY AND BUSINESSAirports and their surrounding developments p
129、rovide the ideal environment to develop a hydrogen hub.Serving commercial airlines and cargo operators the larger airports have well established transport and utilities infrastructure in place,minimising the capital expenditure required for a hydrogen hub.They are typically well connected to a publi
130、c transport network,with overnight bus storage or refuelling stations creating the opportunity for hydrogen vehicles.Local industrial sites adjacent to the larger airports are also common,with a wide variety of businesses that could benefit from the availability of hydrogen.As the focal point of loc
131、al business activity,larger airports have significant influence over the businesses in their local vicinity.Smaller cargo or logistics companies associated with the airport would likely struggle to fund a transition to hydrogen or an equivalent technology on their own,but with an airport hub leading
132、 the way,others could take up the opportunity.Witha broad range of activities in close proximity to the airport there is a likely baseline demand for the hydrogen to support the investment.SIGNIFICANT STUDIES INTO HYDROGEN BY THE SECTORWith regards to clean aviation,global research studies indicate
133、several ways hydrogen could be employed to power aircraft.Airbus and Boeing are undertaking significant research into its application for powered flight.Airbus recently announced as part of their ZEROe project that they expected to achieve a mature technology readiness level for a hydrogen-combustio
134、n propulsion system by 2025.40On page 16 of this report,the significant research and investments taking place around the world is highlighted with increasing momentum as more nations and industries outline their environmental targets.Collaborations between governments,airlines,airports,energy provid
135、ers are increasingly common to consider the impacts of the new technology across the industry.New Zealand has already developed a reputation for being at the forefront of new sustainable technologies.In 2008,the national carrier Air New Zealand flew one of the worlds first test flights powered by bi
136、ofuels41.40 ZEROe Zero emission Airbus39 Air quality consequences Health consequences of air pollution on populations(who.int)2829New Zealands Competitive and Environmental AdvantagesNew Zealand has several competitive and environmental advantages when it comestothedeployment of a green hydrogen hub
137、 as demonstrated in Table 2 below.AdvantageRationale,descriptionRenewable electricity access,growth and costNZ electricity grid make upNew Zealands grid electricity is largely produced from renewable energy sources.In 2021,New Zealand net grid generation was from an estimated 85%renewable sources.Th
138、e largest grid contributions were from hydro,57%,geothermal,18%,and wind 6%.42 This is advantageous as there is already readily available renewable electricity sources which can enable green hydrogen production via the national grid.This will accelerate deployment of hydrogen hubs or expansion upon
139、in future.Future renewable grid electricity make upNew Zealand currently aims to transition to a 100%renewable electricity grid by 2035.43 However,more recent announcements aim for 100%renewables by 2030.44 Therefore,any hydrogen hub connected to the grid after 2030 should be producing green hydroge
140、n.In addition,the forecasted growth of electrical generation will be from solar and wind due to their continued cost reductions.This presents an opportunity for hydrogen to aid the curtailment issues of variable renewable generation as hydrogen production could take advantage of the curtailment cost
141、 offerings.Grid electricity costsNew Zealand grid wholesale costs for Q1 2022 were on average approximately 18.5 US c/kWh.This issimilar to Australia with 17.6 US c/kWh but considerably lower than the OECD average cost of 24.2 US c/kWh.45 However,within New Zealand there is regional variation relati
142、ve to the proximity of generation and consumer nodes which affects operating costs of hydrogen production.With continued cost reductions in New Zealand for renewable energy generation technologies,as well as scaling up of hydrogen production,the IEA estimate the cost of producing hydrogen from renew
143、able energy could fall by 30%by 2030.46Industrial stakeholder supportMajor New Zealand industrial stakeholders have set targets to decarbonise,including:New Zealands national airline,Air New Zealand,which has approximately 80%47 market share of domestic aviation,has committed to being net zero by 20
144、50 and has stated intent to start flying zero-emission aircraft in the next five years.48 Air New Zealand were the second airline globally to announce ambitious science-based emissions reduction targets.49The Ministry of Transport have confirmed the decision to participate in the Carbon Offsetting a
145、nd Reduction Scheme for International Aviation(CORSIA)by the ICAO.This will be enforced by the Civil Aviation Bill introduced to parliament in 2021 which will require all airlines to produce emissions reports and monitoring plans that include requirements for offsets of carbon emissions.50 In additi
146、on,Christchurch Airport and Hamburg Airport have an MoU to prepare for the future use of green hydrogen as an emission free energy carrier in aviation,promoting hydrogen use and exploit joint synergies.Support from industrial stakeholders is critical to fully realise the benefits of hydrogen hubs in
147、 NewZealand.Existing infrastructureNew Zealand has existing gas transmission and distribution pipelines which could be retrofitted to enable transport of green hydrogen or allow injection of green hydrogen to allow gas blends decarbonising its gas network.Noting that these pipelines are a combinatio
148、n of polyethylene and steel,the latter of which is not suitable for delivering hydrogen due to degradation by embrittlement.The gas pipeline distribution network is only in the North Island,with no reticulated piping in the South Island.In addition,existing hydrogen production facilities can help in
149、crease hydrogen resilience of any newly deployed hub.More recently they have established a Memorandum of Understanding(MoU)with Airbus,one of the worlds leading aircraft manufacturers,to investigate Hydrogen technologies.The airline is therefore well positioned to be early adopters of the technology
150、 as it progresses to market.HYDROGEN IS ONE OF MANY DECARBONISINGSOLUTIONS FOR AVIATIONWhilst the focus of this report is specifically on the hydrogen hubs and their potential applications,it is important to note that a range of fuel/power technologies are under consideration by the aviation industr
151、y with the goal of minimising the carbon emissions.Battery technologies have made significant developments in recent years and present a strong contender for the short-haul market.In 2020,the New Zealand regional airline Sounds Air signed a letter of intent with Heart Aerospace to purchase their 19-
152、seater electric aircraft(ES-19),a significant step towards a net zero future.There are however challenges for the battery aircraft to overcome.Battery lifecycles and recharging times are of particular focus for airlines.Replacement and responsible disposal of the batteries will need to be factored i
153、nto the long-term operating costs.Equally,for airlines operating aircraft on 2 or more legs in a day,the time on ground should be kept to a minimum.With battery recharging expected to require more time than standard refuelling,airlines may need to adjust their route planning or purchase additional a
154、ircraft compared to other power types such as hydrogen.Bio Sustainable Aviation Fuels(SAF)are blended into the JET A1 fuel by airlines today,retaining the existing engine systems whilst reducing their carbon emissions.Demand for SAFs is expected to grow significantly over the next decade,providing a
