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1、World Energy Outlook Special ReportA Vision for Clean Cooking Access for AllIn collaboration withA Vision for Clean Cooking Access for AllWorld Energy Outlook Special ReportThe IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues including oil,gas and coal supply and demand,renewable energy technologies,
2、electricity markets,energy efficiency,access to energy,demand side management and much more.Through its work,the IEA advocates policies that will enhance the reliability,affordability and sustainability of energy in its 31 member countries,13 association countries and beyond.IEA member countries:Aus
3、tralia Austria Belgium CanadaCzech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland ItalyJapanKorea Lithuania Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands IEA association countries:INTERNATIONAL ENERGYAGENCYArgentinaBrazilChinaEgyptIndiaIndonesiaMoroccoSingaporeSouth AfricaThailandUkrainePlea
4、se note that this publication is subject to specific restrictions that limit its use and distribution.The terms and conditions are available online at www.iea.org/t&c/This publication and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimita
5、tion of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Source:IEA.International Energy Agency Website:www.iea.orgNorway Poland Portugal Slovak Republic Spain Sweden Switzerland Republic of Trkiye United Kingdom United StatesThe European Commission also participa
6、tes in the work of the IEAAFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK GROUP The overarching objective of the African Development Bank(AfDB)Group is to spur sustainable economic development and social progress in its regional member countries(RMCs),thus contributing to poverty reduction.The Bank Group achieves this obj
7、ective by mobilizing and allocating resources for investment in RMCs and by providing policy advice and technical assistance to support development efforts.KenyaSenegalForeword 3 Foreword Foreword by the Executive Director,International Energy Agency Today,nearly one third of people around the world
8、 cook their meals with rudimentary methods.They burn coal,firewood,and even animal dung as fuel,breathing in hazardous fumes daily.It is a silent killer,contributing to millions of premature deaths each year,with women its likeliest victims.Many in advanced economies take for granted access to moder
9、n cooking appliance and the energy that is reliably delivered to our homes to run them.Yet,these appliances are unaffordable or unattainable for many households in developing economies.Bringing clean cooking to the 2.3 billion people who live without it today can transform their lives.It is central
10、not only to the transition to modern,secure and sustainable energy,but to many other facets of the development agenda such as poverty reduction,health and gender equality.By almost every metric,women suffer the most due to a lack of access to clean cooking solutions.Without these amenities,cooking b
11、ecomes a full-time job for many women.They spend,on average,five hours each day collecting fuel and cooking,which deprive them of their health as well as opportunities like accessing basic education,taking up employment or starting a business that could deliver financial independence.Many inspiring
12、women leaders are at the forefront of advances in clean cooking today,but troubling disparities in female empowerment in government,business,and the home means clean cooking remains an afterthought in many parts of the world.Nearly 20 years ago,as IEAs Chief Economist,I first called upon policy make
13、rs to make modern cooking solutions for every household around the world a priority issue in“Energy Economics:A Place for Energy Poverty in the Agenda?”.In 2015,universal access to clean cooking by 2030 was rightly included among the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals,and this year marks t
14、he midway point toward that goal.Unfortunately,the world has not committed nearly enough resources to reaching it,most notably in sub-Saharan Africa where the number of people without clean cooking continues to rise.The barriers to delivering on the promise of clean cooking for all are not technical
15、.What is encouraging and disturbing,in equal measure,is that this huge environmental,economic and human challenge could be solved with relatively modest investment.While addressing the issue is complex,there are success stories in India,China,and Indonesia,where those without access were halved last
16、 decade.In 2005 I wrote“Rich industrialised countries have an important role to play in this process.In addition to moral issues involved,we have obvious long-term economic,political and energy-security interests in helping developing countries along the path to energy development.For as long as pov
17、erty,hunger and disease persist,the poorest regions will remain vulnerable to humanitarian disasters,to social injustice and to political instability.Lack of resources is not an excuse.The cost of providing assistance to poor countries may IEA.CC BY 4.0.4 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Cle
18、an Cooking Access for All turn out to be far less than that of dealing with the instability and insecurity that poverty creates.”This report,in partnership with our colleagues at the African Development Bank Group,indeed finds that the costs of achieving full access are minimal-and the benefits huge
19、.In 2023,it is inexcusable that people still lack these fundamental services.Between now and COP28,we have an opportunity to make vital progress on clean cooking by rapidly scaling up implementation and mobilising the necessary financial resources that will help reach our shared target.Dr Fatih Biro
20、l Executive Director International Energy Agency IEA.CC BY 4.0.Foreword 5 Foreword Foreword by the President of the African Development Bank Group It is my pleasure to write a foreword for this new report“A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All”.This is a pioneering knowledge piece from the Intern
21、ational Energy Agency(IEA),in collaboration with the African Development Bank Group.The report presents the most recent data and insights on clean cooking,with particular emphasis on Africa,where four out of five individuals lack access to clean cooking solutions.Achieving a Just Energy Transition m
22、ust therefore be secured in tandem with bridging the clean cooking gap.The report offers invaluable insights,analysis,and recommendations regarding the current situation and the consequences of inaction in the sector.As such,the report spotlights clean cooking within the context of the current polic
23、y landscape,painting a grim picture of the access gap in 2030.The report also outlines country-specific assessments,in addition to providing a roadmap for achieving universal clean cooking access.Finally,it provides an overview of the required policies,technologies,investments,and implementation eff
24、orts necessary to attain this ambitious target.The report presents a comprehensive view of a Stated Policies Scenario underscoring the limited advancements made towards achieving universal access to clean cooking.It examines the rate of progress on a country-by-country basis,the fuel and technology
25、combinations employed to meet access requirements and evaluates the necessary investments and environmental implications.Regrettably,based on existing policies,the world and especially Africa will fall short of universal access to clean cooking by 2030.To address this gap,the report explores an Acce
26、ss for All Scenario.This scenario examines practical regional strategies required to guarantee universal access to clean cooking,thereby aligning with the objectives of SDG7.These pathways consider best practices,cultural considerations,cost factors,technical limitations,and national objectives.More
27、over,this scenario delivers a clearer understanding of the actions and measures needed for global progress in this direction.The report evidences that transforming the clean cooking landscape is a complex endeavour with no straight-forward solutions,but one that requires the establishment of clear p
28、olicies and robust regulatory frameworks as foundational elements for attracting and driving investment in clean cooking projects.Meanwhile,financial incentives are a vital policy tool for facilitating the accelerated deployment of clean cooking technologies.In this regard,approximately USD 8 billio
29、n of equipment and infrastructure is required annually from now to 2030 to underpin universal access to clean cooking solutions.But,this must be complemented by steadfast leadership from policymakers,given that governments are best-placed to influence the future.The African Development Bank Group is
30、 actively engaged in accelerating efforts to reach universal access to clean cooking through various instruments and initiatives.This includes investing through financial intermediaries such as the Spark+Africa Fund which has raised IEA.CC BY 4.0.6 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cook
31、ing Access for All USD 64 million to deliver clean cooking technologies and reduce carbon emissions by around 15 Mt of CO2 equivalent by cutting emissions from the use of inefficient stoves and open fires and forest degradation for wood fuel.Other interventions include the incorporation of clean coo
32、king into countries electrification programs,and the provision of technical assistance to ministries of energy and industry bodies.I hope you will enjoy reading this incredibly insightful report.May it inform,empower,and inspire you to join us in our noble pursuit for global universal access to clea
33、n cooking and especially in Africa.Dr.Akinwumi Adesina President African Development Bank Group IEA.CC BY 4.0.Acknowledgements 7 Acknowledgements This study was prepared by the Energy Modelling Office-Energy Demand Outlooks(EMO-EDO)team in the Directorate of Sustainability,Technology and Outlooks(ST
34、O)in co-operation with other directorates and offices of the International Energy Agency(IEA).The report was carried out in collaboration with the African Development Bank(AfDB)Group.The study was designed and directed by Laura Cozzi,Director of Sustainability,Technology and Outlooks(IEA).Daniel Wet
35、zel co-ordinated the drafting and analysis.The modelling and analytical work for this study were led by Gianluca Tonolo,Energy Access Analyst(IEA)and Oliver Joy served as lead writer.Other principal IEA authors include:Ethan Clarke-Hampton Harrison(data science and research),Daniel Crow(emissions),N
36、ouhoun Diarra(energy access),and Gabriel Saive(lead data science and research).Other valuable contributions were made by Alexandre Bizeuil,Poeli Bojorquez,Stphanie Bouckaert,Olivia Chen,Davide DAmbrosio,Darlain Edeme,Syrine El Abed,Rebecca Gaghen,Emma Gordon,Domenico Lattanzio,Luca Lo Re,Rita Madeir
37、a,Arnaud Rouget,Thomas Spencer,Carlo Starace,Sanne van der Milj,David Wilkinson,and Wonjiik Yang.Contributions from the African Development Bank Group were coordinated by Kevin Kariuki,Vice President,Power,Energy,Climate and Green Growth,and key contributors include Dr.Daniel Schroth,Monojeet Pal an
38、d Adele Boadzo from the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Department,and Molka Majdoub from the Office of the President.This report benefited greatly from contributions,data,analysis,and guidance from key international experts.They include:Rashid Ali Abdallah African Energy Commission(AFREC)Hea
