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1、2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022Who is leading the transition to electric vehicles?Chang Shen,Ilma Fadhil,Zifei Yang,and Stephanie SearleTHE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022BABOUT THE ICCT AND THIS REPORTThe ICCT is an independent,nonprofit organization that provides first-rate,unbiased research and
2、 policy analysis on clean transportation to government officials and other relevant stakeholders from civil society and industry.Our mission is to improve the environmental performance and energy efficiency of road,marine,and air transportation to benefit public health and mitigate climate change.Th
3、e ICCT is the worlds leading research organization dedicated solely to clean fuel and vehicle policies and the decarbonization of the transport sector by mid-century.While the ICCT typically supports government policymakers and regulators as they develop policies to reduce transportation emissions,t
4、his report is for a wider audience.We believe the same approach we use to support government regulationsthat is,providing timely,high-quality data and analysis to decision-makerscan help inform investors,the broader financial sector,consumers,and auto companies at this critical time in the industry.
5、This report offers an expert,in-depth analysis and compares global automakers in the transition to zero-emission vehicles.Our assessment might be of value to investors and rating companies.Consumers might also be interested in knowing how much effort each automaker is making to transition to a fully
6、 decarbonized vehicle market and supply chains.And auto companies themselves,all of which have pledged to achieve carbon neutrality,might find a data-driven,transparent assessment of their actions and plans a valuable yardstick as they work to find opportunities to improve.DISCLAIMERThis ICCT report
7、 is intended for informational purposes only.Although the ICCT has endeavored to organize and present data from multiple third-party sources in an even-handed and neutral fashion,the selection,interpretation,weighting,and presentation of the metrics in this rating reflect the subjective assessments
8、and opinions of the ICCT.Additionally,while the ICCT has relied only on data sources it believes to be reliable and has taken steps to verify such data with automakers,and has identified its sources in the interest of transparency and verification,it cannot state that the data compiled and published
9、 by others is accurate.This report should not be construed otherwise.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWe thank several colleagues for providing valuable feedback,including ICCT staff members Amit Bhatt,Georg Bieker,Jennifer Callahan,Michael Doerrer,Hui He,Aaron Isenstadt,Irem Kok Kalayci,Josh Miller,Peter Mock,Rachel
10、 Muncrief,Kelli Pennington,Felipe Rodrguez,Dan Rutherford,Joe Schultz,and Peter Slowik,and ICCT board members Anthony Eggert,Margo Oge,Gianni Lpez Ramrez,and Michael Walsh.We are also grateful for feedback from expert reviewers Carsten Haink(independent sustainability consultant),Gary Rogers(Corvid
11、Technologies),Kanchan Kumar Gandhi(Centre for Auto Policy&Research),two individuals from China EV100,Pengfei Yang and Yunyao Zhu(both of China Automotive Engineering Research Institute),and Chris Malins and Cato Sandford(both of Cerulogy).Finally,thanks to the Aspen Global Change Institute for finan
12、cial support of this work.Any opinions,findings,and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Aspen Global Change Institute.International Council on Clean Transportation1500 K Street NW Suite 650Washington DC 20
13、005 USAcommunicationstheicct.org www.theicct.org|TheICCT 2023 International Council on Clean TransportationTHE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022iEXECUTIVE SUMMARYThis report rates how the worlds largest auto manufacturers stack up in the transition to electric vehicles(EVs
14、).Major manufacturers are striving for fleets with zero tailpipe emissions;success in that is necessary for the world to mitigate the worst effects of climate change.To evaluate the work of manufacturers toward that goal,we rate them on 10 custom-built metrics that reflect both what they are doing n
15、ow and what they say they will do in the near future.We evaluate their current fleets and production processes and assess their stated future plans,policies,and priorities.Our approach is a meaningful and comprehensive way to distinguish forward-looking automakers from their less-progressive counter
16、parts.Focused on the top 20 light-duty vehicle manufacturers in the world by sales in 2022,this report adds an important missing piece to global research and analysis regarding how todays major automakers are transitioning to zero-emission vehicles(ZEVs).Our rating is quantitative and transparent;we
17、 present full details of our chosen methodology and data sources.Additionally,the ICCT contacted all the automakers assessed in this report to seek to verify the data we collected.Many ratings reports are vague in emphasis and often cover thousands of companies with a broad environmental,social,and
18、governance(ESG)lens.This report is different.We use our deep expertise in the field to present a focused,incisive rating that compares automakers in this time of unprecedented transformation in the industry.For example,this analysis is built on a comprehensive database that includes both sales and k
19、ey specifications of EVs in six major vehicle markets.This report also considers the real-world electric drive share of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles(PHEVs).Because our rating includes both present and future performance indicators,we group our 10 metrics by three pillars:market dominance,technol
20、ogy performance,and strategic vision.These serve as the basis for our overall rating results.Table ES1 presents the three pillar scores;the overall 2022 ratings are in the rightmost column.This final score reflects each companys comparative position in the ZEV transition.The automakers are listed in
21、 order from highest to lowest scoring.“Leaders,”shown in green,scored in the top third of the rating(66.7100).“Transitioners,”in yellow,scored in the middle third(33.466.6).“Laggards,”in red,scored in the bottom third(033.3).THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022iiTable ES1.Overall scores,The Global Autom
22、aker Rating 2022MARKET DOMINANCETECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCESTRATEGIC VISION2022 ratingTesla698010083LEADERSBYD78578373BMW31785756TRANSITIONERSVW49634753Stellantis48386350Geely55513948Renault43376147Mercedes-Benz36534745GM20526345SAIC65283944Great Wall43403238Ford14554438Hyundai-Kia35582038Changan52134136
23、Toyota32431530LAGGARDSHonda19323228Nissan33183127Tata15412327Mazda741810Suzuki0000The market dominance pillar reflects the progress automakers have made in the transition to ZEVs in their own fleets(see Table ES2).We analyze each automakers ZEV-equivalent sales shares,which is the EV share of total
24、light-duty vehicle sales,including battery-electric vehicles(BEVs),fuel cell electric vehicles(FCEVs),and PHEVs.For PHEVs,we assess only the share of driving that is on electricity by considering real-world driving behavior.We also assess the share of eight light-duty vehicle classes,ranging from mi
25、ni/subcompact car to pick-up truck,that are covered by available ZEV models from each automaker.The leaders in the market dominance pillar,Tesla and BYD,already produce only EVs.Tesla only produces BEVs,and in March 2022,BYD shifted to only manufacture EVs(i.e.,both BEVs and PHEVs).All other automak
26、ers lag significantly in ZEV sales shares,although some succeed in offering coverage across all eight light-duty vehicle classes.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022iiiTable ES2.Ratings on market dominance MARKET DOMINANCEZEV-equivalent sales share(0-100)Class coverage(0-
27、100)Pillar score(0-100)BYD69 88 78LEADERSTesla100 38 69SAIC31 100 65TRANSITIONERSGeely23 88 55Changan16 88 52VW10 88 49Stellantis8 88 48Renault11 75 43Great Wall10 75 43Mercedes-Benz10 63 36Hyundai-Kia8 63 35Nissan4 63 33LAGGARDSToyota1 63 32BMW12 50 31GM2 38 20Honda0 38 19Tata6 25 15Ford4 25 14Mazd
28、a1 13 7Suzuki0 0 0The technology performance pillar rates the automakers levels of technological advancement in meeting consumer needs and reducing upstream emissions.In this pillar,we rate five metrics.On vehicle performance,the energy consumption metric analyzes the potential for BEVs to lower ele
29、ctricity costs for consumers and reduce the cost and environmental impacts of making batteries;charging speed assesses how quickly a BEV can recharge its battery;and driving range reflects how far a ZEV can travel before recharging or refueling as an important element of convenience for consumers.On
30、 the upstream emissions,the renewable energy metric analyzes how much progress an automaker has made in switching to 100%renewable electricity in vehicle production and assembly and battery manufacturing.The battery recycling and repurposing metric assesses how much progress an automaker has made in
31、 starting to recycle and reuse batteries from its EVs(see Table ES3).Most automakers are making progress in vehicle technology and score highly in at least one of the technological attributes that will lead to greater consumer satisfaction with THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022ivand acceptance of ZEV
32、s.This is clearly a priority for automakers.However,there is a long way to go in sustainable vehicle manufacturing.Only BMW,VW,and Mercedes-Benz have made strong progress in using 100%renewable electricity.Although some automakers show stronger progress on battery recycling and repurposing than othe
33、rs,all need to expand in this area for their future supply chains to be sustainable.To thrive in a zero-carbon future,most automakers will need to surpass the current best performer in the market.Table ES3.Ratings on technology performanceTECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCEEnergy consumption (0-100)Charging spee
34、d(0-100)Driving range(0-100)Renewable energy(0-100)Battery recycle/repurpose(0-100)Pillar score(0-100)Tesla100 100 100 0 100 80LEADERSBMW72 52 76 100 92 78VW60 51 82 75 49 63TRANSITIONERSHyundai-Kia32 75 73 11 100 58BYD74 38 73 0 100 57Ford26 49 95 14 91 55Mercedes-Benz55 41 73 50 43 53GM53 31 78 0
35、99 52Geely45 32 68 9 100 51Toyota43 35 70 6 59 43Tata87 3 21 6 87 41Great Wall55 15 30 0 100 40Stellantis28 36 28 0 98 38Renault49 13 32 0 90 37Honda51 26 52 0 32 32LAGGARDSSAIC49 0 0 0 90 28Nissan19 12 29 0 31 18Changan45 4 19 0 0 13Mazda0 19 3 0 0 4SuzukiN/AN/AN/A0 0 0The strategic vision pillar r
36、ates how focused automakers are on ZEVs in their longer-term planning by three metrics(see Table ES4).The ZEV target metric analyzes the extent to which automakers have set long-term targets for ZEV sales share consistent with what is needed to keep global warming below 2 C.The ZEV investment metric
37、 assesses the total announced investment in ZEV research and development(R&D),THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022vZEV and battery manufacturing sites,and infrastructure,relative to the size of an automaker.And finally,the executive compensation metric examines the degree
38、 to which each automakers top executives pay is tied to progress in EV development.Many automakers are committed to ZEVs.Indeed,nine have committed to a full transition to ZEVs in the leading vehicle markets by 2035 for at least one brand;nearly all have announced major investments in ZEV developmen
39、t.However,few automakers leverage executive pay.Some link executive compensation broadly to ESG performance.Only five(Stellantis,BMW,GM,Renault,and Nissan)tie the pay of their top executive directly to progress in EV development for even a fraction of the compensation package.Companies striving to c
40、atch up in the transition to ZEVs should consider using this potentially powerful tool.Table ES4.Ratings on strategic visionSTRATEGIC VISIONZEV target(0-100)ZEV investment(0-100)Executive compensation(0-100)Pillar score(0-100)Tesla100 100 100 100LEADERSBYD70 79 100 83GM96 36 57 63TRANSITIONERSStella
41、ntis81 9 100 63Renault100 45 37 61BMW72 20 80 57Mercedes-Benz96 34 12 47VW92 23 26 47Ford96 36 0 44Changan68 56 0 41SAIC37 81 0 39Geely71 46 0 39Great Wall92 5 0 32LAGGARDSHonda73 24 0 32Nissan60 24 7 31Tata52 18 0 23Hyundai-Kia39 20 0 20Mazda30 25 0 18Toyota39 7 0 15Suzuki0 0 0 0THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKE
42、R RATING 2022viFrom our overall rating for 2022,we draw three broad conclusions:Most automakers score well on at least one metric.This reflects the complexity and breadth of the ZEV transition,as well as differing approaches from automakers.Of the automakers that lead the 2022 rating,Tesla is making
43、 100%ZEVs and BYDs market share for ZEVs and PHEVs has reached 99%.Some automakers,including Changan,Geely,SAIC,Stellantis,and VW,are developing a wider spectrum of light-duty ZEV models from small cars to small trucks.Some,including BMW,Ford,GM,Hyundai-Kia,Mercedes-Benz,and VW,have focused on impro