155、irlines with a proven way to reduce their emissions for the long-haul market until other technologies become available.However,this technology does still result in carbon emissions as opposed to the preferred zero emissions solution.When considering the broader aviation market uptake,production rate
156、s and land intensity present considerable barriers for this technology to overcome.Air New Zealand and MBIE recently signed a memorandum of understanding to run a request for proposal process inviting industry leaders to demonstrate the feasibility of operating a SAF plant at a commercial scale.Hydr
157、ogen,however,is currently viewed by many in the industry as critical to the future of a net zero aviation industry.Combined with carbon capture technologies,green hydrogen has the potential to form Synthetic SAFs that can be blended into the fuels used by current aircraft engine technology.Hydrogen
158、fuel cell technology is under investigation by some companies but there are a number of technical challenges to overcome that limit its potential for larger commercial aircraft.Hydrogen combustion engines require significant research and development but current industry reports suggest liquid hydrog
159、en is the optimum form for commercial aviation.The extremely low temperatures required to maintain the hydrogen in a liquid state do however present significant engineering challenges for the industry to overcome.41 Air New Zealand Climate Leaders CoalitionRationale for Green Hydrogen Hubs at New Ze
160、aland Airports42 New Zealand Electricity grid make up MBIE Electricity statistics|Ministry of Business,Innovation&Employment(mbie.govt.nz)43 New Zealand 2035 zero carbon grid target New Zealand Aims to Transition to 100%Renewables by 2035()44 New Zealand 2030 zero carbon grid announcement Election 2
161、020:Labour pledges 100 per cent renewable power by 2030|Stuff.co.nz45 Energy Council of Australia International Energy Price Comparison https:/.au/news/international-electricity-price-comparisons/46 IEA The Future of Hydrogen report Analysis47 Air New Zealand domestic aviation market share AIR(Air N
162、ew Zealand Ltd)()48 Air New Zealand zero emissions aircraft aims Air New Zealand aiming to fly zero emissions aircraft in five years time|RNZ News 49 https:/www.airnewzealand.co.nz/press-release-2022-airnz-second-airline-globally-to-announce-ambitious-science-based-emissions-reduction-target 50 Mini
163、stry of Transport CORSIA CORSIA|Ministry of Transport3031Additionally,there are several hydrogen installations operating in New Zealand already producing green hydrogen and some that are to be completed in the near future.Thisoffers opportunity for these projects to act as companion projects with po
164、tential integration and security of supply for any pilot green hydrogen hub deployed at airports.Figure 9 in the appendices illustrates the existing location of hydrogen projects in New Zealand.Notably,the following projects and installations are of relevance for the pilot green hydrogen hub at airp
165、ort(s).AIR NEW ZEALAND/AIRBUSAirbus and Air New Zealand have launched a partnership agreement to analyse the impact hydrogen-powered aircraft may have on its network,operations and infrastructure.Meanwhile,Airbus will share expected aircraft performance and ground operations characteristics to suppo
166、rt Air New Zealand in its decarbonisation roadmap.The goal of the study is to prepare Air New Zealand to begin operating hydrogen-powered aircraft from 2030.56PORTS OF AUCKLANDThe Ports of Auckland installed a pilot sized hydrogen electrolyser to demonstrate the technology on a small scale.Through a
167、 partnership with Auckland Transport hydrogen is produced for fuel cell buses as part of a 2-year trial.The electrolyser acts as a hub to refuel port-based vehicles such as trucks and container handling equipment.In addition,the hydrogen produced will be available for Hyundais Xcient fuel cell truck
168、s for freight handling.57 HIRINGA/BALANCE AGRI-NUTRIENTS HYDROGEN HUBHiringa and Ballance Agri-nutrients have proposed a renewable energy hydrogen hub at Ballances Kapuni ammonia-urea plant with the aim to fuel heavy transport.There is a plan to construct up to four large wind turbines to supply ren
169、ewable energy to the Kapuni site and power electrolysers to produce hydrogen as the feedstock to the ammonia-urea plant or for supply as zero-emission transport fuel.58 TUAROPAKI TRUST/OBIYASHI CORPORATION MOKAI Halcyon Power is a joint venture between Tuaropaki Trust and Obayashi Corporation that d
170、eveloped the first operational green hydrogen electrolyser in Taup.The plant is adjacent to the Tuaropaki geothermal power station and opened in 2021 with the ability to produce 180 tonnes of green hydrogen per year.HIRINGA FUELLING STATIONSHiringa is building a green hydrogen production and refuell
171、ing network across New Zealand focused on the heavy transport sector.The first four stations are to be located in Hamilton,Palmerston North,Auckland and Tauranga,and are due to be operational in 2022.An additional 20 stations are planned to be operational by 2026.The network can provide hydrogen for
172、 multiple applications including aviation.Initial locations have been prioritised to provide aggregation of suitable fleets in industrial complexes,commercial&logistics hubs and ability to service ports and airports.59 NZ AVIATION HYDROGEN CONSORTIUMAn MoU has been agreed between Airbus,AirNew Zeala
173、nd,Christchurch Airport,Fabrum,Hiringa and Fortescue Future Industries to progress hydrogen use at NZ Airports.Table 2,continued below.AdvantageRationale,descriptionFuture infrastructureLarge scale green hydrogen production plant of 600MW with a primary export use planned in the SouthIsland by South
174、ern Green Hydrogen.An initiative set up between Meridian and Contact Energy.Ifthis comes to fruition,it could provide additional hydrogen supply to hydrogen hubs around New Zealand.Increasing the resilience of New Zealands green hydrogen network.51Previous Renewable experience New Zealand has histor
175、y of successfully developing renewable resource and energy projects such as the hydrogen projects mentioned on the next page.As well as other renewables projects,the New Zealand government launched Ara Ake in July 2020,focused on developing green hydrogen solutions,offshore wind and carbon capture a
176、nd storage.Ara Ake aims to support energy innovators to ensure new energy solutions are successfully deployed.New Zealands international statusNew Zealand is a trusted international trading partner.New Zealand is,and is seen as,a clean and green country.This image has significant export value and ou
177、r environmental image is a key driver of the value of goods and services in the international marketplace.Thisprovides us with an ability to attract international research and funding into renewables projects.The New Zealand Government has recognised the benefits of leveraging its competitive advant
178、age early on and has recognised hydrogen as a key part of the New Zealand energy future.The government has developed the Vision for Hydrogen in New Zealand and commissioned hydrogen scenarios from which a Hydrogen Roadmap will be developed.The government is also developing regulatory policy for hydr
179、ogen to enable the safe and consistent deployment of hydrogen projects.This commitment has earned NewZealand international recognition which is reflected by international agreements signed with Japan,SouthKorea and Singapore.New Zealand has previously signalled its intent to decarbonise and utilise
180、hydrogen within its future energy economy.This report will provide a strong signal to the aviation industry and international audience that NewZealand has serious intent to become a world leader in the development of a future hydrogen economy.New Zealand demonstrates excellence in aerospace engineer
