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1、Closing the gap for SDG 7 in the Asia-Pacific regionREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2023*The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations conc

2、erning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The shaded areas of the map indicate ESCAP members and associate members.*The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)is the most in

3、clusive intergovernmental platform in the Asia-Pacific region.The Commission promotes cooperation among its 53 member States and 9 associate members in pursuit of solutions to sustainable development challenges.ESCAP is one of the five regional commissions of the United Nations.The ESCAP secretariat

4、 supports inclusive,resilient and sustainable development in the region by generating action-oriented knowledge,and by providing technical assistance and capacity-building services in support of national development objectives,regional agreements and the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustain

5、able Development.United Nations publication Sales no.:E.23.II.F.10Copyright United Nations 2023All rights reservedISBN:9789210029292e-ISBN:9789213584828ISSN:2618-107Xe-ISSN:2618-1088ST/ESCAP/3097This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational or non-profit purposes without spe

6、cial permission from the copyright holder,provided that the source is acknowledged.The ESCAP Publications Office would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.Use may not be made of this publication for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever w

7、ithout prior permission.Applications for such permission,with a statement of the purpose and extent of reproduction,should be addressed to the Secretary of the Publications Board,United Nations,New York.The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply t

8、he expression of any opinion on the part of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontier or boundaries.Photo credits:forrest9/iStock(884637972)fokkebok/iStock(1215198520)Kat72/iStock(50727777

9、)aapsky/iStock(1397078816)Ralf Hahn/iStock(464326357)SCM Jeans/iStock(1621949846)DKsamco/iStock(507305500)SlobodanMiljevic/iStock(1211557085)Thinnapob/iStock(1310384629)Closing the gap for SDG 7 in the Asia-Pacific regionREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2023Acknowledgemen

10、tsThis report was developed by the Energy Division of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)under the overall direction and guidance of Hongpeng Liu,Director of the Energy Division,and Michael Williamson,Chief of Sustainable Energy Development and Utilization Section,the

11、Energy Division,ESCAP.The principal authors of the report were David Ferrari,Michael David Waldron and Kimberly Roseberry.The contributors from the Energy Division were Michael Williamson and Sergey Tulinov.The peer review and valuable suggestions were provided by Sustainable Energy for All and the

12、International Renewable Energy Agency.Alan Cooper edited the manuscript.The cover and design layout were created by Lowil Espada.Administrative and secretarial support was provided by Korakot Chunprapaph,Prachakporn Sophon,Nawaporn Sunkpho and Thiraya Tangkawattana.The Communications and Knowledge M

13、anagement Section(CKMS)of ESCAP coordinated the dissemination of the report.CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2023iiForewordAs the world faces multiple overlapping crises,countries of the Asia-Pacific region continue thei

14、r efforts to implement the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.In this final decade of action on the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs),these efforts have a particular urgency.While all the SDGs are important,making progress towards SDG 7 on affordable and clean energy is critical,as energy is

15、at the centre of the sustainable development process,presenting linkages across many other SDGs.As energy sector emissions are the key drivers of climate change,the success of the Paris Agreement hinges on the speed of energy decarbonization in this region.The past few years have taught us that ener

16、gy is a sector in which many negative impacts stemming from the current global crises are experienced,such as rising prices and energy security concerns.Sustainable energy,however,holds many solutions from renewable energy to energy efficiency and cross-border power system connectivity that can lead

17、 to lower costs,diversified portfolios and enhanced security.Against this backdrop,this flagship report,part of the annual Regional Trends series,is an important contribution towards understanding these challenges and opportunities.The report examines progress made by Asian and Pacific countries tow

18、ards achieving SDG 7 and reviews the ways in which countries of the region can prepare to reach net-zero emissions by mid-century.By assessing progress at country and regional levels,it presents a comprehensive regional picture of the principal SDG 7 gaps and outlines key policy directions for membe

19、r States to consider.Much more needs to be done to bridge these gaps and bring SDG 7 achievement closer.ESCAP is committed to working with all member States to build an energy system that is more sustainable,resilient,secure and interconnected.The report is being released prior to the Third Asian an

20、d Pacific Energy Forum(APEF3)in October 2023 to support deliberations on regional cooperation on energy.The theme of APEF3 “Building a secure,sustainable and interconnected energy future for Asia and the Pacific”encapsulates a vision that brings together sustainability,regional cooperation and resil

21、ience for the regions energy future.It is hoped that this report can provide a stepping stone towards achieving this vision.Armida Salsiah Alisjahbana Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations and Executive Secretary of ESCAP iiiCHAPTER 1CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 3Acknowledgements iiForeword iiiList of f

22、igures,tables and boxes viContentsSustainable Energy Development:Situation and Trends 9The energy situation:a status update for the Asia-Pacific region and across the globe 9Overview of energy situation by subregion 13Synergies between Sustainable Development Goal 7 and the rest of the Sustainable D

23、evelopment Agenda 15Progress in emissions and climate ambition 17Renewed energy security concerns amid a volatile economic and energy market backdrop 19Abbreviations and acronyms viiiExecutive summary 1Introduction 6The Asia-Pacific Regions Sustainable Energy Progress and Outlook at the Halfway Poin

24、t of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 21Progress towards realizing Sustainable Development Goal 7 21Progress towards universal energy access 24Progress in renewable energy 31Progress in energy efficiency 38OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGI

25、ON 44Overview of policy solutions for sustainable energy development 44Promoting system integration through digitalization 47Focus on cross border connectivity 49Managing access to critical raw materials to enable energy transition 54Ensuring transitions are just and people-centered as countries shi

26、ft from coal 55Aligning clean energy development with local environmental and community priorities 57CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2023ivCHAPTER 4CHAPTER 5IMPACTS OF OVERLAPPING CRISES ON ENERGY TRANSITIONS 60Energy i

27、mpacts of the COVID-19 pandemic 61Challenges for a sustainable recovery economic constraints and fossil fuel led rebound 62Challenges for a sustainable recovery energy crisis and new energy security risks 64Implications for just and inclusive transitions new affordability pressures 66Opportunities f

28、or secure and sustainable development policy and planning strategies 70CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 74Annex 1:Key energy indicators by subregion 79Annex 2:Pathways to limiting global warming to 1.5C for the five largest emitters in the region 83References 85 vList of figures,tables and boxesList

29、of FiguresFigure ES1 Energy supply by product in Asia and the Pacific 2Figure ES2 Population without access to electricity(millions),2021 3Figure ES3 Population without primary reliance on clean cooking fuels and technologies,2021 3Figure 1 Energy supply by product in Asia and the Pacific 10Figure 2

30、 Final consumption by sector in Asia and the Pacific 11Figure 3 Sustainable Development Goal 7 progress globally and in the Asia-Pacific region 12Figure 4(a)Asia-Pacific primary energy supply by product,2020;and(b)Carbon dioxide from fuel combustion,2020 18Figure 5 Greenhouse gas emissions scenario

31、with compounded nationally determined contributions and carbon neutral pledges for the Asia-Pacific region,(GtCO2e),19902060 19Figure 6 Indexed price trend for global energy commodities 20Figure 7 Sustainable Development Goal 7 indicators(a)7.1.1 rate of access to electricity;(b)rate of access to cl

32、ean cooking;(c)renewable energy share of total final energy consumption;and(d)energy intensity of primary energy progress in the Asia-Pacific compared to global progress 22Figure 8 Energy investment by technology in Asia-Pacific countries 23Figure 9 Regional progress in energy access:(a)access to el

33、ectricity;and(b)access to clean cooking fuels and technologies 24Figure 10 Share of population with access to electricity,by subregion,2021 25Figure 11(a)Population without access to electricity(millions),2021;and(b)Economies with lowest rates of electrification,2021 25Figure 12 Cooking fuels,by typ

34、e,2019 28Figure 13 Annual gains in population with access to clean cooking,2000-2021 29Figure 14 Percentage of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies,by subregion,2021 30Figure 15(a)Economies with lowest rates of clean cooking reliance,2021;and(b)Population without primary

35、reliance on clean cooking fuels and technologies,2021 30Figure 16(a)Renewable energy and modern renewables as a share of total final energy consumption in Asia and the Pacific(b)Modern renewable energy share in each of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific subregions 32Figure 1

36、7 Renewable energy capacity by resource in 2010 and 2021,in gigawatts 33Figure 18 Annual renewable energy capacity additions by resource in 2010,2015 and 2021 34Figure 19 Estimated global average levelized cost of energy from various sources 35Figure 20 Planned investments in large-scale hydrogen pr

37、ojects,by stage of investment 37Figure 21 Asia-Pacific growth rate of primary energy intensity,by period,and global 20212030 Sustainable Development Goals and net-zero targets 39Figure 22 Final energy intensity of transport in Asia-Pacific subregions and motorization rate of select countries 41Figur

38、e 23 Share of electric vehicles in 2021 passenger vehicle sales compared with announced share ambitions for select countries 42Figure 24 Regulatory Indicators for Sustainable Energy scores for countries of the Asia-Pacific region 45Figure 25 The nine strategies of the Regional Road Map on Power Grid

39、 Connectivity 50Figure 26 International public financial flows to developing countries in Asia and the Pacific in support of clean energy research and renewable energy production,by subregion 52Figure 27 Total critical raw materials demand for clean energy technologies by scenario 54Figure 28 Intern

40、ational Framework for Supporting Energy Transition in Coal Regions 56Figure 29 Trends in Asia-Pacific total final consumption by sub-region and by sector 61CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2023viFigure 30 Recovery fiscal

41、 spending in 2021as a share of gross domestic product(left)and green component of spending(right)for select economies 62Figure 31 Total energy supply by product(left)and CO2 emissions from fuel combustion in Asia and the Pacific(right)63Figure 32 Energy trade balance(net exports/imports)as a share o

42、f total energy supply for select Asia-Pacific economies,2019 65Figure 33 Monthly liquefied natural gas net imports by region(left)and top Asia-Pacific countries developing liquefied natural gas import terminals(right)66Figure 34 Annual change in average consumer energy,water and housing prices in se