39、ther Adair-Rohani World Health Organisation(WHO)Donee Alexander Clean Cooking Alliance(CCA)Robert Bailis Stockholm Environment Institute Simon Batchelor Modern Energy Cooking Services(MECS)Jillene Belopolsky Clean Cooking Alliance(CCA)Kimbal Chen Global LPG Partnership(GLPGP)Nicklas Forsell Internat
40、ional Institute for Applied System Analysis(IIASA)Francesco Fuso-Nerini Swedish Royal Institute of Technology(KTH)Camilo Ramirez Gomez Swedish Royal Institute of Technology(KTH)Babak Kavari Swedish Royal Institute of Technology(KTH)Matthew Leach Modern Energy Cooking Services(MECS)Jon Leary Modern E
41、nergy Cooking Services(MECS)Mikael Melin Sustainable Energy for All(SE4ALL)IEA.CC BY 4.0.8 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All Nishant Narayan Sustainable Energy for All(SE4ALL)Caroline Ochieng Sustainable Energy for All(SE4ALL)Shonali Pachauri International Institu
42、te for Applied System Analysis(IIASA)Cdric Philibert International expert Jem Porcaro Sustainable Energy for All(SE4ALL)Elisa Puzzolo University of Liverpool David Tyler World LPG Association(WLPGA)Kendra Williams World Health Organisation(WHO)Thanks go to the IEAs Communications and Digital Office
43、for their help in producing the report and website materials,particularly to Poeli Bojorquez,Curtis Brainard,Astrid Dumond,Merve Erdil,Grace Gordon,Jethro Mullen,Isabelle Nonain-Semelin,Robert Stone,Julie Puech,Gregory Viscusi,Lucile Wall,and Wonjik Yang.Ivo Letra and Ben McCulloch provided essentia
44、l support to the production process.IEAs Office of the Legal Counsel,Office of Management and Administration and Energy Data Centre provided assistance throughout the preparation of the report.The work could not have been achieved without the support provided by the IEAs Clean Energy Transition Prog
45、ramme and the Agency for Development and Cooperation,Switzerland.Additional support was provided by other government bodies,organisations and companies worldwide,notably:European Commission,Directorate-General for International Partnership;European Commission,Directorate-General for Climate;Governme
46、nt of Japan;Netherlands,Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy;The Norwegian Development Agency(NORAD);and United States Agency for International Development Power Africa.Peer reviewers Many other international experts provided input and reviewed preliminary drafts of the report,in addition
47、 to the external contributors above.Their comments and suggestions were of great value.They include:Esther Altorfer Aayushi Awasthy Papa Samba Ba Bipasha Barua Tim Bauer David Bleasedale Molly Brown Ute Collier Sistema Bio KAPSARC and Tyndall Centre for Climate Change ResearchMinistre du Ptrole et d
48、es Energies-Sngal University of Western Ontario Envirofit CITAC Burn International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA)IEA.CC BY 4.0.Acknowledgements 9 Emmanuela Colombo Hannah Daly Gbaty Tiadja Gbandey Mark Howells Anthony Kamara Isaac Kiva Anibor Kragha Hanaan Marwah James McCullagh Ted Miller Jan Pette
49、r Nore Abdoulaye Oueddo Gary Still Robert Stoner Yagouba TraoreKarin Troncoso Torrez Ruben Walker Molly Walton Politecnico di Milano University College Cork African Energy Commission(AFREC)University of Loughborough International Expert Ministry of Energy and Petroleum-Kenya African Refiners and Dis
50、tributors Association(ARDA)KOKO CITAC Burn Norwegian Agency for Development and Cooperation(NORAD)African Energy Commission(AFREC)CITAC Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT)African Energy Commission(AFREC)World Health Organisation(WHO)Africa Clean Energy(ACE)We Mean Business Coalition The indiv
51、iduals and organisations that contributed to this study are not responsible for any opinions or judgements it contains.All errors and omissions are solely the responsibility of the IEA.This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,
52、to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Comments and questions are welcome and should be addressed to:Laura Cozzi and Daniel Wetzel Directorate of Sustainability,Technology and Outlooks International Energy Agency 9,rue de la Fdrati
53、on 75739 Paris Cedex 15 France E-mail:weoiea.orgWeb:www.iea.org IEA.CC BY 4.0.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Table of Contents 11Table of Contents Forewords.3 Acknowledgements.7 Executive summary.13 Access to Clean Cooking 17 1.1 Introduction.18 1.2 What is clean cooking?.19 1.3 The cost of not having access to clea
54、n cooking:on women,health,productivity and the environment.22 1.4 Progress to date and status today.24 Outlook for clean cooking 31 2.1 Introduction.32 2.2 Outlook under todays policies.32 2.3 Reaching clean cooking access for all.36 2.3.1 Energy implications.39 2.3.2 Investment.41 2.3.3 Environment
55、.42 2.3.4 Health and gender.44 2.3.5 The pathway post-2030.45 2.4 Key clean cooking technologies.47 Recommendations for achieving access for all 55 3.1 Introduction.56 3.2 Domestic efforts.56 3.2.1 Managing social change of cooking.56 3.2.2 Developing clean cooking policy and plans.58 3.2.3 Managing
56、 affordability.59 3.3 International support.63 3.4 Conclusions/Summary.66 AnnexesAnnex A.Definitions.71 Annex B.References.81 1 2 3 IEA.CC BY 4.0.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Executive Summary 13 Executive Summary A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All Nearly one third of the world still relies on rudimentary c
57、ooking means with grave consequences Today,2.3 billion people worldwide nearly one third of the global population-still cook their meals over open fires or on basic stoves,breathing in harmful smoke released from burning coal,charcoal,firewood,agricultural wastes,and animal dung.These practices can
58、still be found in 128 countries todaywhere households do not have the tools or means to reliably cook meals using clean burning fuels.Even the simplest,widely available cooking devices could improve this situation,including devices like camp stoves using liquefied petroleum gases(LPG)and electric ho
59、tplates.A lack of clean cooking contributes to 3.7 million premature deaths annually,with women and children most at risk.Poor indoor air quality is a leading cause of premature death worldwide.In Africa alone,women and children account for 60%of early deaths related to smoke inhalation and indoor a
60、ir pollution.This is primarily the result of basic cooking practices that lead to respiratory complications and cardiovascular diseases.Women disproportionately endure the negative consequences of rudimentary cooking,while afforded limited ways to change to cleaner solutions.In addition to health ri
61、sks,a lack of clean cooking prevents many women and girls from accessing education,earning a wage,or starting a business that would deliver financial autonomy.In many parts of the world,they typically have little say over household spending,with other purchases prioritised over clean cooking devices
62、.Under-representation of women within executive institutions means that clean cooking also remains low on the political agenda.Lost time and productivity results in a huge economic cost due to hours spent collecting firewood and other fuel sources.Households without clean cooking spend an average of
63、 5 hours per day collecting fuel and cooking.Daily trips to gather firewood expose women to the risk of violence and assault as they leave their communities to search further afield.Basic cooking methods using wood and charcoal often contribute to deforestation.The demand for firewood and charcoal r
64、esults in the loss of forests the size of Ireland each year,with the worst effects concentrated in places like East and Southern Africa where large populations increasingly rely on dwindling forests.This has also led to food stress in some regions where fruiting trees are cut for firewood.Progress h
65、as been swift in Asia,but remains slow in sub-Saharan Africa Thanks to progress in Asia and Latin America,the number of people without access to clean cooking has been declining,but in sub-Saharan Africa,that number has never stopped growing.The number of people globally without clean cooking fell f
66、rom 3 billion in 2010 to 2.3 billion in 2022.China,India and Indonesia all halved their populations without clean cooking access.These efforts relied largely on providing free stoves and subsidised canisters IEA.CC BY 4.0.14 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All of li
67、quefied petroleum gas(LPG).During the same period,the number of people without clean cooking access continued to grow in sub-Saharan Africa,where clean cooking campaigns did not to keep pace with population growth.Today,1 billion people on the continentroughly four in every fiverely on highly pollut
68、ing cooking fuels used in open fires or basic stoves.Asia is set to continue providing greater clean cooking access,while most African countries are not expected to reach full clean cooking access even in the 2050s.Under todays policies,the number of people without access to clean cooking is set to
69、decline from 2.3 billion today to 1.8 billion in 2030.Progress continues at a strong pace in Asia,but Africa would end the decade with the same number of people without clean cooking access as today.Reaching universal access to clean cooking is not a question of technology,and the policy solutions a
70、re known,but implementation capacity and funding is lacking.Today,less than a third of people without access to clean cooking live in countries with adequate policies and funding needed to reach universal access by 2030.The gap is widest in Africa where clean cooking plans often lack resources.At pr
71、esent,less than a third of clean cooking plans in Africa are funded,while a confluence of the Covid-19 pandemic and high fuel prices,driven by the global energy crisis,led to a scale back of incentives and financial support to households.Universal access to clean cooking by 2030 can only be achieved
72、 by replicating historic bests Reaching universal access to clean cooking requires delivering best practices to countries that have made little progress to date,with a special focus on rural areas.Nearly 300 million people need to gain access to cleaner cooking means each year to ensure universal ac
73、cess by 2030,with sub-Saharan Africa accounting for half of the total.Delivering on this annual target would require matching the record years set in China,India and Indonesia combined over the last decade.It also requires stronger efforts in rural areas,where three quarters of those without access
74、live today.The IEAs analysis identifies a least-cost,realistic scenario to reach universal clean cooking,requiring solutions which are all commercially available today.LPG remains the primary solution to deliver clean cooking access,representing nearly half of the households gaining access to 2030.I
75、n the last decade,70%of those who gained access did so through LPG.Electric cooking becomes the main option for one in eight homes gaining access by 2030,while many more homes adopt appliances like rice makers as part of their cooking routines.Electric cooking benefits from reduced imports,but faces
