1、 g National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 2021 Task 1 Strategic PV Analysis and Outreach Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden What is IEA PVPS TCP?The International Energy Agency(IEA),founded in 1974,is an autonomous body within the framework of the Org

2、anization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD).The Technology Collaboration Programme(TCP)was created with a belief that the future of energy security and sustainability starts with global collaboration.The programme is made up of 6.000 experts across government,academia,and industry dedic

3、ated to advancing common research and the application of specific energy technologies.The IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme(IEA PVPS)is one of the TCPs within the IEA and was established in 1993.The mission of the programme is to“enhance the international collaborative efforts which facilitat

4、e the role of photovoltaic solar energy as a cornerstone in the transition to sustainable energy systems.”In order to achieve this,the Programmes participants have undertaken a variety of joint research projects in PV power systems applications.The overall programme is headed by an Executive Committ

5、ee,comprised of one delegate from each country or organisation member,which designates distinct Tasks,that may be research projects or activity areas.The IEA PVPS participating countries are Australia,Austria,Canada,Chile,China,Denmark,Finland,France,Germany,Israel,Italy,Japan,Korea,Malaysia,Mexico,

6、Morocco,the Netherlands,Norway,Portugal,South Africa,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Thailand,Turkey,and the United States of America.The European Commission,SolarPower Europe,the Smart Electric Power Alliance(SEPA)and the Solar Energy Industries Association and the Solar Energy Research Institute of Singa

7、pore are also members.Visit us at:www.iea-pvps.org What is IEA PVPS Task 1?The objective of Task 1 of the IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme is to promote and facilitate the exchange and dissemination of information on the technical,economic,environmental and social aspects of PV power systems

8、.Task 1 activities support the broader PVPS objectives:to contribute to cost reduction of PV power applications,to increase awareness of the potential and value of PV power systems,to foster the removal of both technical and non-technical barriers and to enhance technology co-operation.An important

9、deliverable of Task 1 is the annual“Trends in photovoltaic applications”report.In parallel,National Survey Reports are produced annually by each Task 1 participant.This document is the country National Survey Report for the year 2021.Information from this document will be used as input to the annual

10、 Trends in photovoltaic applications report.Authors Main Content:Johan Lindahl and Amelia Oller Westerberg Data:The Swedish Energy Agency,Becquerel Sweden,Swedenergy,Svenska Kraftnt Analysis:Johan Lindahl,Jeffrey Berard,and Amelia Oller Westerberg DISCLAIMER The IEA PVPS TCP is organised under the a

11、uspices of the International Energy Agency(IEA)but is functionally and legally autonomous.Views,findings and publications of the IEA PVPS TCP do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the IEA Secretariat or its individual member countries COVER PICTURE Building integrated PV roof(3 MWDC/

12、3 MWAC)in Knivsta,Sweden,manufactured by Midsummer AB.Foto:Johan Lindahl Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Installation Data.4 Applications for Photovoltaics.4 Annual installed PV capacity.4 Total installed PV capacity.7 PV market segments.10 The

13、geographical distribution of PV in Sweden.12 Key enablers of PV development.14 PV in the broader Swedish power system.15 2 Competitiveness of PV electricity.17 Module prices.17 System prices.18 Financial parameters and specific financing programs.26 Specific investments programs.27 Additional Countr

14、y information.28 Electricity prices.29 Global solar radiation.33 Production costs of PV electricity.34 3 Policy Framework.36 National targets for PV.37 Direct support policies for PV installations.37 Self-consumption measures.45 Collective self-consumption,community solar and similar measures.51 Ten

15、ders,auctions&similar schemes.51 Utility-scale measures including floating and agricultural PV.52 Social Policies.52 Retrospective measures applied to PV.52 Indirect policy issues.52 Financing and cost of support measures.54 4 Industry.55 Production of feedstocks,ingots and wafers.56 Production of p

16、hotovoltaic cells and modules.56 Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 3 Manufacturers and suppliers of other components.58 R&D companies and companies with R&D divisions in Sweden.62 Installers,retailers and wholesalers of PV systems.64 Consultancy firms.67 5 Highlights o

17、f R&D.68 PV research groups.68 Public budgets for PV research.70 6 PV in the Economy.71 Labour places.71 Business value.73 7 Interest From Electricity Stakeholders.73 Structure of the electricity system.73 Interest from electricity utility businesses.74 Interest from municipalities and local governm

18、ents.74 8 Highlights and Prospects.76 Highlights.76 Prospects.76 9 APPENDIX I-Data sources and their limitations.78 10 References.81 Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 4 1 INSTALLATION DATA The PV power systems market is defined as the market of all nationally installed

19、(terrestrial)PV applications with a PV capacity of 40 W or more.A PV system consists of modules,inverters,batteries and all installation and control components for modules,inverters,and batteries.Other applications such as small mobile devices are not considered in this report.For the purposes of th

20、is report,PV installations are included in the 2021 statistics if the PV modules were installed and connected to the grid between 1 January and 31 December 2021,although commissioning may have taken place at a later date.Applications for Photovoltaics The installation of grid connected PV systems in

21、 Sweden can be said to have taken off in 2006,when about 300 kW was installed that year.Before that only a few grid-connected systems were installed each year.Until 2006,the Swedish PV market almost exclusively consisted of a small but stable off-grid market where the majority constituted of systems

22、 for holiday cottages,marine applications and caravans.This domestic off-grid market has been quite stable throughout the years.But since 2007 more grid-connected capacity than off-grid capacity has been installed annually.The grid-connected market is almost exclusively made up by distributed roof-m

23、ounted systems installed by individual homeowners,companies,municipalities,farmers,etc.Already from the start,the Swedish distributed market has been driven by the self-consumption business model,as there has never existed a feed-in-tariff in Sweden.Capital subsidies in combination with a feed-in pr

24、emium scheme,that add value for the excess electricity,has until now been crucial for this business model to work in Sweden.However,as of 2022 no subsidies exist except for the private domestic PV market segment.About 52%of the installed grid-connected PV power are residential systems,33%are install

25、ed on commercial buildings,4%on public buildings and 3%on industrial buildings and sites.So far only 8%of the grid-connected market are ground-mounted centralized PV parks,and by international standards the parks are relatively small in size.But the interest and activity in this market segment has i

26、ncreased a lot in 2021 and the number and sizes of centralized PV parks are expected to increase in the coming years.Annual installed PV capacity The installation rate of PV continues to increase at a high speed in Sweden.A total of 499.7 MW was installed in 2021,out of which 497.8 MW was grid-conne

27、cted,as shown in Figure 1 and Table 2.This means that the annual Swedish PV market grew with 25%compared to the 400.1 MW that was installed in 2020.Of the grid-connected PV capacity installed in 2021,52.3 MW is estimated to be centralized PV parks and 445.5 MW distributed PV systems for primary self

28、-consumption.By that,the annual market of centralized PV in Sweden grew with about 14%and the distributed annual market by 26%as compared with 2020,when approximately 46.0 MW of centralized and 352.5 MW of distributed PV was installed.Sweden has a stable off-grid PV market.In 20172019,about two MW p

29、er year of off-grid applications were sold.In 2020 the annual off-grid market decreased slightly to 1.6 MW but grew again in 2021 to 1.9 MW.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 5 Figure 1:Annual installed PV capacity in Sweden Table 1:Annual PV power installed during cale

30、ndar year 2021.Installed PV capacity in 2021 MW AC or DC PV capacity Off-grid 1.891 DC Decentralized 445.51 AC Centralized 52.26 AC Total 499.66 AC Table 2:PV power installed during calendar year 2021.Installed PV capacity MW Installed PV capacity MW AC or DC Grid-connected BAPV Residential 445.51 2

31、66.82 AC Commercial 132.56 AC Public 18.83 AC Industrial 27.30 AC BIPV Unknown(Included in BAPV)Utility-scale Ground-mounted 52.26 52.26 AC Floating 0 AC Agricultural 0 AC Off-grid Residential 1.61 0.93 DC Commercial 0.14 DC Mobile applications 0.82 DC Total 499.66 AC Task 1 National Survey Report o

32、f PV Power Applications in Sweden 6 Table 3:Data collection process Is the data reported in AC or DC?The reported data is in AC Is the collection process done by an official body or a private company/Association?Public body,the Swedish Energy Agency(grid connected data)Company,Becquerel Sweden(off-g

33、rid data)Link to official statistics http:/www.energimyndigheten.se/statistik/den-officiella-statistiken/statistikprodukter/natanslutna-solcellsanlaggningar/The different data sources used for this report are all described and discussed in APPENDIX I-Data sources and their limitations Task 1 Nationa

34、l Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 7 Total installed PV capacity The total grid-connected capacity at the end of 2021 was 1 587.2 MW,according to the grid operators.Out of this capacity,about 133.8 MW is estimated to be centralized PV and 1 453.3 MW to be distributed.In addition,a to