43、lect Asia-Pacific countries,second half of 2022 67Figure 35 Fossil fuel subsidies as a share of gross domestic product in select Asia-Pacific countries 68Figure 36 Changes in interest rates and impact on levelized cost of electricity for new onshore wind for select countries,20212022 69Figure 37 Per

44、cent change in annual wind and solar photovoltaic capacity net additions,2022 versus 2019,for select countries 72Figure 38 Energy supply by product in East and North-East Asia,North and Central Asia,the Pacific,South and South-West Asia,and South-East Asia 79Figure 39 Final consumption by sector in

45、East and North-East Asia,North and Central Asia,the Pacific,South and South-West Asia,and South-East Asia 80Figure 40 Share of population with access to electricity,by subregion 81Figure 41 East and North-East Asia,North and Central Asia,the Pacific,South and South-West Asia,and South-East Asia 82Fi

46、gure 42 A pathway to delivering Chinas contribution to limiting global warming to 1.5C 83Figure 43 A pathway to delivering Indias contribution to limiting global warming to 1.5C 83Figure 44 A pathway to delivering Japans contribution to limiting global warming to 1.5C 84Figure 45 A pathway to delive

47、ring Republic of Koreas contribution to limiting global warming to 1.5C 84Figure 46 A pathway to delivering Indonesias contribution to limiting global warming to 1.5C 84List of tablesTable 1 Relationships between Sustainable Development Goal 7 and the other Sustainable Development Goals 15Table 2 Mu

48、lti-Tier Framework for Measuring of Electricity Access 26List of boxesBox 1 Sustainable Development Goal 7 road maps 14Box 2 Defining“clean cooking”27Box 3 Gender impacts of Sustainable Development Goal 7 30Box 4 Hydrogen development in Asia and the Pacific 36Box 5 New frontiers of cooperation on en

49、ergy 46Box 6 How could changing macrofinancial conditions affect financing for Sustainable Development Goal 7 targets?69 viiAbbreviations and acronymsADBAsian Development BankAIMSASEAN Interconnection Masterplan StudyAPECAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation APEFAsia and Pacific Energy ForumAPGASEAN Pow

50、er Grid CCUScarbon capture utilisation and storageCO2carbon dioxideCO2-ecarbon dioxide equivalent CRMcritical raw materialsESCAPEconomic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific ESCOsenergy services companies ESMAPEnergy Sector Management Assistance ProgramEVselectric vehicles FiTfeed-in tarif

51、f GDPgross domestic product IEAInternational Energy Agency IMFInternational Monetary FundIPPindependent power producerIPCCInternational Panel on Climate Change IRENAInternational Renewable Energy AgencyISOInternational Organization for Standardization JETPJust Energy Transition PartnershipJODIJoint

52、Organisations Data Initiative kgkilogramkoekilogram oil equivalentkWhkilowatt-hours LCOElevelized cost of electricity LPGliquid propane gasLNGliquified natural gasMEPSMinimum Energy Performance Standards Mtoemillion tonnes of oil equivalent MWhmegawatt-hoursNDCsnationally determined contributions NE

53、XSTEPNational Expert SDG Tool for Energy PlanningOPERAOffice of the Pacific Energy Regulators AllianceOECDOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPVphotovoltaicRBFresults-based financingSDGsSustainable Development Goals SPCPacific Community STEMscientific,technology,engineering and mat

54、hematicsTFECtotal final energy consumption TEStotal energy supplyTWhterawatt-hoursUNDPUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUNFCCCUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change VREvariable renewable energy WHOWorld Health Organization Wpwatt-peakReferences to dollars($)are to United States doll

55、ars unless otherwise stated.CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2023viiiExecutive summaryAsia and the Pacific is at a critical juncture of the energy transition.The region is home to more than half of the worlds population,

56、consumes more than 40percent of global energy,produces more than 50percent of global greenhouse gas emissions and is undergoing rapid development.It is experiencing rapid growth in energy demand,which will continue in the coming years.This creates financial challenges,applies pressure on natural res

57、ources,strains the environment and makes it difficult for the region to meet its climate change commitments.Given recent experience,the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 7(SDG 7)ensuring access to affordable,reliable,sustainable,and modern energy for all by 2030 is challenging for the regi

58、on.Delivery of the SDG 7 targets on universal access to modern energy,energy efficiency and renewable energy hinges on scaling up investments in clean energy technologies and diverting investment away from fossil fuels.While significant progress has been made in recent years,much of the investment h

59、as been concentrated in a relatively few countries.One of the most critical remaining SDG 7 challenges is the lack of access to modern energy services.Millions of people in the region still do not have access to electricity or clean cooking fuels,which produces a series of negative consequences,incl

60、uding,among them,health impacts,environmental degradation and economic hardship.The regions energy mix is dominated by coal,oil and natural gas.This reliance contributes towards climate change and air pollution,and ongoing investment in fossil fuels will likely lead to financial burdens,including th

61、e risk of stranded assets.The phasing down of fossil fuels,particularly of coal,in a controlled and equitable manner,is central to ensuring the overall success of the energy transition.Delivering the multiple targets under SDG 7 in all countries of the region by 2030 requires a concerted effort from

62、 the stakeholders.Governments,businesses and civil society must work together to ensure universal energy access,ramp up renewable energy use and enhance energy efficiency.The objective of this report is to examine the progress made by Asia-Pacific countries towards achieving SDG 7 in the decade of a

63、ction on the SDGs.In it,key energy trends are examined,immediate challenges are reviewed and the preparation of more ambitious agendas towards net-zero emissions are assessed to give recommendations of the steps needed to be taken by stakeholders and policymakers to achieve the goal of access to aff

64、ordable,reliable,sustainable,and modern energy for all.Status and challenges to the sustainable energy transition agendaFollowing a period of rapid growth over the past two decades,the Asia-Pacific regions energy supply remains dominated by fossil fuels.In 2020,coal made up 42.2percent of the total

65、energy supply,oil 23.4percent and natural gas 19.1percent(figure ES1).With the energy sector accounting for approximately 80percent of the regions greenhouse gas emissions,a shift away from fossil fuels,the phasing down of coal use and a broad-based move towards reaching net-zero emissions by mid-ce

66、ntury across Asia and the Pacific are critical steps for putting the region and the world on track to avoid destructive climate change.Unfortunately,as the regions energy demand has increased,coal,gas and oil have been the resources of choice to underpin most of the growth over the past three decade

67、s.However,in recent years the renewable energy component of the total energy supply has also grown,and technology maturity and cost declines have spurred an acceleration in the deployment of clean technologies,which is expected to continue in the coming years.1An encouraging sign of improvements in

68、energy efficiency over the same period is the steady decline in energy intensity.However,overall regional progress in this regard falls well short of the global target of doubling the historical rate of improvement under SDG 7.Furthermore,the rate of improvement is highly varied across the region an

69、d over time,with only three ESCAP member States(China,Indonesia and Japan)recording rates in excess of the global target for energy intensity under SDG 7.Although a wide range of opportunities for improvement are available,more effort must be directed towards boosting energy efficiency by enhancing

70、the energy efficiency of appliances,buildings and industries.Meanwhile,53 million people remain without access to electricity.A large proportion of those lacking access to electricity live in one of a small number of countries(figure ES2),implying an opportunity for attaining a significant impact fr

71、om a small number of interventions in those locations.The possibilities for successful programmes have been widely demonstrated.For example,enormous impacts have been achieved in Afghanistan where the electrification rate was raised from 1.6percent in 2000 to 97.7percent in 2021 through grid extensi

72、ons and the deployment of off-grid technologies with innovative financing.The greatest obstacle to achieving SDG 7 in the Asia-Pacific region is in delivering the target of universal access to clean cooking fuels and technologies.Nearly 1.2 billion people from the region remain reliant on traditiona

73、l biomass,such as wood,animal waste and traditional charcoal,for their cooking and space heating needs.This dependence on traditional fuels compounds existing hardship,affecting gender equality,health and the environment,and cementing vast populations in ongoing poverty.The total energy supply is do

74、minated by coal,but the renewable energy component is growingEnergy supply by product in Asia and the PacificFigure ES1.Coal Oil Natural Gas Hydro Renewables(excluding hydro)NuclearThousand tonnes of oil equivalent8 000 0007 000 0006 000 0005 000 0004 000 0003 000 0002 000 0001 000 000021

75、993692000200042005200620072008200920000192020Source:ESCAP based on International Energy Agency(IEA),World Energy Statistics and Balances2After almost two decades of accelerating improvement from the start of the millennium,the number

76、of people gaining access to clean cooking peaked in 2018 and has since been declining.If current trends were to continue,well over one billion people from the region would remain without access to clean cooking by the end of the decade.Most people without access to electricity live in just a few cou

77、ntries.Population without access to electricity(millions),2021Figure ES2.53 million peopleMyanmar,14.7Pakistan,12.0Papua New Guinea,7.9India,6.4Cambodia,2.9Philippines,2.9Indonesia,2.2Bangladesh,1.8Afghanistan,0.9 Russian Federation,0.9Rest of the Asia-Pacific region,0.5Source:World Bank,United Nati

78、ons Statistics DivisionPopulation without primary reliance on clean cooking fuels and technologies,2021 Figure ES3.1 196 million peopleMyanmar,30Pakistan,114India,407China,240Philippines,59Indonesia,36Bangladesh,124Afghanistan,26Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea,23Russian Federation,39Rest of the

79、 Asia-Pacific region,98Source:WHO,United Nations Statistics Division 3Best practices for sustainable energy developmentThere are multiple opportunities for the promotion and acceleration of sustainable energy development in Asia and the Pacific.The regional experiences of policymakers,project propon

80、ents and communities have produced numerous lessons learned and best practices,which will guide ongoing improvement.Because of the diversity of economic and natural resources,political will and other variables,policy solutions for sustainable energy development must be tailored and calibrated to the

81、 local context.Nevertheless,the analysis presented in this report supports the experience of policymakers that solutions can be effective when designed in close collaboration with private and public stakeholders,leaning towards regulated mandates on the one hand or supportive interventions on the ot