181、ing,and relative regulatory agility for aerospace.New Zealand airports also have the capability and capacity for this infrastructure.There are several existing projects for decarbonising aviation in New Zealand,with Meridians ElectricAir partnership launching the countrys first electric aircraft fro
182、m Christchurch Airport and Boeing and Kitty Hawks Coraautonomous air taxi under development with agreement to launch operations in Christchurch.In addition,the New Zealand Space Agency have undertaken Aerospace Integration Trials creating an innovative ecosystem enabling companies to grow such as Wi
183、sk and Aeronavics.52 Commitment to net zeroAs mentioned on p23,New Zealand has committed to reaching a carbon neutral economy by 2050.This will help to drive interest and investment into hydrogen,including pilot studies such as this as we movetowards this clean,green future.EECA commission quarterly
184、 surveys of the public opinions on climate change.These surveys highlight strong support from the public for climate change action from the government and businesses,as well as a willingness to make personal choices that reduce the effects of climate change.The most recent survey from Q4 2021 shows
185、74%of the population believe the Government needs to do more to help reduce NewZealands impact on the environment and 78%believe the government should provide incentives to encourage behaviours that protect the environment.This is consistent with 73%of the population who are willing to make changes
186、to their personal behaviour to reduce impact on the climate.53There is strong support from iwi to act towards climate change with some such as Ngi Tahu developing climate change strategies that outline the direction and actions that the iwi will take.54 The Iwi Chairs forum is a nationwide meeting o
187、f iwi representatives to coordinate collective action on issues and advocate for change.Within this group there is a Climate Change Group which has called for a bigger and faster response from government and has committed to supporting iwi to transition away from a fossil fuel-based economy in a jus
188、t way.5551 Southern Green Opportunity Southern Green Hydrogen 52 MBIE Airspace Integration Trials Airspace Integration Trials|Ministry of Business,Innovation&Employment(mbie.govt.nz)53 EECA Consumer Monitor https:/www.eeca.govt.nz/assets/EECA-Resources/Research-papers-guides/EECA-consumer-monitor-Q2
189、-2122.pdf 54 Te thu ir te whriki Climate Change Strategy https:/ngaitahu.iwi.nz/environment/policy/climate-change-strategy/55 Iwi leaders to take action on climate change https:/ Air New Zealand and Airbus Project Airbus and Air New Zealand to study potential for hydrogen-powered aircraft|Airbus57 P
190、orts of Auckladn hydrogen facility https:/www.poal.co.nz/media/ports-of-auckland-to-build-auckland%E2%80%99s-first-hydrogen-production-and-refuelling-facility 58 Hiringa and Balance hydrogen hub project59 Hiringa refueling network Hydrogen Refuelling Network|Hiringa Energy 2022Rationale for Green Hy
191、drogen Hubs at New Zealand Airports3233Table 3,continued below.AdvantageChallengeOpportunity National electrical infrastructure Continued Aviation industry growth targets.New Zealand is reliant on air transport to connect its regions.Sufficient renewable generation is required to meet zero emissions
192、 connectivity targets across regions including regions that are currently not connected.There is an imbalance in the energy production and consumption nodes between the North and the South Island.The North Island consumes 63%of electricity in the country while the South Island consumes 37%.Electrici
193、ty cost variation across the year,in the period July 2021 to May 2022,prices in New Zealand fluctuate between by approximately 50$/MWh to 300$/MWh.If a direct connection to decentralised renewable generation is available this will aid electricity pricing volatility.Couple decarbonisation of heat,ind
194、ustrial and transport alongside electrical grid decarbonisation.Utilise curtailment of future renewable generation sources to optimise hydrogen cost effectiveness.Ensure additional domestic flight routes are enabled by zero emissions aircraft.Stakeholder engagement Public perception of hydrogen.Stro
195、ng communityengagement will be required to ensuresuccessful deployment of hubs at scale.Lack of stakeholder confidence in new technologyparticularly at scale.By deploying pilotscale hubs initially or tapping into lessons from global pilot hubs,will accelerate confidence in the technology.Communicate
196、 to the public the Governments plans to tackle the effects of climate change.Gain public trust.Establish stakeholder confidence in new technology by enabling pilot green hydrogen hub deployment and disseminating lessons learnt.Engagement with the international community for developing solutions will
197、 provide better access to global lessons learnt.Collaboration with Mori and iwi.Collaboration/systems integration Lack of integration with other use case (e.g.local industry or transport)to generate demand.A hydrogen economy being established in the medium term will be required.Building strong inter
198、national partnerships.Foster collaboration amongst stakeholders by coupling hydrogen use cases.Opportunity to signify to the international community that New Zealand sees hydrogen as key energy element in their future.Hydrogen technology Commercial viability of hydrogen hub technologies compared wit
199、h existing infrastructure.Cost reductions and efficiency improvements of key technology required to be cost competitive.Technology Readiness Level of technologies associated with liquid hydrogen and hydrogen derived fuels.System integration with airport side needs.Provide a platform for novel hydrog
200、en technology development.Opportunity to cooperate with international partners to accelerate green hydrogen development to make hydrogen cost effective and enable the sharing of knowledge and bestpractices.Learn from hydrogen hubs at airports from around the world.Skills and resource Lack of skilled
201、 workforce and resources to construct hydrogen hubs at speed.Note this is a challenge across all novel decarbonisation technologies.Up-skill workforce for future energy system early.New Zealands Challenges and OpportunitiesNew Zealand will need to overcome challenges to achieve a safe,sustainable an
202、d resilient future energy system.In the context of establishing green hydrogen hub(s)at airport(s)there are specific challenges that should be addressed.The challenges outlined require mitigation to successfully develop an at-scale hydrogen economy,to support New Zealand and its aviation sector to a
203、chieve their decarbonisation goals.These challenges are outlined at a high level below.It is assumed this table relates to a full scale hydrogen hub(s),which a pilot hub will help drive a transition to.Table 3:Challenges and Opportunities to deploying green hydrogen hubs at New Zealand AirportsAdvan
204、tageChallengeOpportunity Monetary investment First mover risk.Methods available to stimulate private and public investment in new technologies to mitigate first mover risk.Lack of investor confidence in future of hydrogen hubs.Government can help grow investor confidence by outlining a national ener
205、gy strategyand a national hydrogen strategy.Public funding routes for hydrogen hub design and development to stimulate private investment.Provide methods to stimulate investment in newtechnologies to mitigate first mover risk.Provide clear strategy and investment opportunities for key stakeholders.P
206、rovide public funding routes for hydrogen hub design and development to stimulate privateinvestment.Hydrogen standards and regulations Lack of safety,regulatory or policy framework for Hydrogen which will create barriers to certificationand consenting.This is a challenge that is currently being tack