35、tal of 21.8 MW of off-grid PV applications have been sold in Sweden since 1993,wherein 18.9 MW is estimated to still be in operation.By adding the off-grid and the grid-connected PV capacities together,a total of 1 606.1 MW of electricity producing PV power by the end of 2021 is estimated to up and

36、running,illustrated in Figure 2 and summarized in Table 4.The total installed PV capacity grew by 45%in 2021,which is in line with the development over the five previous years,where the total market grew by 57%(2020)66%(2019),59%(2018),47%(2017)and 49%(2016).The strong overall growth in the last dec

37、ade started with the introduction of the direct capital subsidy system(see section 3.2.1)in 2006,and has since then been fuelled by the declining system prices(see section 2.2),high popularity among the public(see section 1.6.2),a growing interest from utilities(see 7.1)and an ongoing reformation wo

38、rk from the Government to simplify the rules for micro-producers(see section 3.3).In total there were 92 359 grid-connected PV systems in Sweden by the end of 2021.The number of off-grid systems is unknown.A majority of the grid-connected PV systems,80 207,are small systems below 20 kW.12 093 are in

39、 between 20 kW 1000 kW and 59 systems are above 1 MW according to the official statistics(summarized in Table 5).However,the official statistics count everything behind one single connection point to the grid as one system.Several of the centralized PV parks built in Sweden have several connection p

40、oints to the low voltage distribution grid.These PV parks are divided into several systems in the statistics,and often in sizes below 1 MW.So,the actual number of PV systems above 1 MW in Sweden is larger than 59 systems the way most people would see it.With regards to the number of installed PV sys

41、tems in Sweden,statistics are available for grid-connected system for the years 2016 to 2021.The number of systems at the end of each year,and the corresponding average system size is presented in Table 6.As can be seen at the end of 2021,Sweden had 92 359 grid-connected PV system,and the correspond

42、ing average system size was about 17.2 kW.That is a relatively small system size,which clearly illustrates that the Swedish PV market mainly consist of small distributed PV systems.Figure 2:Total installed PV capacity in Sweden.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 8 Table

43、 4:The cumulative installed PV power in 3 sub-markets.Year Off-grid MW Grid-connected distributed MW Grid-connected centralized MW Total MW 1992 0.80 0.01 0.00 0.81 1993 1.03 0.02 0.00 1.05 1994 1.31 0.02 0.00 1.33 1995 1.59 0.03 0.00 1.62 1996 1.82 0.03 0.00 1.85 1997 2.03 0.09 0.00 2.12 1998 2.26

44、0.11 0.00 2.37 1999 2.46 0.12 0.00 2.58 2000 2.68 0.12 0.00 2.80 2001 2.88 0.15 0.00 3.03 2002 3.14 0.16 0.00 3.30 2003 3.39 0.19 0.00 3.58 2004 3.67 0.19 0.00 3.86 2005 3.98 0.25 0.00 4.23 2006 4.30 0.56 0.00 4.86 2007 4.57 1.68 0.00 6.25 2008 4.83 3.08 0.00 7.91 2009 4.97 3.54 0.06 8.57 2010 5.34

45、5.12 0.25 10.71 2011 5.78 8.47 0.28 14.53 2012 6.38 14.92 0.89 22.19 2013 7.31 32.14 1.37 40.82 2014 8.20 63.81 2.95 74.95 2015 9.16 109.19 4.30 122.64 2016 10.43 165.17 7.12 182.73 2017 12.27 244.18 11.64 268.10 2018 14.09 390.15 20.09 425.14 2019 15.82 655.86 35.07 706.75 2020 17.20 1 007.82 81.58

46、 1 106.60 2021 18.89 1 453.33 133.84 1 606.06 Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 9 Table 5:Other PV market information.2021 Number of PV systems in operation in Sweden Grid connected PV Under 20 kW 80 207 20 kW 1000 kW 12 093 Above 1000 kW 59 Total 92 359 Off-grid PV Un

47、known Decommissioned PV systems during the year MW 221 kW of off-grid system is estimated to have been decommissioned Repowered PV systems during the year MW Unknown Table 6:Number and average sizes of grid connected PV systems in Sweden at the end of each year.2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Number o

48、f systems 10 006 15 298 25 486 43 944 65 819 92 359 Average size per system for the total number of systems at the end of each year kW 14.0 15.1 16.1 15.9 16.6 17.2 Average size per system for the annual market kW 17.3 17.3 17.6 15.7 17.7 18.7 Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications i

49、n Sweden 10 PV market segments The official statistics of the grid operators,collected by the Swedish Energy Agency,only include segmentation in PV system sizes(power)in the ranges 020 kW,201000 kW and 1000 kW.The total installations at the end of 2021,according to this source,are summarized in Tabl

50、e 7.Table 7:Total installations of grid connected PV capacity and number of systems at the end of 2021,according to the grid operators1.020 kW 201000 kW 1000 kW Total grid-connected PV capacity according to the grid operators collected by the Swedish Energy Agency MW 789.55 675.28 122.38 Total numbe

51、r of grid-connected PV systems according to the grid operators collected by the Swedish Energy Agency#80 207 12 093 59 However,for market segmentation there is another data source.In the database of the Swedish direct capital subsidy(see section 3.2.1)all PV systems that have been granted support fr

52、om the start of the subsidy programme in 2009 until now are recorded.By cross-referencing between this database and Swedens national business directory,a business sector can be assigned to each system owner.By doing this,the database can be divided into centralized,industry,commercial or residential

53、 systems(see section 9.1.4).By dividing the annual installed PV capacity for each market segment by the total installed PV capacity the different market segments share of the annual installations can be estimated.The historic development of these shares is presented in Figure 3.Figure 3:Various mark

54、et segments share of the annual installed PV capacity in Sweden.Based on statistics from the capital subsidy database.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 11 Clearly,the biggest market segments in Sweden have been residential domestic single-family houses and commercial f

55、acilities.A slight variation over the years can be seen,but these two segments have always been the biggest.The reason for that is that the self-consumption business model is easy to implement for these types of buildings.The low shares of the other market segments,such as centralized PV parks,indus

56、try and residential multi-family houses can all be explained by the historic policy structure in Sweden.The reason for the underdeveloped Swedish market of centralized PV parks,as compared to in many other countries,is that the current support schemes has not been enough do drive PV park development

57、 in Sweden until 2020 basically.The two support schemes that has been available has been the renewable electricity certificate system(see section 3.2.3)and a maximum 1.2 million SEK per system from the direct capital subsidy programme(see section 3.2.1).However,this is a market sector that is expect

58、ed to grow in the coming years.At the end of 2020 there was 38 commissioned PV parks in Sweden that with a capacity of above 0.5 MW known to the authors.Besides those mentioned,the authors are aware of additional plans for several larger PV parks.It appears this sector is on the brink of managing wi

59、thout any subsidies,with the help of innovative business models such as PPA-contracts and PV cooperative models.The increase of the industry segment in 2021 can partly be explained by the increase of the energy tax threshold from 255 kW to 500 kW that took place the July 1st,2021(see section 3.3.2),

60、which made it economical more feasible to install larger systems.In addition,a few ground-mounted PV parks,built next industry facilities,was commissioned in 2021.These are counted as industry systems and not centralized PV parks(even if they are ground-mounted parks)as the electricity is generated

61、in primary for self-consumption on the site.The general obstacle for residential multi-family houses is the current tax laws,which makes it complicated to self-consume PV electricity in the apartments of a multi-family house.The most common situation is that the apartments have their own meter and c

62、ontract with the grid operators and the whole multi-family house has one separate meter and contract for the electricity consumed in common areas of the house,e.g.elevators,laundry room,lighting.With this arrangement it is only possible to use the produced PV electricity(from a PV system on the buil

63、ding)for the electricity consumption of the common areas.If the owner of the multi-family house wants to sell the PV electricity to the apartments,the owner becomes a retailer of the electricity and must follow the regulations which come along with that role including the Swedish energy tax that is

64、applied to the electricity(even if it has not left the building).Hence,it is difficult to reach a high degree of self-consumption in multi-family houses arranged this way.The value of the excess electricity exported to the grid drops if the fuse exceeds 100 amperes(see section 3.2.4),thus it becomes

65、 hard to achieve a decent profitability for such installations.However,it is possible to self-consume the PV electricity in the apartments without taxes if the whole multi-family building,including the apartments,share one single meter and contract with the grid operator.This arrangement requires th

66、at the electricity consumption in the apartments is included in the general rent of the apartments.And then it is up to the owner of the multi-family house to decide if the residents in the apartments should pay a fixed price for the electricity regardless of their consumption or handle the metering