82、her.Successful policy relies on a solid foundation of planning for an energy transition that is environmentally sound,secure and equitable.As the renewable energy supply increases and headway is made in improving efficiency,technical solutions offer opportunities for maintaining reliability.High lev

83、els of variable renewable energy(VRE)will present challenges to grid management that can be resolved through a range of measures,ranging from changes in operating procedures to developing new infrastructure,including storage,smart grids and cross-border connectivity.Increased levels of finance will

84、need to be mobilized in the coming years,with the majority coming from the private sector.This is contingent on a pipeline of bankable projects,supportive and enabling environments for project delivery and appropriate commercial arrangements(including risk allocation)between public and private actor

85、s.Reforms in financing the energy sector,the implementation of carbon pricing and the deployment of innovative business models and new financial instruments will all play an important role in drawing international finance to the region.Critical raw materials(CRMs)are an increasing source of challeng

86、es to the energy transition.The Asia-Pacific region offers significant potential to contribute solutions to effectively manage CRMs,but an alignment of extractive industries with the SDGs requires a holistic approach and effective policy measures.Local manufacturing industries are a major driver of

87、demand,but with a quarter of the worlds mineral reserves found in Asia and the Pacific,the region is well-positioned to meet increasing global needs.Supply chain resilience can be reinforced through the management of trade,while some additional strategies are supporting domestic exploration,securing

88、 overseas resources and diversifying the supply,all of which must be achieved while ensuring protection of the environment.Both CRM-surplus and CRM-deficit countries can benefit from international cooperation,innovation and circular economy approaches.It is important to ensure that the energy transi

89、tion is just and equitable,taking into account the full impacts on all aspects of society and the environment.Energy affects a wide range of other issues across the sustainable development and climate agendas.Policymakers,therefore,must consider the alignment of the transition with these interlinked

90、 agendas.Amid these challenges,the region faces new risks and opportunities from the emergence of two consecutive global crises:the COVID-19 pandemic,which began in 2020,and the war in Ukraine which started in 2022.While the impacts are still playing out,the crises have already affected energy trade

91、 and security.Accordingly,these crises can also reinforce the need for governments to adopt greater levels of energy efficiency and drive the diversification of national energy systems away from fossil fuels.They have also highlighted the need for countries to ensure that energy systems are ever mor

92、e resilient to new challenges in a more volatile world.CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20234Opportunities for regional acceleration of progress in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7 In summary the current status a

93、nd trajectory of the regions sustainable energy development is not compatible with realizing the Sustainable Development Goals or the pledges of the Paris Agreement.At the midway point of the SDGs,it is now more important than ever to accelerate efforts towards the energy transition.In this years Re

94、gional Trends Report,policymakers and other stakeholders are called on to work towards putting the region on a path towards delivery of SDG 7 and to aim for net-zero emissions around the middle of the century.In the report,the following actions are recommended in support of those efforts:1.Improve e

95、nabling environments for clean energy development through a holistic approach to planning and policymaking,which charts a pathway for the energy transition and supports deployment of clean,modern energy technologies.2.Increase private sector engagement by reforming markets and regulatory frameworks

96、to enhance private participation and increase competition.3.Deploy a range of risk allocation and investment mobilization strategies to ensure that private finance which is needed make up the bulk of finance driving the energy transition is available for projects and sectoral development.4.Employ en

97、ergy connectivity as a tool for supporting the energy transition by working towards setting harmonized regulations and operational policies that allow for the integration of power systems.5.Manage access to CRMs to enable the energy transition by supporting efforts to improve legal and regulatory pr

98、actices,establishing inclusive management practices and strengthening regional coordination.6.Ensure a just energy transition that ensures no one is left behind across all geographic subregions and all parts of society.5INTRODUCTIONThe Asia-Pacific region is home to approximately 60percent of the wo

99、rlds population,consumes about 44percent of the primary energy supply and contributes more than 55percent of the annual global greenhouse gas emissions(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,Population Division,2023;ESCAP,2022;IEA,2020).Increasing incomes and economic growth indica

100、tes that the regions energy demand and associated emissions are growing rapidly,further heightening the importance of regional contributions towards global efforts on sustainable energy and clean energy transitions.The objective of this report is to examine the progress made by Asia-Pacific countrie

101、s towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7(SDG 7)in the final decade of action on the SDGs.In it,the key energy trends across the Asia-Pacific region are examined,while in addition to analysing the immediate challenges in delivering SDG 7,the preparation of more ambitious agendas to reach ne

102、t zero emissions by mid-century are discussed.Sustainable Development Goals 7 was adopted in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with the aim of ensuring access to affordable,reliable,sustainable,and modern energy for all by 2030 through delivery of the following targets:Targ

103、et 7.1:Ensure universal access to affordable,reliable and modern energy services.The purpose of this target is to ensure that everyone has access to modern and sustainable energy services,such as electricity,clean cooking fuels,and technologies.Target 7.2:Increase the share of renewable energy in th

104、e global energy mix.This target is intended to increase the use of renewable energy sources,such as solar,wind and hydropower,in the global energy mix to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change.Target 7.3:Double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency.This target aims

105、 to increase the rate of improvement in energy intensity in terms of primary energy and gross domestic product(GDP),with energy efficiency playing a critical role.This is essential for reducing energy consumption,lowering greenhouse gas emissions,and promoting sustainable development.Target 7.a:Enha

106、nce international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology,including renewable energy,energy efficiency,and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology,and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology.Target 7.b:Expand and upgrade energy ser

107、vices for developing countries,especially least developed countries,small island developing States and landlocked developing countries,in accordance with their respective programmes of support.Given the interlinkages that energy holds with the health of the environment and with economic and social d

108、evelopment,achievement of SDG 7 is crucial for the overall delivery of the global goals.Furthermore,for the Asia-Pacific region,achievement of the SDG 7 is important to spur progress across many other SDGs as follows:Asia and the Pacific is one of the most vulnerable regions in the world to the impa

109、cts of climate change.By realizing SDG 7,countries in the region can reduce their climate impacts as well as dependence on fossil fuels by shifting Setting the sustainable energy transformation agenda for Asia and the PacificCLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT

110、ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20236to renewable energy sources and energy efficiency measures.This would significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate change,in line with commitments under the Paris Agreement,while also supporting the implementation of the

111、 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction through enhancing the resiliency of the energy system.Access to affordable,reliable,and sustainable energy is essential for poverty reduction and economic development.By achieving SDG 7,countries in the region can improve energy access for the poor and m

112、arginalized communities,which can help reduce poverty and promote inclusive economic and social development through providing access to basic services and enhanced opportunities for economic activities.Lack of access to modern energy services,such as electricity and clean cooking fuels,is a major he

113、alth,gender and education issue in the region.By achieving SDG 7,countries in the region can improve access to clean energy to improve quality of life,reduce adverse health impacts and gender inequalities,and enhance education options that are hampered by indoor air pollution and other energy defici

114、t-related issues.Many countries,however,are still facing major challenges related to energy access,energy security and environmental sustainability.Profound changes in the energy systems of the region are required to deliver on these goals.Asia and the Pacific is the centre of growth for global ener

115、gy production and consumption,but the region continues to depend on fossil fuels in a manner that is not compatible with SDG 7,nor with the targets of the Paris Agreement.Purpose and structure of this reportThis report,released in the lead-up to the ministerial level Asian and Pacific Energy Forum(A

116、PEF),will support intergovernmental deliberations on regional energy cooperation by informing discussions on the progress of ESCAP member States towards the achievement of SDG 7.It looks to subregional targets and objectives that further inform the regional picture;by highlighting the principal SDG

117、7 gaps,the report offers potential solutions to these challenges with a focus on the sectors and subregions in which accelerated progress is required.The report sheds light on some key trends and emerging issues that member States are confronting in their energy sectors along with the potential for

118、those trends to support or hinder achievement of the sustainable energy and climate goals.It includes an assessment of the interlinkages between SDG 7 and the other SDGs,highlighting areas where synergies and co-benefits can be realized and,examining the bigger picture beyond SDG 7 targets,such as c

119、limate change,air pollution,poverty eradication,sustainable industrialization,and the phase out of coal.The emerging landscape of energy security is explored and the role of regional cooperation in strengthening regional energy security is discussed in the report.Through this analysis and by drawing

120、 on initiatives of ESCAP,such as SDG 7 road maps and other analytical and normative work,policy recommendations for countries to bridge these gaps and bring SDG 7 achievement closer are outlined.Where possible,subregional insights are presented with a view to developing subregion-specific recommenda

121、tions.The focus of each chapter is as follows:Chapter one provides an overview of the energy situation in Asia and the Pacific and overall progress towards realizing SDG 7 through a description of the regions contribution to the global energy transition.It gives an outline on how the SDG 7 targets a

122、re linked to other SDGs and to the Paris Agreement,which includes a focus on vulnerable groups and communities.Also reviewed in the chapter are the status of nationally determined contributions(NDCs)along with the pledges towards net-zero emissions by mid-century and other national and subregional t

123、argets and policies,and the roles of the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine in shaping the regions energy system and transition are examined.Chapter two,a data-driven approach is taken to evaluate regional progress towards each SDG 7 target,exploring subregional perspectives on energy resource

124、s,costs and consumption 7trends alongside the state of existing policies and political ambition.In addition,the gender impacts of the energy transition and the role of women in the delivery of the target is reviewed.Chapter three provides an outline of the solutions in policy,technology and finance

125、that can help to accelerate progress in meeting SDG 7 targets.Among other priorities,the importance of regional power grid interconnection as an avenue for renewable energy integration and the steps the region is taking with the support of ESCAP to realize this long-term vision for energy cooperatio

126、n are highlighted.Chapter four includes a description on how the emergence of two consecutive global crises the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and the ongoing war in Ukraine,which commenced in 2022 have affected energy markets and the energy transition efforts of member States.Country responses to these

127、crises are highlighted and the effect of the strategies towards attaining SDG 7 targets are assessed,drawing lessons learned for supporting secure and sustainable development in a more volatile world.A summary of conclusions is presented in chapter five,bringing together the key findings and outlini