76、 challenges due to low electricity access rates and unreliable grids in some regions to scale.In rural areas,where fuel and electricity infrastructure are lacking,improved cookstoves(ICS)serve as an interim solution to deliver health benefits and time savings in the near term.If minimum performance
77、standards are enforced,ICS reduce fuel needs by 20-75%and drastically cut dangerous smoke and fumes.Continued efforts to provide modern cooking solutions help replace ICS as the primary cooking means for homes by 2040.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Executive Summary 15 Universal access by 2030 comes at a small cost
78、and brings huge benefits Investment in clean cooking stoves,equipment,and infrastructure over this decade would need to reach about USD 8 billion annually.This is less than 1%of what governments spent in 2022 globally on measures to keep energy affordable for their citizens amidst the global energy
79、crisis.It is also less than 1%of what governments spent last year to keep energy prices affordable for their citizens.Investment would need to grow from levels around USD 2.5 billion today,with most of the growth in sub-Saharan Africa,which would make up to USD 4 billion of the total investment need
80、 this decade.According to the IEAs analysis,increased demand for modern cooking fuels can be met readily by todays energy system,however it will require some additional infrastructure,especially in Africa.Achieving clean access for all by 2030 adds less than 3%to modern energy demand today,while the
81、 use of fuel wood and charcoal falls by 70%in emerging and developing economies.Existing infrastructure handles the scale up in most regions,but sub-Saharan Africa requires new supporting infrastructure.In sub-Saharan Africa,LPG demand grows by three-fold,requiring an expansion of distribution servi
82、ces,canisters,and fuelling depots.Electric cooking would increase demand by 10%by 2030,which could place strains on electricity networks at the distribution level if not paired with effective electricity planning.The gender equality,health and time-savings benefits of universal clean cooking are imm
83、ense.Our analysis shows that there are 2.5 million less premature deaths caused by the fall in air pollution toward 2030,and the average household saves on nearly 1.5 hours a day from the switch,which can instead be spent pursuing education or work.The time-savings from universal access to clean coo
84、king are roughly equal to the working hours put in by the entire Japanese labour force in 2022.The shift toward clean cooking creates jobs,but also reduces the need for charcoal,a major part of Africas informal economy today.The push to reach universal access to clean cooking could employ nearly 1.5
85、 million people in stove production and sales,fuel delivery,and supporting clean cooking campaigns.Making this transition,however,impacts the millions of people working in the charcoal and firewood trade today.These jobs,while still needed in 2030,could decline substantially,emphasising the need for
86、 a just,people-centred transition,including efforts to formalise these industries and upskill workers.Reaching universal access to clean cooking is a net-gain for the environment too.The switch to clean cooking solutions,such as LPG,drives up emissions by 0.1 Gt in 2030.However,the reduction of fuel
87、wood and charcoal consumed also reduces methane and other greenhouse gas emissions emitted by incomplete combustion in basic stoves by 0.9 Gt of CO2-eq.Deforestation is also reduced,saving 0.7 Gt in 2030.Overall,following the IEA vision for clean cooking for all results in a net reduction of 1.5 gig
88、atons of CO2 equivalent by 2030,similar to the amount of CO2 emitted by planes and ships last year.IEA.CC BY 4.0.16 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All Realising universal access requires national leadership,with strong involvement from women,and increased internati
89、onal and climate finance Less than 10%of people without access to clean cooking live in countries with adequate policies and funding needed for a successful clean cooking programme.Reaching universal access to clean cooking will depend on strong national leadership and programmes that are reinforced
90、 by international financial support.Key enablers include regulatory authority for implementing agencies,public engagement campaigns,and financial support for consumers to manage upfront stove costs and ongoing fuel costs.Switching to clean cooking depends on rapid,widespread changes in social norms,
91、where grassroots efforts have proven essential.Successful clean cooking campaigns have been accompanied by user engagement and education programmes.These initiatives engage users on matters such as stove use and maintenance,recipes adjusted for their new stoves,and education on the benefits of clean
92、 cooking.Peer-to-peer advocacy,especially women-led,can be the difference between lasting adoption and stoves falling into disuse.Affordability remains a major challenge,with financial support needed for most households to cover upfront stove costs and,in some cases,ongoing fuel costs.Over half of h
93、ouseholds lacking clean cooking are unable to afford it on an ongoing basis.The upfront cost of a stove for a low-income household can range from one-third of monthly income to three-quarters,depending on the technology.Yet,if annualised,switching to a modern cookstove eventually pays for itself,and
94、 more,due to higher efficiencies and reduced expenditure for charcoal and firewood.Still,for a handful of households,ongoing price support will likely be needed.Governments must balance affordability support with risks of ballooning imports and intractable subsidies.Better targeting of incentives an
95、d cross-subsidisation between customers can help.Around half of the USD 8 billion needed each year in clean cooking investments would need to be concessional finance.International financial flows have and will play a key role in advancing clean cooking,especially in regions without the fiscal space
96、to drive the required investment through public funds.Early efforts funded through development efforts has cultivated a maturing private sector,able to attract more private finance and to take on corporate equity and debt.Still,highly concessional financing will still be needed to support projects i
97、n the poorest regions.Around three quarters of concessional finance would need to flow to sub-Saharan Africa.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1|Access to Clean Cooking 17 Chapter 1 Access to Clean Cooking A blindspot in the global energy transition Today,2.3 billion peoplenearly one in three peoplestill cook t
98、heir meals overopen fires and traditional stoves,using wood,charcoal,kerosene,coal,and evenanimal waste.Basic cooking devices found in every modern kitchen are unaffordablefor most of these households this extends to simple devices like pressure cookers,propane camp stoves,or electric hotplates.Prov
99、iding every home with a moderncooking device and access to affordable,secure fuel is at the core of the clean cooking agenda.In 2015,the United Nations set a target to provide every person access toclean cooking by 2030 in the Sustainable Development Goals.Progress to date hasbeen insufficient to re
100、ach this target,and a lack of clean cooking remains a challengein 128 countries today.Transitioning to clean cooking delivers immense benefits,by saving lives,time,money,and the environment.Poor air quality from traditional cooking indoors is amajor contributor to premature deaths,which if ranked on
101、 its own,would be thirdamong premature deaths globally,and second in Africa.Women disproportionatelybear the consequences of a lack of clean cooking,forgoing opportunities to pursueschooling,employment,and economic freedom,as they spend five hours a day onaverage gathering fuel and tending to cookin
102、g fires.A lack of clean cooking alsocontributes to deforestation,environment degradation,and greenhouse gases.The number of people without access to clean cooking has fallen by 0.7 billion since2010.Success stories in China,India and Indonesia demonstrate how focused national efforts backed by publi
103、c funding can have an impact,with each country providing2-4%of its population with clean cooking each year.Some sub-Saharan Africancountries have provided access to 1-1.5%of their population,but still saw a rise inthose without access,as population growth outpaced progress.Today,more than four out o
104、f five sub-Saharan Africans do not have access to clean cooking.The Covid-19 pandemic and high energy prices has brought clean cooking progress to a standstill,pushing 100 million households back to traditional modes of cooking.Rising debt burdens,particularly in Africa,are leading some countries to
105、 roll backclean cooking programmes and affordability support.Reaching universal access must navigate cultural sensitivities and adoptionchallenges,but the technical and policy solutions are well-known.The bulk of thepeople gaining access since 2010 have done so using liquified petroleum gasses(LPG),
106、typically via large government programmes.Electric cooking is poised to play agrowing role in households that have,or gain access to,reliable,affordable electricity.A number of other solutions,many using bioenergy,helped provide access in ruralareas where a lack of infrastructure and affordability p
107、ose major barriers.S U M M A R YIEA.CC BY 4.0.18 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All 1.1 Introduction One in three people in the poorest regions of the world still cook over traditional stoves and open fires,inhaling hazardous smoke every day that causes millions of
108、 premature deaths each year.Women and children are disproportionately affected,in many regions spending hours a day collecting and foraging for firewood to burn,with some resorting to burning animal dung and other wastes for cooking.In some areas,demand for wood and charcoal has led to deforestation
109、,habitat destruction,and even some resorting to chopping down fruiting trees,putting strain on food systems.The hours spent each day gathering fuel and tending to fires contributes to significant time poverty,restrict women and childrens opportunity to pursue basic education and formal employment.Th
110、e stoves needed to address these issues are available at prices as low as USD 20 and the switch to cleaner fuels can cost less per meal than purchased wood and charcoal.However,these remain out of reach for many,especially those who do not earn wages nor have access to remunerated employment.The clo
111、ck on achieving universal access to clean cooking worldwide by 2030 is quickly ticking down,as 2023 marks the halfway point for reaching the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 7(SDG7),which targets universal access to affordable,reliable,sustainable,and modern energy for all.However,countri
112、es like China,India,and Indonesia have seen remarkable progress and are reaping the benefits of wider access to clean cooking through increased productivity,reduced healthcare costs,and greater convenience,with implementation initiatives enjoying widespread political support.But the number of people
113、 without access to clean cooking is still rising in sub-Saharan Africa where population growth is outpacing progress.Efforts to accelerate energy development and transition must find a central place for access to clean cooking,especially in Africa.Much of the global development agenda depends on it.