207、led by other countries.New Zealand has the opportunity to provide leadership with regards to hydrogen standards and regulations for hydrogen.Provide a clear framework for hydrogen safety,regulations and policy.Provide global leadership on hydrogen standardsand regulations.National electrical infrast
208、ructure Additional renewable electricity generation deployment to keep up with demand for green hydrogen hubs.Electricity use in New Zealand is forecast to increase as we look to achieve our goals of a carbon neutral economy by 2050.Additional renewable electricity generation deployment to keep up w
209、ith demand for green hydrogen hubs.Electricity use in New Zealand is forecast to increase as we look to achieve our goals of a carbon neutral economy by 2050.National electrical grid infrastructure development to ensure sufficient capacities are available at hydrogen hub locations to enable greenhyd
210、rogenproduction.Couple decarbonisation of heat,industrial and transport alongside electrical grid decarbonisation.Utilise curtailment of future renewable generation sources to optimise hydrogen costeffectiveness.Ensure additional domestic flight routes are enabled by zero emissions aircraft.Rational
211、e for Green Hydrogen Hubs at New Zealand Airports3435The relation between these projects is shown in Figure 4 below.In addition to the opportunities sourced from the challenges described in Table 3,additional opportunities are detailed below:Closure of the Marsden Point refinery means100%of liquid f
212、uel will be imported.There is an opportunity to displace some ofthis using domestically produced green hydrogen.Provide leadership in tackling international bunker fuel emissions.Expand use cases of hydrogen.Launch domestic hydrogen flight route.Promote New Zealands green credentials and commitment
213、to be an environmentally conscious country.Improve local air quality.Allows New Zealand the leadership platform to enter into the global supply chain where the countrys market size might otherwise preclude access to purchase early adoption novel propulsion aircraft.Alignment with wider government wo
214、rk and goalsThe government action plan to address climate change and achieve the goal of net zero emissions by 2050 is legislated by the Climate Change Response(Zero Carbon)Amendment Bill 2019.58 This acts as the overarching document to guide decarbonisation in New Zealand and informs policy develop
215、ment by ministries.The Ministry of Business,Innovation and Employment has jurisdiction over energy and is in the process of developing several policies to promote hydrogen and zero-carbon energy in New Zealand.MBIE completed the Vision of Hydrogen in NewZealand Green Paper in 2019 which identified t
216、he opportunities for hydrogen in transport,industry,electricity generation and storage.MBIEare also developing a Hydrogen Roadmap that will outline the steps to be taken to realise this vision and is undertaking regulatory review to understand what regulation needs to be in place to safely enable hy
217、drogen development.MBIE is also undertaking or supporting several projects that are continuing to advance the development of hydrogen in New Zealand,which includes this report on hydrogen hubs in airports.The relation between these projects is shown in Figure 4 opposite.Figure 4:New Zealand Governme
218、nt work on hydrogen58 Climate Change Response(Zero Carbon)Amendment Bill 2019 https:/www.parliament.nz/en/pb/bills-and-laws/bills-proposed-laws/document/BILL_87861/climate-change-response-zero-carbon-amendment-bill Rationale for Green Hydrogen Hubs at New Zealand AirportsClimate Change Response(Zero
219、 Carbon)Amendment BillLegislationA Vision for Hydrogen New ZealandEmissions Reduction PlanHydrogen Regulatory ReviewHydrogen Roadmap(future)Hydrogen Hubs at New Zealand AirportsAra Ake research and projectsHydrogen ScenariosAir NZ SAF plant feasibility studyGerman-NZ research partnershipClimate Inno
220、vation PlatformPolicyProjectsMBIE3637Pilot Green HydrogenHub Definition Benefits and Outcomes of a Pilot System Element Options System Element Selection for Pilot Hydrogen Hub Considerations for Scale Up of a Hydrogen Hub at an Airport(s)Alamy3839Benefits and outcomes of a pilotDeploying green hydro
221、gen hubs at pilot scale will support New Zealands ambition to be a world leader in trialling,testing,and developing clean energy technologies for aviation,and in the process,build a thriving and innovative clean energy ecosystem.It will also create opportunities for wider social and economic benefit
222、s to be realised across the pilot locations.Economic development is at the forefront of most local planning policies across NewZealand,setting out the strategic direction for long-term sustainable growth of industries and in turn,the growth of jobs.Introducing hydrogen hubs at pilot airports creates
223、 an opportunity to re-shape the role and function of employment land in cities across New Zealand,particularly for precincts near airports.For industries likely to be the end users of hydrogen,such as manufacturing,electricity,gas and waste services,construction and transport,postal and warehousing,
224、it will strengthen economic links to pilot airports and assist in decarbonising the supply chain,paving the way for a resilient future.It also brings ample opportunities for industry diversificationand attraction of entrepreneurs and start-ups seeking reliable and renewable energy.Building on the op
225、portunities for economic development,hydrogen hubs can influence growth in research and development.Deploying green hydrogen at pilot airports creates the opportunity for wider regional economic benefits including attracting investment in the generation of new ideas and research,further exposing ind
226、ustries in pilot locations to new markets.Opportunities for research and development may be realised in pilot locations with high contribution to regional GDP,forecast industry growth,existing clusters and links to universities.Some pilot airport locations face constraints limiting growth or expansi
227、on opportunities.As a result,the ability to leverage investment in research and development associated with hydrogen hubs will need to be realised through clustering or intensification of existing land uses.There are benefits associated with job creation and upskilling the local labour force,support
228、ing wider economic and social development of the region.The delivery of hydrogen hubs at pilot locations will likely generate a diverse mix of jobs from ground operation to technology advancement,creating equal opportunities for the skilled and unskilled population.Cities in New Zealand with project
229、ed population and job growth and long-term access to a strong labour force catchment are well positioned to respond to increased demand for labour.Deploying hydrogen hubs at pilot locations will introduce diverse job types to the pilot locations.Thiswill be particularly relevant for economies made u
230、p of a labour force with transferable skills.A benefit for other pilot locations is the opportunity for the population currently employed in airport operations to retrain or upskill.Investing in retraining or upskilling will contribute to a resilient and successful hydrogen hub and requires programm
231、es and qualifications for training and development.Pilot Green Hydrogen HubDefinitionThe aim of the pilot hydrogen hub is to enable NewZealand and its airports/aviation industry to achieve their decarbonisation goals by using low greenhouse gas emissions hydrogen and hydrogen derivatives,including s
232、ynthetic fuels.In addition,New Zealand can attract R&D from overseas by creating an ecosystem for innovation.This will involve substituting novel technologies for existing carbon-emitting infrastructure primarily within the airport space.The hub also aims to enable flexibility to decarbonise several
233、 other end uses outside of the airport boundary through whole systems integration in future expansions.Recognising these aims,the pilot New Zealand airport hydrogen hub will be defined as a physically centralised green hydrogen production facility primarily for airport use with capacity to integrate