128、ng recommendations for ESCAP and its member States to accelerate progress towards universal access to clean,modern energy services in the region and manage the impacts of overlapping crises both now and into the future.Quantitative information for the report is largely drawn from the Asia-Pacific En

129、ergy Portal and includes data up to 2021.In addition,the more recent market indicators and analysis are highlighted,where possible.CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20238CHAPTER 1.Sustainable Energy Development:Situation

130、and TrendsThe Asia-Pacific regions energy systems have evolved based on geography,the distribution of natural resources,economic development at the local scale and historic sequence of policy decision-making.As shown in figure 1 the total energy supply(TES)for Asia and the Pacific expanded rapidly i

131、n the recent two decades alongside the regions economic development.TES remains dominated by coal(42.2percent of TES in 2020),oil(23.4percent)and natural gas(19.1percent),while renewables(including hydro)comprise only 12.3percent of the mix.The subregional picture(figure 1,lower half)1 provides some

132、 indication of the geographic distribution of supply and resources:the highly populous areas of East and North-East Asia,and to a lesser extent South and South-West Asia,were the major drivers of growth and continue to be the largest consumers of conventional and renewable energy.While coal(and to a

133、 lesser extent natural gas and oil)have fuelled most of the growth in supply in the twenty-first century,great strides have been made towards the regions sustainable energy transition.The proportion of the population with access to modern energy services continues to increase steadily,while the ener

134、gy intensity of the regional economy has dropped almost continuously for the last ten years.Over the same period,the share of primary energy from fossil fuels has decreased gradually as renewables(including hydro)outpaced the growth in energy demand.This is reflective of global trends:the renewable

135、component of total energy supply has expanded from 29.2percent in 2011 to 38.2percent in 2020,as the proportional share of fossil fuels first stabilized,then diminished(IEA,2023c).In fact,renewable energy technologies are being deployed at rapidly increasing rates and 1 Further detail of each subreg

136、ion is presented in annex 1.this trend is expected to continue to drive a rising renewable share in the coming years.Despite this,progress is not on track to ensuring achievement of access to affordable,reliable,sustainable,and modern energy for all by 2030 in the Asia-Pacific region or globally.In

137、the Tracking SDG 7:The Energy Progress Report,published in 2023,the following was written:“Despite some progress across the indicators,the current pace is not adequate to achieve any of the 2030 targets.As in previous years,rates of progress vary significantly across regions,with some regions making

138、 substantial gains and some slowing their progress or even moving backward.”(IEA and others,2023).Delays are especially notable in vulnerable countries where emerging markets and developing economies have been unable to access the investment that is needed.Figure 2 presents the final energy consumpt

139、ion for the region broken down by sectors of the economy.It shows that over the past two decades,there has been steady growth in energy demand from industry as factories in Asia cemented their role as the worlds core provider of manufactured goods.A significant increase in energy consumption occurre

140、d in the industrial sector,with usage more than doubling and the share of total final energy consumption rising from 32.0percent to more than 39percent over this period.The regions consumption in the transport and commercial sectors grew by 91.5 and 80percent,respectively,over the past two decades,r

141、oughly in step with overall increases in energy demand.The increase of consumption in the transport sector can in part be attributed to the regions rapidly growing middle class,which.especially in East and North-East Asia and South and South-West Asia,has long been associated with urbanization and m

142、otorization:as more people move to cities and become more affluent,the number of vehicles on The energy situation:a status update for the Asia-Pacific region and across the globe9the road has increased significantly.Challenges in transportation infrastructure have resulted in traffic congestion and

143、greater energy use per unit of transport an inefficiency,which,combined with a heavy reliance on fossil fuels for transportation,has contributed towards the growth in energy consumption in the region.By contrast,residential consumption increased by just 22.6percent,indicating commendable progress in

144、 enhancing energy efficiency.The total energy supply remains dominated by coal and oil,but most of the growth in the past few years has been in natural gas and renewablesEnergy supply by product in Asia and the PacificFigure 1/Coal Oil Natural Gas Hydro Renewables(excluding hydro)NuclearBillion tonn

145、es of oil equivalent87654320022003200420052006200720082009200001920204 1949261511 461686East and North-East AsiaNorth and Central AsiaPacific South and South-West AsiaSouth East AsiaSource:IEA,World Energy and Statistics Balances(https:/www.iea.org/data-an

146、d-statistics/data-product/world-energy-statistics-and-balances).CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 202310As the region moves towards a modern energy future,policymakers face the complex and challenging task of achieving th

147、e 2030 Agenda and the objectives of the Paris Agreement.This includes ensuring sustainable economic growth,responding to increasing energy demand and reducing emissions,while capitalizing on the interlinkages between the energy transition and other aspects of development.SDG 7 provides a framework t

148、o ensure modern energy that is accessible,affordable,reliable and sustainable for all.Progress towards realizing SDG 7 is measured by the system of targets and indicators presented in figure 3.Growth in demand has been driven by industry and transport sectorsFinal consumption by sector in Asia and t

149、he PacificFigure 2/Industry Commercial and public services Residential Transport Agriculture,forestry FishingBillion tonnes of oil equivalent4 5004 0003 5003 0002 5002 0001 5001 000500020002000420052006200720082009200001920202 27252187929402East and North-

150、East AsiaNorth and Central AsiaPacificSouth and South-West AsiaSouth-East AsiaSource:IEA,World Energy and Statistics Balances(https:/www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-statistics-and-balances).Sustainable Energy Development:Situation and Trends11Sustainable Development Goal 7

151、progress globally and in the Asia-Pacific regionFigure 3/GoalCurrent statusWorld(2021):91.4percent with access(675 million people lacked access)Asia-Pacific:(2021):98.6 per cent with access(97 million people lacked access)World(2021):67percent with access(2.3 billion people lacked access)Asia-Pacifi

152、c region:(2020):71.6 per cent with access(1.2 billion people lacked access)World(2020):19.1percent Asia-Pacific region:(2020):16.5 per centWorld(2020):4.63percent Asia-Pacific region:(2020):5.18 per centWorld(2021):$10.8 billion USDAsia-Pacific region(2021):$4.0 billion USDWorld(2021):268 kilowatts

153、per capitaAsia-Pacific region(2021):322 watts per capita2010 statusAsia-Pacific region:87.9percent with access(53 million people lacked access)World:83.6percent with access(1.1 billion people lacked access)World:57percent with access(2.9 billion people lacked access)Asia-Pacific region:50.3percent w

154、ith access(2.1 billion people lacked access)World:16.0percent Asia-Pacific region:15.4 per centWorld:5.53percent Asia-Pacific region:6.4percentWorld:$11.9 billion USDAsia-Pacific region:$2.5 billion USDWorld:101 kilowatts per capitaAsia-Pacific region:97 kilowatts per capitaIndicatorsProportion of p

155、opulation with access to electricityProportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technologyRenewable energy share in the total final energy consumptionEnergy intensity measured in terms of primary energy and GDPInternational financial flows to developing countries in support of

156、clean energy research and development and renewable energyInstalled Renewable Energy-Generating Capacity per CapitaTargets7.a.2 Expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries7.2 Increase substantially the share of ren

157、ewable energy in the global energy mix 7.3 Double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency7.a.1 Enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology7.1 Ensure universal ac

158、cess to affordable,reliable,and modern energy servicesSources:World Bank,WHO,IEA,IRENA and UN Statistics DivisionCLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 202312The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific is compr

159、ised of 53 member States and 9 associate members.Asia-Pacific regional members are divided into subregional groupings as follows:East and North-East Asia:China;Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea;Hong Kong,China(associate member);Japan;Macao,China(associate member);Mongolia;and the Republic of Kore

160、a.North and Central Asia:Armenia;Azerbaijan;Georgia;Kazakhstan;Kyrgyzstan;Russian Federation;Tajikistan;Turkmenistan;and Uzbekistan.Pacific:American Samoa(associate member);Australia;the Cook Islands(associate member);Federated States of Micronesia;Fiji;French Polynesia(associate member);Guam(associ

161、ate member);Kiribati;Marshall Islands;Nauru;New Caledonia(associate member);New Zealand;Niue(associate member);Northern Mariana Islands(associate member);Palau;Papua New Guinea;Samoa;Solomon Islands;Tonga;Tuvalu;and Vanuatu.South and South-West Asia:Afghanistan;Bangladesh;Bhutan;India;Islamic Republ

162、ic of Iran;Maldives;Nepal;Pakistan;Sri Lanka;and Trkiye.South-East Asia:Brunei Darussalam;Cambodia;Indonesia;Lao Peoples Democratic Republic;Malaysia;Myanmar;Philippines;Singapore;Thailand;Timor-Leste;and Viet Nam.Non-regional members States are France,the Netherlands,the United Kingdom of Great Bri

163、tain and Northern Ireland,and the United States of America.Non-regional members are not included in data presented in this publication.Each subregion faces unique development challenges related to poverty,inequality,environmental sustainability and conflict.ESCAP provides a platform for member count

164、ries to work together to address these challenges and promote sustainable development in the region.While the Asia-Pacific region is at the centre of the global stage,it is defined by diversity.The region is home to three of the five largest economies,and three of the five smallest economies,and its

165、 countries span from some of the worlds wealthiest to among the poorest.2 There is also widespread diversity in terms of energy needs,natural resources,infrastructure and challenges for delivery of the sustainable energy transition.Areas of South Asia are endowed with some of the best hydro power re

166、sources in the world and parts of East-and North-East Asia contain wind and solar resources that are sufficient to power great swathes of the region,while much of South-East Asia and the Pacific offers an excellent solar resource,among other renewable energy endowments,that awaits the required inves

167、tment in order to supply the growing economies of the subregion.In East and North-East Asia,China predominates as the worlds second largest economy and the most populous country.It is the worlds largest consumer of coal but is making efforts to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels and increase the

168、use of renewables,such as wind and solar.in line with a policy for zero emissions by 2060.Japan,the worlds third largest economy,has set a target of carbon neutrality by 2050,and is transitioning away from nuclear power following the Fukushima disaster by making substantial ongoing investments in re