67、 of the electricity consumption themselves and vary the level of the monthly rent for the residents depending on their electricity consumption.The latter solution becomes more and more common in Sweden,but the general complexity to move to this arrangement is one reason for the low installation numb

68、ers for multi-family houses.Several proactive housing and property companies have however experienced added values after investments in PV,such as sustainability,fair cost,and induced innovativeness 2.These experiences are likely to spread over time to other actors and motivate them to overcome the

69、perceived legislative barriers.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 12 The geographical distribution of PV in Sweden The data from the grid operators statistics about the installed PV power in Sweden has a geographical resolution down to municipality-level.This data has b

70、een used to illustrate the geographical distribution of PV in Sweden in Figure 4 and Figure 5 for most of the municipalities in Sweden.However,some municipalities are marked as blank by the public Swedish Energy Agency due to confidentiality reasons.For these municipalities,data from the green elect

71、ricity certificate system(see section 3.2.3)has been used to complement the grid operators data in creating Figure 4 and Figure 5.In 2019 these municipalities were Ale,Arjeplog,Arvidsjaur,Borgholm,Haparanda,Hultsfred,Norberg,Skellefte,Sorsele,Storuman,Surahammar,ml and verkalix.In 2021,no confidenti

72、ality hindered the reporting of installed PV power in any municipalities.Figure 4 and Figure 5 clearly show that the expansion of PV takes place at different speeds in Swedens municipalities.When it comes to most installed PV capacity,Gothenburg,followed by Uppsala and Linkping were in the top at th

73、e end of 2021 with 58.4,41.7 and 40.7 MW,respectively.Gothenburg,that overtook the lead from Linkping in 2018,is much helped by the three PV parks of 5.5,5.5 and 3.7 MWp,respectively,that have been commissioned in the municipality the recent years.Taking the lead from last years leader Strngns,Skuru

74、p was the top municipality in 2021 with regards to installed PV capacity per capita.Skurup is a rather small municipality with 16 322 inhabitants,which with 19.5 MW installed PV capacity results in the top score of 1189.5 W/capita.Swedens largest PV park(18 MW)was installed in Skurup by E.ON in 2021

75、,and even though it was officially commissioned in 2022,it was probably connected and registered already in the end of 2021 3.Second on the list is Sjbo with 992.0 W/capita,holding its position from 2020.It is no coincidence that Sjbo is also in the forefront.In Sjbo,Swedens at the time largest PV p

76、ark,“Sparbanken Sknes Solcellspark”was commissioned in 2019,with 5.8 MWp installed.This PV Park was extended to 18 MW in 2020,giving it the top ranking again in 2021.Borgholm is the municipality with third most PV capacity installed per capita,with 581.0 W/capita.The Swedish electricity market is fr

77、om the first of November 2011 divided into four bidding areas by decision of the Swedish National Grid(Svenska Kraftnt),marked as SE1,SE2,SE3 and SE4 in Figure 4 and Figure 5.The reason is that northern Sweden has an excess of electricity production,since that is where a lot of the wind power and a

78、majority of the hydropower is situated,while the demand is larger than the production in southern Sweden.This has resulted in transmission bottlenecks,and the borders between the bidding areas have been drawn where there are congestions in the national grid.The idea of the four bidding areas is to m

79、ake it clear where the national grid needs to be expanded and where an increased electricity production is required to better meet the consumption.From this perspective,it is positive that a majority of the PV capacity is being installed in southern Sweden and mainly in the densely populated municip

80、alities,as shows.The value of the PV electricity is also higher in SE4 and SE3,as the average market value between 2014 and 2021(see section 2.6 for further explanation and discussion)of PV in these bidding areas was 382.9 and 352.9 SEK/MWh respectively,as compared to 318.5 and 319.5 in SE2 and SE1

81、respectively.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 13 Figure 5:Total power of the PV systems per capita in each of Swedens municipalities.For some municipalities data from the green electricity system has been used instead of grid operators data due to confidentiality reas

82、ons Figure 4:Total power of the PV systems in each of Swedens municipalities.For some municipalities data from the green electricity system has been used instead of grid operators data due to confidentiality reasons.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 14 Key enablers of

83、PV development 1.6.1 Other technologies For the last six years,the survey sent to the installation companies included questions about grid connected battery capacity that had been installed.According to the installations companies a total battery capacity of 21.5 MWh was installed in 2021,an increas

84、e of 74%compared to the 12.4 MWh installed in 2020,as Table 8 illustrates.The general global trend of decreasing battery prices 4,signals that a growing battery market in Sweden is expected.In 2018,a clear shift can be seen in Table 8,as compared to previous years,where the battery market for privat

85、e households became larger than the market for commercial systems.This development can be explained by the introduction of the capital subsidy programme for storage(see section 3.9.3),which influences the storage market.The reader should be aware that this battery capacity is not the total annual in

86、stalled grid connected battery capacity in Sweden.It is only the battery capacity that PV installation companies have installed in connection to distributed PV systems.The battery capacity of the electrical cars in Sweden was 7377 MWh in the end of 2021 5.If one adds the total battery capacity of st

87、ationary grid connected batteries connected to PV systems installed between 2016 and 2021 the total battery capacity at the end of 2020 became 7 425 MWh.Table 8:Annual installed grid connected stationary battery capacity installed by PV installation companies.Year Private system Commercial system To

88、tal 2016 177 kWh 1 365 kWh 1 542 kWh 2017 1 138 kWh 1 288 kWh 2 426 kWh 2018 2 414 kWh 1 520 kWh 3 934 kWh 2019 3 506 kWh 2 956 kWh 6 462 kWh 2020 8 879 kWh 3 498 kWh 12 378 kWh 2021 16 086 kWh 5 413 kWh 21 499 kWh 1.6.2 The public opinion about PV The general opinion about PV in Sweden is very posi

89、tive among the public.In an annual survey 6,sent out by the SOM-institute,randomly selected respondents have answered the question“How much should Sweden invest in the following energy sources during the next 5-10 years?”.The result is presented in Figure 6,indicating a strong majority of 80%of the

90、respondents want more investments in PV in Sweden,which makes the PV technology by far the most popular electricity production technology in that aspect.Figure 6:The public opinion in Sweden about different electricity production technologies in 2020.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applica

91、tions in Sweden 15 PV in the broader Swedish power system The Swedish power system has been divided into four bidding areas(SE1SE4)since November 1st,2011,by decision of the Swedish National Grid(Svenska Kraftnt).The reason is that northern Sweden has a surplus of electricity production compared to

92、the demand,while there is a higher demand than production in southern Sweden.This has resulted in transmission capacity problems and the borders between the bidding areas have been drawn where there are congestions in the national grid.The idea of the four bidding areas is to make it clear where in

93、Sweden the national grid needs to be expanded and where in the country increased electricity production is required to better meet consumption,and thus reduce the need to transport electricity long distances.The geographical borders of the areas are marked in Figure 4 and Figure 5.The major changes

94、in the Swedish power production the last years have been the expansion of wind power,the decommission of two nuclear power reactors and the closure of the last coal power plant.The nuclear reactors Ringhals 2(905 MW)was taken out of service on the morning of 30 December 2019 and Ringhals 1(881 MW)in

95、 the evening on 31 December 2020.The last coal power plant,Vrtaverket,was shut down in 2020.Another recent change in the system is that the yearly average allocated transmission capacity between SE2 and SE3,respectively SE3 and SE4,by the Swedish transmission system operator(TSO),has decreased in re

96、cent years.For the whole year of 2020 the average transmission capacity between SE2 and SE3 was 6,132 MW,which is approximately 1 200 MW less than the boundarys maximum capacity of 7 300 MW,and the lowest value of the last 8 years.About the same reduction is observed between SE3 and SE4.On average,t

97、he price area border had a transmission capacity of 4 198 MW in 2020,which can be compared with the maximum capacity of 5 400 MW.The allocation of transmission capacity is made hour by hour.The explanation for the decreasing average allocated transmission capacity in recent years given by the Swedis

98、h TSO is interruptions on cables due to maintenance work and changed energy flows in the electricity grid 7.Lastly,the off shore transmission capacity from the Nordic region to the continental Europe and Baltic countries are steadily increasing as several transmission cables has been built in last d

99、ecades,such as the Baltic Cable(Germany to SE4,600 MW,in operation 1994),the Swe-Pol Link(SE4 to Poland,600 MW,2000),Nordbalt(SE4 to Lithuania,700 MW,2016),Nordlink(Norway to Germany,1400 MW,2021)and the North Sea Link(Norway to UK,1 400 MW,2021).This enables“import”of the higher spot prices of the

100、different European price areas to the Nordic region 891011,which can increase the internal congestion in Sweden 8.The higher electricity prices will benefit both variable renewable technologies,such as wind power and PV and reservoir hydropower through a transfer of wealth from thermal power technol