114、This years international meetings on energy,development and climate present a prime opportunity to advance clean cooking up the global agenda.Momentum from France and Barbados Summit for a New Global Financial Pact could spur important outcomes at the forthcoming SDG Summit in New York,Kenyas Africa
115、n Climate Action Summit and COP28.The IEAs new report A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All 2023 aims to inform these important dialogues by bringing together the latest analysis and data on clean cooking,with a special focus on Africa,where efforts are most urgently needed to fulfil the Sustain
116、able Development Agenda.As one of the official co-custodians of SDG7,the IEA builds on more than two decades of work on energy access issues and is partnering with the African Development Bank Group to shed light on the challenges and successes in sub-Saharan Africa.The report also aims to leverage
117、the rich body of work from other international partners deeply involved in shaping the global clean cooking agenda.The short report covers:The state of play today and the costs of inaction.The outlook for clean cooking under todays policies including country-by-countryassessments,and the roadmap to
118、universal access to clean cooking.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1|Access to Clean Cooking 19 1 An overview of the policies,technologies,investments,and implementation efforts needed to reach universal access.The report aims to shine a light on one of the most overlooked aspects of global energy systems in e
119、merging and developing economies,in the hope that the world may arrive at a meaningful outcome on clean cooking before this years COP28 hosted in the United Arab Emirates.1.2 What is clean cooking?For the purposes of this report,clean cooking access is defined as a household that has reliable access
120、 to and uses as their primary cooking means,fuels and equipment that significantly limit or avoid the release of pollutants harmful to human health.The International Organization for Standardization(ISO)published in 2018 the international standards for laboratory testing of cookstoves,which describe
121、s tiers of stoves,and which types of stoves meet these standards,and specifies testing and reporting protocols to measure emissions,thermal efficiency,safety and durability.The World Bank used similar metrics,with the addition of affordability,to develop the Multi-Tier Framework for Clean Cooking.As
122、 stoves vary greatly on these performance metrics it is important to ensure deployed stoves are providing the expected results and can be classified as clean cooking.In this report,clean cookstoves is defined as tier 4 and above.There are several different clean cooking technologies that meet this d
123、efinition,including stoves using natural gas,liquefied petroleum gas(LPG),electricity,bioethanol,and biogas.Improved biomass cookstoves(ICS)of ISO tier 3 can act as a transitional technology from traditional biomass cookstoves and three-stone fires to the clean-cooking technologies listed above,and
124、play an important role in providing immediate,meaningful health benefits to areas where needed infrastructure is unlikely to reach in the coming years.When considering the different technologies used to reach universal access,the IEA examines a range of criteria including affordability,reliability,s
125、afety,convenience,and sustainability(Table 1.1).There are also technical constraints which could limit some solutions from being deployed in certain regions,for instance LPG needs delivery infrastructure,while natural gas and electricity require household connection to distribution networks.Differen
126、t countries also have varying policy preferences reflecting the resources in that region and sensitivities regarding energy security.The analysis aims to consider these factors in exploring viable pathways to reaching universal access to clean cooking,while also recognising that a mixture of cooking
127、 technologies will be used and rarely is the switch from one technology to another clear cut.For instance,electric cooking devices,such as pressure cookers and hot plates,often complement other devices,like high-heat gas stoves and barbeques,reflecting the diverse cuisines and customs of different r
128、egions.Households may also continue using traditional cooking stoves in parallel with modern cooking solutions to manage affordability.The use of different cooking means is known as“fuel stacking”.In this report,a household is considered to have access to clean cooking when they consistently use one
129、 or more of the clean cooking technologies as their primary cooking mode for most meals.IEA.CC BY 4.0.20 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All Figure 1.1 Definition of cooking technologies IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1|Access to Clean Cooking 21 1 Table 1.1 Cooking stoves a
130、ssessment of performance against key metrics Notes:Health refers to the impacts of inhalation of harmful criterion pollutants,such as carbon monoxide and PM2.5 caused by the incomplete combustion of fuels.Gender refers to the ways certain cooking means negatively impact women,primarily considering h
131、ealth,safety(e.g.,exposing them to gender-based violence),and social(e.g.time for gathering biomass).Environment refers to impacts to climate through the emissions of GHG in combustion and to deforestation caused by the unsustainable harvesting of biomass.Upfront cost refers to the price of cooking
132、and fuel delivery equipment.Fuel and operation cost refers to the cost incurred in the utilisation of the stoves for cooking,which includes purchases of fuels and maintenance of stoves.This does not factor in minimum volumes for retail fuels that could present upfront cost hurdles.Disruption risk re
133、fers to the risk of losing the physical availability or the affordability caused by high price spikes of the energy source used for cooking.Scalability refers to the techno-economic feasibility of deploying the technology in new regions.Efficiency and cooking time refers to the energy efficiency of
134、stoves,which is the key contributor to the time required to cook a meal,plus stove preparation time.IEA.CC BY 4.0.22 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All 1.3 The cost of not having access to clean cooking:on women,health,productivity and the environment Households wi
135、thout clean cooking access spend hours each day gathering biomass,preparing fires,and cooking,with these burdens typically falling on women.Across sub-Saharan Africa,households without clean cooking access typically spend an average of 2 hours per day collecting fuel and an additional 3 hours for co
136、oking and food preparation,including tending to the fire.The time spent varies from region-by-region,often depending on a settlements proximity to woodlands or other areas where foraged fuel is available.In countries such as Sierra Leone,Niger and Cameroon,the average time spent collecting fuel is o
137、n the upper end,ranging from 3-5 hours per day,while in Kenya,Tanzania and Zimbabwe,collection times can be below one hour daily(Figure 1.2).However,in regions facing deforestation and increased urbanisation,collection times are increasing.Figure 1.2 Average number of hours spent collecting fuel per
138、 day per household IEA.CC BY 4.0.A high reliance on biomass for cooking in many countries means that households without clean cooking access spend an average of 2 hours per day collecting fuel Source:IEA Analysis,UNEP(2017),Practical Action(2014).The time spent collecting fuel and cooking limits opp
139、ortunities for women,often preventing them from seeking out formal employment,earning a wage or starting a business that would provide them with a degree of financial autonomy.The time spent on these activities is estimated to have an opportunity cost of USD 0.8 trillion per year globally,according
140、to World Bank estimates.Attaining this increased productivity would require parallel actions to cultivate employment opportunities,and points to the critical importance of energising productive uses in remote areas as well.20%40%60%80%100%1 2 3 4 5Sierra LeoneNigerCameroonSenegalBeninLiberiaEthiopia
141、MadagascarUgandaBurkina FasoBotswanaSouth AfricaRwandaSudanZambiaNigeriaGhanaMalawiNamibiaIndiaKenyaTanzaniaZimbabweHoursNumber of hours per dayShare of population relying on biomass for cooking(right axis)IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1|Access to Clean Cooking 23 1 The need to search for biomass for cookin
142、g fuel,can put women at higher risk of gender-based violence.Often,women must wander outside community boundaries to collect firewood leaving women in many cases more exposed to violent attack and other forms of abuse.For example,in Chad,42%of households reported incidents of gender-based violence d
143、uring firewood collection over a six-month period.Providing access to clean cooking does not eliminate these risks nor does it address the underlying causes and other forms of prevention.However,it offers one step to reduce exposure to risks.The health impacts of cooking over traditional stoves and
144、open fires are immense.Household air pollution due to a lack of clean cooking access contribute to around 3.7 million fatalities per year globally.Household air pollution would be the third-largest cause of premature death among women and children globally and the second in sub-Saharan Africa(Figure
145、 1.3),where women and children represent 60%of those deaths.Many of these premature deaths are associated with respiratory and cardiovascular disease,which is often accelerated by breathing in significant particulate matter produced by the incomplete combustion of solid biomass in a three-stone fire
146、.Figure 1.3 Annual deaths by cause amongst women and children globally,2019 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Household air pollution is the third leading cause of premature globally among women and children,concentrated in countries with a high reliance on biomass and coal for cooking Source:Global Health Observatory,
147、World Health Organization.Women and children remain more exposed to poor household air pollution and its consequences.While women have fewer of the pre-existing health risks that household air pollution can exacerbate,their increased exposure means they make up the largest share of lost years of lif
148、e caused by household air pollution,falling mostly upon women living in low-and middle-income countries.The daily physical exertion required to collect and carry heavy IEA.CC BY 4.0.24 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All loads of firewood also takes its toll,with tr
149、aditional stove use requiring up to 10 kg or more of firewood per day,depending on local contexts.By comparison,using an ICS requires between 1 and 5 kg thanks to improved efficiency.Exposure to household air pollution is particularly damaging to the development of young children,contributing to las
150、ting respiratory complications into adulthood.Exposure to household air pollution nearly doubles the risk for childhood lower respiratory infections and is responsible for over 40%of all pneumonia deaths in children less than 5 years old.Unprocessed coal,charcoal,kerosene are also common cooking fue
151、ls in some regions of the world.All fuel sources generate high levels of pollution in the home,with poor air quality and a lack of proper ventilation resulting in toxic smoke inhalation in enclosed spaces.Kerosene,a liquid oil product,is also highly flammable and can be ingested accidentally by chil
152、dren if left unattended,and is the leading cause of childhood poisoning.In aggregated,health impacts of a lack of clean cooking add considerable costs to the health sector,with estimates of global costs reaching nearly USD 1.4 trillion a year.Basic cooking methods also contribute to increase greenho
153、use gases emissions,both through their combustion and as trees cut for fuelwood or charcoal production contribute to environmental degradation and deforestation.The incomplete combustion of charcoal and fuelwood in traditional stoves releases methane,a potent greenhouse gas,in addition to other part
154、icles that effect climate changes,like black carbon(more in Chapter 2).The inefficient combustion of these fuels in traditional stoves means more of these greenhouse gasses are emitted than from ICS.Cutting trees for fuelwood and charcoal production,often for sale in urban areas,also contributes to
155、deforestation.Informal operators offering firewood and charcoal are increasingly common in underserved urban and peri-urban areas,often selling them at well-above market rates.This contributes to a perpetual poverty cycle for families,many of whom already live in urban slums,make-shift dwellings,or
156、refugee camps.Charcoal and fuelwood enterprises are often unregulated,with no price controls and environmental standards,or where they do exist are under-enforced.1.4 Progress to date and status today Today,2.3 billion people live without access to clean cooking,largely in sub-Saharan Africa and dev
157、eloping Asia(Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5).In sub-Saharan Africa,29 countries have access rates below 20%,with half of the almost 1 billion people without clean cooking access concentrated in five countries(Nigeria,Ethiopia,DRC,Tanzania,Uganda).In Asia,access rates are higher with only seven countries,
158、of which five small island countries,having access rates below 20%.However,large countries like China,India,and Indonesia,who have higher access rates,are still home to many people without access.Countries in Latin America also do not have universal access to clean cooking,but most countries have ov
159、er 80%access rates,and the population without access is less than 75 million across the region.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1|Access to Clean Cooking 25 1 Figure 1.4 Population without access to clean cooking in Africa,2022 Almost a billion people are without access to clean cooking in Africa,half of those
160、 are concentrated in 5 countries(Nigeria,Ethiopia,DRC,Tanzania,Uganda).Note:This document,as well as any data and map included herein,are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territor
161、y,city or area.Sources:IEA analysis based on the World Health Organisation(WHO)household energy database and other national sources.IEA.CC BY 4.0.26 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All Figure 1.5 Population without access to clean cooking in developing Asia,2022 Aro
162、und 1.2 billion people are without access to clean cooking in developing Asia Note:This document,as well as any data and map included herein,are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any t
163、erritory,city or area.Sources:IEA analysis based on the World Health Organisation(WHO)household energy database and other national sources.Progress on providing clean cooking access has been mixed across the 128 countries that currently do not have universal access,with some regions making great str
164、ides.The number of people without access to clean cooking has fallen from approximately 3 billion in 2010 to an estimated 2.3 billion in 2022.In developing Asia,the number of people without clean cooking access has declined by 840 million,with China,India and Indonesia leading the way.These three co
165、untries account for most of the progress made since 2010,with each country at least halving the number of people without clean cooking access(Figure 1.6).IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1|Access to Clean Cooking 27 1 Figure 1.6 Access rate and population without access to clean cooking by region,2010-2022 IEA
166、.CC BY 4.0.Steady progress has been made in Asia,while population growth outpaced improvements in sub-Saharan Africa,where more than four in five people lack clean cooking today Note:SSA=Sub-Saharan Africa,Other SEA=other Southeast Asia,INDO=Indonesia,LATAM=Latin America including Mexico and Central
167、 and South American countries.In sub-Saharan Africa,population growth has outpaced progress.Despite access rates climbing from 8%to above 15%from 2010 to 2022,the number of people without clean cooking solutions in sub-Saharan Africa increased by 220 million.Over this period,sub-Saharan Africa provi
168、ded clean cooking access to about 0.5%of its population each year.This lags behind the pace seen in leading countries in Asia,such as Indonesia(4%),India(3%),and China(2%)(Figure 1.7).Some notable success stories can be found in Africa,including South Africa,and recently Nigeria and Kenya,who both i
169、mplemented new clean cooking strategies in 2015-2021,and since 2010 have brought clean cooking to around 1%of their population each year accelerating to 1.5%since 2015.Major progress in providing clean cooking has largely been driven by LPG.In India the number of people primarily cooking with LPG in
170、creased by nearly 300 million from 2015 to 2022,thanks to strong measures and schemes as the Pratyaksh Hanstantrit Labh(PAHAL),which has been subsidising LPG refills since 2015 and the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana(PMUY),which has provided more than 80 million deposit-free LPG connections to women i
171、n poor households since 2016.Similarly in Indonesia,the governments LPG subsidy programme helped increase in population primarily cooking with LPG by 60 million in the same period more than 20%of the population.In sub-Saharan Africa,a series of efforts in different countries has helped make LPG the
172、most pervasive clean cooking technology today.IEA.CC BY 4.0.28 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All Figure 1.7 Annual improvement in clean cooking access by country,2010-2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Indonesia provided access to nearly 4%of its population each year since 2010.T
173、he fastest countries in sub-Saharan Africa have progressed at 1%yearly.Policy efforts are also increasingly focusing on other clean cooking options.Electric cooking has also witnessed widespread uptake in emerging market and developing economies,where since 2010 the number of people primarily cookin
174、g with electricity more than tripled to just below 300 million people.In China,where over 70%of people already had clean cooking access in 2015,saw an accelerated shift to electric cooking(Figure 1.8).This evolution has been witnessed elsewhere,aided by increasing popularity of electric appliances l
175、ike rice cookers and water kettles,and government efforts to reduce LPG imports.Indonesias government has a policy objective to reduce the use of LPG in favour of electric cooking to reduce the economic burden of subsidies on imported LPG.Countries like South Africa have for a long time advanced ele
176、ctric cooking as their primary solution,with more than 80%of people cooking with electricity today.However,due to recent power supply shortages,there have been efforts to diversify cooking fuels.Other clean cooking options have also seen widespread support,including bioethanol,notably in East Africa
177、,and biogas,largely around farming communities with livestock and other agricultural wastes to fuel biodigesters.Households also adopted improved cookstoves,as a quick-to-deploy,transitional solution for rural areas with minimal access to fuel distribution and electricity.Urbanisation has also aided
178、 adoption of clean cooking options over the same period.For instance,130 million people in China migrated into urban centres where clean cooking devices are more commonplace.Similar trends are delivering improved access in India and Indonesia as well,although targeted LPG campaigns in rural areas co
179、ntributed more than urbanisation.10 20 30 40IndiaIndonesia ChinaSub-Saharan AfricaMillionPeople gaining access annualyPercentage points of access rate(right axis)1%2%3%4%2 4 6 8Sub-Saharan AfricaNigeriaKenyaGlobalSub-Saharan AfricaMillionIEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 1|Access to Clean Cooking 29 1 Figure 1.