169、newables and energy efficiency.The Republic of Korea is expanding its renewable energy capacity with a goal of reaching 20percent renewables by 2030.The fourteenth five-year plan of China set a target of reducing energy intensity by 13.5percent between 2021 and 2025,while Japan has set an ambitious

170、policy of 40percent improvement in energy intensity from 2013 to 2030,starting from an already low base.China,Japan and the Republic of Korea have also established major markets for electric vehicles(EVs)supported by ambitious growth targets.In North and Central Asia,the Russian Federation and Kazak

171、hstan are major oil and gas producers and have been relatively slow to transition to renewables,while Uzbekistan has set a target to generate 25percent of its electricity from renewables by 2030 and decrease its energy intensity by 10percent from 2010 to 2030.Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan have impleme

172、nted mandatory energy auditing schemes 2 According to data from the World Bank World Development Indicators Database,World Bank,updated 2 March 2023(https:/data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD).Overview of energy situation by subregionSustainable Energy Development:Situation and Trends13with

173、the goal of improving the energy efficiency of large businesses,while the energy strategy of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2035 targets a 56percent reduction in energy intensity by 2030 from a 2005 baseline.In South and South-West Asia,the energy transition is being led by larger count

174、ries.India is investing heavily in renewable energy,particularly solar,and has set a target of achieving 450 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030,while Pakistan is expanding its renewable energy capacity with a goal of achieving 30percent renewables capacity by 2030.India has set a target of 30pe

175、rcent electric vehicle penetration by 2030 through subsidies,tax breaks and support for charging infrastructure.Afghanistan,Bangladesh and Nepal are prioritizing off-grid solutions to increase energy access in rural areas,while enormous opportunities are being made available to some of the smaller c

176、ountries through the export of renewable electricity through interconnected power grids.In South-East Asia,Indonesia and Viet Nam are among the worlds largest coal producers,but they are also investing in wind,solar and hydro power infrastructure.The Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN)has

177、set a collective renewable energy target for its 10 members of 23percent by 2025.Thailand has set a target of achieving 35percent renewables by 2037,and Singapore is investing in natural gas and exploring the potential of hydrogen as an alternative fuel source.Governments across the subregion have m

178、ade progress in energy efficiency through interventions,including,among them,green building codes,mandatory energy labelling and mandatory energy management systems for large businesses.Box 1Sustainable Development Goal 7 road mapsThe Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific has been supp

179、orting many countries in the region in their efforts to meet the ambitious SDG 7 targets through an integrated energy planning approach.In 2018,ESCAP released a publication titled Energy Transition Pathways for the 2030 Agenda in Asia and the Pacific in which it was highlighted that under the curren

180、t policy settings in place at the time,the region would not achieve all the SDG 7 targets by 2030.The achievement of the SDG 7 targets requires an integrated system approach by considering the synergies among its constituent elements universal access to affordable,reliable and modern energy services

181、,improving energy efficiency,substantially increasing the share of renewable energy and international financial flows to developing countries in support of clean energy.Constraints,such as resources availability and the emission reduction targets under NDCs,need to be considered.In the report,it is

182、suggested that national SDG 7 implementation road maps that provide guidance for policymakers on the policy and technology options to achieve SDG 7 and NDC targets could play a transformational role in the region.With the agreement and support of its member States,ESCAP has developed the National Ex

183、pert SDG Tool for Energy Planning(NEXSTEP)framework to support the development of national SDG 7 road maps.This framework enables policymakers to make informed policy decisions in supporting the achievement of the SDG 7 and emission reduction targets.Following requests for support from member States

184、 to implement NEXSTEP,ESCAP has partnered with 16 countries in the region to produce national SDG 7 road maps.The NEXSTEP work has been expanded to the subnational level through partnerships with six cities and three provinces across the Asia-Pacific region to create sustainable energy transition pl

185、ans.These plans articulate energy strategies for these cities and provinces to leverage their fiscal and policy influence in order to contribute to effort aimed at meeting the national level SDG 7 targets.While the countries that have developed SDG 7 road maps are diverse,there are some common findi

186、ngs emerging across the different analyses.Clean cooking solutions using electric cooking are an increasingly viable option.Refocusing efforts on energy efficiency through measures,such as minimum performance standards for appliances,are essential to put energy efficiency gains back on track.In the

187、power sector,phasing down the use of coal in favour of renewables and energy efficiency has emerged as a recommendation for countries that have significant levels of coal-fired power generation in their energy mix.More information,including completed road map national and subnational reports,is avai

188、lable at https:/www.unescap.org/projects/nexstep CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 202314The context in the small island economies of the Pacific is dominated by a heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels for electricity g

189、eneration and transport.However,with its relatively high proportion of demand coming from buildings(the subregion contains relatively low levels of heavy industry),the potential for the rapid uptake of renewable power and the improvement of energy efficiency is vast.Sustainable transport poses great

190、er challenges in the subregion,but Fiji and Samoa have set ambitious goals for electric vehicle deployment this decade.The Cook Islands,Fiji and Samoa have set a 100percent renewable energy targets for electricity generation in their nationally determined contributions(NDCs).Meanwhile,as the largest

191、 country of the subregion,Australia is a major coal producer,consumer and exporter,but the country is also investing in renewables and has set a target of reaching net-zero emissions by 2050.Synergies between Sustainable Development Goal 7 and the rest of the Sustainable Development AgendaIn this se

192、ction,progress toward achieving SDG 7 is compared with the progress in realizing other SDGs and the relationship between progress on the energy transition and attainment of the rest of the sustainable development agenda is discussed.Energy has long been recognized as a key enabler of sustainable dev

193、elopment,playing a vital role in economic growth,social development and environmental sustainability.Much of the related existing work has focused on the many interlinkages among SDGs,including efforts of the SDG 7 Technical Advisory Group convened by United Nations Department of Economic and Social

194、 Affairs with contributions to the High Level Dialogues on Energy in 2018 and 2022(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,2018).In this connection,it can be noted that the delivery of SDG 7 clearly supports the overall achievement of the 2030 Agenda and implementation of the Paris

195、Agreement,contributing to the other SDGs in the following ways:Table 1Relationships between Sustainable Development Goal 7 and the other Sustainable Development Goals Poverty eradication and economic development:Access to affordable and reliable energy is essential for eradicating poverty and promot

196、ing economic development.SDG 7 aims to ensure that everyone has access to affordable and clean energy,which can improve food security by increasing access to energy for cooking,heating,and refrigeration while enhancing productivity by stimulating economic growth in a way which creates job opportunit

197、ies(particularly in rural areas).Health and well-being:Reliable and sustainable energy access is crucial for providing access to clean water,sanitation,and health-care services,all of which are essential for promoting health and well-being.Improving access to clean energy especially access to clean

198、cooking fuels and technologies also helps to reduce indoor air pollution,which is a major cause of respiratory diseases,particularly among women and children.Education:Access to electricity and,importantly,the utility it provides through electrical appliances and digital technologies is vital for pr

199、omoting education and learning opportunities,particularly in rural areas.With reliable energy access,schools and other educational institutions can provide lighting and power for devices,such as computers,which can improve the quality of education and enhance learning outcomes.Gender equality:Women

200、and girls are disproportionately affected by the lack of access to energy,particularly in rural areas.SDG 7 aims to ensure that everyone has equal access to energy services,which can improve gender equality by reducing the time and effort required for household chores,such as cooking and collecting

201、firewood.Sustainable Energy Development:Situation and Trends15Vulnerable groups,including women,children,persons with disabilities,rural communities and low-income households,may face barriers to accessing energy services.In many cases,these groups are disproportionately affected by energy poverty a

202、nd may face additional challenges related to health,education,and economic opportunities as a result.The energy transition pathways adopted by member States must embody the concept of the“just energy transition”by considering socioeconomic priorities and mitigating the impacts of shifts in energy pr

203、oduction and consumption on vulnerable groups and specific geographical regions that are adversely affected.Sustainable Development Goal 7 explicitly accounts for the needs and challenges of vulnerable groups through its targets of universal access to electricity(SDG 7.1.1)and universal access to cl

204、ean cooking fuels and technologies(SDG 7.1.2),but more nuanced needs arise within the attempts to achieve the desired outcomes.For example,efforts to increase access to energy in rural areas must consider the unique needs of those communities and may require decentralized and off-grid solutions;effo

205、rts to increase access to clean cooking technologies must consider the needs of women and children,who are often responsible for household cooking and may be disproportionately affected by indoor air pollution.Accordingly,the inclusive and equitable delivery of outcomes from SDG 7 is not assured onl

206、y by providing universal access to electricity and clean cooking.Success also hinges on ensuring that vulnerable parts of the community are able to afford and use the services that are enabled by energy access.Consequently,overall progress on the energy transition must prioritize the fair distributi

207、on of benefits across the whole spectrum of age,wealth,geography and gender.This challenge is spread across multiple dimensions:Ensuring that all individuals and communities have access to sustainable energy services can improve their quality of life and health,and well-being.Access to energy servic

208、es,such as electric lighting,efficient heating and cooling,and clean cooking technologies,can improve indoor air quality,increase thermal Access to affordable and reliable energy is a fundamental contributor to economic growth and job creation.The transition to clean and sustainable energy sources c

209、an promote the growth of green industries and reduce environmental pollution,improving the sustainability of these benefits and potentially leading to the development of new technologies and innovations,which,in turn,can create further employment opportunities.Renewable energy and energy efficiency

210、can reduce the overall costs of energy,particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises,which can increase their competitiveness and promote economic growth.Industry,innovation,and infrastructure:Achieving SDG 7 targets can also support the achievement of SDG 9,which focuses on building resilient

211、 infrastructure,promoting sustainable industrialization and fostering innovation.The use of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency measures can support the development of sustainable infrastructure and industries.Climate action:Energy production and consumption are major contributors to gree

212、nhouse gas emissions,which are driving anthropogenic climate change.SDG 7 aims to promote the use of renewable energy sources and increase energy efficiency,which can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate change.This is in line with the goals of the Paris Agreem