101、ogies on the European continent,which will receive reduced revenues with increasing interconnection levels 11.The consequences of offshore transmission capacity extensions can lead to higher prices in the Swedish price areas SE3 and SE4,which will be beneficial for PV as most of the PV capacity in S

102、weden are being installed in these two price areas,see section 1.4.In Figure 7,the Swedish electricity production in 2021 is presented.The electricity production data used in Figure 7 and Figure 8,along with Table 9,were retrieved from Svenska Kraftnt 12,but with complementary data from SCB 13 with

103、regards to the fuels used in the Swedish CHP power plants.The total power generation in Sweden was 165.8 TWh in 2021,while the electricity consumption was 139.8 TWh.In total,Sweden imported 8.3 TWh and exported 33.9 TWh.As can be seen in Figure 8,the Swedish electricity has historically been produce

104、d by technologies that have a low CO2-footprint.This along with the low electricity prices(see section 2.6)counts as the two main reasons why the Swedish PV deployment started late compared to other European markets and still is rather small.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in

105、Sweden 16 Table 9.PV power and the broader national energy market.Data Year Total power generation capacities MW 43 669 2021 Total renewable power generation capacities(including hydropower)MW 33 699 2021 Total electricity demand TWh 139.8 2021 New power generation capacities installed GW 2 614 2021

106、 New renewable power generation capacities(including hydropower)GW 2 530 2021 Estimated total PV electricity production(including self-consumed PV electricity)in GWh 1118 2021 Total PV electricity production as a%of total electricity consumption 1%2021 Average yield of PV installations kWh/kWp 950 2

107、021 Figure 7.Total electricity production in Sweden in 2021.Figure 8.Total annual electricity production in Sweden between 1990 to 2021.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 17 2 COMPETITIVENESS OF PV ELECTRICITY Module prices Module prices in Sweden are heavily dependent

108、on the international module market.Sweden saw a very rapid decline in price for PV modules between 2008 and 2013 due to a growing domestic market,which allowed retailers to import larger quantities.Between 2013 and 2016,the price decline in Sweden was more moderate.The main reasons for the stabiliza

109、tion of the module prices under this time period was the import duties on Chinese PV modules and cells that were introduced in 2013 by the European Commission 14.In these measures,a minimum import price(MIP)was introduced,which means that no silicon modules could be imported to the European Union at

110、 a price lower than 0.56/Wp,which corresponded to about 5.2 SEK/Wp.After the termination of the duties many Swedish retailers lowered their module prices towards the Swedish installation companies with 20-30%.That resulted in a price drop of the average typical module price to the end consumer by 14

111、%in 2018,which continued with a price decline of 4%in 2019 and 7%n 2020(see Table 10).In 2021,however,the price survey shows an increase in price for the first time since the data collection started.A slight increase in prices for 2021 has been documented in several sources,amongst them IEA PVPS Tas

112、k 1 global Trends report 15 and international spot market prices 16.This increase is assigned to conjunctural effects of the COVID-19 pandemic,which resulted in disrupted value chains,higher polysilicon prices and shipment costs globally.This development also affected Sweden.In addition to the colle

113、cted sales statistics,which should be read as the module price to the end customer,the result of an Swedish study showed that the internal module cost from the perspective of the installer was 3.1 SEK/Wp for 10 kWp residential systems in 2020 17.The result of study is further discussed in section 2.

114、2.3.Table 10:The historical development of typical module prices.The prices are reported by Swedish installers and retailers.The prices are the prices to the end costumer,not the import price for the retailers.Year Lowest price of a standard module crystalline silicon SEK/Wp Highest price of a stand

115、ard module crystalline silicon SEK/Wp Typical price of a standard module crystalline silicon SEK/Wp 2004-70 2005-70 2006-65 2007-63 2008-61 2009-50 2010 20 68 27 2011 12 50 19 2012 9.5 40 14 2013 6.0 16 8.9 2014 6.0 12 8.2 2015 5.1 10 7.6 2016 4.5 9.3 7.1 2017 4.0 6.6 5.3 2018 3.2 6.6 4.5 2019 2.9 5

116、.4 4.3 2020 2.5 6.6 4.0 2021 3.5 7.0 4.6 Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 18 System prices Sweden has experienced a large decrease in PV system prices since 2010,especially before 2013,as Figure 7 shows.The major reason for the decline in system prices in Sweden is th

117、at the prices of modules and the balance of system(BoS)equipment has dropped in the international market.Another reason is that the Swedish market is growing,providing the installation firms a steadier flow of orders and an opportunity to streamline the installation process,thus reducing both labour

118、 and cost margins.A historic trend of decreasing yearly full-time labour positions per installed MW is illustrated in Table 33.The decreasing trend in labour places per MW is probably one of the reasons for the declining PV prices in Sweden since companies are becoming bigger and more effective in t

119、heir marketing and installation processes.This can be applied to all years except the 2021 development that can be explained by major events following the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent supply constraints,see sections 2.2.4 and 6.1.The maturing of the Swedish PV market and the increasing compe

120、tition is a factor likely pushing down the prices of Swedish PV systems.Table 32 further corroborates this,as in 2010 the authors of the Swedish NSRs were aware of 111 active companies that sold and/or installed modules or PV systems in Sweden.In the end of 2021,the corresponding figure had gone up

121、to 308.2.2.1 Estimated PV system prices by the sales statistics The price information from the sales surveys is presented in Figure 7 and Table 11.The methodology for collecting the price statistic is explained in section 9.1.5 and the price development is discussed in section 2.2.4 below.Compared t

122、o previous years of collecting sales statistics,the installation and sales companies have reported difficulty to generalise prices on a yearly basis.The reason for this is that the last year have demonstrated an increased hardware price volatility,which translates to the end customer system prices.F

123、igure 7:Historic development of the weighted average typical prices for turnkey photovoltaic systems(excluding VAT),reported by Swedish installation companies.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 19 Table 11:National trends in system prices for different applications.Year

124、 Residential BAPV Grid-connected,roof-mounted,distributed PV system 5 kW SEK/Wp Small commercial BAPV Grid-connected,roof-mounted,distributed PV systems 15 kW SEK/Wp Large commercial BAPV Grid-connected,roof-mounted,distributed PV systems 100 SEK/Wp Small centralized PV Grid-connected,ground-mounted

125、,centralized PV systems 0.5 MW SEK/Wp 2007 2008 96.00 67.00 2009 76.00 47.00 2010 63.33 45.89 40.79 2011 32.07 28.77 24.44 2012 21.43 20.29 16.13 2013 16.68 15.09 13.62 12.73 2014 15.28 13.81 12.63 11.77 2015 15.13 13.20 11.82 10.69 2016 15.07 12.48 11.56 9.03 2017 14.81 12.22 10.70 9.30 2018 14.76

126、12.09 10.31 8.18 2019 14.40 11.74 10.28 7.50 2020 13.27 10.50 8.92 6.50 2021 14.91 12.21 10.34 7.60 2.2.2 PV system prices recorded in the direct capital subsidy programme The other source for system price statistics is the database of the Swedish direct capital subsidy,in depth described in section

127、 9.1.4.As explained in 3.2.1 and 9.1.4,the number of systems in the data base is lower this year compared to previous years.This is because investment support was closed for new applications in 2020.The decrease is evident in Table 12 and 13,as they also list how many systems that the presented aver

128、age prices have been derived from,for the reader to get a sense of relevance of the average price presented.Concretely,it means that the number of systems on which the price information is based has dropped and thus also the statistical certainty.When it comes to the prices of turn-key grid connecte

129、d roof-mounted PV systems there is of course a wide range,even for systems with similar size and type of owner.The range depends on many factors,such as type of building,type of roof,type of module and BoS,etc.Furthermore,it is not possible to derive if the PV systems are building applied(BAPV)or bu

130、ilding integrated(BIPV),or if the owner has carried out some of the installation work by him/herself.These factors result in several recorded PV system prices(especially in the segment of small residential single-family systems)that are unusually high 44 SEK/Wp or low 250 kW Grid-connected,roof-moun

131、ted,distributed PV systems installed to produce electricity to grid-connected industrial buildings,warehouses,etc.611 Small centralized PV 1-20 MW Grid-connected,ground-mounted,centralized PV systems that work as central power stations.The electricity generated in this type of facility is not tied t

132、o a specific customer and the purpose is to produce electricity for sale.58 Large centralized PV 20 MW Grid-connected,ground-mounted,centralized PV systems that work as central power station.The electricity generated in this type of facility is not tied to a specific customer and the purpose is to p