234、 a number of hydrogen-based services whilst connecting with local community and allowing for future phased expansion.Primary airport uses can include green hydrogen supply to airport vehicles,airport energy demand and future aircraft.Thepilot hub could provide hydrogen for airport ground vehicles fi
235、rst,until hydrogen technology for air transport is developed.Hydrogen services could include:Green hydrogen supply to industrial processing facilities,gasnetwork injection,gas fired power station decarbonisation,ground transport re-fuelling(cars,buses,heavy duty,logistics).The ability to connect wit
236、h other national and international hydrogen hubs via business enterprise,academic research,and industry workforce up-skilling.This section of the report defines what a pilot green hydrogen hub at an airport(s)is in the context of New Zealand,the benefits of a pilot,the system element options and lik
237、ely pilot green hydrogen hub elements.1617International stocktake of Green Hydrogen HubsGlobally,the demand for green hydrogen supply and hydrogen hubs at airports is growing.Notably,in Europe,Airbus,Air Liquide,and VINCI Airports have formed a partnership to create an airport network for hydrogen a
238、ircraft.7 Airbus,one of the major aircraft manufacturers,view hydrogen as a promising zero-emissions technology to reduce the aviation industrys impact on the climate.8?by 2035,which includes three ZEROe concepts.The concepts are hybrid hydrogen aircraft,meaning they utilise liquid hydrogen combusti
239、on with oxygen through?with hydrogen fuel cells to generate electric power.9 For hydrogen aircraft to be a possibility for the aviation industry to decarbonise,green hydrogen supply will be required at airports.The on-site production and liquefaction of hydrogen could be a promising option for airpo
240、rts to meet their individual energy needs,ground transport?Co-locating the hydrogen production at the airport or near the airport would eliminate the need for transport to and from off-site hydrogen production facilities,which would further reduce emissions.This would enable the possibility for airp
241、orts to become future energy ecosystems with hydrogen production at their core,as illustrated in Figure 1.10Rationale for Green Hydrogen Hubs at New Zealand AirportsFigure 1:Airbus Hydrogen Hub at Airports Concept Image7 European hydrogen hub at airport network Airbus Looks to Build European Airport
242、 Network for Hydrogen Aircraft with New Partnership-Aviation Today8 Airbus hydrogen ambition Hydrogen|Airbus9 Airbus ZEROe ZEROe-Zero emission-Airbus 10 Airbus Hydrogen Hub at Airport Concept image Tomorrows airports:future energy ecosystems?|Airbus?Build a thriving and innovative clean energy ecosy
243、stem?Upskilling the local labour force2020 Launch of preliminary studies into airport infrstructure and energy?2030 Ramp up of hydrogen infrastructure deployment worldwide2035 Entry-into-service of ZEROe hydrogen aircraft at airports2023 Start of concept deployment at airports worldwideRenewable Gen
244、eration Ground vehicle usesResearch and DevelopmentPilot H2 HubOn-site green hydrogen production41HYDROGEN PRODUCTION ELEMENTS There are several methods available to produce hydrogen,for the purposes of this report only green hydrogen electrolysis options are considered.A brief description,technolog
245、y readiness level,advantages and disadvantages are outlined for each green hydrogen production option in Table 6.Within New Zealand,Fabrum supply a membrane free electrolyser comparable to a Proton Exchange Membrane(PEM)electrolyser but with a reduced water requirement.Table 6:Hydrogen Production Te
246、chnology Summary 60 61 TechnologyDescriptionTRLAdvantages/DisadvantagesMembrane Free ElectrolyserUses cryogenic gas separation to produce high purity oxygen and hydrogen.78%stack efficiency451kg H2/day for 1.1MW size 25 year lifespan9Advantages Longer operating life than PEM Low maintenance No rare
247、earth catalytic metals used Reduced water requirementsDisadvantages Limited commercial use cases due to novel technology developmentsPEM Electrolyser(Proton Exchange Membrane)Uses a solid electrolyte which is ionically conductive polymer to exchange and separate hydrogen and oxygen.Stack life is app
248、roximately 80,000hrs.Current commercial scales 5 MW 5.3 Kilowatt-hr required per m3 ofhydrogen product65-80%efficiency20 200C operating temperatures9Advantages Relatively small footprint due to compact design,attractive in areas with restricted landavailability.Offer flexible operation due to fast d
249、ynamics(response to start up,shutdown,changes in production rates).Can produce compressed hydrogen up to 40barg without the use of compressor.Disadvantages High cost of materials used for membrane and electrodes overall costs are currently higher than those of alkaline electrolysers,and they are les
250、s widely deployed.Alkaline ElectrolyserElectrodes are immersed in a liquid electrolyte,separated by a separator thatonly allows transport of ionic charges.Current commercial scales 10MW 4.4 Kilowatt-hr required per m3 ofhydrogen product60-70%efficiency20 200C operating temperatures9Advantages Low ca
251、pital costs due to avoidance of rare materials Higher durability due to an exchangeable electrolyte Disadvantages Requires separate compression system to pressurise hydrogen.Slow dynamics (slow response to production changes)Corrosive liquid electrolyte Requires maintenance of Alkaline solution.Soli
252、d Oxide Electrolyser(SOEC)Least developed electrolysis technology.They have not yet been commercialised,although individual companies are now aiming to bring them to market.SOECs use ceramics as the electrolyte andhave low material costsThey operate at high temperatures and with a high degree of ele
253、ctricalefficiency.Key challenge to reduce costs is todecrease operating temperature toprevent material degradation.Current commercial scales:Notcommercially established.3 Kilowatt-hr required per m3 of hydrogen productMore than 90%efficiency700C operating temperatures6-7Advantages Can operate a soli
254、d oxide electrolyser in reverse i.e.converting hydrogen back into electricity.Lower energy demand Disadvantages Not commercially available yet Requires high temperature steam which leads to other challenges such as material degradation and operation control.System Element Options This section assess
255、es the options for system elements of a hydrogen hub and explains why some elements are more likely to be included in a pilot hub.For the system elements included,a technology readiness level is assigned.Please see Table 4 for TRL scale reference.Table 4:Technology Readiness Level ChartDeployment9Ac
256、tual system proven in operational environment8System complete and qualified7Prototype demonstration in operational environmentDevelopment6Technology demonstrated in relevant environment5Technology validated in relevant environment4Technology validated in labResearch3Experimental proof of concept2Tec
257、hnology concept formulated1Basic principles observedHYDROGEN SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE Hydrogen supply infrastructure consists of production,transport,storage and end use.Theproduction of hydrogen and its respective end uses affect the infrastructure along the supply chain.Further detail of each is prov
258、ided in subsequent report sections.Hydrogen production,storage and transport are discussed at a high level on pages 41-43 respectively.Table 5:the pilot green hydrogen hub at New Zealand Airport(s)infrastructure system element optionsElectrical SourceHydrogen ProductionHydrogen CompressionHydrogen S
259、torageHydrogen TransportAirport usesRenewable energy generatorPEM ElectrolyserGas CompressorLow Pressure TanksHydrogen DispenserGround Service EquipmentAlkaline electrolyserLiquefierPressurised tanksHydrogen trailerAirside CarsSolid Oxide ElectrolyserLiquefaction Cryogenic TanksHydrogen tankerPower