180、8 Change in population primarily cooking by fuel,2015-2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Since 2015,India and Indonesia clean cooking improvements mostly relied on LPG.In sub-Saharan Africa households mostly relying on traditional biomass increased.Note:Other clean includes mainly biogas and bio-ethanol.Despite con
181、sistent progress,the rate of clean cooking improvements has slowed in recent years due to the Covid-19 pandemic and the global energy crisis triggered by Russias invasion of Ukraine.Public health measures taken during the Covid-19 pandemic,particularly lockdowns and restrictions on movement,slowed t
182、he deployment of new clean cooking stoves and prevented many workers from earning wages needed to pay for modern cooking fuels.Governments stepped in to ensure reliable delivery of LPG and other clean cooking fuels,with targeted measures concentrated in Asia,particularly in India and Indonesia.Utili
183、ties in many emerging market and developing economies also stepped in to keep the lights on even as customers struggled to pay bills,helping lessen the impact on household expenditures.Following the Covid-19 pandemic,energy prices climbed rapidly as geopolitical instability took centre stage,driving
184、 significant price inflation for many basic commodities.Price increases for LPG were particularly steep.Since the beginning of the energy crisis,the IEA estimates that nearly 100 million people globally reverted to traditional uses of biomass for cooking.Prices have since then returned to pre-pandem
185、ic levels,but the spikes left intensified concerns of energy security exposure to depending on imported fuel.While some challenges from Covid-19 and the global energy crisis have abated,the lasting impacts,such as high levels of debt,are dampening the outlook for clean cooking.Many countries already
186、 lacked the programmes,targets,plans,fiscal incentives,and subsidies needed to make progress.Yet,proven models of advancing clean cooking access exist,and if-300-200-1000 100 200 300 400IndiaIndonesiaChinaSub-SaharanAfricaBiomassCoal andkeroseneLPGNatural GasElectricityOther cleanClean cookingfuelsM
187、illion peopleIEA.CC BY 4.0.30 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All replicated,could improve the global outlook.The next chapter explores the outlook under todays policies,and what the pathway to universal access could look like,with a particular focus on sub-Saharan
188、Africa.The final chapter will examine the key measures needed to ensure that stakeholders at all levels place clean cooking at the forefront of the global development agenda.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2|Outlook for clean cooking 31 Chapter 2 Outlook for clean cooking Finding the recipe for universal acce
189、ss S U M M A R YIEA.CC BY 4.0.Current policies are insufficient to reach universal access to clean cooking.Under the Stated Policies Scenario,the number of people without access to clean cooking declines from 2.3 billion today to 1.8 billion in 2030.Progress is rapid in Asia,but Africa ends the deca
190、de with the same number of people without access as today.Under current policy and investment environments,many African countries are not expected to reach full clean cooking access even into the 2050s.Reaching universal access to clean cooking requires providing over 300 million people with access
191、each year through the end of the decade,with about half of them in sub-Saharan Africa.The required effort in sub-Saharan Africa is equivalent to repeating the best single year advances in the rest of the world every year from now to 2030.While African countries are putting clean cooking plans in pla
192、ce,they lack the resources to support them.Today,less than 20%of clean cooking plans are backed by clear financing schemes.In the Access for All scenario,universal access is reached by 2030.In that scenario,liquefied petroleum gasses(LPG)remain the leading fuel for providing clean cookingreaching 45
193、%of those gaining access by 2030.Electricity represents 12%of those gaining access and other sources like bioethanol and biogas around 10%.Up to 2030,high-quality improved cookstoves(ICS)provide a first transitional step to cleaner cooking for one third of households,providing meaningful benefits as
194、 a fast and feasible solution for rural households that infrastructure will be slow to reach.In the Access for All scenario,modern energy demand grows minimally to 2030,while the use of fuel wood and charcoal falls 50%.In some regions,new infrastructure would be needed.For instance,in sub-Saharan Af
195、rica LPG demand grows three-fold to 2030,requiring an expansion of distribution services,cylinders,and refilling stations.By 2030,electric cooking in sub-Saharan Africa drives electricity demand up by 16%from today,which could strain distribution systems if not managed well.The benefits of reaching
196、universal clean cooking access are immense.In the Access for All scenario,premature deaths from poor household air quality are reduced by 2.5 million.The average household would save 1.5 hours a day,freeing up working hours equivalent to those of the entire Japanese workforce.Greenhouse gas emission
197、s from incomplete biomass combustion and deforestation would see a net reduction of 1.5 Gt CO2-eq by 2030,equal to emissions from aviation and shipping today.Investment in clean cooking stoves,equipment,and infrastructure by 2030 would need to reach USD 8 billion annually.This represents a substanti
198、al increase on the USD 2.5 billion currently invested each year.Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for about half of the total investment requirement this decade.32 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All 2.1 Introduction The pace at which access to clean cooking evolves depen
199、ds on a variety of factors,including domestic policies,energy prices and investment flows.This chapter first explores how access to clean cooking is set to evolve toward 2030 under todays policies,called our Stated Policies Scenario(STEPS).It analyses and assesses the pace of progress by country,the
200、 fuel and technology mix used to meet access,investment needs and environmental implications.Based on current policies,the world will fall short of reaching universal access to clean cooking for all by 2030.Therefore,this report explores a scenario called Access for All,which looks at practical regi
201、onal pathways to provide universal access to clean cooking in line with SDG71.The clean cooking solutions deployed in the Access for All scenario consider existing best practices,scaling them to other regions,while considering cultural factors,costs,technical constraints,and national objectives.Acce
202、ss for All also assumes parallel efforts to reach universal access to electricity by 2030.The Access for All scenario does not take place in a vacuum and assumes evolutions in the rest of global energy systems are consistent with national energy development and climate-related goals,in full and on-t
203、ime.The mix of clean cooking solutions in the Access for All scenario all carry important considerations policymakers must weigh in pursuing these options.These are discussed in more depth at the end of this chapter,in the key technologies section.2.2 Outlook under todays policies Under todays polic
204、ies,progress toward universal access to clean cooking remains modest.In the STEPS,the number of people without access to clean cooking declines from 2.3 billion today to 1.8 billion in 2030,owing largely to policy efforts in developing Asia(Figure 2.1).These policies are set to deliver access to cle
205、an cooking for about 55 million people a year across developing Asia,roughly consistent with the pace over the last decade.This reduces the number of people without clean cooking in the region by around 35%.In sub-Saharan Africa,efforts on clean cooking accelerate from historic levels,providing acce
206、ss to around 30 million people per year,thanks to robust plans and policies in Kenya,Rwanda,Ethiopia,Uganda,Ghana,and Nigeria,among others.However,this acceleration barely manages to keep pace with population growth at the regional level.As a result,the number of people without access to clean cooki
207、ng in Africa in 2030 remains roughly around the current level of 980 million.Many countries today do not even have targets to reach universal access to clean cooking,and many that do,do not have the policies on the books to deliver on those targets.Around 20%of the population without access live in
208、countries without official clean cooking targets and of those that do,only 40%live in countries targeting universal access by 2030 in line with SDG7.Most of the countries without nationally established access to clean cooking targets 1 This includes by 2030 a share of the population relying on trans
209、itional improved biomass cookstoves of ISO tier 3.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2|Outlook for clean cooking 33 2 are in sub-Saharan Africa.Even if all countries met their national targets on-time and in full,there would still be 730 million people without access to clean cooking by 2030 globally.Figure 2.1
210、Population without access to clean cooking in sub-Saharan Africa and Developing Asia under different scenarios IEA.CC BY 4.0.Under todays policies,the number of Africans without access does not improve and even if all national targets are achieved,over half a billion remain without access by 2030 No
211、te:National targets here refer to officially established national targets that include a clear level of access and target year.For instance,a target aligned with SDG7 goals would state that country aims at reaching 100%access rate by 2030.The key policy gaps that perpetuate slow progress in the STEP
212、S is a lack of financial support and resources for clean cooking programmes to support implementing agencies work.As of 2022,90%of the population without access lives in countries with regulatory institutions charged with implementing clean cooking plans,but only 20%live where these agencies have fu
213、nds and resources for the implementation of those plans.Historically,programmes that provide cookstoves for free or at discounted rates have made the fastest progress,often paired with financial support to provide stable,affordable fuel and energy prices for consumers.Almost 80%of those without clea
214、n cooking access live in countries that have financial incentives in place for upfront stove costs and ongoing price support for cooking fuel(Figure 2.2).However,just above 10%live in countries where targeted incentives exist for higher tier cooking technologies,and only 8%live where targeted fundin
215、g exists for last-mile solutions in rural areas.Most of these incentives are typically available to all consumers and are not targeted to those most in need of financial support.This creates a substantial fiscal burden on public finances.During the energy crisis,many countries,such as Sri Lanka,Indi
216、a,Kenya,Sudan and Nigeria changed their support schemes,balancing growing debt burdens with the public need for support.Sudden changes in these schemes can negatively impact households and enterprises providing clean cooking solutions.Timely adjustments to fiscal policy must be 300 600 9001 2001 500
217、1 8002 1002010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030STEPSNational targetsMillion peopleSub-Saharan AfricaDeveloping AsiaIEA.CC BY 4.0.34 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All balanced against enduring policy support to ensure clean cooking support does not
218、 interfere with prevailing fuel and capital market trends.See chapter 3 for more discussion on managing affordability.Figure 2.2 Share of people without access who live in a country with key clean cooking policies,2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.90%of people without access live in a country with clean cooking im