133、roduce electricity for sale.not applicable Financial parameters and specific financing programs The interest rate(reporntan)of the central bank of Sweden(Riksbanken)was to 0.00%during the entire 2021 19.Changes in interest rate by the central bank have a direct impact on the market rates,which there

134、fore have been quite low in 2021.The cost of capital for a PV system was consequently low in 2021.In Table 16 the average nominal mortgage rate in 2021 has been used for residential installations.For commercial installations in Sweden a realistic nominal loan rate has been reported to be the STIBOR

135、rate plus 450 dps.A study deriving the levelized cost of electricity(LCOE)of Swedish centralized PV parks 20 present average weighted average cost of capital(WACC)for industrial and ground-mounted installations,which have been used in Table 16.However,the reader should not that the interest rates si

136、nce 2021 in general have increased,and higher values are reasonable to assume for 2022 and onwards.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 27 Table 16:PV financing information in 2021.Different market segments Loan rate%Average rate of loans residential installations 21 1.5%

137、Average rate of loans commercial installations 22 4.5%Average nominal cost of capital industrial and ground-mounted installations 3.4%Several commercial Banks have started to offer specific solar loans directed to private individuals with single family houses.To the knowledge of the authors,the firs

138、t loan specifically directed to PV installations in Sweden was launched by Sparbanken Syd in 2019,from which private PV system buyers at the time of writing can loan 250 000 SEK at a variable interest rate of 2.90%and a repayment period of up to 10 years 23.Other examples are the offers of Swedbank

139、and SEB,who both present solar loans for up to 350 000 SEK at a variable interest rate of 2.15%and a repayment period of up to 10 years 2425.A third example is Vattenfall,that in collaboration with Handelsbanken,offer a solar loan at an interest rate of 1.9%26.Specific investments programs Already i

140、n 2009,the first PV cooperative,Solel i Sala&Heby ekonomisk frening,started in Sweden.This PV cooperative has a FiT agreement with the local utility company Sala-Heby Energi,that buys the electricity from the cooperatives PV systems.Since the start in 2009 the cooperative has now built six systems w

141、ith a total capacity of 599 kWp.Other examples of similar PV cooperatives that has built co-owned PV systems are Solel i Bergslagen ekonomisk frening,with three systems totalling 156 kWp,and Zolcell 1:1 ekonomisk frening,with 2 systems totalling 27 kWp.The PV cooperative business model have in later

142、 years been adapted by utility companies that have built large PV parks or systems.Any private person or company can buy a share in such a cooperative and the shares represent a certain yearly production or renumeration,which the cooperatibe organization deduct from the share owners electricity bill

143、 or pay in real money.One example of this business model is the 1 MWp park with solar tracking outside of Vsters,which the utility company Mlarenergi and the installation company Kraftpojkarna manage together.Another example is the cooperative Trneby driftfrening Ek.Frening,initiated by Kalmar Eneri

144、g,that installed a crowdfunded 600 kWp system on the roof of a local farm called Nbble Grd.Following the positive response of Nbble Grd,Kalmar Energi is now stepwise building a PV park close to the Kalmar Airport on the behalf of the coopertive.This park is built in stages of 750 kWp each.The first

145、one was finalized in the end of September 2017,the second in June 2018 and the third in May 2019.In 2017,resundskraft initiated the cooperative Solar Park Ek.Frening,which in two phases have built a PV park with a total capacity if 530 kWp on a former landfill close to Helsingborg.A fourth PV park c

146、ooperative is Karlskrona Solpark drift Ek.Frening,initiated by the utility Affrsverken.Their first stage of 0.6 MW of their crowd funded PV park was finalized in April 2019,the second stage of another 0.6 MW was complete in October 2019.The utility Jmtkraft has also created a cooperative,stersunds S

147、olpark Drift Ek.Frening,which owns a 3 MW PV park outside of stersund which was commenced in late 2019.In addition,the local utilities Trans Energi and C4 Energi have initiated similar cooperatives,Bredstorp Sol Ek.Frening and Solpunkten Kristianstad Ek.Frening,respectively.These two cooperatives ar

148、e as of 2021 running PV parks at the size of 1.2 MW and 4 MW outside of Trans and Kristianstad,respectively.In 2014 there was no company offering PV leasing contracts.However,in 2015,the company Eneo Solutions AB started to offer solar leasing contracts to owners of commercial and public buildings.I

149、n 2016 two utility companies,Ume Energi and ETC El started to offer solar leasing contracts to private homeowners.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 28 Table 17:Summary of existing investment schemes.Investment Schemes Introduced in Sweden Third party ownership(no inves

150、tment)Yes Renting Yes Leasing Yes Financing through utilities Yes Investment in PV plants against free electricity Yes Crowd funding(investment in PV plants)Yes Community solar Yes International organization financing No Additional Country information Sweden is a country in northern Europe.With a la

151、nd area of 407 284 km 27,Sweden is the fifth largest country in Europe.In January 2017 Sweden passed ten million inhabitants for the first time in history 28.With a population of 10 452 326 people at the end of 2021,the population density of Sweden is therefore low with about 25.7 inhabitants per km

152、,but with a much higher density in the southern part of the country 29.About 88%of the population live in urban areas 30.Table 18:Country information.Retail Electricity Prices for a household(range)1.54.8 SEK/kWh(including grid charges and taxes)Retail Electricity Prices for a commercial company(ran

153、ge)0.92.17 SEK/kWh(including grid charges and taxes)Retail Electricity Prices for an industrial company(range)0.81.1 SEK/kWh(including grid charges and taxes)Liberalization of the electricity sector Sweden currently has one of the most liberalized and top ranked electricity systems in the world 31,d

154、ue to its(1)high operational reliability-the delivery security was 99.987%in 2020 32,(2)high electrification level 100%of total population have access to electricity 33,and(3)low greenhouse gas emissions emissions from fossil fuels associated with the domestic electricity production,in 2021 was 1.4

155、TWh,which corresponds to 0.9%of the total Swedish electricity production of 165.8 TWh 34.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 29 Electricity prices In Sweden,the physical electricity trading takes place on the Nordic electricity retailing market,Nord Pool Spot market.Hist

156、orically,electricity prices in Sweden have primarily been dependent on the rainfall and snow melting,the availability of the nuclear reactors and the outside temperature.In recent years,a lot of wind power has been built,which affect the spot prices,and more transmission connections to surrounding c

157、ountries have come online.2021 was a year with record-high electricity prices in Sweden.The annual average was the highest recorded and even the average price per week,day and hour were on peak levels.The main reason was the high natural gas prices in Europe,and coupled with a substantial deficit in

158、 the hydrological balance,it negatively affected the usual Nordic resilience to high electricity prices from central Europe.Since the Swedish electricity mix is characterized by a large share of hydropower while having problems with power congestions,large variations between the bidding areas appear

159、 35.Opposite to 2021,Sweden experienced low electricity prices in 2020,with a 73%decrease from 2019.The national yearly average electricity price was 0.63 SEK/kWh on the Swedish electricity market in 2021,which is a 554%increase compared to the 2020 average of 0.11 SEK/kWh.In 2021,the spot prices we

160、re quite volatile over the year,with remarkably high prices,as Figure 12 and 15 illustrates.The yearly average ended up at 0.432 in SE1,0.433 in SE2,0.672 in SE3 and 0.819 in SE4.Up until 2020,there was only a very small price difference between the areas,which have probably not influenced the distr

161、ibution of PV systems over the country to the same extent as solar radiation(see section 2.7)and the population distribution does(see section 1.3).However,if the price difference between the different price areas will be in the same order of magnitude as in 2020 and 2021 in the future,this could aff

162、ect the distribution of PV in Sweden.Looking back at the last seven years,the spot prices have varied substantially in Sweden,as Figure 13 and Table 19 illustrates,which makes it harder to predict the renumeration of centralized PV parks.One method of determining the actual value of power from a cer

163、tain electricity generation technology on a shifting spot market is to calculate the market value over a certain period 36373811.The market value of an electricity generation technology over a time period represents the relationship between the average spot price of the electricity produced by a pow

164、er source and its production share on the market.Furthermore,by comparing the market value a technology with the time-weighted average wholesale electricity price of the same market and time period a“value factor”,VF(or sometimes referred to as“capture rate”),can be determined.Figure 12:Daily averag

165、e day-ahead spot prices in area 1(Lule)and area 4(Malm)in 2021.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 30 A value factor above one is a result of a positive correlation between the production profile of an electricity generating technology(or an individual power plant)and th

166、e price fluctuations on the spot market.It can therefore be seen as an indication that the power system would benefit from more production with a similar production profile.As can be derived from Table 19,the market value of PV electricity in Sweden has on average been 7.7 SEK/MWh higher and 2.2 SEK

167、/MWh lower than the average spot prices in Sweden during 2014 to 2021 in SE1 and SE4,respectively.The highest market value was achieved in 2021,which was also the year with highest electricity prices in this period in Sweden.From Table 19,one can also see that the market value of PV electricity is h