260、GenerationMembrane free electrolyserPipeline storageLiquid H2 Bowser Re-fuelling SystemLandside BusesLiquid H2 Hydrant Re-fuelling SystemAircraftH2 Pipeline60 IEA The Future of Hydrogen report Analysis,p.4461 CSIRO Opportunities for Hydrogen in Aviation report p.29 Pilot Green Hydrogen Hub404243HYDR
261、OGEN STORAGE ELEMENTS The current state of technology allows hydrogen to be compressed,liquefied,or attached to a chemical carrier.Each of these methods have different TRLs,advantages and disadvantages.Table 7 outlines a description,TRL and associated advantages and disadvantages for each storage me
262、thod.Table 7:Hydrogen Storage Technology Summary62 TechnologyDescriptionTRLAdvantages/DisadvantagesLow pressure tanksUsed for stationary storage where low quantities of hydrogen are required with available space.9Advantages Established technologyDisadvantages Poor volumetric densityPressurised tanks
263、Pressure is increased via mechanical device in the cylinder.Hydrogen can be stored up to pressures of 200 bar in steel cylinders and up to 900-1000 bar in composite cylinders.Can be used for stationery and transport storage.9Advantages Established technologyDisadvantages Mid volumetric density Energ
264、y intensive processLiquefaction Cryogenic TanksMulti-stage compression and cooling.Hydrogen is liquefied and stored at 253C in cryogenic tanks.Can be used forstationary and transport storage.9Advantages Higher volumetric storage capacityDisadvantages Requires advanced and more expensive storage mate
265、rialLiquefaction Cryo-compressedHydrogen is stored at cryogenic temperatures combined with pressures of300bar.9Advantages Higher volumetric storage capacityDisadvantages Requires advanced and more expensive storage materialPipeline storageHydrogen is stored in pipelines by alteringpipeline pressure.
266、9Advantages Utilises existing infrastructure Easy technique to store hydrogen at scaleChemical Conversion AmmoniaHydrogen can be converted to ammonia.Seen as a strong contender for long distance storage of hydrogen.Unlikely to be considered in the airport pilot hub due to relatively short distances
267、to transport hydrogen.9Advantages Ammonia liquefies at negative 33C and therefore cheaper to transport than hydrogenDisadvantages Ammonia is toxic Requires energy to convert H2 to ammonia and backChemical conversion Liquid Organic Hydrogen CarriersInvolves loading a carrier molecule with hydrogen su
268、ch as methylcyclohexane.Seen as a strong contender for long distance storage of hydrogen.Unlikely to be considered in the airport pilot hub due to relatively short distances to transport hydrogen.9Advantages Cheaper than hydrogen over long distances(i.e.shipping NZ to Japan)Disadvantages Energy inte
269、nsive to load/unload molecule with hydrogen62 IEA The Future of Hydrogen Analysis,p.75HYDROGEN TRANSPORT ELEMENTS One of the biggest cost implications for hydrogen is transport between supply and end use.Appropriate transport pathways need to be considered in conjunction once supply and demand parti
270、es have been identified.Table 8 outlines elements which could deployed in the pilot hydrogen hub at an airport to deliver hydrogen.Table 8:Hydrogen Transport Technology Summary TechnologyDescriptionTRLHydrogen DispenserUsed to provide efficient transfer of hydrogen to the end user,includes a high ac
271、curacy flow measurement.Typically,hydrogen at 350 bar is required for buses and 700 bar for cars,with tank fill times approximately 3-5 minutes for a car and 10-15 minutes for a bus.9Hydrogen trailerUsed to transport of hydrogen in gaseous and liquid form on roads.Consists of long storage tubes up t
272、o 250-300 bar pressure.9Hydrogen tankerLiquid hydrogen is transported as a liquid in super-insulated,cryogenic tankertrucks.Potential for boil-off losses over long distances.9Liquid H2 Bowser Re-fuelling SystemTo easily transport and distribute hydrogen for aircraft,hydrant pits and drums.Its a tran
273、sportable fuelling system which can be used for both filling andemptying.Zero vapour emission,efficient and variable flow rates.3-6Liquid H2 Hydrant Re-fuelling SystemA hydrant fuelling system provides all the necessary equipment and controls to deliver clean,dry fuel to fuelling points in the aircr
274、aft parking apron.The system includes a minimum of two operational storage tanks,but it does not include bulk storage.Fast,safe and reliable.1-3H2 PipelineFor transferring gaseous hydrogen long distances similar to gas pipelines.Potential for converting natural gas pipeline to hydrogen gas pipelineH
275、igh initial cost,low operation cost,leakage control required.94445HYDROGEN AIRPORT ELEMENTS The baseline hydrogen supply,infrastructure and skilled labour associated with a pilot green hydrogen hub could serve as an effective enabler for a broad range of local industries,not only the airport stakeho
276、lders.Table 9 outlines airport relevant system elements which could potentially utilise hydrogen.Please note these use cases could also transition to other decarbonisation technologies.Table 9:Hydrogen airport applications summary Equipment on or adjacent to airportDescriptionTRLCommentaryGround Ser
277、vice EquipmentBaggage/Cargo tractors/loaders7-8Short refuelling times to allow continuous use(1-3 minutes)Simplified refuelling infrastructure,potentially at single location on airport.Adaptation required from alternate vehicledesignsAircraft Pushback andtaxiing tugs7-8Demo vehicles have shown the a
278、bility of hydrogen powered tugs to pull larger aircraftForklifts9Well established in industrial sectorShort refuelling times to allow continuous use(1-3 minutes)Minimal changes to operationBuses on airport(transporting passengers and staff)9Short refuelling times to allow continuous use(3-5 minutes)
279、Simplified refuelling infrastructure,potentially at single location on airport.Airside CarsSecurity cars patrolling the perimeterAirside operations vehicles9Available on the marketSimplified refuelling infrastructure,potentially at single location on airport.Power GenerationBack-up power suppliesfor
280、 buildings and systems9Available on the market.In some cases,hydrogen and other renewable resources could provide the primary power system for smaller airports,avoiding significant costs required to connect the airport to the power grid.Ground Power Units(GPU)4Reduces the fuel burn of the aircraft a
281、nd the need for the Auxiliary Power Unit.The EU has recently invested 25 million euros into the development of Hydrogen GPUs expected to complete in2025.Landside busesPublic transport or shuttle buses associated with theairport9The airport is often a key destination on public transport networks and
282、could serve as a refuelling point for buses.Requires broader commitment by bus operators to transition to hydrogenAircraftSynthetic Fuels6A drop-in fuel that could work with existing aircraft enginesA promising bridging solution to minimise emissions whilst liquid hydrogen combustion engines are dev
283、eloped.Significant testing and certifications required before the fuels can be approved for commercial flights.Significantly reduces carbon emissions for the sector but notall.Fuel-cell Technologies6Zero emissions power option,only water vapour as the by-product.Avoids the need for liquefaction and
284、advances in storage systemsTechnology advances needed to resolve the weight challenges of new engine system.Liquid Hydrogen Combustion3New engine technology identified by the UK research project Fly Zero as the most promising alternate to current Jet Fuel technology.Requires significant advances in
285、storage and handling of liquid hydrogen.Full impact of combustion emissions on global warming to be investigated.Prominent Hydrogen Aircraft Concepts FLYZERO PART OF THE UKS AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTEAs part of the FlyZero project,3 zero emissions aircraft concepts were set out:Regional concept