213、ent,which seeks to limit global warming to well below 2C above pre-industrial levels,while pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5C.Life on land:Sustainable energy directly benefits the health and well-being of ecosystems and their ability to sustain life.This is not just through t

214、he mitigation of climate change,which is a major threat to terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity,but through the conservation and restoration of ecosystems through sustainable land use practices.This can help sequester carbon,mitigate the effects of climate change and support the development of su

215、stainable energy systems.CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 202316comfort,reduce the risk of respiratory diseases,and enhance educational and economic opportunities.Efforts to increase access to energy services must focus

216、on reaching marginalized communities,including low-income households,rural and remote communities,and women and girls,who often face the greatest barriers to accessing energy services.This could involve targeted policies and programmes that support energy access for those communities,such as subsidi

217、es or financing programmes that make energy more affordable and accessible.Collaboration involving governments,private sector entities and civil society organizations can help drive progress towards achieving SDG 7 by pooling resources,expertise,and innovation to create more inclusive and sustainabl

218、e energy systems.Partnerships can also help ensure that the needs of marginalized communities are prioritized in the development of energy infrastructure and services.Decentralized energy solutions,such as off-grid renewable energy systems,can provide reliable and affordable energy services to commu

219、nities that are not connected to the grid.These solutions can be particularly effective in rural areas where it is not economically viable to extend the grid.Investments in decentralized energy solutions should prioritize communities that are currently underserved by energy services.Data collection

220、and the monitoring of progress on energy access is important in ensuring that efforts are targeted effectively,and that progress is being made towards achieving SDG 7.Data should be disaggregated by gender,income level and other relevant factors to ensure that progress is inclusive and equitable.Com

221、munities can be empowered to participate in the development and implementation of energy policies and programmes,and to take ownership of energy solutions.This should involve governments engaging with vulnerable and marginalized sectors of the community,which are often overlooked,the delivery of tra

222、ining programmes that provide the skills and knowledge required to operate and maintain energy systems,or the implementation of community-led initiatives to promote energy conservation and efficiency.Further evidence from academic literature suggests that there are strong correlations between progre

223、ss towards achieving SDG 7 and indicators across the range of goals listed in table 1.A recent systematic review used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis(PRISMA)(Moher and other,2009)method to examine trends in the policy and academic discussions on the linkages be

224、tween energy,SDGs and the Paris Agreement,and found that most of the studies on the subject recommend further integration and cross-sectoral energy planning and targeted policy approaches(Akrofi,Okitasari and Kandpal,2022).Progress in emissions and climate ambitionTo keep the world well below a 2C t

225、emperature rise and within the 1.5C rise in accordance with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)Paris Agreement,the International Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)has called for a reduction of 45percent in global greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 compared to 2010 levels.The r

226、egions contribution to such a greenhouse gas emissions reduction is critical to achieving carbon neutrality by the period 20502060 and maintaining a global 1.5C development pathway(ESCAP,2023a).With the energy sector accounting for approximately 80percent of the regions greenhouse gas emissions,the

227、achievement of SDG 7 targets in Asia and the Pacific represents a critical lever for putting the world on track to avoid destructive climate change.Apart from a modest reduction following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020,emissions from fuel combustion in Asia and the Pacific have outpaced

228、those of the rest of the world,growing almost continuously over the past three decades(albeit at a reduced rate in recent years).Meanwhile,global energy emissions have also increased,but at a slightly lower rate such that the Asia-Pacific region accounted for 58.7percent of the worlds greenhouse emi

229、ssions from energy in 2020 compared with 50.1percent in 2010(IEA,2021).This growing share of global emissions largely stems from the regions heavy reliance on coal,which now accounts for more than 62percent of emissions from energy in the region,despite only delivering approximately 42percent of its

230、 energy needs.Sustainable Energy Development:Situation and Trends17The growth in the regions emissions relates to a surge in energy demand,which is the result of economic growth.However,emissions are increasing at a slower rate than energy use,reflecting the trend towards cleaner sources of energy a

231、nd the reduction of energy intensity.The combination of cleaner energy sources and enhanced efficiency in energy demand has resulted in a decrease in emissions intensity from 730 tons CO2-e per million 2015 USD in 2000 to 591 tons CO2-e per million 2015 USD in 2020.Such improvements have in part bee

232、n driven by commitments and policies for sustainable energy development and by NDCs under the Paris Agreement.The United Nations Development Programme(UNDP)report,State of Climate Ambition,evaluates NDCs to garner insights into whether the Paris Agreement is working to deliver on climate change targ

233、ets,to recognize and appreciate those doing the work,and to understand which countries are leading the way on ambition and which are falling behind(Baumgartner,Carman and Liu,2022).The analysis shows that the majority(76percent)of Asia-Pacific countries have raised their mitigation ambitions under t

234、heir recent enhanced NDC submissions.The number of member States in the region making carbon neutrality pledges reached 39 by August 2022.However,under existing climate policies,regional greenhouse gas emissions are projected to rise from 27 gigatons of carbon dioxide(CO2)equivalent in 2020 to 35 gi

235、gatons in 2030 and 52 gigatons in 2060,which is nearly double the level from 2020(ESCAP and others,2022).Some countries have pledged to achieve net-zero emissions,3 setting national net-zero target dates around mid-century for the achievement of this goal as presented in the ClimateWatch Net Zero Tr

236、acker(ClimateWatch,2023).At the time of publication,three ESCAP member States(Australia Japan and the Republic of Korea)had signed the net-zero targets into law,16 had net-zero targets as official national policy,and four had issued political pledges of commitment.The foundational work for deliverin

237、g on these commitments is progressing,but at a far from unsatisfactory pace:financing appears to be insufficient,key data and statistics on progress indicators are fragmented,and significant further 3 The difference between“carbon neutrality”and“net zero”is subtle but important:Carbon neutrality ref

238、ers to achieving a balance between the amount of CO2 emitted and the amount removed from the atmosphere.This can be achieved through measures,such as carbon offsets,which involve investing in projects that reduce or remove greenhouse gas emissions to compensate for the emissions generated elsewhere.

239、Net zero,on the other hand,refers to achieving a balance between the amount of greenhouse gas emissions produced and the amount removed from the atmosphere locally,and can be achieved through a combination of reducing emissions and removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere,such as through carbon

240、 capture and storage technologies or reforestation.Although coal accounts for 42 per cent of primary energy supply in Asia and the Pacific,it accounts for more than 62 per cent of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion(a)Asia-Pacific primary energy supply by product,2020;and(b)Carbon dioxide from fuel c

241、ombustion,2020Figure 4/Coal,42.2%Hydro,2.6%Natural gas,19.1%Nuclear,3.0%Oil,23.4%Renewables(exclusing hydro),9.7%Coal,62.7%Others,0.7%Natural gas,15.6%Oil,21.0%Source:IEA,World Energy and Statistics Balances(https:/www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-statistics-and-balances).CL

242、OSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 202318technical cooperation and coordination is required among national government agencies.Under current NDCs and net-zero pledges,greenhouse gas emissions in Asia and the Pacific are set

243、to fall gradually over this decade to approximately 28.5 Gt CO2-e by 2030 from 31.6 Gt CO2-e in 2020.This,however,represents a 16percent increase from 2010 levels,which is far from the global average of the 45percent reduction needed by 2030 to limit warming to 1.5C.Fulfillment of conditional financ

244、e commitments under NDCs and a more widespread roll-out of net-zero targets could help shift this emissions pathway downwards.Despite this,a large share of emissions reductions can be achieved using existing technologies.Energy pathways to support the achievement of ambitious emissions reduction goa

245、ls depend on a massive scale up of renewable energy and energy efficiency,along with widespread electrification and the roll-out of low-carbon fuels,enabled by supportive policy design and implementation.Sector-specific dynamics are discussed more in chapter 2.Various trade-offs will determine the s

246、ocioeconomic impacts,but one core consideration is the importance of delivering a just transition to ensure that the full scope of benefits is shared equitably.Regional cooperation plays a key part in this,supporting planning and implementation as an avenue for the sharing of experience and developm

247、ent of capacity,enabling technology transfer and providing financiers with pathways to investment in areas where it is most in need.Renewed energy security concerns amid a volatile economic and energy market backdropProgress in achieving sustainability goals should also take into account recent glob

248、al crises,which have led to considerable volatility in economic performance and energy markets.While the economic impacts from the COVID-19 pandemic depressed energy prices caused by lower demand,the subsequent economic rebound tightened energy markets throughout 2021,resulting from supply chain con

249、straints,weather-related events and persistent underinvestment.The start of the war in Ukraine in early 2022,and energy impacts arising from efforts by mostly European countries to rapidly Under current NDCs and net-zero pledges,regional greenhouse gas emissions are set to decline this decade,but th

250、e trajectory remains far from the 45percent reduction required to avoid the worst effects of climate change.Greenhouse gas emissions scenario with compounded nationally determined contributions and carbon neutral pledges for the Asia-Pacific region,(GtCO2e),19902030Figure 5/Asia-Pacific current clim

251、ate policy scenario Unconditional NDC scenario NDC+net-zero pledges 45%reductionGtCO2e45403530252001020192030Image source:ESCAP(2023).Data source:IPPC(2023).24.539.330.328.513.4Sustainable Energy Development:Situation and Trends19reduce exposure to energy supply from the Russian Federatio

252、n,exacerbated an already tight global energy market situation and prompted dramatic shifts in prices and trade patterns.Compared with pre-pandemic levels,global average prices for natural gas jumped by up to sixfold during the summer of 2022,while those for coal rose by nearly fourfold and crude oil

253、 prices nearly doubled.While existing fuel supply contracts and oil indexation in the case of some liquified natural gas(LNG)contracts provided some relief for end-users,this dramatic increase put upward pressure on fuel consuming sectors,resulting in higher electricity prices and fuelling economy-w

254、ide price inflation.Prices of CRMs key for clean energy technologies also rose.While energy commodity prices have come down from their highs in mid-2022,the pandemic and subsequent global energy crisis have raised new risks to clean energy transitions in the Asia-Pacific region.They have also create