219、plementing agencies,but only 20%live where resources are available for implementation of plans.Notes:Implementing agency refers to the existence of an authority or agency in charge of coordinating and implementing clean cooking strategies or action plans;Allocated funds/resources refers to the exist
220、ence of resources and funds for the implementation of clean cooking plans;Standards for stove performance refers to the existent of quality standards for stoves thermal efficiency,emissions,safety and durability;Mandatory and enforced standards refers to the fact that stoves standards are mandatory
221、and are enforced by law;Financing schemes refer to the existence of financing facilities to support consumers or suppliers to purchase or develop clean cooking solutions,or specific financing or subsidy programs to support low income consumers;Incentives for higher tier solutions refers to the exist
222、ence of targeted incentives for the promotion of higher tiers cooking solutions.Source:RISE Indicators,ESMAP IEA analysis.Development finance plays an important role in todays clean cooking ecosystem,especially where public spending from national sources is limited.However,levels of international su
223、pport remain far too low and fail to attract sufficient private sector participation.In the STEPS,international support remains rather flat,with some growth from offsetting instruments and climate finance that have helped tip many clean cooking projects toward profitability,such as those from the Gr
224、een Climate Fund or the Global Environment Facility.Collectively,international and national measures are reflected in our STEPS scenario,and are used to develop a country-by-country assessment of clean cooking progress from now to 2030(Figure 2.3),which for the first time the IEA is releasing for se
225、lect countries.90%10%20%80%77%23%13%87%20%80%YesNo64%36%Implementing agencyFinancing schemes existenceStandards for stoves performaceAllocated funds/resourcesMandatory and enforcedstandardsIncentives for higher tier solutionsIEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2|Outlook for clean cooking 35 2 Figure 2.3 Clean coo
226、king access rate evolution by selected country in the Stated Policies Scenario,2015-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Many countries in Asia see continued progress like last decade,while few African countries accelerate beyond historic trends in the STEPS AngolaBeninBotswanaBurundiCameroonCongoCte dIvoireDem.Repub
227、lic of the CongoEthiopiaGabonGhanaGuinea-BissauKenyaMadagascarMalawiMaliMauritaniaMozambiqueNamibiaNigerNigeriaRwandaSenegalSomaliaTanzaniaUgandaZambiaZimbabweBangladeshChinaIndiaIndonesiaPakistanPhilippinesViet Nam20%40%60%80%100%201520222030 STEPSDeveloping Asiasub-Saharan AfricaIEA.CC BY 4.0.36 I
228、nternational Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All 2.3 Reaching clean cooking access for all Achieving universal access to clean cooking by 2030 requires scaling success stories to every country facing a gap today.To achieve universal clean cooking by 2030 and meet the SDG7 target,
229、clean cooking access would need to be provided to 1.2 billion people in sub-Saharan Africa by 2030,and roughly the same number other countries without universal clean cooking access.This means around 300 million people each year will need to gain access to clean cooking.To reach this pace,sub-Sahara
230、n Africa and developing Asia would both need to replicate the best single year progress seen in each country last decade.This rate would need to be repeated each year until 2030(Figure 2.4).Improvement rates will need to be much higher in rural areas,where 75%of those without clean cooking access re
231、side today.Figure 2.4 Number of people gaining access to clean cooking by region,best historic rates and the Access for All scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.By 2030,1.2 billion Africans gain access to clean cooking in the Access for All scenario,comparable to the people who gained access outside of Africa in
232、the last decade Note:Rest of world excludes sub-Saharan Africa.The category“best rate of historic improvements for 10 years”reflects the single best historic year of providing clean cooking access for each country and assumes this is repeated for 10 years as a representative point of comparison for
233、the level of effort required to reach SDG7.In the Access for All scenario,LPG remains the leading fuel for providing clean cooking reaching 45%of those gaining access by 2030(Figure 2.5).Electricity represents 12%of those gaining access with around 10%from other sources like bioethanol and biogas.Up
234、 to 2030,improved cookstoves(ICS)provide a first transitional step to clean cooking for one third of households,providing meaningful benefits as a fast and feasible solution for rural households where infrastructure will be slow to reach.5001 0001 500sub-Saharan AfricaOther regionssub-Saharan Africa
235、Other regionsBest rate of historicimprovement for 10 years2020-2030Million peopleIndiaChinaIndonesiaSub-Saharan AfricaOther AsiaRest of worldRest of worldIndonesiaChinaIndiaOther AsiaIEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2|Outlook for clean cooking 37 2 In the Access for All scenario,urban households gain clean coo
236、king access primarily through LPG and electricity,together accounting for over 95%of the viable options in most households and communities.Bioethanol plays a role in African cities where distributors are already set up,such as in Nairobi,and nearby regions where they are expected to expand.ICS deplo
237、yment in urban areas is very limited as firewood and charcoal vendors in urban areas often sell at prices that,on a per meal basis,are commensurate or higher to LPG or electric cooking.Figure 2.5 Share of population gaining access and population by primary cooking by technology in the Access for All
238、 scenario,2022-2030.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Displacing the traditional use of biomass for cooking involves a scale up of LPG,electricity and modern bioenergy.Note:ICS=Improved Biomass Cookstoves(ISO Tier 3).EMDE=Emerging market and developing economies.In rural areas,LPG continues to play a substantial role,p
239、roviding access to around a third,especially households near roads that allow easy delivery and access to fuelling stations.Electric clean cooking provides access to 5%of rural households in the Access for All scenario,often following along with parallel efforts to extend electricity access in rural
240、 areas.Biogas digesters also present an important clean cooking option for rural households where available animal waste enables the production of enough biogas.However,due to a mixture of infrastructure and affordability challenges,ICS play a role in a significant portion of rural households as a t
241、ransitional solution,especially in sub-Saharan Africa.These stoves are more efficient,burn less wood,and emit less harmful smoke than a traditional cook stove or“three-stone”fire.By the end of the decade,around 45%of rural households without access today switch to ICS in the Access for All scenario,
242、most prominently in sub-Saharan Africa.After 2030,consumers gradually shift to modern cooking services,as they become more accessible and affordable for rural households.6%17%29%25%23%Natural gas025%50%75%100%EMDESub-SaharanAfricarest of EMDEMillion peopleICSBiogas and ethanolLPGElectrici
243、tyPeople gaining access(right axis)People gaining access 2022-2030Primary cooking source in EMDE,2030IEA.CC BY 4.0.38 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All Figure 2.6 People gaining access to clean cooking in the Access for All scenario by 2030 in sub-Saharan Africa I
244、EA.CC BY 4.0.Settlements closer to urban areas gain access mainly with LPG and electricity,while in rural areas modern bioenergy solutions still play an important role to 2030 Note:The map shows the spatial distribution of stoves across the region and does not necessarily give a fair representation
245、of the population shares as population densities vary vastly across the region.Source:IEA and KTH analysis based on the OnStove tool.Natural gas is a major fuel for cooking in many parts of the world today but is likely to play a small role in providing first access to people switching from traditio
246、nal and basic cooking means by the end of the decade.A lack of natural gas storage and distribution systems in many urban areas in Africa and developing Asia make LPG a lower cost solution than building new pipelines.In regions without heating demand,the economic case for natural gas pipeline expans
247、ion remains limited.Even in sub-Saharan African countries developing new natural gas production,gas is often prioritised for power generation and industrial production in the IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2|Outlook for clean cooking 39 2 Access for All scenario.Where natural gas is already a prominent cooki
248、ng fuel,it continues to play a prominent role in cooking in 2030.Each country has different circumstances based on its geography,natural resources,and energy policies.As such,governments can shape which cooking solutions are best based on policy objectives and natural capital.Geospatial analysis hig
249、hlights which regions are most likely to select which set of cooking solutions across Africa based on consumer benefits,costs,and access to key infrastructure,which are reflected in the mix seen in the Access for All scenario(Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6).Geospatial data and tools,which became a best p
250、ractice for electrification planning,has recently been explored for clean cooking planning to identify target markets and help support national governments in improving access,as well nurturing a growing number of clean cooking companies in Africa.An in-depth discussion on key clean cooking solution
251、s can be found in section 2.4 of this chapter.2.3.1 Energy implications The Access for All scenario minimally increases the total demand for modern energy,while greatly reducing fuelwood and charcoal consumption.In emerging market and developing economies,the universal access of clean cooking result
252、s in a 3%increase in total energy supply for modern fuels,while demand for solid biomass falls 50%.This is significant for a number of least developed countries,where 90%of their total energy supply today comes from biomass,mostly for clean cooking.This is because cooking over an open fire or tradit
253、ional stoves is very inefficient,generating a significant amount of waste heat during combustion with much of it failing to reach the cooking vessel.The increase in modern cooking fuel demand can be handled by existing infrastructure in many places but can be significant in certain regions.This is n
254、otably true in sub-Saharan Africa(Figure 2.7).By 2030 in sub-Saharan Africa,LPG demand for cooking in the Access for All scenario is expected to grow three-fold from todays levels while the increase in electricity demand for cooking to drive total electricity final consumption up by 16%.Demand for b
255、ioethanol and biogas also grows substantially in sub-Saharan,but has fewer implications for energy infrastructure.Meeting expanding demand requires investment in upstream capacity across the African continent.For LPG,this is largely in the form of cylinders,bottling plants,distribution infrastructur
256、e,transport,terminals,and storage.Countries refining crude oil or producing wet gas natural gas with high shares of liquids such as ethane,propane and butane may produce LPG,including Uganda,Nigeria and Mozambique.In other countries,import and storage facilities have already been developed or reache