44、ving some of the technological attributes important to consumers.BMW,VW,and Mercedes-Benz are also working to reduce their upstream manufacturing emissions.Many automakers have established ZEV targets and are investing to meet those targets.By rating manufacturers on a broad set of metrics,our analy
45、sis offers a sharp,balanced view of their strengths and weaknesses.Every automaker has work to do.Even Teslas and BYDs ratings were weak on some metrics.For example,our rating shows that Tesla needs to offer more models across the size spectrum.In 2022,Tesla offered models in only three out of eight
46、 vehicle classes we identified.Similarly,BYD has work to do to improve the technological attributes important to consumers.As the transition accelerates,all companies must evolve and grow to keep pace with the changing market.Manufacturers headquartered in Japan and India must work to catch up to co
47、mpetitors in the transition.All five manufacturers headquartered in Japan and Tata,headquartered in India,are at the bottom of our rating.To improve,they need to increase their EV sales,set public ZEV targets,and invest in ZEVs.It is the case,though,that in the absence of effective government polici
48、es,the domestic markets for EVs in Japan and India are anemic at present.However,these companies would have rated higher if they had announced stronger targets and investment plans for the ZEV transition.We will update this rating report annually.It will undoubtedly evolve each year as the landscape
49、 evolves and as automakers make progress.Our review will remain data-driven and will incorporate new real-world data on ZEVs as it becomes available.We will continually update our metrics as new practices emerge and existing practices mature,for example by incorporating additional elements of supply
50、 chain decarbonization.In our subsequent reports,we will continue to track automakers progress in the complex,multi-faceted ZEV transition.In the meantime,this report offers the definitive look at how global automakers rate in the transition to ZEVs.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAK
51、ER RATING 2022viiTABLE OF CONTENTSEXECUTIVE SUMMARY.i1 INTRODUCTION .12 RATING FRAMEWORK .32.1 Scope of the rating.32.2 Evaluation structure.52.3 Data sources and process.63 MARKET DOMINANCE.103.1 ZEV-equivalent sales share.103.2 Class coverage.124 TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE.164.1 Energy consumption.164
52、.2 Charging speed.184.3 Driving range.214.4 Renewable energy in manufacturing.234.5 Battery recycling and repurposing.265 STRATEGIC VISION.315.1 ZEV target.315.2 ZEV investment.345.3 Executive compensation alignment.386 FINAL RATING RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.427 CONCLUSIONS.47REFERENCES.48APPENDIX A.Da
53、ta processing and sources.50APPENDIX B.Supplementary data for metric scoring.53B.1 ZEV-equivalent sales share.53B.2 Energy consumption.54B.3 Charging speed.55B.4 ZEV investment.56APPENDIX C.Methodology details.57C.1 Real-world electric drive share estimation.57C.2 Class coverage categorization using
54、 ICEV-equivalent curb weight .58C.3 Energy consumption adjustment.60C.4 Charger definitions.61THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202211 INTRODUCTION Meeting the goals set in the Paris Climate Agreement will require an unprecedented transition in the auto industry away from internal combustion engine vehicl
55、es(ICEVs)to zero-emission vehicles(ZEVs).Automakers around the world will need to transition in the next decade to keep up as government policies align with climate goals and as market forces and consumer preferences push in this direction.This changing reality is already reflected in new vehicle sa
56、les.The share of electric vehicles(EVs)this term covers battery electric vehicles(BEVs),plug-in hybrid electric vehicles(PHEVs),and fuel cell electric vehicles(FCEVs)has been growing rapidly in leading markets.In 2022,China,Europe,and the United States reached 24%,21%,and 7%EV share of new sales,res
57、pectively,for light-duty vehicles(LDVs),which include cars,vans,and light commercial vehicles such as pick-up trucks.These markets comprised around 60%of global LDV sales last year and are the leaders in vehicle policy.Automakers that have already set targets to phase out the production of ICEVs acc
58、ounted for 40%of LDV sales in 2022.It now seems that,within the foreseeable future,most new car,van,and pick-up truck sales will be EVs.For automakers accelerating efforts to transition,this is a big opportunity.At the same time,those unable to keep pace in the industrys transformation face a big ri
59、sk.This report focuses primarily on ZEVs,which are defined as BEVs and FCEVs,and we include elements that reflect the importance of moving toward zero-carbon manufacturing supply chains.PHEVs incorporate electric drivetrain technology,but real-world data shows they operate mostly on gasoline;because
60、 they generate tailpipe emissions from combusting fossil fuels,we discount PHEVs in our analysis.Additionally,we exclude vehicles that run on biofuels and e-fuels from our analysis,because previous ICCT research demonstrated that there is no realistic pathway for using alternative fuels to decarboni
61、ze ICEVs.Most conventional biofuels used today do not clearly reduce greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions compared to diesel and gasoline.While advanced biofuels made from wastes are more sustainable,they are expensive to produce and the necessary feedstocks are limited.Using e-fuels in internal combustion
62、engines is an extraordinarily inefficient and expensive way to use renewable electricity.Only BEVs and FCEVs using 100%renewable energy are realistic ZEV pathways,as discussed in Searle et al.(2021).By our estimate,ZEV sales will need to reach almost 100%for LDVs in the major markets by 2035and meet
63、 an interim target of 77%in 2030to align with a 2 C climate trajectory;additional measures will be needed to align with a 1.5 C pathway(Sen&Miller,2022).While there are many published assessments of auto companies,this rating is unique among publicly available reports in its global scope and focus o
64、n a transition to a zero-emission future for the industry,rather than on broad environmental,social,and governance(ESG)criteria.Additionally,this rating is based primarily on our own collected data and analysis,rather than on corporate surveys and other self-reported information.We draw on ICCTs in-
65、depth knowledge of the industry,major markets,and what is required to align with the Paris Agreement.Our approach is bolstered with supplemental input and insights from other experts in a handful of key areas.We use 10 custom-built metrics to identify and evaluate efforts by the worlds 20 largest LD
66、V manufacturers by sales to decarbonize their vehicle fleets and manufacturing operations consistent with limiting global warming to below 2 C.We examine each manufacturers latest ZEV sales,actions to reduce manufacturing emissions,and overall strategies as key indicators of their commitment.The fin
67、al rating results are a self-consistent view of the current state of the ZEV transition.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202222RATING FRAMEWORKTHE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202232 RATING FRAMEWORK 2.1 Scope of the ratingThis rating focuses on the production and sale of LDVs.
68、Its analysis is based on data developed for auto manufacturers in the six largest LDV markets in 2022:China,the United States,Europe,Japan,India,and the Republic of Korea.These are the top five markets in terms of LDV sales in 2022 and Korea,which was the seventh largest in sales and the fifth large
69、st in terms of vehicle production.These six markets together have accounted for about 73%of global LDV sales in recent years(MarkLines,2023).We selected the top 20 auto manufacturers in the world based on their global 2022 LDV sales.For this rating,manufacturer means the controlling corporate entity
70、.An entity might control multiple automotive brands.For joint ventures in China,manufacturers headquartered outside of China collaborate with a China-headquartered counterpart under a technology-sharing agreement;in these cases,we distinguish between vehicles that are manufactured under non-domestic
71、 or domestic brands and then count the corresponding sales toward the non-domestic or domestic controlling corporate entity accordingly.Figure 1 shows the top 20 manufacturers and their 2022 global LDV sales,with color-coding representing sales in the six major regions and an additional category for
72、 sales in the rest of the world.These manufacturers were about 90%of all LDV sales in the six major markets;their sales in these six markets were the vast majority of their global LDV sales.The region after each automakers name indicates the location where it is headquartered.Five are headquartered
73、in China,five in Japan,five in Europe,three in the United States,one in the Republic of Korea,and one in India.Most of the 20 manufacturers sell in multiple regions.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202242,000,00004,000,0006,000,0008,000,00010,000,000ChinaUnited StatesEurop
74、eJapanIndiaKoreaOther(Name Headquarters)JapanEuropeKoreaEuropeU.S.JapanU.S.JapanJapanEuropeEuropeEuropeChinaChinaChinaChinaU.S.ChinaJapanIndiaToyotaVWHyundai-KiaStellantisGMHondaFordNissanSuzukiBMWRenaultMercedes-BenzSAICGeelyChanganBYDTeslaGreat WallMazdaTataFigure 1.2022 light-duty vehicle sales b
75、y the top 20 manufacturers in the six major markets.We evaluate manufacturers based on their sales,actions,and strategies in the six major markets.Vehicle-related analyses are based on new light-duty sales in 2022;forward-looking strategy and actions-related analyses are based on information collect
76、ed through the end of 2022.1 1 Some information was collected in 2023,to verify the feedback we received from automakers;nonetheless,all information reflects the state of the automakers only through 2022.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202252.2 Evaluation structureWe designed the rating around three pil
77、lars,each made up of different metrics.There are 10 metrics in total.Together,they reflect the latest efforts toward and potential for a full ZEV transition.Figure 2 provides an overview of the three pillars(market dominance,technology performance,and strategic vision)and 10 metrics.The area for eac
78、h metric in the figure represents its contribution to the final rating.Energy consumptionCharging speedDriving rangeRenewable energyin manufacturingBattery recyclingand repurposingExecutive compensationalignmentZEV investmentZEV targetZEV-equivalentsales shareZEV classcoverageSTRATEGICVISIONTECHPERF
79、ORMANCEMARKETDOMINANCEFigure 2.Overview of the structure of ICCTs Global Auto Rating.Market dominance reflects the progress each manufacturer has made in its transition to ZEVs.It consists of two metrics:ZEV-equivalent sales share is the fraction of each manufacturers LDV sales that are BEVs,FCEVs,a
80、nd PHEVs.Each PHEV was discounted as a percentage of a ZEV based on the real-world electric drive share of PHEVs,estimated from recent studies.ZEV class coverage reflects the share of eight LDV classes,ranging from mini/subcompact car to light truck,that are covered by model offerings from each manu
81、facturer.Technology performance consists of five metrics,three important to consumer experience and two concerned with reducing upstream emissions,which is an important part of decarbonizing the automotive industry.They are:Energy consumption is the sales-weighted average of certified energy consump
82、tion of BEVs sold by each manufacturer,normalized to the same test cycle and in watt-hours per kilometer(Wh/km).Charging speed is the maximum average charging speed of BEVs sold by a manufacturer,in kilowatts(kW).Driving range is the sales-weighted average of certified driving range of ZEVs sold by
83、a manufacturer,normalized to the same test cycle and in kilometers(km).THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 20226 Renewable energy in manufacturing reflects efforts an automaker has made to move to 100%renewable electricity in vehicle assembly and battery manufacturing.Battery
84、 recycling and repurposing reflects whether manufacturers have begun pilot projects or collaborations in battery recycling and reuse.Strategic vision reflects the vision and commitment of each manufacturer in the ZEV transition.It consists of three metrics:ZEV target is based on each companys stated
85、 ZEV sales share targets and dates,and their degree of alignment with the ZEV sales shares needed to keep global warming below 2 C.ZEV investment includes total announced investment in ZEV and battery production sites,charging infrastructure,and ZEV research and development(R&D),relative to an autom
86、akers size.Executive compensation alignment reflects the extent to which an automakers top executives pay is tied to EV development.We award manufacturers points according to their performance on each metric.The highest possible score in each metric is 100;the lowest is zero.Although some metrics ha
87、ve the absolute best and worst performance by nature,such as a ZEV sales share of 100%(best)and 0%(worst),metrics like energy consumption,charging speed,and driving range have no natural absolute best or worst.Therefore,to create an evaluation mechanism that applies the same to all metrics,we set th