286、Fuel Cell Engine system(Gaseous Hydrogen)Intended capability to carry 75 passengers up to 800 nmi at a speed of 325 knots.Narrowbody concept Hydrogen Combustion Engine System(Liquid Hydrogen)Intended capability to carry 179 passengers up to 2400 nmi at a speed of 450 knots.Midsize concept Hydrogen C
287、ombustion Engine System(Liquid Hydrogen)Intended capability to carry 279 passengers up to 5750 nmi at a speed of 473 knots and an operational range of 5250 nmi.The FlyZero report concluded that this concept could address 93%of existing long haul scheduled flights and consequently the majority of emi
288、ssions in this market.This includes flights from London to Auckland(9991 nmi)requiring one stop.ZERO AVIAInitially focussed on the regional and short-haul flights,the fuel-cell engine system would use hydrogen.CSIRO AND BOEINGWhilst a conceptual aircraft was not developed,the collaborative study bet
289、ween CSIRO and Boeing identified the potential for Synthetic Aviation fuels to provide a bridging solution between current fossil fuels and hydrogen combustion engines.ALL ROADS LEAD TO HYDROGENRegardless of whether fuel cell,combustion or conventional engines(with synthetic fuels)prove to be the su
290、ccessful solution,a common element in all technologies is hydrogen.The focus of government and the aviation industry should be to secure the production,operational procedures and infrastructure quickly so that the technology can be brought to market immediately after certification.Figure 5:Zero Avia
291、 milestone targets6363 First Practical Zero Emission Aviation Powertrain|USA&UK|ZeroAviaPowertrain timeline4647Pilot Green Hydrogen HubSystem Element Selection for Pilot Hydrogen Hub Liquid hydrogen is the most likely form of hydrogen for aviation.Ideally,the supply of liquid green hydrogen to airpo
292、rts would be similar to how jet fuel is supplied to airports today via tanker or pipeline(depending on airport size).Liquid hydrogen requires transportation by tanker due to the conditions needed to keep the hydrogen in liquid form.Three options exist to supply green hydrogen at airports:Potential o
293、ptions for a pilot green hydrogen hub are options 2 and 3,hydrogen(either gas or liquid)generated offsite and hydrogen generated at an airport site,respectively.Thisreport focuses on a pilot green hydrogen hub located at an airport due to the limited number of green hydrogen supply sites in New Zeal
294、and.Commercial scale liquid hydrogen use at airports is not expected until the mid 2030s dueto liquid hydrogen aircraft development timescales.Therefore,the initial hydrogenuse cases will mainly be gaseous hydrogen.However,liquid hydrogen production at an airport could foster research and developmen
295、t opportunities for NewZealand through trials until liquid hydrogen aircraft are commercially available.A pilot green hydrogen hub may include the system elements outlined in Table10.Figure 6 illustrates a high-level process flow diagram for the pilot hub,showing how the system elements are likely t
296、o fit together.The system elements likely to be included in a hub are those at technology readiness levels of 9.Table 10:Pilot Hydrogen Hub Chosen System Element Summary Electrical SourceHydrogen ProductionHydrogen CompressionHydrogen StorageHydrogen TransportAirport usesRenewable Electricity Supply
297、PEM ElectrolyserGas CompressorLow Pressure TanksHydrogen DispenserGround Service EquipmentMembrane free electrolyserLiquefierPressurised tanksAirside vehiclesLiquefaction Cryogenic TanksPower GenerationLandside vehicles1.Hydrogen generated off site,transported via pipeline to airport and liquified o
298、n site There are no existing pipelines connecting airports to hydrogen production facilities.Demand for initial hydrogen use will be low and will not warrant the capital cost of installing a pipeline.2.Hydrogen generated and liquified off site and transported via tanker toairport There are limited h
299、ydrogen production sites in NewZealand and no green liquid hydrogen production sites.3.Hydrogen generated and liquified at airport Possible depending on the size and associated facilities of the airport.Getty Images4849Additional balance of plant and system element configurations should be considere
300、d in the design process of the pilot hydrogen hub.The rationale for including these key system elements isoutlinedbelow:Ground Service Equipment and airside vehicles Due to the existing commercial availability of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles,the pilot hub will likely integrate airside cars a
301、nd ground service equipment use cases.This could include cars,buses and later the substitution of vehicles like baggage tugs,belt loaders and forklift trucks for their hydrogen alternative.The deployment of a hydrogen hub will encourage where there are not other electric options.Power GenerationPowe
302、r generation using hydrogen with either fuel cells or gas engines could replace typical diesel generators.With hydrogen readily available at airports,other stakeholders may opt for newequipment.Landside vehiclesSeparate from the airport uses,external stakeholders stand to benefit from the availabili
303、ty of hydrogen.Local buses operators,hotel or business park shuttle buses,taxis could all consider the transition to fuel cell vehicles if a local supply becomes available.In addition,heavy vehicles and refuse trucks could be considered for potential hydrogen use.Renewable electricity supplyThis is
304、required for the electrolysis process,auxiliary balance of plant,compression,liquification and storage.The electric source is required to be zero carbon so the hydrogen can be designated as greenhydrogen.As mentioned on p32,New Zealands electricity grid is already on average 80%green,with aims to be
305、 100%renewable by 2030.Until 2030,commercial options could be considered such as power purchase agreements with renewable generation suppliers to ensure the electricity from grid is carbon free.Alternatively,a direct connection to a renewable generation can be considered however security of supply w
306、ill be required to ensure hydrogen production capacity factors are high to maximise hub return of investment.It should be noted a connection to the New Zealand electricity grid for hydrogen production before 2030 should not be treated as a hard barrier.ElectrolyserThe electrolyser selected will like
307、ly be a membrane free,PEM or Alkaline Electrolyser.Solid oxide electrolysers are still being developed for commercial use and will take some time before they are cost competitive with PEM and alkaline.Alkaline electrolysers are widely deployed,and PEM electrolysers are increasingly deployed as its a
308、ssociated cost decreases.Depending when the pilot hydrogen hub is deployed alternative electrolysis technology options should be researched and determined as there is considerable investment in electrolysis technologies and what is considered the best solution today may not be the case at the time o
309、f the pilot green hydrogen hub design and deployment.Hydrogen CompressorThe pressure output from the electrolyser will be in the range of 10 40 bar.Compression is required to increase the hydrogen pressure so it can be used in fuel cell electric vehicles.Buses and trucks typically require hydrogen a
310、t pressures of 350 bar and cars typically require hydrogen at pressures of 700 bar.This enables vehicle fill time to be similar to diesel alternatives at roughly 15 minutes.Hydrogen StorageHydrogen storage will be required to enable a readily available supply of hydrogen for end users.Storagefacilit
311、ies will supply hydrogen at the correct pressure,temperature and flow rate.Hydrogen will need to be cooled to negative 40 DegC during refuelling.Depending on the scale and specific end use(s),the storage capacity,pressure,interconnections,and safety buffer zones will need to be considered in detail.