168、igher in the two southern price areas(SE3 and SE4)than in the two northern ones(SE1 and SE2).This is fortunate,as the average global radiation is higher in the southern part of Sweden.Analysing the value factor of PV,Table 19 show that the value factor has varied over the years.In 2015 and 2019 it w

169、as below 1.0,while it was higher than 1.0 in 2014,2016,2017 and 2018.In 2020,the value factor was above 1.0 in SE3 and SE4,but below in SE1 and SE2,while 2021,the opposite occurred with value factor was above 1.0 in SE1 and SE2,but below 1.0 in SE3 and SE4.If one compares the value factor of PV with

170、 the value factor of the other power sources in Table 19,one can see that hydro power,PV and CHP in general has value factors above 1.0,while nuclear are very close to 1.0 and wind power consistently have value factors below 1.0.A simplified conclusion is that the price indicates that the Swedish el

171、ectricity system would benefit if production with the production profiles similar to either hydro power,PV or CHP would be added.However,this does not by default correlate with profitability for these power sources.Figure 13:Weekly average day-ahead spot prices in area 1(Lule)and area 4(Malm)in 2014

172、2021.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 31 Table 19.The market value,in SEK/MWh,and corresponding value factor for the major electricity generation technologies in Sweden from 2014 to 2021 in each of the price areas.Nuclear power only appears in SE3 since all active rea

173、ctors during this time period is located in that region.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 32 As the electricity mix in Sweden changes,(more wind and PV are expected to be built while two nuclear reactors at Ringhals 1 and Ringhals 2 was decommissioned as of 30 of Decem

174、ber 2019 and 31st of December 2020)the value factor of the different power sources will change.E.g.in a recent study it was simulated that the value factor of PV will go from in general being above 1.0 to in general be below 1.0 if PV reaches above 5%of the total power production in the electricity

175、mix 39.Household electricity costs consist of several components.The base is the Nord Pool Spot price of electricity.On top of that,energy tax,the cost of green electricity certificates,the variable grid charge,the fixed grid charge,VAT and sometimes an electricity surcharge and a fixed trading fee

176、are added.Figure 14 illustrates the evolution of the average electricity price for the average end consumer over the years 34.In Figure 15,the variable part of the electricity price,which is what can be saved if the micro-producer replaces purchased electricity with self-generated PV electricity,is

177、illustrated.Furthermore,the value of the excess electricity is shown for two base cases with the Nord Pool spot price as a base compensation offered by electricity trading utility companies(see section 7.1),energy compensation from the grid owner(see section 3.3.6),the tax credit system(see section

178、3.2.4)and with and without the green electricity certificate,since few PV owners are using the green electricity certificate system(see section 3.2.3).It is worth noting that some utility companies offer higher compensations than the Nord Pool spot price,so with all current possible revenue streams,

179、both the self-consumed electricity and the excess electricity would have been higher than in the figure.Figure 14:Evolution of the average electricity price(in January)for private end consumer with a single-family house with electric heating.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in

180、Sweden 33 Global solar radiation The total amount of solar radiation that hits a horizontal surface is called the global radiation.The global solar radiation thus consists of the direct radiation from the sun and the diffuse radiation from the rest of the sky and the ground.The solar radiation there

181、fore depends on the weather,on the position on the globe and the season of the year.The distribution of annual average global radiation over Sweden is presented in Figure 16 40.Figure 15:The lowest available electricity price for a typical house with district heating in Stockholm with an annual elec

182、tricity consumption of about 10 000 kWh/year,a 16-ampere fuse and Vattenfall as the grid owner in July 2021.Furthermore,the compensation for the excess electricity,with and without the extra remuneration from green electricity certificates.Figure 16:Average global solar radiation in Sweden in one ye

183、ar.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 34 In the long-term variation of global radiation in Sweden a slight upward trend has been noted and the average solar radiation has increased by about 8%from the mid-1980s until 20052006,from about 900 kWh/m2 in 1985 to the current

184、 level of the recent years,which has varied between 9001 000 kWh/m.Recent years have seen some further increase.A similar trend is seen in large parts of Europe.In 2021 annual average accumulated global radiation reached 976.6 kWh/m 40.This is quite a normal value and is well below the historic reco

185、rd of 1050.6 kWh/m2 in 2018,as illustrated in Figure 17,when long periods of anticyclone weather(where barometric pressure is high)over Scandinavia gave very sunny weather during May and July.Production costs of PV electricity Levelized cost of electricity,LCOE,is a transparent measure of generating

186、 costs of different power plants and a widely used tool for comparing the costs of different power generating technologies.The definition of the LCOE can be expressed as the real fixed price of electricity that would exactly cover the sum of costs in terms of present value.To simplify,two assumption

187、s are usually used.Firstly,that the real interest rate,r,used for discounting costs and revenues is constant during the lifetime of the power plant.Secondly,that the real electricity tariff is assumed not to change during the lifetime of the power plant and that all the produced electricity is sold

188、at this tariff.With this as a starting point,along with some simplifications and additions based on characteristics of the PV technology,the following equation can be used to calculate the LCOE of PV electricity:=?+?&?+&?(1 )?(1+?)?+?(1+?)?+?(1+?)?+(1+?)?(1 )?(1+?)?where t is the year number ranging

189、 from 0 to N,N the operational lifetime of the PV park,CAPEX0 the total capital expenditure of the system in year 0 expressed in SEK,O&Mf the fixed operation and maintenance cost in year t expressed in SEK,O&Mv the variable operation and maintenance cost per produced unit of energy in year t express

190、ed in SEK/MWh,Yo the initial annual electricity production(yield)in the year when operation start expressed in MWh,Dg an annual degradation factor expressed in%,ReInv1 the first major reinvestment needed to reach expected lifetime in year x1 expressed in SEK,ReInv2 the second major reinvestment need

191、ed to reach expected lifetime in year x2 expressed in SEK,ResC and the residual cost of the system at the end of the lifetime expressed in SEK and WACCr the real weighted average cost of capital per annum in%.Figure 17:The annual average accumulated global solar radiation in Sweden between 1984 and

192、2021.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 35 The LCOE of PV electricity very much depend on the size of the PV system and the type of actor owning the system,as the CAPEX and WACC parameters are the two most influential ones for the result.The typical LCOE of two type of

193、PV systems in 2020 in Sweden,namely centralized ground mounted PV parks and decentralized roof mounted PV system for residential villa system of about 10 kWp,have been thoughtfully investigated in 41.In this report the interested can find information and discussions about the different parameters ne

194、eded to calculate the LCOE and the end result.In this report the derived LCOE parameters and final LCOE of 41 is summarized in Table 20.Table 20:Average values for the parameters need to calculate LCOE and the final LCOE value for a 10 kWp residential system and a 5 MWp centralized PV park in Sweden

195、 41.Parameter 10 kWp residential 5 MWp centralized Lifetime,N Years 30 33 Initial annual yield,Y kWh/kWp/a 849 969 System degradation rate,Dg%0.2 0.2 CAPEX SEK/kWp 16 496 7 232 Yearly fixed operation and maintenance,O&Mfix SEK/kWp/a 64 87 Variable operation and maintenance,O&Mvar SEK/kWh-0.04-0.02 M

196、ajor reinvestment needed to reach expected lifetime in at t=x,ReInv SEK/kWp 2 300 582 Years after operation start when major reinvestment is needed,x Years 15 16.7 Residual cost of the system at the end of the lifetime SEK/kWp 0 19 Nominal weighted average cost of capital per annum,WACCnom%2 3.4 Rea

197、l weighted average cost of capital per annum,WACCreal%0 1.4 Levelized cost of electricity 0.79 SEK/kWh 0.43 SEK/kWh As can be seen in Table 20 the average LCOE of a 10 kWp villa system was derived to be 0.79 SEK/kWh.This is with no subsidies whatsoever.If the direct capital subsidy is used,which gav

198、e a 20%rebate on the CAPEX in 2020,the LCOE becomes 0.6 SEK/kWh.These 0.6 SEK/kWh in production cost can be compared with the revenues of the self-consumed electricity and excess electricity in Figure 15 for assessments of profitability of small residential systems in Sweden in 2020.The LCOE of PV p

199、arks was concluded to be 0.43 SEK/kWh on average.Comparing this production cost with the market value of PV the last six years in Table 19,it can be concluded that profitability for a merchant business model would only be reached with spot prices at levels seen in 2018.Hence,for the 2020 market of c

200、entralized PV parks in Sweden it was still important that additional value to PV electricity is added through business models such as PPAs or cooperative owned PV parks.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 36 3 POLICY FRAMEWORK This chapter describes the support policies