88、e bottom score to zero and assigned the top performer for each metric a score of 100.We applied Equation(1),below,to calculate the final score for each manufacturer for each metric:Metric score(0 to 100 scale)=Pointsmax-PointsminPoints-Pointsmin 100(1)Where Points is the number of points for the met
89、ric for a given manufacturer;Pointsmin is the lowest number of points across all manufacturers;and Pointsmax is the highest number of points among all manufacturers.Scores are calculated for each of the three pillars and each pillar score is calculated as the average of the metric scores within that
90、 pillar.If an automaker has“N/A”for a metric,we average the scores of the other metrics to get the pillar score.2 The final rating is calculated as the average of the three pillar scores.While all averages are done without rounding,the results reported are rounded to the nearest integer.We assign th
91、e same weight to the three pillars in the final rating,because they are equally important.Because there are different numbers of metrics within each pillar,the comparative weighting of individual metrics is the same within each pillar,but different from the individual metrics in other pillars.This i
92、s inherent in the design of our evaluation.2.3 Data sources and processFive of the metrics assessed in this rating are at the vehicle level and the other five are at the manufacturer level.Vehicle-level metrics are ZEV-equivalent sales share,ZEV class coverage,energy consumption,charging speed,and d
93、riving range.2 Suzuki got N/A for the energy consumption,charging speed,and driving range metrics,because it did not sell any ZEVs in 2022.It was the only automaker to receive N/A for any metric.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 20227Manufacturer-level metrics are ZEV target,ZEV investment,executive compe
94、nsation alignment,renewable energy in manufacturing,and battery recycling.Data sources are described below.For vehicle-level data,we developed a database that includes all new LDVs sold in 2022 by the manufacturers in the six vehicle markets.We obtained vehicle data from multiple sales databases to
95、maximize data coverage and accuracy.Data regarding vehicle sales and vehicle power train type were derived from four sources for new vehicles sold in 2022.This includes U.S.,Korea,and Japan data from MarkLines(MarkLines,2022);Europe data from Dataforce(Dataforce,2022),including vehicle sales in the
96、European Union,EFTA(European Free Trade Association)member states,and the United Kingdom;India data from Segment Y(Segment Y,2022);and China data from ZEDATA(ZEDATA,2022).Data on the specifications(gross weight and curb weight,gross and net battery capacity,energy consumption,driving range,and charg
97、ing time)of each model were collected from specification brochures on manufacturers official websites and from major EV information hubs including ev-database.org,and ev- for European and U.S.models,and and for Chinese models.Variations in the level of detail and focus,including things like included
98、 data fields,among the various datasets required substantial processing to develop a comprehensive set of globally consistent data.Appendix A describes the methodology behind the creation of this database.For manufacturer-specific actions,information about ZEV targets,use of renewable energy in manu
99、facturing,and battery recycling and repurposing was primarily sourced from the manufacturers latest annual sustainability reports.3 This was supplemented with press releases,media articles,and public announcements collected through the end of 2022,to capture any developments between when the sustain
100、ability report was published and the end of the year.Some automakers provided feedback to our input information by referring to their sustainability reports published in 2023.We incorporated that information into this rating as long as it reflected the automakers efforts in 2022.The data used to ass
101、ess manufacturers investments in ZEVs was obtained from Atlas Public Policys EV Hub(Atlas Public Policy,2022).The information regarding the mechanism behind and the elements used in determining the compensation for each companys chief executive was compiled by Valens Research specifically for this r
102、ating.The information was extracted from the proxy statements and other public filings of each manufacturer.Detailed information on the data sources is in the methodology section for each individual metric.The complete list of annual sustainability reports and supplementary sources reviewed for this
103、 analysis is in Appendix A.Most of the top 20 manufacturers operate in multiple major markets,and practices and ambitions can differ across regions.For example,some manufacturers have adopted 100%renewable electricity in manufacturing in Europe,but not in other regions.The same manufacturer might al
104、so announce different ZEV targets and ICEV phase-out dates for Europe,the United States,and the other regions.To account for such differences,we collected manufacturers global and regional strategies and implementation actions from the sources described above.Whenever there were divergences in regio
105、nal practices,we calculated the global average performance metrics weighted by the vehicle sales in the corresponding regional markets.3 Sometimes annual sustainability reports were identified by the companies as an environmental report,climate report,or ESG report.For simplicity,we refer to all of
106、these as“annual sustainability report”throughout this report.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 20228Additionally,some subsidiary marques have separate sustainability reports that set different goals from the parent company.For example,Volvo has separate sustainability repor
107、ts and different ZEV targets than its parent company,Geely.In this case,we collected information about strategies and implementation for both the subsidiary company and the parent company and calculated the average performance metrics weighted by the sales of the different marques.To ensure the accu
108、racy and timeliness of the manufacturer-specific information used for this rating,we asked all 20 automakers to review the input data and information used for evaluating manufacturer-specific actions and commitments.We did not disclose the evaluation framework or evaluation methodology in our commun
109、ication with automakers.We received feedback from 11 automakers:BMW,BYD,Ford,GM,Great Wall,Mercedes-Benz,Renault,Stellantis,Tata,Tesla,and VW.When automakers disagreed with our information,they generally provided revised or updated data with or without citing sources.We reinvestigated to verify all
110、information before using it for the analysis.The final manufacturer-specific information applies to the evaluation of five metrics:renewable energy use,battery recycling and repurposing,ZEV target,ZEV investment,and executive compensation structure.The analysis of the other five metrics was based on
111、 vehicle-specific data from either proprietary data sources or open sources;we did not ask automakers for feedback on that data.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202293MARKETDOMINANCETHE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022103 MARKET DOMINANCE3.1 ZEV-equivalent sales shareThe ZEV-e
112、quivalent sales share,which represents the share of an automakers total LDV sales that are ZEVs,is the most direct measure of progress in the ZEV transition.The ZEV-equivalent sales share is the sum of a manufacturers ZEV share and the discounted PHEV share.ZEVs are BEVs with no additional power sou
113、rce or FCEVs.PHEVs are hybrid vehicles equipped with an internal combustion engine,an electric motor,and a battery that can be charged externally.They are considered partial ZEVs because they can be driven for a period with zero tailpipe carbon dioxide(CO2)emissions.The discount factors for PHEVs in
114、 this evaluation are based on real-world statistics.Ideally,the ZEV-equivalent sales share would be 100%,indicating that a manufacturer produces and sells only ZEVs.METHODOLOGYVehicle sales data is from the compiled vehicle sales database explained in Section 2.3,which reflects all new LDVs sold in
115、the six major markets in 2022.While each BEV or FCEV sold counts as one ZEV,we discount a portion of PHEV sales using a factor based on real-world electric drive share(i.e.,the portion of kilometers driven on electricity).The discount factors reflect the non-electric driving share.Recent research es
116、timated that the real-world electric drive share of PHEVs in the United States is 2556%lower than what is indicated in the U.S.Environmental Protection Agencys(EPA)labeling program(Isenstadt et al.,2022).Studies also found lower real-world electric drive share in Europe and China(Pltz et al.,2020;Pl
117、tz et al.,2022).Using the real-world electric drive share to discount PHEV sales share better reflects the more limited climate benefits PHEVs deliver compared to BEVs and FCEVs.The PHEV discount factor depends on the electric driving range of the model.Real-world data shows that,in general,the long
118、er the all-electric range of a PHEV,the larger the share of all-electric,zero-tailpipe-emissions driving.For each PHEV model,the discount factor we apply to determine the ZEV-equivalent share is calculated by an equation that relates a models charge-depleting range to its real-world electric drive s
119、hare.Details of this calculation are presented in Appendix C.1.(The sources of PHEV charge-depleting range data were described in Section 2.3.)The discount factors for PHEV models range from 28%94%;the sales-weighted average is 68%.The total ZEV-equivalent sales share is the sum of the ZEV share and
120、 the discounted PHEV share,ranging from 0%100%.The manufacturer with the highest ZEV-equivalent sales share receives a score of 100.The manufacturer with the lowest ZEV-equivalent sales share receives a score of zero.Other manufacturers are scored based on their relative metric points compared with
121、the best and worst performers and receive a score between zero and 100(see Equation 1).RESULTS As expected,there were large variations in manufacturer sales shares in 2022.Some legacy manufacturers(i.e.,manufacturers that have been producing ICEVs),including BYD and SAIC,have made noticeable advance
122、s in bringing ZEVs to market.Figure 3 summarizes the vehicle sales shares of LDVs by manufacturer in 2022.On the right side of the figure,the blue bars indicate the sales share of BEVs and FCEVs.The yellow THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202211bars,including the part with a pattern,indicate the actual P
123、HEV sales share.The solid yellow bars indicate the discounted PHEV sales share after accounting for their real-world electric drive share.On the left side of the figure,the grey bars indicate sales of ICEVs.The final ratings of this metric for each automaker are listed to the right of the bars.Detai
124、ls of the ZEV and PHEV sales shares by manufacturer and details of the ZEV-equivalent shares across the six major markets are presented in Table B1 in Appendix B.100(Score)693100100%50%0%50%100%TeslaBYDSAICGeelyChanganBMWRenaultGreat WallMercedes-BenzVWStellantisHyundai-KiaTata
125、NissanFordGMMazdaToyotaHondaSuzukiInternal combustion engine vehicles(ICEVs)sales shareZEV-equivalent sales shareBattery-and fuel cell-electric vehicles(ZEVs)PHEVs share of driving on electricityPlug-in hybrid electric vehicles(PHEVs)Figure 3.ZEV and PHEV sales share by manufacturer in 2022 and rati
126、ng for the ZEV-equivalent sales share metric.Most manufacturers ZEV-equivalent sales are driven by BEV sales.BYD is the only manufacturer with a considerable PHEV share(49%).FCEV sales were minimal,0.2%of all ZEV sales by all 20 manufacturers;97%of those sales were by Hyundai-Kia and Toyota;the rema
127、ining sales were split between Honda,SAIC,and BMW.Tesla leads on this metric with a 100%ZEV-equivalent sales share,because it only produces BEVs.BYD,which made the transition to only producing BEVs and PHEVs in March 2022,follows closely with a 69%ZEV-equivalent sales share.The other four manufactur
128、ers headquartered in China have ZEV-equivalent shares ranging from 10%31%,with most sales coming from the Chinese market.Geelys high ZEV-equivalent share in Europe is from its Volvo subsidiary.Manufacturers headquartered in Europe have ZEV-equivalent shares between 812%and have significantly higher
129、ZEV-equivalent sales shares in Europe than in other markets.The two manufacturers headquartered in the United States,Ford and GM,have relatively low ZEV-equivalent shares,each below 5%.Manufacturers headquartered in Japan also performed poorly in this metric,with ZEV-equivalent shares ranging from 0
130、.03%4%.Suzuki received a score of zero because it has the lowest ZEV-equivalent sales,a combination of zero ZEV sales and a PHEV sales share of 0.1%.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022123.2 Class coverageAutomakers often sell a variety of models across many vehicle class
131、es or segments to attract a broad range of customers.Consumers use vehicles to meet a variety of needs.Their requirements when selecting a vehicle for purchase thus vary;because of this,they need a variety of models from which to choose.The class coverage metric evaluates the range and diversity of