257、d investment decisions,such as in Kenya and South Africa.LPG refilling and distribution infrastructure requirements depend highly on whether companies adopt a cylinder exchange model or operate customer-owned cylinder models.Regulations and consumer preferences will shape this on a country-by-countr
258、y basis.IEA.CC BY 4.0.40 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All Figure 2.7 Growth in cooking energy demand by fuel in the Access for All scenario,2022-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Reaching universal access to clean cooking contributes little to rising energy demand but does impl
259、y a 3-fold increase in LPG supply in sub-Saharan Africa.Notes:SSA=sub-Saharan Africa;EMDE=emerging market and developing economies;Modern energy includes LPG,electricity,biogas and ethanol.Growth is over the period 2022 to 2030 as compared to 2022 levels.Increased electricity demand from cooking in
260、the Access for All scenario does not,by itself,necessitate additional generating capacity to cope with rising demand.However,local distribution grid upgrades and increasing the reliability of household connections will be an important enabler for widespread electric cooking.Investments are also need
261、ed to improve grid reliability more broadly,which remains very low in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa today and presents a major barrier to consumer uptake of electric cooking(as discussed in section 2.4).Bioethanol production facilities would also need to grow,as well as the deployment of biog
262、as.Bioethanol facilities are currently operating in Ghana,Malawi,Mozambique,Ethiopia,Zimbabwe,Kenya,and Uganda,with some of these already contracted to provide bioethanol to clean cooking firms.Nigeria and South Africa have committed publicly to develop new bioethanol facilities to come online in th
263、e next few years.The opportunity in the region to exploit existing and potential sugar and starch resources is high.Centralised biogas production blended into natural gas systems are on the rise globally,however,to provide clean cooking access,these require distributed biodigesters installed on prem
264、ises in farming communities.Building up biodigester supply chains will be key and could leverage the momentum of emergent companies proposing pre-fabricated digesters.100%200%300%400%500%100 200 300 400 500SSA EMDEIncrease in final consumption due to cooking(right axis)PJLPG4%8%12%16%20%200 400 600
265、8001 000SSA EMDEElectricityPJ20%40%60%80%100%400 8001 2001 6002 000SSA EMDEPJModern energyIEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2|Outlook for clean cooking 41 2 2.3.2 Investment Total investment in clean cooking access is substantially lower than what is required to deliver on broader climate and energy objectives.
266、Today,clean cooking investments are around USD 2.5 billion annually.In the Access for All scenario,this would need to rise to USD 8 billion annually between now and 2030 requiring a cumulative investment of around USD 60 billion(Figure 2.8).Africa makes up around half of these investment needs,stand
267、ing at almost USD 4 billion annually.Despite having the largest clean cooking budget shortfall,only 7%of the historic investments in clean cooking have flowed to Africa in the last 5 years.Figure 2.8 Annnnual investments required in the Access for All scenario by 2030IEA.CC BY 4.0.Annual investments
268、 need to reach USD 8 billion per year until 2030 to achieve access for all,half of which would be in Africa.Most of the investment need is for stoves.Note:End-use equipment includes stoves,gas cylinders,and biodigesters.Infrastructure includes that for LPG(e.g.,importing storage units,refilling stat
269、ions,bottling facilities,etc.)and the consumer connection cost for electricity(e.g.,connection to the grid or an off-grid system).Investment figures include upfront costs only and exclude fuel,energy and operation costs.LPG infrastructure represent the bulk of infrastructure investments as electrici
270、ty infrastructure is often being expanded to support other end-uses than cooking.The required investments in clean cooking through the rest of this decade will need to be split between stoves,accompanying equipment and supporting infrastructure to ensure continued delivery.Roughly 80%of the total in
271、vestment goes into providing stoves and equipment.The remainder is designated for infrastructure,largely to serve LPG delivery with a smaller share for electricity.This does not account for the investments needed to build up clean cook stove supply chains.In some regions,repurposing closed refinerie
272、s and ports can help alleviate this cost,as was the case in Kenyas retired Mombasa refining facility.Grid reliability upgrades and capacity development to support electric cooking should happen alongside efforts for reaching universal access to electricity.24-30Billion USDSub-SaharanA
273、fricaRest of worldBy regionBy asset,2023-2030End-use equipment79%Infrastructure21%IEA.CC BY 4.0.42 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All Many consumers without access today may be unable to afford the upfront costs for the stoves and associated equipment,even is many
274、payback within a few years when compared to using purchased charcoal.For Africans in extreme poverty,the upfront cost for these stoves can be 1-2 months of income depending on technology,and much higher for the installation of a biodigester.While not considered in the investment cost presented above
275、,additional end-use financial mechanisms would likely be needed to help consumers afford LPG or electricity for cooking.Ongoing fuel costs would be far higher than the upfront cost of stoves.In the Access for All scenario,those gaining access would spend around USD 100 billion annually by 2030 on fu
276、el if they were not subsidised in some way.LPG subsidies and electric cooking tariffs would be essential for many households to manage costs and prevent backsliding amidst fluctuating fuel prices(see Chapter 3).2.3.3 Environment The switch to clean cooking fuels and technologies by 2030 is a no-regr
277、ets option when considered through a climate lens.Inefficient combustion of wood,charcoal,dung and crop residues releases methane and nitrogen oxide,greenhouse gases more potent than CO2,and other polluting agents.Moreover,traditional use of biomass is also a major source of black carbon,which is a
278、short-lived aerosol with a very high global warming potential,that could be avoided by delivering universal clean cooking access.In Africa,the switch to clean cooking delivers reductions in net greenhouse gas emissions in virtually every contexteven before the emission impacts of unsustainable harve
279、sting or black carbon emissions are factored in(Figure 2.9).Using LPG stoves also directly emits half the GHG than the traditional use of biomass in average.LPG also offers a cleaner alternative to other hydrocarbon liquid fuels such as kerosene,with GHG emissions estimated to be between 15-18%lower
280、.Improved biomass cookstoves reduce GHG emissions by reducing the amount of fuel burned to cook the same meal.Deploying improved stoves today could reduce fuel use by 20-75%,but even tier 2 commercial stoves present significantly higher efficiencies than the lower end of the range.The switch to biog
281、as can bring additional climate benefits by capturing methane released from decomposition of biomass.The switch to electric cooking reduces emissions in countries with low-emitting generation,but in countries with coal-intensive power sectors,like India,Indonesia,and China,a move toward electric coo
282、king could today increase emissions.Prioritising efficient electric cooking reduces the risk of increasing emissions,and electrification in the long-run leads to emission reductions as the power mix shifts to greater shares of renewables.The number of countries in Africa where switching to electric
283、cooking could increase emissions is limited.Based on current energy mix and load profiles,the switch from traditional use of biomass to electric hot plates in South Africa,Botswana,and Niger would increase direct greenhouse gas emissions,while the switch to induction stoves would increase in emissio
284、ns only in Botswana.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2|Outlook for clean cooking 43 2 The climate impact of the traditional use of biomass is not solely the result of combustion in the cooking process.The methods of collecting fuel feedstock place heavy strains on natural assets and also contribute substantial
285、ly to the overall intensity of the fuel source.For example,traditional use of biomass where wood is unsustainably gathered from chopping down trees in forest areas is over 7 times more GHG intensive than if the biomass were sustainably harvested alongside conservation and replanting programmes.Resea
286、rchers estimate around one third of wood fuel harvesting is unsustainable,and more than 275 million people live in locations where such practices are widespread.The share of firewood collection that is unsustainable varies greatly from region to region,due to differing forest stock,climate and volum
287、es gathered,with regions like East Africa and the Sahel prone to higher levels of deforestation due to firewood gathering.These hotspot regions are among the fastest growing in the world,leading to the share of biomass that is unsustainably harvested growing into the future.Removing traditional use
288、of biomass from the cooking equation would also mitigate threats to local biodiversity,with a number of species now considered endangered,largely due to the destruction of natural habitats.Figure 2.9 LCA GHG emissions from cooking a meal by fuel in Africa,2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Traditional use of biomas
289、s is on average more than two times as intensive as LPG,but can be more than fifteen-times if the biomass is harvested unsustainably Notes:“Maximum if unsustainable biomass harvest”includes the CO2 emissions from the combustion of biomass,as no regrowth occurs to allow for reabsorption.Dots showing
290、GHG emissions from electric cooking represent selected African countries at 2022 grid LCA emission factors.When deforestation is factored in,achieving universal clean cooking globally could save annually around 1.5 Gt CO2-eq by 2030,roughly equivalent to the CO2 emitted by all planes and ships today
291、.Sub-Saharan Africa reduces its emissions by around 900 MtCO2-eq (Figure 2.10).Just above half of this is from direct GHG emissions reductions from avoided 246810Traditionaluseof biomassImprovedbiomasscookstovesLPGBiogas andbio-ethanolElectrickg COeq/mealClean stovesTraditionalstovesMaximum if unsus
292、tainable biomass harvest IEA.CC BY 4.0.44 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All combustion of biomass in traditional stoves,with avoided unsustainable harvesting contributing around 47%of these reductions to 2030.The traditional use of biomass is also a major source o
293、f black carbon emissions,a short-lived aerosol with high global warming impact if included the avoided CO2eq savings would be even larger.By 2030,thanks to the achievement of universal cleaner cooking access and the related limitations of unsustainable harvesting,225 million hectares of forest is sa
294、ved in the Access for All scenario with more than 55%of this in Africa.The clear environmental and climate benefits of switching to clean cooking make all cleaner cooking technologies,including LPG prime candidates for attracting climate finance and carbon offset credits.Leveraging both these tools
295、would provide a channel for international private capital as investors seek returns in environmentally sustainable activities.Figure 2.10 Net GHG emissions annual savings from clean cooking access in the Access for All scenario by 2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Achieving universal clean cooking access reduces G