201、aiming directly or indirectly to drive the development of PV.Direct support policies have a direct influence on PV development by incentivizing,simplifying or defining adequate policies.Indirect support policies change the regulatory environment in a way that can push PV development.Table 21:Summary

202、 of PV support measures.Category Residential Commercial+Industrial Centralized Measures in 2020 On-going New On-going New On-going New Feed-in tariffs-Feed-in premium (above market price)Yes-(Yes)1-Capital subsidies Yes2-Yes2-Yes2-Green certificates Yes-Yes-Yes-Renewable portfolio standards with/wit

203、hout PV requirements-Income tax credits Yes3-(Yes)3 -Self-consumption Yes-Yes-Net-metering-Net-billing-Collective self-consumption and virtual net-metering Yes-Commercial bank activities e.g.green mortgages promoting PV Yes Yes-Activities of electricity utility businesses Yes-Yes-Yes-Sustainable bui

204、lding requirements Yes-Yes-BIPV incentives-Guarantees of origin Yes-Yes-Yes-1 Only small commercial system can benefit from the tax credit system.2 Eligible for residential projects completed before June 30th,2021,and non-residential projects completed no later than September 30th,2021.3 Feed in pre

205、mium is compensated as income tax credits.It is the same system.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 37 National targets for PV There is no official target for future PV installation in Sweden.However,there exist a political agreement that sets a goal that Sweden will hav

206、e a 100%renewable electricity system by 2040,while still planning to be a net exporter of power.The agreement is not a political stop date for nuclear,but to reach the goal,this implies phasing out the Swedish nuclear reactors that are coming of age and continuously pushing for new renewable energy

207、production.Many of the introduced legislation changes in the coming years are expected to spring from this political agreement,and the Swedish PV market will most likely benefit from it.Direct support policies for PV installations 3.2.1 Direct capital subsidy for PV installations The direct capital

208、subsidy was active between 2009 and 2021 in its latest form.Prior to that,there was a support for energy efficiency in public premises,where PV was included as eligible investments that could be applied for.In the beginning of 2009,there was a gap with no direct support for grid-connected PV and the

209、 installation rate went down in 2009,as can be seen in Table 4.However,a new subsidy program was introduced in mid-2009,now open for all actors 42.As presented in Table 22,it has since then been modified several times and the support level has been decreased as the market grew and prices fell.The pr

210、ogram was extended several times and more money was allocated over time,as Figure 18 shows.Table 22:Summary of changes in the direct capital subsidy ordinance,support level and duration 43.Ordinance Start date Maximum coverage of the installation costs Initial stop date 2005:205 Energieffektiviserin

211、g i offentliga lokaler 2005-04-14 70%2008-12-31 2009:689 Std till solceller 2009-07-01 55%for large companies 60%all others 2011-12-31 2011:1027 ndring av 2009:689 2011-01-01 45%2012-12-31 2012:971 ndring av 2009:689 2013-02-01 35%2016-12-31 2014:1582 ndring av 2009:689 2015-01-01 30%companies 20%al

212、l other 2016-12-31 2016:900 ndring av 2009:689 2016-10-13 30%companies 20%all other 2019-12-31 2017:1300 ndring av 2009:689 2018-01-01 30%2020-12-31 2019:192 ndring av 2009:689 2019-05-08 20%2020-12-31 2020:489 ndring av 2009:689 2020-06-30 20%2021-06-30 2020:1263 ndring av 2009:689 2021-01-15 10%co

213、mpanies 2021-09-30 Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 38 Since its introduction,the interest in the capital subsidy program has always been greater than the budget allocated.When the support was introduced the 1st of July 2009,there had been a gap since the 31st of Dece

214、mber 2008 when support for public premises was ended,and many actors were prepared to invest.The 50 million SEK that were allocated for 2009 were therefore all applied for already in day 3 43.Ever since then,the amount of money applied for each year has been much higher than the allocated budget.The

215、refore,a long queue to get the subsidy has arisen as applications do not fall out of the line at the end of a year.When the situation was at its peak in 2016,average waiting time was on average 722 days,i.e.almost 2 years 43.The effect of the previous long waiting times led to that the program not s

216、olely stimulated,but also constituted an upper cap of the Swedish PV market.Until 2011 the new version of the subsidy covered 60%(55%for large companies)of the installation costs of PV systems,including both material and labour costs.For 2012 this was lowered to 45%to follow the decreasing system pr

217、ices in Sweden and was lowered further in 2013 to 35%.From 2015 the level was decreased to maximum 30%for companies and 20%for other stakeholders.From January 1st,2018,the Swedish government increased the subsidy level for“others”to 30%so that all actors had the same level.From the 8th of May 2019 t

218、he level has been decreased to 20%for all following the decline of PV prices and increase in electricity prices for end consumers.In the last version of the statute,active in 2020,funds could only be applied for if the system costs were less than 37 000 SEK excluding VAT/kWp.Solar power/heat hybrid

219、systems could cost up to 90 000 SEK plus VAT/kWp.If the total system costs exceed 1.2 million SEK,capital support was only granted for the part of the system cost that was less than this value.The 1.2 million SEK cap effectively lowered the subsidy level available for big PV systems.For example,if a

220、 large,centralized PV park of 10 MW at a cost of 70 million SEK received the 1.2 million SEK subsidy,it would only cover 1.7%of the total system cost.Figure 18:The annual budget of the direct capital subsidy program.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 39 Table 23:Summary

221、 of the Swedish direct capital subsidy program 434445.Maximum coverage of the installation costs Upper support limit per PV system MSEK Maximum system cost per W SEK/W Budget MSEK Granted funds1 MSEK Disbursed funds MSEK Yearly PV capacity with support from the direct capital subsidy2 MWp Yearly tot

222、al installed grid connected PV capacity MWp Total 2006 2008 70%Only for public building 5.0-138 138 138 2.96 2.83 2009 55%Companies 60%Others 2.0 75 212 28.43 0.05 0.20 0.52 2010 74.12 33.23 2.08 1.77 2011 70.93 81.02 3.12 3.45 2012 45%1.5 40 57.5 57.70 78.35 6.28 7,18 2013 35%1.3 37 210 108.61 73.1

223、6 11.54 1.95 2014 58.85 75.60 21.94 34 2015 30%Companies 20%Other 1.2 90 71.62 78.17 29.50 47.07 2016 316 213.39 138.79 50.93 57.27 2017 585.6 307.58 235.71 76.81 83.61 2018 30%1085 959.02 601.56 164.92 155.16 2019 20%1236 579.19 676.53 283.26 279.89 2020 20%1035 993.15 840.12 303.52 398.45 2021 20%

224、3 520 128.04 633.13 159.78 497.77 Total-5485.10 3 788.63 3 545.40 1116.84 1587.17 1Extract from Boverkets database 2022-08.The granted resources are expected payments which may change if the circumstances change in individual cases.2The numbers are probably higher for several of the later years,as t

225、here is a large delay in the system due to the long queues.The numbers are retroactively updated in these publications.3No new applications are accepted in 2021.Since the start of the first program in 2006 until the end in 2021,3788.63 million SEK had been granted and 3 545.40 million SEK had been d

226、isbursed 45.This capital has supported a total installation of 1116.84 MWp so far.This means that the average subsidy for all PV systems since 2006 to 2021 has been 3.2 SEK/Wp,down from 8.9 SEK/Wp in 2016,5.3 SEK/Wp in 2017,4.6 SEK/Wp in 2018,3.7 SEK/Wp I 2019 and 3.3 SEK/Wp in 2020.Task 1 National

227、Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 40 Listed in Table 23 is the annual installed PV capacity that has received support from the direct capital subsidy as compared to the statistics of yearly installed grid connect PV capacities.The statistic from direct capital subsidy program correlat

228、es well with the yearly installation statistics,except for 2009 and 2020.For 2009 it can be explained with a backlog of installations from the older direct capital subsidy program.The difference in the statistics for 2018 onwards can probably be related to the switch from sales statistics to collect

229、ing the statistics from the grid owner.A general explanation for the higher number of annual installed capacities compared to yearly PV capacity with support from the direct capital subsidy is that it was common to complete the installation of the PV system without first being granted the direct cap

230、ital subsidy.This can be seen in the database of the program where there are several systems that have a registered system completion date that is earlier than the granted support date.The explanation for the incoherence of 2020 between the supported capacity and the total installed capacity is that

231、 the Swedish Government announced to close the capital subsidy system for new applications by July 7th,2020 in June of 2020 46.For private persons,this marked the end of a more than 10-year long support program for PV.Instead,the capital subsidy was replaced by a green tax deduction(see section 3.2.