132、BEV and FCEV models offered by manufacturers and how well they cater to different market segments.Manufacturers with broader class coverage have invested in vehicle technology and production platforms to serve different submarkets.This wider range of coverage could give manufacturers an advantage wh
133、en they seek to grow,because they will have access to a larger customer base.Having a variety of ZEV models for sale also supports the overall transition,as it increases consumer choice.As this metric reflects manufacturers efforts toward a zero-tailpipe-emissions future,PHEV models are excluded.MET
134、HODOLOGYThere is no universal definition for vehicle classes.Consequently,combining data from major vehicle markets results in myriad inconsistent vehicle classifications.To address this,we use a simplified classification system based on vehicle length for passenger cars(PCs)and curb weight for ligh
135、t commercial vehicles(LCVs)and apply it to the ZEV data from all six markets.We classify passenger cars into five classes(mini/subcompact car,compact car,midsize car,large car,and SUV/MPV)and LCVs into three classes(small,medium,and large),for a total of eight defined classes.The length thresholds f
136、or PC classification are based on EV-Volumes global segment classification (EV-Volumes,2023),and curb weight thresholds for LCV classification are based on the EU N1 subclasses standard(Vermeulen et al.,2012).We combine mini PCs with the subcompact class to reflect the model availability in the smal
137、ler PC segment.Detailed weight thresholds are listed in Appendix C.Since batteries are heavy,BEVs can weigh more than with their ICEV counterparts.Because the EU curb weight classifications were initially designed for ICEVs,directly mapping BEVs into their corresponding weight classes might lead to
138、inaccurate categorization.For this reason,we adjust the curb weight of BEVs to be comparable with their ICEV equivalents for LCV classification.To determine the appropriate adjustment factor,we calculated the ratio of curb weight of ten popular ICEV models and their ZEV counterparts of nearly identi
139、cal size.The average curb weight ratio was found to be 0.83.This average ratio was used as a discount factor to estimate the ICEV-equivalent curb weight of each BEV model.This method proved effective in reasonably estimating ICEV-equivalent curb weights for ZEV models across a wide range of curb wei
140、ghts(see Appendix C.2).Then we compared the adjusted curb weight against thresholds from the EU N1 subclasses standard to determine the vehicle class of each LCV BEV model.We consider a defined class to be covered by a manufacturer if there were sales of at least one ZEV model within said class.The
141、coverage rate is the ratio of the total number of classes covered by the manufacturer and the total number of classes considered,eight.For instance,if the ZEV models sold by a manufacturer cover four out of the eight classes,we assign a score of 4/8=50%for this metric.Lastly,we convert the coverage
142、rate to the 100-point system.The manufacturer with the highest class coverage rate receives a score of 100 and the manufacturer with the lowest class coverage rate receives a score of zero.Other manufacturers are scored using Equation(1).THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202213RESULTSAlmost all manufactur
143、ers offer ZEV models in the SUV/MPV segment;the one exception is Suzuki,which offered only plug-in hybrid SUVs and did not have any ZEV models in any class.Several manufacturers sold a wide variety of BEV models that cover more than half of all classes.Table 1 summarizes ZEV model availability acros
144、s all eight vehicle classes and the final score for this metric.A vehicle icon is shown where a manufacturer offers a model for each class.The final score is shown in the rightmost column.Table 1.ZEV(BEV and FCEV)model class coverage for each manufacturerOEMPC classLCV classScoreMini/SubcompactCompa
145、ctMidsizeLargeSUV/MPVSmallMediumLargeSAIC100VW88Changan88Stellantis88Geely88BYD88Renault75Great Wall75Toyota63Hyundai-Kia63Mercedes-Benz63Nissan63BMW50Honda38GM38Tesla38Tata25Ford25Mazda13Suzuki0THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202214Manufacturers headquartered in China ar
146、e leading in class coverage.SAICs score is 100,because it has full coverage across all eight classes.Changan,Geely,BYD,and Great Wall all have offerings in both PC and LCV segments,and their resulting coverage rates are between 75%88%.Manufacturers headquartered in Europe performed above average:VW,
147、Stellantis,and Renault rank high with class coverage rates between 75%88%.These automakers offer LCV models like the Volkswagen e-Transporter,the Peugeot e-Expert,and the Renault Kangoo E-Tech.Mercedes-Benz does not offer mid-class zero-emission cars.BMW does not offer ZEV products in the LCV segmen
148、t and has a lower class coverage rate of 50%.Honda,GM,Tesla,Tata,Ford,and Mazda performed below average with coverage rates between 13%38%.GM and Tesla focused mostly on passenger car ZEV models,whereas Fords ZEV products are only in two heavier vehicle classes,SUV and medium LCV.Mazdas only ZEV off
149、erings are the MX-30 and CX-30(the latter only available in China),both of which are SUVs,and its class coverage rate is 13%.Suzuki gets a score of zero for not having any ZEV models in 2022.There are factors that this metric does not capture equally across all automakers.Teslas offerings are in a l
150、imited range of classes,but it already sells exclusively BEVs.Other manufacturers have multiple ZEV models at a variety of price points,but within only a few classes.While these manufacturers might thus be better positioned to sell within those classes today,their customer base is more limited.Addit
151、ionally,the popularity of PCs and LCVs varies across the six major markets,and some automakers might offer models in certain classes because of the popularity of those classes in a certain market.Still,this analysis is global in scope and most of the automakers assessed have global operations.Theref
152、ore,the more classes an automaker covers,the more they are contributing to the global ZEV transition across all vehicle classes.Lastly,this metric does not incorporate the number of ZEV models a manufacturer offers in each class or the prices of the models,even though both might impact consumer purc
153、hase decisions.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022154TECHNOLOGYPERFORMANCETHE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022164 TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE4.1 Energy consumptionThe energy consumption metric evaluates the sales-weighted average certified energy consumption of BEVs sold by each
154、manufacturer.Energy consumption measures the amount of energy consumed per distance traveled.For vehicles with the same battery size,the vehicle that consumes less energy can drive longer distances per charge.BEVs that consume less energy help limit the upstream emissions from vehicle use and consum
155、e less electricity from renewables.Vehicles that consume less energy also reduce energy costs for consumers.METHODOLOGY Energy consumption is reported by manufacturers according to the regulations in place in the six markets.For each BEV model in our database,we collected the certified energy consum
156、ption in Wh/km under the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure(WLTP).FCEVs are excluded from the calculation of fleet average energy consumption because they operate differently than BEVs.Compared to the direct use of electricity from batteries in BEVs,which is more than 70%efficient,th
157、e process of generating electricity from hydrogen through a fuel cell is only approximately 50%efficient.This causes FCEVs to consume almost twice as much energy as comparable BEVs.Thus,this evaluation focuses on BEVs,and recall that these were 99.8%of total 2022 ZEV sales of the 20 automakers.Energ
158、y consumption data is sourced from the certification values that were measured using different test cycles,such as the WLTP,New European Driving Cycle test cycle(NEDC),China Light-Duty Vehicle Test Cycle(CLTC),and the U.S.label value used by the U.S.EPA.Energy consumption values from the different t
159、est cycles are standardized to WLTP-equivalent values by using conversion factors.We apply a multiplier of 1.15 to convert the NEDC or CLTC energy consumption to its equivalent value under the WLTP test cycle.Similarly,a discount factor of 1.2 is used to convert the U.S.label values to their equival
160、ent values under the WLTP(Yoney,2022).These conversions allow for a consistent comparison of energy consumption across models.We adjust the energy consumption of each BEV model to account for the weight differences of vehicles,as physical differences inherently affect energy consumption.The impact i
161、s shown in our analysis:Regressing energy consumption on curb weight using all BEV models in our database showed a strong correlation between the two variables(see Appendix C.3 for details).BEVs are sold in different vehicle classes across manufacturers.For example,100%of BEVs sold by Ford were eith
162、er SUVs or LCVs with an average curb weight of 2,821 kg.The data also show that more than 90%of BEVs sold by SAIC were subcompact or compact cars that had an average curb weight of 1,019 kg.Thus,the adjustment allows manufacturers to be compared independent of size.For the weight adjustment,we bench
163、mark the energy consumption of each model to the same baseline weight of 1,773 kg,which is the sales-weighted average curb weight of all sales of new ZEVs sold by the top 20 automakers in 2022 in the six markets.The regression result shows that,on average,each kilogram increase in curb weight is cor
164、related with a 0.056 Wh/km increase in energy consumption.This finding is similar to a previous study,Weiss et al.(2020),which investigated 218 electric passenger cars from China,Norway,and the United States,and found a similar correlation of 0.06 THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202217Whkm-1kg-1.We use
165、0.056 Whkm-1kg-1 as the adjustment rate to calculate the energy consumption adjustment needed based on the curb weight difference in kilograms between each model and the baseline weight.For a model that is 100 kg heavier than the baseline of 1,773 kg,we adjust the energy consumption downward by 100*
166、0.056=5.6 Wh/km to normalize the energy consumption of this model.With the adjusted energy consumption of each model,we calculate the average energy consumption for each manufacturer,weighted by the total sales of each model produced by the manufacturer across the six major markets.The adjusted ener
167、gy consumption values are then converted to a 100-point score using the manufacturers with the lowest energy consumption as the benchmark.The manufacturer with the lowest sales-weighted average energy consumption receives a score of 100 and the manufacturer with the highest sales-weighted average en
168、ergy consumption receives a score of zero.Other manufacturers are scored based on their relative metric points compared with the best and worst performers and receive a score between zero and 100(Equation 1).The energy consumption values used for the analysis are certified values from the vehicle ty
169、pe-approval process.We considered using the real-world energy consumption of ZEVs because energy consumption in the real-world can sometimes vary significantly from type-approval values.Komnos et al.(2022)found that the real-world energy consumption for battery electric cars can be 4.5%23.9%higher t
170、han the certified values.Recent work from ICCT,Jin et al.(2023),analyzed data from 140,000 vehicles,10 high-selling BEV PC models in five Chinese cities;the energy consumption was found to be 18%higher than type-approval values on average,but there were clear differences in the gap between real-worl
171、d and type-approval values by model,and the range was from 0%to 30%.Note,also,that the real-world energy consumption of a vehicle is impacted by external factors such as the ambient temperature and traffic conditions(Al-Wreikat et al.,2021).Jin et al.(2023)found that driving BEV PCs in“cold”(0 C)and
172、“hot”(30 C35 C)conditions could,on average,increase energy consumption by approximately 39%and 11%,respectively,compared to the certified values.Therefore,comparing the real-world performance of BEVs can be different from comparing the performance during laboratory testing,depending on the functiona
173、lity of the model and where and how it is driven.However,there are no ideal real-world data sources that cover the wide range of models and brands in this analysis.In the absence of a high-quality real-world database,we use type approval data.This also reflects the information given to consumers via
174、 the official specifications of a manufacturers offerings.RESULTSSimilar to the variance in fleet-average fuel consumption of ICEVs across manufacturers,we see a noticeable variance in BEV energy consumption.The energy consumption of the lowest-scoring automaker,Mazda,is about 38%higher than the hig
175、hest-scoring automaker,Tesla.Figure 4 illustrates the average energy consumption of BEVs after the adjustment by vehicle curb weight and the score for this metric by manufacturer.Shorter bars illustrate less average energy consumption,and this translated into a higher metric score.The underlying dat