296、HG emissions by 800 Mt CO2-eq in 2030,additional 700 Mt CO2-eq are saved thanks to avoided unsustainable harvesting.Notes:Additional GHG emissions refers to increase in GHG emissions from population gaining access.Avoided emissions refers to GHG emissions saved from avoided combustion of biomass,coa
297、l and kerosene.GHG emissions shown in the graph exclude black carbon,a short-lived but high global warming potential emitted aerosol.Methane emissions from biomass relies on the upper range IPCC emission factor for biomass combustion,reflecting higher levels of incomplete combustion in traditional s
298、toves.These values differ from the Global Methane Tracker,which uses the mid-range IPCC emissions factor per report conventions.Source:IEA analysis,IIASA modelling.2.3.4 Health and gender Reaching universal access to clean cooking brings substantial benefits to human health and productivity.By 2030,
299、the reduction in household air pollution due to shifts in clean cooking-1.6-1.2-0.8-0.40 0.4AddiitonalemissionsAvoidedemissionsNetsavingsAddiitonalemissionsAvoidedemissionsNetsavingsCombustionUnsustainable harvestingGt CO-eqWorldSub-Saharan AfricaAvoided emissions:IEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2|Outlook for
300、 clean cooking 45 2 reduces premature deaths by about 2.5 million in the Access for All scenario(Figure 2.11).This contributes to reductions in medical costs and lost productivity due to respiratory illnesses,which today are assessed at roughly USD 1.4 trillion annually.The time savings related to r
301、educed firewood and fuel gathering,tending to fires,and cooking is also considerable,dropping by roughly two thirds.The average household saves around 1.5 hours each day,which by 2030 frees up time equivalent to the hours worked each year by a labour force the size of Japans.Time freed can lead to m
302、eaningful increases in economic productivity but requires parallel efforts to extend remunerated employment opportunities to remote communities in parallel.Women stand to benefit the most from this additional time,pursuing education,employment,civic engagement,or taking other roles to support their
303、families and communities.Many of these women also play a key role in expanding clean cooking access to other households(see Chapter 3 on Managing social impacts of clean cooking).Figure 2.11 Time saved in fuel gathering,fire tending,and cooking;and reduction in premature deaths due to household air
304、quality globally in the Access for All scenario,2022-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Reaching clean cooking for all brings significant health and social benefits 2.3.5 The pathway post-2030 As governments design their clean cooking strategies,they must consider the future evolution of cooking energy needs:how ca
305、n they continue to shift people away from charcoal and wood to modern energy?How do supply chains built today continue to support evolving energy needs?And how to ensure choices today consider the need to address climate change?0 1 2 3 4202320252030Premature deathsMillion-16%-67%100 200 300 400 500
306、600 700202320252030Million hoursCumulative hours saved per day-20%-66%IEA.CC BY 4.0.46 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All The pathway after 2030 in the Access for All scenario prioritises the transition away from fuelwood and charcoal,even in improved cookstoves,to
307、 modern energy cooking solutions,which is achieved around 2040.Continued urbanisation naturally brings more people onto electric and LPG cooking,but another 80 million people in rural areas would need to switch to modern energy stoves and fuels each year after 2030.Most of them switch to LPG and ele
308、ctricity(Figure 2.12).Figure 2.12 Primary cooking fuel by share of population in the Access for All scenario in emerging market and developing economies,2020-2050 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Every household has access to modern cookstoves by 2040.Electric cooking becomes the norm,but gas and liquid cooking fuels
309、persist,albeit increasingly lower emissions Note:ICS=Improved Biomass cookstove(Tier 3.Other modern biofuels includes gaseous and liquid modern biofuels(e.g.biogas,bio-methane,ethanol,and bioLPG).Consumers with proven,reliable access to electricity,will increasingly cook with it.By 2050,electric coo
310、king is expected to meet around three quarters of total cooking needs in emerging market and developing economies in the Access for All scenario.While initially concentrated in urban centres,electric cooking appliances see uptake in rural households,but depending on the region and local cuisines,con
311、tinue to be used in parallel with other cooking solutions.Global supply chains for stoves are set to increasingly shift toward electric in light of global policy efforts to address climate change,which contributes to falling costs for induction cookstoves and other energy-efficient appliances.Despit
312、e the rising share of electric cooking,the role for liquid and gaseous fuels for cooking remains substantial to 2050,however with increased blending with bio-derived alternatives such as bioethanol,biogas,and bioLPG(Figure 2.12).Accordingly,infrastructure built today will see use well past 2040 in t
313、he Access for All scenario,diminishing concerns of stranded assets.Todays existing natural gas infrastructure also sees continued use delivering 20%40%60%80%100%2020202520302035204020452050Other pollutantsTraditional biomassOther cleanICSOther modern biofuelsNatural GasLPGElectricityIEA.CC BY 4.0.Ch
314、apter 2|Outlook for clean cooking 47 2 commercial scale biogas and biomethane production to be injected in distribution pipelines.Efforts can be accelerated to entirely shift liquid and gas fuels to bioenergy.Such a pathway would be compatible with reaching global net zero energy emissions by 2050.T
315、hese evolutions in cooking habits require additional policy efforts to realise.The total investment cost for shifting consumers away from ICS from 2030-40 is roughly USD 1.5 billion per year.Further policy efforts would be required to shift cooking trends toward one compatible with net zero emission
316、s by 2050.2.4 Key clean cooking technologies Each clean cooking alternative comes with opportunities and challenges,which countries must weigh when designing their own clean cooking strategies.This section provides a primer on each technology,highlighting the major barriers to scaling up deployment
317、of each.Liquified petroleum gas LPG has been the fuel of choice for many countries to rollout clean cooking to large swathes of their population.Portable,a natural by-product of gas production and oil refining,it presents a reliable,low-cost solution that can be scaled quickly.Roughly 70%of those ga
318、ining access to clean cooking since 2010 did so through LPG.In the Access for All scenario,around half of those without clean cooking access gain it by 2030 using LPG.However,this rapid uptake,often at subsidised rates,creates energy security risks and import burdens.For instance,Indonesia went from
319、 an exporter to a net importer of LPG in 2008.The country now imports around 6 500 kt of LPG a year,which at current market rates is USD 3.5 billion a year.Reducing financial incentives has proven to be unpopular and often obliges household to revert to cooking with traditional biomass stoves,as see
320、n in Kenya,where a value added tax discount for the fuel was removed in 2021 and reinstated in 2023.When international LPG prices doubled in 2022 the knock on effects for food and other basic goods was a catalyst for pushing up to 100 million people back into using traditional fuels for cooking.Pric
321、es have since decreased substantially returning to pre-Covid levels,with a stable outlook projected on the horizon.Still,the recent price shocks have led countries to pursue strategies to reduce their exposure to global LPG markets and shield users from price spikes.Some countries have looked to div
322、ersify by pursuing electric cooking programmes in parallel,as is the case in Indonesia,Morocco,and Ecuador.Countries with oil refining and gas production have sought to increase domestic LPG production to supply clean cooking programmes in their country and the surrounding region.Maintaining strateg
323、ic LPG reserves could theoretically help reduce market volatility,but proves difficult as it requires special storage facilities,which can be costly to maintain for long periods of time.In the Access for All scenario,global LPG demand increases can readily be met by projected production.While market
324、s are set to remain well supplied,accelerating clean cooking IEA.CC BY 4.0.48 International Energy Agency|A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All deployment could create new import liabilities for a number of countries.This risk can be marked in sub-Saharan Africa,which is already a net importer o
325、f LPG,after a brief period of being an exporter in the 2000s.In 2020,LPG net imports stood at around 35%of total demand(Figure 2.13).By 2030,in the Access for All scenario,LPG demand for cooking will climb to just under 0.35 million barrels per day annually.If Africas gas production and oil refineri
326、es continue to produce similar shares of LPG by 2030,domestic production would stand at roughly one quarter of this demand.Much of Africas LPG production is propane,whereas LPG used in Africa requires a higher share of butane to ensure safe storage in hot climates.Accordingly,much of the propane pro
327、duced in Africa is allocated for export while butane is largely imported for blending.Figure 2.13 Sub-Saharan African LPG production and consumption for cooking in the Access for All scenario,historic and 2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.LPG demand increased 5-fold in sub-Saharan Africa since 2000 with net import
328、s covering 35%of demand in 2020.Demand then triples to 2030 in the Access for All scenario.LPG has also faced scrutiny as a fossil fuel,amid concerns over whether LPG deployment poses an impediment to achieving climate ambitions.The switch to LPG from the traditional use of biomass represents a net
329、reduction in greenhouse gas emissions in virtually all contexts.Despite proven reductions,LPG has remained ineligible for international offsets,eliminating a possible revenue stream to expand clean cooking projects.On the path to net-zero emissions,LPG cooking would gradually be reduced and replaced
330、 with BioLPG,an alternative source of the same fuel supplied from local municipal solid wastes and agricultural residues,which can make use of the same infrastructure.Major European,American and Canadian LPG companies have provided funding for different types 0.050.100.150.200.250.300.35200020052010
331、20152020Production in refineriesProduction associated to gasNet importsTotal final consumptionmbdSupply2030DemandIEA.CC BY 4.0.Chapter 2|Outlook for clean cooking 49 2 of bioLPG research and are preparing to commit to first generation plants in advanced economies.Electric Cooking In the Access for A
332、ll scenario,electric cooking provides first-time access to one in eight people gaining clean cooking,largely via hotplates,induction plates and other e-cooking appliances.Many more also supplement their primary cookstove with electric secondary solutions,such as microwaves,kettles,electric pressure
333、cookers.Households with access today increasing adopt these appliances as they offer great convenience,especially for staple grains that require long cook times.By 2030 in the Access for All scenario,one quarter of the population in emerging market and developing economies cook with electricity,with this sharing growing past the 50%mark in the late 2030s.Figure 2.14 Electricity access and electric