255、d new pressures on affordability and access,particularly among the most vulnerable.The effects of these crises and uncertainties over how future markets will evolve are prompting Asia-Pacific countries to refocus their efforts on energy security.Some Asia-Pacific countries have responded to these ch

256、allenges by implementing wide-ranging measures to improve energy efficiency and accelerate the shift towards domestic renewable energy development.Others with ready availability of domestic fossil-fuel supply have invested further in the development of these energy resources,while trying to buffer p

257、opulations from energy price rises.These market dynamics,the implications for meeting SDG 7 targets and the responses taken by Asia-Pacific countries are touched upon throughout the publication,with more extensive analysis found in chapter 4.Recent global energy crisis led to surging prices for natu

258、ral gas,coal and oil,prompting economies around the world to refocus efforts on energy security and affordabilityIndexed price trend for global energy commoditiesFigure 6/Crude oil Natural gas CoalJan 2018=04003002001000Jan-18Jul-18Jan-19Jul-19Jan-20Jul-20Jan-21Jul-21Jan-22Jul-22Jan-23Sou

259、rce:IMF(2023b)Notes:Crude oil is the simple average of three spot prices:Dated Brent,West Texas Intermediate,and the Dubai Fateh;Natural gas includes European,Japanese and American natural gas price indices;Coal includes Australian and South African coal.CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC

260、 REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 202320The Asia-Pacific region has made great strides towards realizing SDG 7,including success in expanding access to electricity.4 Despite this,countries are falling short on delivering many aspects of the goal:The remaining gap in

261、 universal access to electricity by 2030 needs to be closed and e aspects related to energy service quality,reliability and affordability must be addressed.A greater push is needed to promote clean cooking fuels and technologies;accelerate the deployment of renewable energy and increase its share in

262、 the national energy mix;and scale up energy efficiency and electrification in end uses.More than 98percent of the regional population had access to electricity in 2021,up from 87.2percent in 2010.That progress,at a rate more rapid than the global average(see figure 7(a),can largely be attributed to

263、 expansions and upgrades of national power grids and the roll-out of decentralized solutions in remote areas.During the same period,the proportion of people with access to clean cooking fuels and technologies increased from only 50percent to more than 70percent a substantial improvement,but still fa

264、r from the rate needed to deliver universal access by 2030.In 2021,a total of 53 million people still lacked access to electricity and nearly 1.2 billion lacked access to clean cooking across the region.The vast majority of them were in rural areas and in lower-income countries.Fiscal difficulties a

265、rising over the past two years present financial and political challenges and test the resolve of policymakers to close the gap over the remainder of the decade.4 Data on the progress of Asia-Pacific countries towards SDG 7 targets presented in this chapter is taken from ESCAPs online database the A

266、sia-Pacific Energy Portal (www.asiapacificenergy.org),unless stated otherwise.Renewable electricity generation,in particular,hydropower,wind,solar photovoltaics(PVs)and biomass,has increased rapidly across the Asia-Pacific region in recent years.The overall share of modern renewables,which excludes

267、the use of traditional biomass,in total final energy consumption rose from 6percent in 2010 to 10.4percent in 2020.The share of all forms of renewable,including traditional biomass,in the regions energy mix remained relatively static at approximately 15percent over the same period;it fell below the

268、global average in 2009 and has remained below it.Despite rapid growth in modern forms of renewable energy,this stable overall share stemmed from a decline in the use of traditional biomass and a large increase in the demand for energy.As the economic situation in some countries has improved dramatic

269、ally over the past two decades,the deployment of renewable electricity has surged.China,India and Viet Nam are prime examples of this,as they boosted their renewable electricity generation by a factor of 7.3,4.2 and 5.8,respectively.Nevertheless,and despite ambitious targets,many low-income countrie

270、s have struggled to deploy renewable energy capacity,in part due to developer and financier perceptions of investment risks,low technical capacity and lack of favourable policy implementation,including with regard to remuneration schemes and grid connectivity.Meanwhile,progress towards increasing th

271、e share of renewables in heating and transport remains insufficient and requires policy attention.Momentum in the indirect uptake of renewables is seen through the electrification of end uses,notably transport.Several countries,including,among them,China,India,Indonesia and Malaysia,are promoting th

272、e use The Asia-Pacific Regions Sustainable Energy Progress and Outlook at the Halfway Point of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable DevelopmentProgress towards realizing Sustainable Development Goal 7CHAPTER 2.21of EVs.These efforts include the roll-out of charging infrastructure and the manufacture of E

273、Vs,including two-and three-wheelers.Regarding energy efficiency,while the rate of primary energy intensity improvement has been slightly higher in the Asia-Pacific region compared to the global average over the past ten years,both rates have mostly stagnated over the past five years.At the same time

274、,the energy intensity of the Asia-Pacific region is higher than in other regions,indicating that more energy is used to produce one unit of GDP.The region has improved at a rate that is not in line with the global pace required to achieve the SDG 7 target,indicating the need for the uptake of energy

275、 efficiency across sectors.Achieving SDG 7 targets hinges on scaling up investments and dramatically shifting capital allocations towards clean energy(in power,fuels and end-use)and energy efficiency,and away from fossil fuels.Asia-Pacific economies have boosted investments in the energy sector in r

276、ecent years,despite a downtick in 2020,to close to$1.2 trillion in 2022.This increase was led by investments in renewable power for which capital spending has more than doubled since 2015,and in the end-use sector,including in efficiency and EVs.Investment in clean energy comprises approximately two

277、 thirds of total energy investment,up from less than 50percent in 2015.The region accounted for 45percent of global energy investment and nearly 50percent of world clean energy investment.Over the past two decades the Asia-Pacific region has outpaced the rest of the world in terms of improvements ag

278、ainst three of the four Sustainable Development Goal 7 indicatorsSustainable Development Goal 7 indicators(a)7.1.1 rate of access to electricity;(b)rate of access to clean cooking;(c)renewable energy share of total final energy consumption;and(d)energy intensity of primary energy progress in the Asi

279、a-Pacific compared to global progressFigure 7/World Asia-PacificRate of access to electricity(%)750420052006200720082009200001920202021Rate of access to clean coking(%)504030202000420052006200720082009

280、20000520000200042005200620072008200920000192020Energy intensity level of primary energy(megajoules per constant 2017 purchasing power parity GDP)8765432000420052006200720082009201

281、02000020Sources:(a)World Bank,United Nations Statistics Division;(b)WHO,United Nations Statistics Division;(c)IEA,United Nations Statistics Division;(d)IEA,United Nations Statistics DivisionRenewable energy share of total final energy consumption(%)CLOSING THE GAP fo

282、r SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 202322Despite this supportive trend,underlying dynamics remain insufficient for meeting region-wide sustainability goals.Notably,investment in enabling electricity networks crucial for the integration of v

283、ariable renewables and supporting reliable access to electricity have declined over the past decade.Much of the progress in clean energy investments has also been concentrated in relatively few markets.For example,in China,clean energy accounts for more than 70percent of energy investments,while in

284、the rest of the region it comprises less than 60percent on average.Baseline projection estimates for Asia and the Pacific from IEA and the International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA)scenarios based on current and planned policies point to an increase in regional annual energy investment to approxim

285、ately$1.5-1.6 trillion by 2030.5 Meeting SDG 7 targets and aligning economies with net-zero emissions objectives requires regional annual energy investment to increase to$2.22.4 trillion by 2030 with 90percent of this in clean energy,depending on the pathway and ambition level.Compared with 2022 inv

286、estment levels,capital spending would need to roughly double by 2030 to meet ambitious climate goals.While the bulk of the requirement is for renewable capacity development,electricity networks and efficiency and electrification projects,delivering universal energy access by 2030 would also require

287、annual global investment of$41 billion in electricity access and 44.5 billion in clean cooking(IEA and others,2021).5 These estimates are derived by downscaling global investment projections from IEA(2022)and IRENA(2023),using recent Asia-Pacific shares.While clean energy comprised two thirds of reg

288、ional energy investment in 2022,to realize SDG 7,this share must comprise 90percent by 2030 and be more evenly distributed across economies Energy investment by technology in Asia-Pacific countries Figure 8/Fossil fuel supply Fossil fuel power Renewable power Nuclear Fossil fuel power with CCUS Elec

289、tricity networks and storage Energy efficiency and end-use Clean fuelsUSD Billion(2022)1 4001 2001 00080060040020002000212022Source:ESCAP calculations based on IEA(2023c).Notes:Energy investment in Asia-Pacific countries is estimated based on IEA region groups for“Asia-Pacific”

290、and“Eurasia”,which are not fully aligned with the ESCAP Asia and Pacific region groupings;as such,this analysis should be treated as indicative;CCUS,carbon capture utilization and storage.clean energy23The share of the regions population with access to electricity rose from 87.2percent in 2010 to 98

291、.6percent in 2021,enabled by power grid extensions and the deployment of decentralized technologies to remote and rural communities(figure 9).In 2021,approximately 53 million people still lacked access to electricity;there is,however,a reasonable expectation that most of them will have basic access

292、by 2030(IEA,2020).In contrast,the proportion with access to clean cooking fuels and technologies increased from 51.1percent to 73.9percent in the same period a notable improvement,but still nearly 1.2 billion people were reliant on traditional biomass for cooking and cemented in hardship related to

293、fuel collection,gender,health and the environment.Access to electricityThe provision of access to electricity has improved the most strongly in the Asia-Pacific region for which steady growth was recorded growth from 79.9percent in 2000 to 98.6percent in 2021.The communities still lacking access to

294、electricity are among the poorest and hardest to reach,including remote islands and areas that are logistically or economically difficult to connect to the regions major grids.At a 90.5percent rate of access to electricity,the Pacific is the furthest behind,while for South and South-West Asia,there

295、has been an acceleration the success rate in this regard over the past two decades.Notable achievements have been made in India where 450 million people gained access over the past two decades,while Afghanistan stands out for improving its access rate from 1.6percent in 2000 to 97.7percent.The acces