176、a of the average energy consumption of BEVs before and after the adjustment by weight is in Appendix B,Table B2.lead to,thusTHE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 20226055555353228260200TeslaTataBYDBMWVWGreat WallMercedes-BenzGMHondaRenaultSAICGe
177、elyChanganToyotaHyundai-KiaStellantisFordNissanMazdaSuzukiAdjusted energy consumption of BEVs(Wh/km)ScoreN/AFigure 4.Average energy consumption of BEVs and metric scores by manufacturer.Tesla and Tata lead on this metric with average adjusted energy consumption of 124 Wh/km and 130 Wh/km,respectivel
178、y.Other automakers have an average adjusted energy consumption value between 136171 Wh/km.Mazda has the highest average adjusted energy consumption value of 171 Wh/km and thus received a score of zero.Suzuki does not have a score for this metric,because it did not sell any BEVs in 2022.4.2 Charging
179、speedConcerns about the length of charging time,especially when charging during long-distance travel,could significantly impact consumer adoption of BEVs and their willingness to purchase a vehicle(Li et al.,2020).Although some DC fast chargers can deliver power up to 350 kW,there is a large differe
180、nce in the maximum charging speed that can be accepted and the average charging speed across BEV models.For example,the Hyundai IONIQ 5 supports 350 kW DC charging and has an average charging speed of 169.4 kW;it takes 18 minutes to charge its 72.6 kWh batteries from 10%to 80%.Meanwhile,the Changan
181、Lumin BEV,the second best-selling model from Changan,has a comparatively weak 2 kW onboard charger and requires 6.5 hours to fully charge its 13 kWh variant and 8.8 hours to fully charge its 28 kWh variant.Given the importance of charging time in BEV adoption,this metric can provide insight into the
182、 attractiveness of BEV models charging options.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202219METHODOLOGYFor this metric we calculate the sales-weighted average charging speed of BEV models sold by each manufacturer.Similar to energy consumption,we exclude FCEVs because of the difference in the technology and re
183、fueling processes.To calculate the charging speed for each BEV model,information on net battery capacity and charging time of all compatible chargers is collected and compiled into a ZEV-specification database(see Section 2.3).For models for which no data on net battery capacity is available,a multi
184、plier of 0.95 is applied to the gross battery capacity,which is estimated from regression analysis using 228 models with both net and gross battery capacity information available.The regression analysis uses an OLS(ordinary least squares)model to regress the net battery capacity on gross battery cap
185、acity.Data on the charging speed of BEV models is typically provided for normal chargers and fast chargers.Normal chargers are Level 2 home,workplace,and public chargers that typically have a power rating between 3 kW and 22 kW from alternating current(AC;Rajon Bernard et al.,2021).Fast chargers are
186、 typically direct current(DC)and include 50 kW to 350 kW chargers.In this analysis,charger type definitions follow the European Court of Auditors(2021)and details are in Appendix C.4.All BEV models accept normal chargers,but only some BEV models are capable of DC fast charging and the maximum chargi
187、ng speed accepted at DC fast chargers varies by model.For BEV normal or Level 2 charging,each models average charging speed is calculated by dividing its net battery capacity by the amount of time needed to charge from 0%to 100%.For BEV fast charging,the average charging speed is based on 70%of the
188、net battery capacity and the time needed to charge the battery from 10%to 80%,as this is typically the measurement provided by the manufacturer for fast charging.This range is also more representative of the real-world use of fast chargers,as most drivers fast charge between 20%and 80%state of charg
189、e,and because charging speed typically slows down significantly above 80%(Whaling,2022).As the battery approaches full capacity using a fast charger,the battery management system slows the charging rate to avoid overcharging and prolong the batterys life.Therefore,we define the average charging spee
190、d for fast charging as the net battery capacity in kWh multiplied by the charged percentages of 70%divided by the charging time in hours to charge from 10%to 80%.If a model has multiple charging options,we select the average charging speed from the fastest option it can take.Then we average the maxi
191、mum average charging speed of all BEV models of each manufacturer weighted by the sales of the models.The average charging speed values are converted to a 100-point score following Equation(1).The manufacturer with the fastest charging speed receives a score of 100 and the manufacturer with the slow
192、est receives a score of zero.Other manufacturers are scored based on their relative speed compared with the best and worst performers and receive a score between zero and 100.We also explored the feasibility of rating this metric based on driving range per unit of charging time(e.g.,km/min),because
193、it is another common approach for measuring charging speed and it might be easier for a broad audience to comprehend.However,this approach unavoidably considers energy consumption in the calculation,and that is a separate,key metric of this report.We determined that the overlap was unacceptable and
194、thus opted to measure this metric using kW.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202220RESULTSAutomakers show significant variations in sales-weighted average charging speed,with the highest-scoring automaker 8.6 times faster than the lowest-scoring automaker.Figure 5 shows the
195、 final score for each manufacturer and their average charging speed.Manufacturers that sell a higher share of BEVs incapable of fast charging,such as SAIC and Changan,have much lower average charging speeds compared with the others.Table B3 in Appendix B details the sales-weighted average charging s
196、peeds for each automaker for BEVs that do not support fast charging and for BEVs that support fast charging,and includes the sales share of each BEV group for each manufacturer.Score426050100150200TeslaHyundai-KiaBMWVWFordMercedes-BenzBYDStellantisToyotaGeelyGMHondaM
197、azdaGreat WallRenaultNissanChanganTataSAICSuzukiAverage charging speed of BEVs(kW)N/AFigure 5.Average charging speed and metric score by manufacturer.Tesla tops all manufacturers in charging speed for fast charging with an average charging speed of 172 kW.Hyundai-Kia follows closely with an average
198、speed of 134 kW.Both Tesla and Hyundai-Kia have several high-selling models that are among the fastest-charging BEVs available,including the Tesla Model X,Hyundai IONIQ 5,and Kia EV6.Most of the manufacturers headquartered in Europe,two manufacturers headquartered in the United States,and BYD,Toyota
199、,and Geely have average charging speeds ranging from 65 kW to 98 kW.Renault lags behind its Europe-headquartered peers with an average charging speed of 38 kW;this is due to a lack of fast-charging capabilities in 17%of its BEV sales and the low average charging speed of its best-selling model.Chang
200、an,Tata,and SAIC ranked well below average for charging speed,as some of their high-selling BEVs are lower-to-mid price BEVs that only support home charging.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202221SAIC had the lowest score,with an average charging speed of 18 kW;this was mainly due to the limited charging
201、 capability of its best-selling model,the Hongguang Mini,which accounts for 64%of its BEV sales and has a 1.5 kW charger that takes 7 hours to fully charge its 10.5 kWh battery.Suzuki does not have a score for this metric because it did not sell any BEVs in 2022.4.3 Driving rangeDriving range is ano
202、ther metric valued by consumers,as longer range expands vehicle functionality and minimizes range anxiety.It is a key factor in the convenience of BEVs for consumers.Automakers offering only shorter-range BEVs might struggle to keep up in the ZEV transition,as research suggests that consumers might
203、be less likely to switch to EVs if they have short ranges(Stockkamp et al.,2021).Another sign of the importance of driving range is that the California Air Resources Board(CARB)has set minimum range requirements for BEVs that can count toward the ZEV targets in its Advanced Clean Cars II regulation(
204、California Air Resources Board,2022).Offering higher-range vehicles could encourage faster ZEV uptake,deliver more climate benefits,and make automakers more competitive.While consumers generally prefer a longer driving range,it comes with costs,both financial and environmental.Larger batteries are n
205、eeded to provide range,and this increases vehicle weight.Heavier vehicles require more energy to move them,and the resulting increased electricity consumption increases both recharging costs for the consumer and GHG emissions from upstream electricity production while fossil fuels are still used.The
206、re are costs for the manufacturer,as well,because greater quantities of input materials such as lithium and other critical minerals are necessary to build the larger batteries.Designing BEVs with longer ranges can thus expose manufacturers to price swings in lithium and other minerals more so than m
207、aking short-range vehicles.Additionally,because battery production and mining for key minerals are major sources of the overall GHG emissions in BEV manufacturing,making longer-range vehicles increases those emissions as long as fossil fuels are still used in upstream mining and manufacturing.While
208、keeping in mind all of these realities of longer-range BEVs,we include this metric in our assessment because of its importance in attracting a wide consumer base.Additionally,as the vehicle market is still dominated by ICEVs,larger-battery BEVs still provide environmental benefits.METHODOLOGYThe sal
209、es-weighted average driving range of all ZEVs sold by each manufacturer is calculated.We first collect the driving range data for each model.We collect certified driving range in kilometers under WLTP for each ZEV model in our vehicle database.This specification measures the maximum distance that a
210、BEV can travel on a full charge without recharging,or an FCEV can travel on a single tank of hydrogen without refueling.Similar to energy consumption,driving range of BEV models in the database is measured using different test cycles.We follow the same method to standardize the range values of diffe
211、rent test cycles to WLTP-equivalent driving range using conversion factors.We apply a discount factor of 1.15 to convert the NEDC or CLTC range to its equivalent value under the WLTP test cycle.Similarly,a multiplier of 1.2 is used to convert the U.S.label values to their equivalent values under the
212、 WLTP test cycle(Yoney,2022).THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202222This data is then weighted based on the total sales of each model in the six major markets in 2022,and it results in a weighted average that reflects the typical driving range under laboratory testing.The
213、average driving range of each manufacturer is then converted to a 100-point score following Equation(1).The manufacturer with the longest sales-weighted average range receives a score of 100 and the manufacturer with the shortest receives a score of zero.Other manufacturers are scored based on their
214、 relative driving range compared with the best and worst performers and receive a score between zero and 100.There is some overlap between the energy consumption metric and the driving range metric,because the efficiency of a vehicle is a key determinant of its driving range.However,it is important
215、to consider both metrics in this assessment,because both aspects are important to the consumer experience:Efficiency is a major factor in recharging costs and driving range affects the convenience of driving BEVs.RESULTSThe average driving range varies greatly among the 20 manufacturers,from 196 km
216、on the low end to 503 km on the high end.The top 10 manufacturers on this metric exhibit relatively similar driving ranges,all exceeding 400 km,and the remaining manufacturers are distributed across the range of 196 km to 355 km.Figure 6 shows the final score for each manufacturer and the average dr
217、iving range of their ZEV models.Score7373737068523230292820600TeslaFordVWGMBMWHyundai-KiaBYDMercedes-BenzToyotaGeelyHondaRenaultGreat WallNissanStellantisTataChanganMazdaSAICSuzukiAverage driving range of ZEVs(km)N/AFigure 6.Fleet-average driving range of ZEVs and metric score
218、by manufacturer.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202223Tesla leads with an average driving range of 503 km.Second place Ford performs well with an average driving range of 488 km,which is largely attributable to its strong-selling BEV model Mustang Mach-E,which has an average of 505 km of range.The avera
219、ge ZEV driving distances of VW,GM,BMW,Hyundai-Kia,BYD,Mercedes-Benz,Toyota,and Geely range from 400 km to 450 km.These manufacturers have strong-selling models that offer substantial average driving ranges,such as the IONIQ series(487 km)from Hyundai-Kia,the ID.5(503 km)from VW,and the EQA(426 km)fr