312、Different storage technology will be required for both hydrogen gas and liquid hydrogen.Regardless of whether the hydrogen is produced on-site or off-site,safeguarding for significant storage facilities at an airport will need to be considered.A buffer supply is required to support continued or slig
313、htly reduced operations(aircraft and others uses).The amount of buffer will depend on the resilience of the hydrogen production network and availability specific to each region.Hydrogen DispenserA hydrogen dispenser is required for transfer of hydrogen to the end user at the desired pressure,quality
314、(purity 99.998%or as per ISO 14687-2 for PEM),temperature(-40C)and includes a high accuracy flow measurement.The dispenser can be integrated with different payment systems.The hydrogen tools website has provided a list of design considerations for hydrogen dispensers.64Hydrogen LiquefierA hydrogen l
315、iquefier could be included to enable research and development activities e.g testing liquid hydrogen bowsers,liquid hydrogen fuel hydrant systems and aircraft with liquid hydrogen combustion engines.Liquid hydrogen system elements could be installed at a later stage but the availability of liquid hy
316、drogen on site provides opportunities for novel aviation developments.Hydrogen liquification offers the benefit of storing hydrogen in a smaller space,suited to applications with limited space like aircraft.Hydrogen liquefaction is a cryogenic process and storage of liquid hydrogen requires cryogeni
317、c temperatures below-250 C.64 H2 tools hydrogen dispenser design considerations Design Considerations|Hydrogen Tools(h2tools.org)Figure 6:Pilot Hydrogen Hub High-level Process Flow DiagramRenewable Grid SourcePEM ElectrolyserGas CompressorLow Pressure TanksGas CompressorPressurised TanksH2 Dispenser
318、Ground VehiclesLiquefaction CryogenicTanksLiquefaction Cryo-compressedLiquid HydrogenHydrogen Liquefier49Pilot hydrogen hub should aim to produce both gaseous and liquid hydrogen to enableground uses and liquidhydrogen technology trials and demonstrations5051Considerations for Scale Up of aHydrogen
319、Hub at Airport(s)This section details the likely steps required to transition aviation uses from pilot scale(0.25-1MW)to a commercial aviation scale.Significant investments would be required to attract the aviation industry leaders such as Airbus,Boeing or similar to establish research facilities in
320、 New Zealand.Not only in terms of financial support,but also to attract the skilled workforce associated with research.A pilot hydrogen hub in New Zealand must clearly outline the intended goals and market interest of the investment.The core goal of an airport pilot hub(s)is to provide aviation indu
321、stries the opportunity to prepare for the eventual shift to hydrogen.With regards to market interest,thorough engagement with local stakeholders should identify the appetite for hydrogen and whether the influential businesses such as the airport operator or airlines have already committed to alterna
322、te power sources such as battery powered electric vehicles.This will significantly influence the baseline demand for the hydrogen production at the airport or the surrounding businesses.As demand for hydrogen increases to cater for new commercial hydrogen aircraft,the location of the hydrogen produc
323、tion will need to be reviewed.An airports direct access to international markets typically results in high rental rates for airport tenants and as such cost sensitive businesses will typically select sites that are close to but not directly on the airport site.For a larger scale hydrogen production
324、facility to achieve a competitive levelised cost,a cheaper location in the local vicinity of the airport may be preferred.However,this will be influenced by the commercial arrangement of production;whether it is owned and operated by the airport operator or a third party company.In the event that th
325、e airport owner controls the hydrogen production,the additional resilience and reduced transport requirements from onsite production may justify the allocation of premium airport land.Pilot Green Hydrogen HubWhether on airport or in the local vicinity,thechallenges mentioned in Table 3,needtobe reso
326、lved to enable scaled deployment of green hydrogen hubs in New Zealand.Theopportunities to resolve these challenges has already been discussed.In summary,thefollowing should be considered to achieve scaled green hydrogen hub deployment:Attract investment such as international Research&Development,pr
327、ivate funding.Enable hydrogen deployment by setting out clear standards and regulations framework Initiate pathways to decarbonisation for surrounding infrastructure Upskill workforce Reduce risk of deployment by tapping into lessons learnt from global community and existing domestic projects.Whilst
328、 the time horizons for hydrogen fuelled aircraft differ between researchers,there is a broad consensus on how the gradual transition will occur for the aviation sector.In the near-term,and likely to benefit most from a pilot hydrogen hub,are the existing ground vehicles and power generators at the a
329、irport.Whilst these operations represent a very small percentage of overall emissions,they play an important role in establishing a hydrogen operation and the associated protocols within an airport environment.The maturity of the hydrogen fuel cell technology within vehicles is well established and
330、depending on the use case presents a strong competitor to battery vehicles,particularly those in constant use requiring rapid refuelling such as airport shuttles.Some specialised vehicles may require retrofitting to accommodate a fuel cell engine but broadly the technology is available.Hydrogen powe
331、r generators also present an opportunity to replace diesel technology typically employed for back-up power.This information is explored in further detail on page 44.In the medium term,and with hydrogen well established at airports for ancillary uses,Boeing and Australias research body CSIRO expect h
332、ydrogen to play a key role in the generation of drop-in electro fuels or synthetic Sustainable Aviation Fuels(SAF).These drop-in fuels provide a transition between existing kerosene jet engines and hydrogen only combustion engines under development.SAFs also have the potential to be used in the long
333、 term alongside hydrogen to decarbonise aviation.5253Figure 7:Future Hydrogen Hub Process Flow DiagramH2 InjectionHydrogen LiquefierGround VehiclesIndustrial ProcessingIndustrial ProcessingLiquefaction Cryogenic TanksLiquefaction Cryo-compressedLiquid H2 Bowser Re-fuelling SystemLiquid H2 Hydrant Re-fuelling SystemGas networkAir TransportAirport Energy DemandAirport Ground VehiclesH2 DispenserLow