296、s to electricity rate in Bangladesh increased by 25 percentage points between 2015 and 2021 to reach 99percent,helped by programmes driven by off-grid solar photovoltaic(PV)systems and the provision of subsidies and loans,which made these systems affordable to more than 80 million people.Figure 11(a

297、)shows that largest shares of the estimated 53 million people from across the region who lack access to electricity are in Myanmar and Pakistan,followed by Papua New Guinea,and India.Although the numbers are lower in absolute terms,Papua New Guinea has an access rate of just 20.9percent,the regions

298、lowest,which pulls down the regional access rate for Pacific Island developing economies.Notwithstanding this,most of the Pacific island States have reached 100percent access to electricity.Progress towards universal energy accessWhile universal access to electricity is on track to be achieved by 20

299、30,progress in access to clean cooking facilities is falling short,especially in rural areas Regional progress in energy access:(a)access to electricity;and(b)access to clean cooking fuels and technologiesFigure 9/Total Rural UrbanShare of population(%)504030202021Share of popu

300、lation(%)504030202021Source:ESCAP based on World Bank,United States Statistics DivisionSource:ESCAP based on WHO79.970.596.187.980.397.998.697.799.838.217.967.051.126.479.173.957.089.3CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTA

301、INABLE DEVELOPMENT 202324A raft of technical solutions is available,and experts anticipate the achievement of universal access during this decade.System designers may choose based on local contextual needs from a range of proven mini-grid and off-grid solutions powered by renewable energy.Supply opt

302、ions include off-grid and distributed solar PV,small wind generators,storage using chemical batteries or pumped hydro power,and biomass gasification.Deployment of high-efficiency lighting and appliances can help to deliver essential services while managing demand requirements.66 Further detail inclu

303、ding time series are included in annex 1These cost-effective and sustainable solutions can be further supported by novel approaches,such as“pay-as-you-go”finance(including microfinance)under which households can pay as and when they can afford it.Smart metering and the“Internet of things”enables lea

304、se-to-own or usage-based models of payment under which consumers carry out transactions using mobile credit and the utility or hardware provider is able to monitor the system remotely(IRENA,2020).These models can operate at the level of individual households or at the scale of precincts or neighbour

305、hoods,enabling economies of scale along with a variety of technical benefits,such as load smoothing.Pacific developing economies are struggling to provide access to electricityShare of population with access to electricity,by subregion,20216Figure 10/99.2%100%38.3%98.9%96.6%East and North-East AsiaN

306、orth and Central AsiaPacific Developing EconomiesSouth and South-West AsiaSouth-East AsiaSources:ESCAP based on World Bank,United Nations Statistics DivisionThe remaining electrification deficit exists in lower-income and high-population countries(a)Population without access to electricity(millions)

307、,2021;and(b)Economies with lowest rates of electrification,2021Figure 11/55 million peopleMyanmar,14.7Pakistan,12.0India,6.4Papua New Guinea,7.9Philippines,2.9Indonesia,2.2Bangladesh,1.8Afghanistan,0.9Cambodia,2.9Russian Federation,0.9Rest of the Asia-Pacific region,0.5KiribatiFijiNepalMicronesia(Fe

308、derated States of)CambodiaSolomon IslandsMyanmarVanuatuDemocratic Peoples Republic of KoreaPapua New GuineaSources:ESCAP based on World Bank,United Nations Statistics 92.8%92.1%89.8%83.6%82.5%76.3%72.5%70.0%52.6%20.9%The Asia-Pacific Regions Sustainable Energy Progress and Outlook at the Halfway Poi

309、nt of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development25Looking beyond the mere provision of an electrical connection,it is important that policymakers recognize that the benefits of electricity access arise through the amenities that it supports.Policy attention must be paid to assuring equitable and hi

310、gh-quality access.Even if a household is considered electrified,the quality and affordability of the energy service may fall short of levels needed to meet social and economic development needs.Experts and other interest groups have proposed the setting of minimum standards to improve the reliabilit

311、y and quality of electricity supplies,including the adoption of a new target for a modern energy minimum(consumption of at least 1,000 kWh per person per year,with at least 300 kWh at home and 700 kWh consumed in the wider economy)and consideration of the Energy Sector Management Assistance Programm

312、e(ESMAP)Multi-Tier Framework for Energy Access,which evaluates availability,capacity,reliability and affordability(Energy for Growth Hub,2021;ESMAP,n.d.).Consumers who can only afford to use residential electricity for lighting will benefit slightly compared to those who also have access to applianc

313、es and modern communications technologies.At the same time,access to high-quality energy services also underpins the provision of critical services in the broader economy,such as health care(WHO and others,2023).Accordingly,bundling electrification services with other offerings,such as access to fin

314、ance,the provision of information and Table 2Multi-Tier Framework for Measuring of Electricity AccessAttributesTier 0Tier 1Tier 2Tier 3Tier 4Tier 5CapacityPower capacity ratings(W or daily Wh)Less than 3 WAt least 3 WAt least 50 WAt least 200 WAt least 800 WAt least 2 kWLess than 12 WhAt least 12 Wh

315、At least 50 WAt least 200 WhAt least 3.4 kWhAt least 8.2 kWhServicesLighting of 1 000 lmhr per dayElectrical lighting,air circulation,television,and phone charging are possibleAvailabilityDaily availabilityLess than 4 hoursAt least 4 hoursAt least 8 hoursAt least 16 hoursAt least 23 hoursEvening ava

316、ilabilityLess than 1 hourAt least 1 hourAt least 2 hoursAt least 3 hoursAt least 4 hoursReliabilityMore than 14 disruptions per weekAt most 14 disruptions per week or at most 3 disruptions per week with total duration of more than 2 hours 3 to 14 disruptions/week or 3 disruptions/week with 2 hours o

317、f outageAt most 3 disruptions per week with total duration of less than 2 hoursQualityHousehold experiences voltage problems that damage appliancesVoltage problems do not afect the use of desired appliancesAffordabilityCost of a standard consumption package of 365 kWh per year is more than 5%of hous

318、ehold incomeCost of a standard consumption package of 365 kWh per year is less than 5%of household incomeFormalityNo bill payments is made for the use of electricityBill is paid to the utility,prepaid card seller,or authorized representativeHealth and safetySerious or fatal accidents due to electric

319、ity connectionAbsence of past accidentsSource:Bhatia and Angelou(2015).CLOSING THE GAP for SDG 7 IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGIONREGIONAL TRENDS REPORT ON ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 202326communication technologies,investment in human capital and development of complementary infrastructure can hel

320、p unleash the full potential of electrification.One clear opportunity arising with electrification is for the provision of access to electric clean cooking.However,analysis of successful previous clean cooking interventions indicates that many programmes have struggled to achieve sustained use due t

321、o user preferences,maintenance issues and lack of repair facilities(see box 2).Access to clean cookingTransitioning households to clean cooking methods is critical to achieving universal access targets and improving public health in the Asia-Pacific region.Traditional biomass remains the primary coo

322、king fuel in many Asia-Pacific countries,while coal is still used in North-East Asia,charcoal in South-East Asia and biomass and kerosene in the Pacific(figure 12).Countries with natural gas supplies,particularly in North and Central Asia,have larger shares of populations using gas,while LPG caniste

323、rs are prevalently used in other areas,particularly in urban areas.As Asia-Pacific countries work to expand and strengthen their power supplies and distribution,electric cooking is emerging as an increasingly feasible and convenient option.By reducing indoor emissions and associated health risks,ele

324、ctric cooking is gaining increased government support from such countries as Bhutan,Indonesia and Nepal.However,challenging consumer behaviours,weak power distribution systems and the low-capacity household electrical systems often found in rural areas can hinder the uptake of electric cooking.Progr

325、ammes that employ a“one size fits all”approach are often undertaken based on a single promising technology,and do not account for all the cultural and cooking variations between households and communities.Furthermore,users abandon new technologies due to malfunction,inconvenient maintenance requirem

326、ents and/or lack of long-term repair facilities.Addressing consumer education alongside the capacity and reliability of grid systems is needed to simultaneously increase energy access tier levels and establish a foundation for a transition to electric cooking.Barriers to adoption can often be overco

327、me through field testing with active feedback loops.Monitoring and evaluation as part of an agile programme design can also support better understanding among policymakers,improving the effectiveness of future efforts.In rural areas where agricultural and livestock wastes are abundant,biogas is play

328、ing a growing role in providing waste-to-energy solutions.Despite its potential,the application of biogas is largely constrained to on-site usage and areas where low-cost waste feedstock is being produced.Box 2Defining“clean cooking”The World Health Organization(WHO)categorizes cooking fuels and tec

329、hnologies into clean,transitional and polluting according to fine particulate matter(PM2.5)and carbon monoxide(CO)levels,as recommended in the WHO global air quality guidelinesa and incorporated into International Organization for Standardization(ISO)voluntary performance targets.b Fuels and technol

330、ogies considered to be clean are solar,electric,biogas,natural gas,liquefiedpetroleum gas(LPG),and alcohol fuels,including ethanol.A biomass cooking system is classified as clean if it meets the emission rate targets in theWHO Guidelines for indoor air quality.c Generally speaking,solid fuel-based i

331、mproved or gasification cookstoves can improve fuel use efficiency and reduce indoor air pollution,but fall within the transitional category.Only one biomass gasifier stove modeld has attained clean cooking status according to performance standards.a World Health Organization(WHO)(2021).WHO global a

332、ir quality guidelines.Geneva.b Available at:https:/www.iso.org/standard/73935.html.c WHO(2014)WHO guidelines for indoor air quality.Geneva.d The Mimi Moto is a Tier 4 of 5 forced air gasifier stove.A list of stoves and their performance ratings is available at http:/catalog.cleancookstoves.org/.The

333、Asia-Pacific Regions Sustainable Energy Progress and Outlook at the Halfway Point of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development27Access to LPG,biogas,and electric cooking solutions needs to be expanded across countriesCooking fuels,by type,2019Figure 12/Electricity Gas Biomass Charcoal Coal Kerosene OtherTurkmenistanMaldivesArmeniaKazakhstanAzerbaijanIran(Islamic Republic of)TrkiyeMalaysiaRussian