220、om Mercedes-Benz.Honda,Renault,Great Wall,Nissan,and Stellantis have lower average driving ranges between 283 km and 355 km.Tata,Changan,Mazda,and SAIC are behind on this metric.SAIC has the lowest average driving range of 196 km.These manufacturers sell large volumes of less-expensive BEVs that are
221、 aimed at urban dwellers.For instance,the Hongguang Mini,one of SAICs most successful models,is most popular among office workers in urban areas(36kr,2020)and offers a driving range of 120 km,which is designed to meet daily commuting needs.Suzuki does not have a score for this metric because it did
222、not sell any ZEVs in 2022.While average driving range is an important metric,it has limitations.The increased costs and larger battery packs might not be attractive to consumers beyond a certain point.Moreover,some companies,such as SAIC,might strategically choose to focus on BEVs with shorter range
223、s to provide less-expensive options for daily commuters.Because this evaluation is forward-looking,manufacturers with low average driving ranges are given low scores even though some might succeed in BEV sales by targeting shorter-range vehicles and serving a narrow market segment.However,in order t
224、o drive greater market growth and reach a wider range of consumers in the future,longer-range vehicles are necessary to address all consumer needs and facilitate a full transition to ZEVs.4.4 Renewable energy in manufacturingRenewable energy in manufacturing reflects efforts to decarbonize manufactu
225、ring operations,including using renewable energy in vehicle and battery production.With the transition from ICEVs to ZEVs,the relative importance of GHG emissions from manufacturing activities will increase and become a necessary area of focus in decarbonizing the industry.An ICCT study estimating t
226、he life-cycle GHG emissions from average mid-size passenger cars registered in Europe,the United States,China,and India in 2030 found that the share of emissions from vehicle manufacturing would range from 16%36%,and the share from battery manufacturing would range from 10%15%,both depending on the
227、region(Bieker,2021).The renewable energy in manufacturing metric is important for evaluating the progress of manufacturers in transitioning to 100%renewable energy for manufacturing vehicles and batteries.Decarbonization efforts in the supply chain are also important as long as auto manufacturers ou
228、tsource battery production.Note that there are other sources of upstream emissions associated with the manufacturing of motor vehicles.Material sourcing,including extraction and processing,is one such contributor.While the estimated 2030 production emissions shares cited above include material sourc
229、ing,this analysis does not include material sourcing due to the lack of comprehensive information on manufacturers efforts to source low-emission materials.Fossil fuels such as natural gas are sometimes also used as direct energy inputs(other than electricity)in the vehicle production process,but we
230、 do not account for fossil fuel use in this report because we found no evidence THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202224of any of the manufacturers phasing out fossil fuel inputs at either vehicle or battery production sites.As manufacturers progress in decarbonizing upstre
231、am emissions and more data becomes available for evaluation,we will consider incorporating material sourcing and fossil fuel use in future iterations of this rating.METHODOLOGYThe evaluation of manufacturing decarbonization is based on(a)renewable electricity in vehicle assembly and(b)renewable elec
232、tricity in battery production.Every manufacturer receives a score for each of these two factors,and averaging the scores of the two factors provides the final score for this metric.The two factors have the same weight because estimates using the GREET model show that vehicle and battery manufacturin
233、g contribute similar levels of production emissions(Argonne National Laboratory,2022).a.Renewable electricity use in vehicle manufacturing and assemblyA manufacturer receives 1 point if it uses 100%renewable electricity in all plants within a region and zero points otherwise.The final point total is
234、 the sales-weighted average of regional points across the six major markets.We only give credit to manufacturers that exhibit a commitment to 100%renewable energy because manufacturers can achieve 100%renewable energy by purchasing renewable energy certificates in most regions.In addition,in regions
235、 like Europe,where renewable electricity was already between 30%and 40%of the local power grid in 2021(Enerdata,2021;van Halm,2023),it requires less effort for manufacturers to achieve the 100%renewable energy target.There are manufacturers that have built or are building on-site renewable energy ge
236、neration capacity.Manufacturers headquartered in China are among those making these investments.However,the power generation capacity of these renewable energy projects is minimal compared with total manufacturing electricity use,and these do not qualify for points based on the established criteria.
237、b.Renewable electricity use in battery productionA manufacturer receives 1 point if it uses 100%renewable electricity at its battery plants,if it has any battery plants,and if it requires battery suppliers to use 100%renewable electricity.Zero points are awarded otherwise.Although some manufacturers
238、 are ramping up their own battery production capacities,almost all manufacturers in this report rely on battery suppliers for ZEV production.Therefore,evaluating decarbonization efforts consists of not only the renewable electricity use at manufacturers own battery plants but also those of the batte
239、ry providers,which the manufacturers can influence through procurement requirements.After averaging the scores from(a)and(b),we convert the combined raw point value to a 100-point scale using Equation(1).The manufacturer with the best performance receives a score of 100 and the worst receives a scor
240、e of zero.Per Equation(1),other manufacturers are scored based on their performance relative to the best and worst performers.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202225RESULTSManufacturers have varying levels of renewable electricity use across their global production sites,but three of the manufacturers he
241、adquartered in Europe,BMW,VW,and Mercedes-Benz,are far ahead of the others.Table 2 presents information on the global share of renewable electricity use at vehicle and battery production plants and indicates whether there is a renewable electricity requirement for battery suppliers.Cells highlighted
242、 in light yellow represent efforts that received credit based on our scoring methodology explained above.Table 2.Use of renewable electricity for vehicle and battery production and metric score by manufacturerOEMRenewable electricity use at vehicle and batteryproduction plantsaRenewable electricity
243、use by battery suppliersScoreShare of electricity that is renewableScope of production plantsSource batteries from suppliers?Require suppliers to use renewable electricity?BMW100%Global plantsYesYes100VW54%Global plantsYesYes75100%44 plants in the European Union100%18 non-EU plantsMercedes-Benz100%G
244、lobal plantsYesNo50Ford43%Global plantsYesNo14100%All plants in EuropeHyundai-Kia100%All plants in the European UnionYesNo11Geely6%(Geely)Global plantsYesNo9100%(Volvo Cars)All plants in the European UnionToyota13%Global plantsYesNo6100%All plants in the European Union100%Several plants in South Ame
245、ricaTata19%(Tata)Global plantsYesNo6100%(JLR)All plants in EuropeGM30%Global plantsYesNo0Stellantis27%Global plantsYesNo0100%Several plants in the European Union and South AmericaYesNoHonda12%Global plantsYesNo0Suzuki44 MWh Plants in IndiaYesNo0Nissan7%Global plantsYesNo0Changan37,672 MWh Plants in
246、ChinaYesNo0BYD44,000 MWhPlants in ChinaNoNo0Renault100%Plants in Brazil,Morocco,Romania,and SpainYesNo0Tesla30%Global plantsYesNo0SAIC230 MWh Plants in ChinaYesNo0Great Wall71,000 MWhPlants in ChinaYesNo0Mazda1.1 MWh Plants in JapanYesNo0a Cells in yellow indicate 100%renewable electricity use of al
247、l of the manufacturers plants in one of the six major markets or all plants globally.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202226BMW receives the highest score for this metric.In all BMW production sites,the electricity used is from 100%renewable sources.In addition,BMW has con
248、tractual agreements that require its battery manufacturers to use only renewable electricity in production.VW and Mercedes-Benz trailed closely.For VW,approximately 99.6%of the electricity across its European Union sites was renewable electricity in 2022;VW gets credit,then,for using nearly 100%rene
249、wable electricity in the European Union,its largest market.Further,VW previously required its tier 1 battery cell suppliers to use 100%renewable electricity,but decarbonization requirements were changed in 2022 to allow suppliers to adopt other pathways,including further optimization of processes.We
250、 give VW credit,as the use of renewable electricity is a common pathway to meet the requirement.Mercedes-Benz also achieved 100%renewable sources for all the electricity used in its global plants.Ford,Hyundai-Kia,Geely,Toyota,and Tata received partial credit as they have transitioned to 100%renewabl
251、e electricity at vehicle production sites in certain regions.Fords production plants in the European Union and the United Kingdom,which represent nearly 30%of its LDV sales,are sourced from 100%renewable electricity.Volvo Cars,part of Geely Group,reports that approximately 93%of its global electrici
252、ty consumption comes from renewable sources,and that its EU plants consume 100%renewable electricity.The other manufacturers are given credit for using 100%renewable electricity in their vehicle production sites in Europe or the European Union,which make up between 12%and 22%of their sales.The remai
253、ning manufacturers did not meet the criteria of using 100%renewable electricity manufacturing and assembling in any region.Manufacturers based in China have shown some progress in using renewable energy through additional on-site electricity generation.For example,in 2022,Great Wall,BYD,and Changan
254、reported generating approximately 71 GWh,44 GWh,and 37 GWh of electricity,respectively,from solar power.However,these amounts are a small fraction of the total electricity use of these manufacturers and they each receive a score of zero.Efforts to decarbonize the supply chain,including the requireme
255、nt for battery suppliers to use renewable energy,were lacking.Besides BMW and VW,Mercedes-Benz and Volvo Cars are the only other manufacturers that have contracts with some battery cell partners that require them to only produce batteries with renewable electricity.Nevertheless,Mercedes-Benz and Vol
256、vo Cars did not receive credit for this because the requirement is not applied to all battery providers.Although no manufacturer has completely phased out all fossil fuel inputs other than electricity for vehicle and battery production,BMW and VW are expanding the use of other renewable energy sourc
257、es across vehicle and battery production plants,and they aim to increase on-site renewable energy generated at an industrial scale.GM is also expanding renewable energy projects,including on-site solar facilities across multiple facilities in the United States and Brazil.Mercedes-Benz is increasing
258、the use of geothermal energy and biomethane for production processes at its plants in Germany.For heating,Renault noted the use of biomass heaters in its plants in Morocco and Brazil,and Stellantis uses solar thermal panels at its plant in Italy.In the future,as more significant actions are taken to
259、 phase out all fossil fuel inputs,new benchmarks will be set for using renewable energy for manufacturing.4.5 Battery recycling and repurposingIncreased ZEV production means increasing demand for raw materials used to produce EV batteries and thereby increasing the share of emissions from battery TH
260、E GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202227material sourcing,extraction,and processing.Battery recycling and repurposing can reduce the demand for raw materials through recovering critical materials to produce new batteries or reusing batteries for second-life applications.Recycling and repurposing are also im
261、portant given the rapid growth in the manufacture of batteries for EVs;manufacturers will need to navigate potential future scarcity of essential raw materials and related fluctuations in raw material prices to secure the batteries needed for ZEV production.A recent study by the ICCT(Tankou et al.,2
262、023)estimated that recycling EV batteries from both light-and heavy-duty vehicles,partially after their prolonged use in second-life applications,could reduce the total demand for new lithium,cobalt,nickel,and manganese mining by 3%in 2030,11%in 2040,and28%in 2050.For LDVs specifically,assuming the
263、battery is expected to last through the entire vehicle lifetime,reusing half of the end-of-life EV batteries could increase the cumulative capacityfor second-life applications(e.g.,electricity storage)from 1 GWh in 2022 to approximately 50 GWh in 2030,and then to 6,500 GWh in 2050(Tankouet.al,2023).
264、Further,it was estimated that battery recycling could reduce the GHG emissions from lithium-ion battery production up to 25%and could further reach 50%of reduction for a full recycling of Lithium-Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt-Oxide(NMC)cathode materials(Argonne National Laboratory,2020).4 Therefore,batter
265、y recycling and repurposing are important actions that manufacturers should take to maximize GHG reductions in support of a full ZEV transition.METHODOLOGYThis metric evaluates manufacturer efforts in developing battery recycling systems and carrying out battery repurposing initiatives.Both approach
266、es help to reduce the carbon footprint of battery production and material sourcing.A well-established battery recycling system allows for the recovery and reuse of valuable materials such as lithium,cobalt,and nickel from retired batteries to produce new batteries and reduces the need for new raw ma
267、terials and the emissions from their extraction and processing.Battery repurposing involves reusing batteries that have reached the end of their useful first life in other applications,such as backup power or electricity storage for factories,and it reduces the need for new battery production and th
268、e associated emissions.Electricity consumption and emissions from the grid can also be decreased by integrating repurposed batteries as energy storage in renewable energy installments like solar panels at vehicle manufacturing facilities.A manufacturer gets 1 point for having either battery recyclin
269、g or repurposing projects in a given region,or a zero when there are no ongoing battery recycling projects in the region.The final score is the sales-weighted average of regional points across the six major markets.Then,we convert the final scores to a 100-point scale using Equation(1).The manufactu
270、rer with the best performance receives a score of 100 and the worst receives a score of zero.Other manufacturers are scored based on their relative metric points compared with the best and worst performers.We do not differentiate recycling projects based on the recycling capacity or repurposing scal
271、e.There are increasing efforts in battery recycling and repurposing in recent years,but both are at the early stage,and the majority of actions and projects on battery recycling and repurposing are pilot projects or small-scale initiatives.As of 2022,the volume of end-of-life batteries from EVs that
272、 can be recycled was still low,4 The total estimated GHG emissions reductions from battery recycling strongly depends on the electrode materials and the applied recycling processes.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202228with most recycling related to production scrap.There
273、fore,there is a lack of sufficient information to compare recycling capacities and the emissions-reduction impact of those efforts.Future analysis could quantitatively measure and differentiate these efforts as more EV batteries become available for recycling and repurposing and as more data about p
274、rojects and their capacity become available.RESULTSMost manufacturers have some sort of battery recycling and repurposing project.Overall,manufacturers are still in the early phases of these projects,and they are in the form of pilot studies,memorandums of understanding,and strategic partnerships.Ta
275、ble 3 summarizes auto manufacturers battery recycling and repurposing efforts across the six markets as of the end of 2022.The symbol indicates a manufacturer has a battery recycling system project and a symbol indicates a manufacturer has a battery repurposing project.The table also shows the marke
276、t share of LDVs in the regions where the manufacturers have deployed battery recycling and repurposing projects and the final score after rescaling.A cell with market share but without any symbol means the manufacturer does not have a battery recycling or repurposing project in that market where the
277、y sell vehicles.Table 3.Manufacturers battery recycling and repurposing-related actions by region as of 2022,with the regions percentage of total vehicle sales for each automaker(%)OEMChinaU.S.EuropeJapanIndiaKoreaScoreGeely 75%6%16%1%1%1%100Hyundai-Kia 6%30%22%1%17%25%100Tesla 37%44%19%100BYD 100%1
278、%1%100Great Wall 100%1%100GM 25%74%1%1%1%99Stellantis 2%37%60%1%1%1%98BMW 33%18%41%3%1%5%92Ford9%64%28%1%1%91Renault1%90%1%6%4%90SAIC 90%7%3%90Tata4%7%12%1%75%1%87Toyota26%31%13%28%2%1%59VW38%10%49%1%2%1%49Mercedes-Benz31%18%43%3%1%4%43Honda44%32%2%19%3%1%32Nissan36%32%11%20%1%31Changan100%0Mazda11%
279、44%21%24%0Suzuki6%26%68%0 =recycling =repurposingTHE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202229Geely,Hyundai-Kia,Tesla,BYD,and Great Wall are leading on this metric,mainly through partnerships and investments in their dominant markets.Geely established a company,Jiangxi Yiyuan New Energy Technology Co.,to work
280、in the battery recycling industry in China and Volvo Cars,part of Geely,operates a global battery disposal and recycling program and has partnered with BatteryLoop to reuse EV batteries in Europe and with Redwood Materials to develop closed-loop EV battery system in California.The Hyundai Motor Grou
281、p is in partnership with Hyundai GLOVIS,which will reuse used EV batteries for its energy storage system and procure waste batteries from junkyards and dealers globally for remanufacturing.The Hyundai Motor Group and its brand Kia Europe are also collaborating with partners in the United States and
282、Europe,respectively,on energy storage systems from used EV batteries.Tesla established an internal ecosystem to re-manufacture batteries coming from the field to its service centers across its markets and is building battery recycling capacity through in-house cell recycling facilities,closed-loop c
283、athode production,and partnerships with recycling companies in its biggest markets,the United States and China.BYD partnered with a major battery recycling company and currently operates about 40 battery recycling outlets across China;it also formed a partnership with a Japanese trading company to r
284、epurpose used batteries for energy storage systems for renewable energy facilities.Great Walls subsidiary,Honeycomb Energy,announced its entry into the field of battery recycling in November 2022;it plans to advance closed-loop battery recycling in China.Many manufacturers have also shown progress w
285、ith battery recycling and repurposing projects in the market where they are headquartered and where there is a high share of their sales.For example,GM and Stellantis are in partnership with recycling companies to establish closed-loop battery recycling and repurposing systems for stationary storage
286、 across the United States,where GM is headquartered,Europe,where Stellantis is headquartered,and China which is a big market for both GM and Stellantis.The remaining manufacturers have commenced projects in their home markets and announced plans for expansion in other major markets.For example,Merce
287、des-Benz Group is establishing a pilot battery recycling plant in Kuppenheim,Germany.It is also planning to set up a closed-loop battery recycling system in China and United States with partners in the future;this would be reflected in future ratings,if there is concrete progress.VW opened its first
288、 in-house recycling facility at the Salzgitter plant and Ford is partnering with U.S.recycling company Redwood Materials to recycle its batteries.Regarding manufacturers headquartered in Japan,Toyota and Honda recently entered into strategic partnerships with Redwood Materials(Toyota)and Battery Res
289、ourcers(Honda)to recycle EV batteries and develop second-life opportunities to repurpose EV batteries in the United States.Nissan has been exploring opportunities and mechanisms for battery repurposing such as battery storage systems.Both Suzuki and Mazda have established a battery collection and re
290、cycling mechanism for batteries employed in their hybrid vehicles in Japan and overseas(India and Europe for Suzuki).However,we do not give credit for these efforts because there is no clear indication that these technologies are used for recycling or reusing batteries from BEVs.No company-level bat
291、tery recycling effort was identified for Changan.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022305STRATEGICVISIONTHE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022315 STRATEGIC VISION5 Major markets in the analysis include China and the members of the ZEV Transition Council(Canada,Denmark,the Europe
292、an Commission,France,Germany,India,Italy,Japan,Mexico,Netherlands,Norway,Spain,South Korea,Sweden United Kingdom,and the United States).5.1 ZEV targetThe ZEV target metric evaluates the ambition of a manufacturer in transitioning to a 100%ZEV fleet to be on pace with the Paris Agreement timeline.An
293、ambitious target can demonstrate a manufacturers determination to decarbonize its vehicle fleet.In contrast,a manufacturer without a target,or with a weak ICEV phase-out target,is considered less likely to invest in the ZEV transition in the near term.This metric was developed to carefully review an
294、d compare manufacturers announcements regarding a full ZEV transition.METHODOLOGYThe primary sources of ZEV target information are manufacturers sustainability reports,announcements,press releases,and news articles available as of the end of 2022.A number of manufacturers have announced targets pert
295、aining to all or some of their fleets over the next decade or two.These targets vary in several ways,including in terms of timeframe(2025,2030,or 2035),geographical coverage(global or regional),segments covered(passenger cars only or all LDVs),and technology type(ZEV or ZEV+PHEV).We establish benchm
296、arks to compare the level of ambition.According to ICCT estimates,the major vehicle markets should reach 77%ZEV market share by 2030 and 97%by 2035 in order to align with the Paris Agreement(Sen&Miller,2022).5 Thus,for this analysis,we set the benchmark for ZEV targets in the six major markets at77%
297、by 2030and97%by 2035.We derive the ZEV target score by calculating the ratio of the manufacturers ZEV sales target to its corresponding benchmark.A ZEV target for 2030 is compared with the 2030 benchmark and a ZEV target for 2035 is compared with the 2035 benchmark.The two manufacturers that have al
298、ready committed to 100%EV sales,Tesla and BYD,get a maximum score of 100,but BYDs score is adjusted downward as it will still produce PHEVs.Further,although short-term targets are better than long-term targets because they show serious commitment now rather than later,anything prior to the benchmark
299、 is not rewarded with a higher ZEV target score.In cases where manufacturers only have a target for 2025,we compare the target against the 2030 benchmark and assume the ZEV market share will not grow beyond 2025 in the absence of a longer-term target.The resulting value can be larger than 100%if the
300、 manufacturer has a more ambitious target than the benchmark.Some manufacturers have multiple ZEV targets with different scopes,and these are targets apply to certain regions,subsidiary brands,and vehicle types(i.e.,passenger cars only or all LDVs).For each announced target,we calculate the ZEV targ
301、et score and determine the affected vehicle sales based on the target scope.Some automakers announcements of ZEV targets are worded generally to apply to sales in“the leading markets.”We assume that“the leading markets”include all six regions investigated in this analysis unless a different scope is
302、 clarified in the automakers statement.Then,we calculate the sales-weighted average score of the different targets,if any,for each manufacturer.If there are overlaps between a manufacturers multiple ZEV targets in THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202232year and/or region,w
303、e select the most ambitious targets that give the highest score to manufacturers after accounting for the fraction of regional sales based on our methodology.For example,Honda has announced a ZEV target of 40%by 2030 and a ZEV target of 80%by 2035 for the United States,China,and Japan.We selected th
304、e latter to be the ZEV target of Honda for this analysis,as it gives Honda a higher score.Furthermore,we consider BEVs,FCEVs,and the ZEV-equivalent portion of PHEVs when calculating the ZEV target.Although most manufacturers set their targets for only ZEVs,the Chinese manufacturers have only announc
305、ed EV targets that include both ZEVs and PHEVs,and the split is not specified.To extract the potential ZEV market share that these manufacturers can achieve with their announced targets,we discount their ZEV targets using the ratio between ZEV-equivalent share and the actual EV share of 2022,which i
306、s calculated and summarized in Section 3.1.This approach considers both the PHEV share of total EV sales in 2022 and the real-world electric drive share of PHEVs sold by the manufacturer.For instance,for Great Wall,which sets an EV target of 80%by 2025 and has a ratio of 0.95 between its ZEV-equival
307、ent sales and total EV sales in 2022,we adjusted the EV target by using 80%*0.95=76%to obtain the ZEV-equivalent target.We do not consider a target that includes conventional(non-plug-in)hybrid vehicles as a ZEV target,since conventional hybrid vehicles cannot be recharged with grid or renewable ele
308、ctricity.Furthermore,an electrification target that includes hybrids could be dominated by hybrids,thereby stifling the growth of ZEVs.Lastly,we convert the final value of the adjusted ZEV target to a 100-point scale using Equation(1).The manufacturer with the most ambitious ZEV target receives a sc
309、ore of 100 and the least ambitious receives a score of zero.Per Equation(1),other manufacturers ZEV targets are scored relative to the best and worst performers and receive a score between zero and 100.RESULTSThere are nine automakers that have 100%ZEV targets for at least one brand in leading marke
310、ts.Besides Tesla,which already produces and sells only ZEVs,Tata-Jaguar has a 100%ZEV target for 2025,and Geely-Volvo,Toyota-Lexus6,and VW-Bentley all have a 100%ZEV target for 2030.BMW-Mini GM,Ford,and Mercedes-Benz have a 100%ZEV target for 2035.Table 4 summarizes the EV sales target for each auto
311、 manufacturer at the global and regional levels,including the targeted market share,target year,applicable vehicle technology,vehicle segment,and the final score for the ZEV target metric after rescaling.6 Toyota-Lexuss 100%ZEV target for 2030 is not shown in Table 4.Toyotas score is based on Toyota
312、s corporate-level target because it results in a better score for Toyota.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202233Table 4.Announced EV sales targets and metric score,by manufacturerOEMBrandElectric vehicle(EV)sales targetScoreRegionEV salesSegmentaYearbTypeTeslaAllGlobal100%LDVN/AZEV100 RenaultRenaultEurop
313、e100%LDV2030ZEV100 DaciaEurope100%LDV2035ZEVOthersGMAllLeading markets100%LDV2035ZEV96FordAllLeading markets100%LDV2035ZEV96Mercedes-BenzAllLeading markets100%LDV2035ZEV96Great WallAllGlobal80%LDV2025ZEV,PHEV92VWVWEurope70%PC2030ZEV92United States50%LDV2030ZEVChina50%LDV2030ZEVAudiGlobal (excl.China
314、)100%LDV2033ZEVkodaEurope70%LDV2030ZEVBentleyGlobal100%LDV2030ZEVPorscheGlobal80%LDV2030ZEVOthersStellantisAllEurope100%PC2030ZEV81United States50%LDV2030ZEVHondaAllLeading markets80%LDV2035ZEV73BMWBMWGlobal50%LDV2030ZEV72MiniGlobal100%LDV2035ZEVGeelyVolvo CarsGlobal100%LDV2030ZEV71OthersGlobal40%LD
315、V2025ZEV,PHEVBYDAllGlobal100%LDVN/AZEV,PHEV70ChanganAllGlobal60%LDV2030ZEV,PHEV68NissanAllGlobal50%LDV2030ZEV,PHEV60TataTataGlobal30%LDV2030ZEV52JaguarLeading markets100%LDV2025ZEVLand RoverLeading markets100%LDV2035ZEVHyundai-KiaHyundai,GenesisGlobal36%LDV2030ZEV39KiaGlobal30%LDV2030ZEVToyotaAllGlo
316、bal32%LDV2030ZEV39SAICAllGlobal32%LDV2025ZEV,PHEV37 MazdaAllGlobal25%LDV2030ZEV30 SuzukiAll0 a LDV=Light-duty vehicle;PC=passenger carb ZEV=zero-emission vehicle(including battery electric vehicle and fuel-cell electric vehicle);PHEV=plug-in hybrid electric vehicleTHE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 2022THE
317、 GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202234As Tesla only produces and sells ZEVs,it received the highest score for this metric.BYD began to produce and sell only EVs in March 2022,but its final score is discounted because BYD counts PHEVs toward its target,and those accounted for 50%of the EVs it sold in 2022.R
318、enault aims to fully transition to 100%ZEVs for the Renault brand by 2030 and by 2035 for the Dacia brand,both in Europe,its largest market which was home to 90%of its LDV sales in 2022.GM,Ford,and Mercedes-Benz scored well with a 100%ZEV sales target for LDVs in leading markets by 2035;this reflect
319、s their commitment as signatories of the COP26 declaration(“COP26 declaration,”2021).VW and Stellantis are more ambitious in their commitments in Europe than elsewhere and focus on passenger cars,rather than on the broader LDV segment.For example,the VW brand under the VW Group has a 2030 ZEV target
320、 of 70%for passenger cars in Europe,but only has a 50%ZEV target for LDVs by 2030 for the United States.Aside from BYD,Chinese manufacturers received lower scores relative to other manufacturers because they all set short-term targets and count PHEVs toward their EV sales targets.Under the Geely Gro
321、up,Geely has set a global target of 40%by 2025,including PHEVs,and Volvo Cars set a more ambitious global target of 100%ZEVs by 2030.For Hyundai-Kia,Hyundai aims to have 36%of its global sales(including Genesis)be ZEVs by 2030 and Kia aims to have ZEVs be 30%global sales by 2030.India-headquartered
322、Tata also has multiple targets across its brands.The Tata brand has a worldwide target of at least 30%ZEV sales by 2030,and the Jaguar and Land Rover brands aim to achieve 100%ZEVs by 2025 and 2035,respectively,in the leading markets.Over the past year,manufacturers headquartered in Japan have shown
323、 more commitment on this metric,but still lag manufacturers headquartered in other major markets.Nissan and Honda announced global or leading market ZEV targets of 50%by 2030 and 80%by 2035,respectively,and both are more ambitious than Toyotas(approximately 32%ZEVs by 2030)and Mazdas(25%ZEVs by 2030
324、).Toyota formerly included hybrids in its global plan but updated its target in 2021 and aims to sell 3.5 million BEVs globally by 2030.To infer Toyotas 2030 target from this goal,we estimated the companys global LDV sales in 2030 based on its 2022 global LDV production and an annual growth rate of
325、2.2%(i.e.,the compounded annual growth rate of Toyotas global production from 20112022).Suzuki receives a score of zero as it had not announced any ZEV target as of the end of 2022.5.2 ZEV investmentZEV investment is a measure of a manufacturers financial commitment to the transition to zero-emissio
326、n technology.Historically,manufacturers have invested in the next generation of ICEVs to improve vehicle performance and efficiency and to reduce emissions.Some legacy companies have announced plans to stop investing in new ICEVs and stop making significant improvements to existing ICEVs,and some co
327、mpanies have committed to making large investments in ZEVs.While investment commitments do not by themselves guarantee the ZEV transition,without such commitments,the likelihood of the transition seems low,or at least the transition would take much longer.Such expenditure is an investment in risk re
328、duction.The level of investment in zero-emission technologies illustrates the progress in shifting the business to ZEV development.THE GLOBAL AUTOMAKER RATING 202235METHODOLOGYThis metric evaluates a manufacturers investment in the ZEV transition.We consider R&D;capital expenditure on things such as
329、 the development of ZEV production sites to increase manufacturing capacity and ZEV supporting infrastructure like construction of battery plants and charging stations,and establishment of the broader charging network;and financial outlays for other things like establishing subsidiaries,joint ventur
330、es,and partnerships.Our primary source of investment data was the Atlas EV Hub,an online database developed by Atlas Public Policy(2022).The database documents EV investments announced by major manufacturers worldwide from 2016 to 2022.We also collected additional investment information from sustain
331、ability reports and official press releases to verify Atlas EV Hub data and updated the investment data when discrepancies were found.We collected information on both the monetary amount and the investment period for ZEV investments that were announced from 2016 to 2022.Some manufacturers have annou
332、nced EV investment in combination with other advanced vehicle technologies such as smart transportation or autonomous driving technology.In these cases,we derived the EV investment amount either from the EV-specific portion that the manufacturers provided to us or by splitting the investment amount
333、equally between the different types of technologies named.The total investment is evaluated in terms of 2022 U.S.dollars per vehicle.We assumed an investment recovery period of 10 years,given the transitional nature of the current ZEV market,which requires a longer recovery period for investments than would be expected in a more mature market.Moreover,given that investments are made over varying