232、4).At the same time,they communicated that the completion period would be prolonged until the June 30th,2021,instead of the 31st of December 2020 47.This was a measure to meet the need for possible project time extensions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.For municipalities and companies,a total of SEK 2

233、60 million was set aside in the budget for the capital subsidy program in 2021,eligible for projects completed no later than September 30th,2021.The support level was 10%for these projects.After recognizing that 9 000 private individuals in the queue for approval of already installed projects would

234、suffer from the sudden termination,SEK 260 million was added in the spring budget for projects eligible for support according to the abovementioned criteria 48.Adding to the applications from companies and municipalities,the applications from private individuals that meet the criteria above could no

235、t start to be processed earlier than 1 December 2021.The evaluation process is expected to continue well into 2022,explaining the apparent lag in disbursements.3.2.2 Direct capital subsidy program for renewable energy production in the agriculture industry In 2015 the Swedish Board of Agriculture(Jo

236、rdbruksverket)introduced a direct capital subsidy for production of renewable energy.The subsidy can be applied for if a company has a business in agriculture,gardening or herding.The subsidy is given to support production of renewable energy for both self-consumption in agricultural activities and

237、for sale.This may be in the form of biomass,wind,hydropower,geothermal or PV 49.The subsidy is granted for the purchase of materials,services of consultants to plan and carry out the investment,but not salary to employees or work done by the applicant.The level of the direct capital subsidy is 40%of

238、 the total expenses.The total project cost must exceed 100 000 SEK for the subsidy program to apply.The maximum amount of aid a company can receive is decided by the respective County Administration(Lnsstyrelse)or by the Sami Parliament(Sametinget)49.The support level of this direct capital subsidy

239、is higher than in the previously active national direct capital subsidy program for PV installation.This can be motivated by the fact that many agricultural companies pay a lower level of the Swedish energy tax(see section 3.3.1),which makes the value of self-consumed electricity lower than for regu

240、lar electricity consumers and therefore a PV system or any other renewable system is less profitable.A higher subsidy level increases the profitability of PV installations on barns and other agriculture buildings,which is a market segment with large potential 50.Until the end of 2021,the program has

241、 granted and disbursed support to 193 PV projects with a total capacity of 8 785 kW for a total amount of 33 542 362 SEK,in accordance with Table 24.On December 22,2020,the government decided on a proposal to alter the Swedish rural development program for 2014-2022 and submitted it to the European

242、Commission.The reason for the decision was that the original rural development program for 2014-2020 was extended and new funds were added for 2021-2022.The European Commission subsequently approved on the proposed program changes 22 April 2021,marking the date of closing for new applications in the

243、 direct Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 41 capital subsidy program for renewable energy production,as it was not included in the prolonged plan.There are no plans to re-open the subsidy program,but support could possibly be applied for through a capital subsidy progr

244、am for investments in agriculture,horticulture,and reindeer farming,as it includes support for energy efficiency measures.Table 24:Summary of the PV projects in the direct capital subsidy program for renewable production in the agriculture industry.The column Year Number of financed PV projects Disb

245、ursed funds SEK Installed PV capacity kWp Average cost per kWp 2016 5 1 026 096 203 13.6 2017 25 2 865 775 632 13.2 2018 31 5 180 719 1 109 12.3 2019 39 7 159 718 1 740 11.9 2020 61 12 930 949 3 193 11.7 2021 32 4 379 105 1 907 11.7 Total 193 33 542 362 8 785 12.1 3.2.3 The renewable electricity cer

246、tificate system The basic principle of the renewable electricity certificate system is that producers of renewable electricity receive one certificate from the Government for each MWh produced.Meanwhile,certain electricity stakeholders are obliged to purchase certificates representing a specific sha

247、re of the electricity they sell or use,the so-called quota obligation.The sale of certificates gives producers an extra income in addition to the revenues from electricity sales.Ultimately it is the electricity consumers that pay for the expansion of renewable electricity production as the cost of t

248、he certificates is a part of the end consumers electricity price.The energy sources that are entitled to receive certificates are wind power,some small hydro,some biofuels,solar,geothermal,wave and peat in power generation,and each production facility can receive renewable electricity certificates f

249、or a maximum of 15 years and limited to the end of year 2045.The quota-bound stakeholders are:electricity suppliers;electricity consumers who use electricity that they themselves produced if the amount used is more than 60 MWh per year and it has been produced in a plant with an installed capacity o

250、f more than 50 kWp;electricity consumers that have used electricity that they have imported or purchased on the Nordic power exchange;producers who produce electricity to a grid which is used without support of grid concession(ntkoncession),provided the electricity used amounts to more than 60 MWh p

251、er year and if the electricity is commercially supplied to consumers who use the electricity on the same grid;and electricity-intensive industries that have been registered by the Swedish Energy Agency(Energimyndigheten).The system was introduced in Sweden in 2003 to increase the use of renewable el

252、ectricity.The goal of the certificate system at that time was to increase the annual electricity production from renewable energy sources by 17 TWh in 2016 compared to the levels of 2002.In 2012 Sweden and Norway joined forces and formed a joint certificate market.The objective then was that the ele

253、ctricity certificate system would increase the production of electricity from renewable sources by 26.4 TWh between 2012 and 2020 in Sweden and Norway combined.In the common market there is the opportunity to deal with both Swedish and Norwegian certificates to meet quotas 51.In March 2015,the Swedi

254、sh and Norwegian governments made a new agreement that raised the common goal of 2 TWh to 28.4 TWh until 2020.This increase will only be funded by Swedish consumers 52.Furthermore,in the wake of the broad political agreement on the future Swedish electricity system(see section 3.1)it was decided in

255、2017 that the electricity certificate system will be extended to 2030 with another 18 TWh of renewable electricity.The prolongation involves a linear escalation of the 18 TWh with 2 TWh per year from 2022 to 2030.However,primarily due to the rapid deployment of wind power,the goal was reached alread

256、y in March Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 42 2021 5354.To avoid prices of the certificates to drop down to zero due to over-establishment of renewable energy sources,which would be detrimental to early investors,a new change in the system was decided on by the Swedi

257、sh government on November 11th,2020.The amendment stated that no power production constructed after 2021 would be eligible for certificates,and that the termination of the certificate system would be advanced to 2035 rather than the previous 2045 end date 55.In 2021,the average price for a certifica

258、te decreased drastically to 18.9 SEK/MWh from the average price of 69.6 SEK/MWh in 2020,120.7 SEK/MWh in 2019 56,and the quota obligation was decreased to 25.5%from the 26.3%that was set for 2020,which was in turn decreased from 30.5%in 2019 57.The established trend in the level of the quota duties

259、is summarized in Figure 19 and the price trend in Figure 20.Figure 20:The price development of the renewable electricity certificates 56.Figure 21:The allocation of renewable electricity certificates to different technologies 56 Figure 19:The quota levels in the renewable electricity certificate sys

260、tem 52.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 43 Until 2005 there were no PV systems in the electricity certificate system 58.However,as Table 25 show,the number of approved PV installations increased over the years and a majority of the approved plants in the certificate s

261、ystem are now PV systems.However,these systems only make up for a very small part of the total installed power and produced certificates.As can be seen in Figure 21,most of the certificates has gone to wind and biomass power,which produce more in the winter months.Following the amendment stating tha

262、t no power production constructed after 2021 would be eligible for certificates,the Swedish Parliament agreed that owners of a certificate trading account will be charged an annual administrative fee of 200 SEK,starting July 1st,2021 59.This meant that for owners of smaller PV system,many of the vil

263、la system owners,it would no longer be profitable to be part of the renewable electricity certificate system.To avoid the account fee,PV system owners needed to close their electricity certificate account before May 31st,2021,and by doing that,the facilities approval for electricity certificates is

264、revoked.This explains the drastic decrease in systems approved for electricity certificates in the end of 2021 and the decreased number of issued certificates to PV,in Table 25:Statistics about PV in the electricity certificate system The fact that only larger PV systems are still profiting from the

265、 electricity certificate system is clearly demonstrated in table 25,as the average system size more than doubled when 67%of the PV systems withdrew their participation in the program.255 206 certificates were issued to PV in 2021 50.This is only about 18%of the theoretical production of 1 586 MW 900

266、 kWh/kW 1427.4 GWh from all grid-connected PV systems in Sweden.The reader should note that the calculation above is very simplified,especially since the whole cumulative grid-connected PV power at the end of 2021 was not up and running throughout the whole year.334.0 MW of PV power was accepted in

267、the certificate system at the end of 2021 58,making it 21%of the total installed PV grid connected capacity.The steep decrease in Figure 22a and 25b can be explained by the low certificate price and the expiration of the program combined with the introduction of an administrative yearly fee for all

268、PV system owners taking part in the system.Figure 23:Renewable electricity certificates issued to PV produced electricity 56.Figure 22:(a)Percentage of the installed PV power in Sweden that is approved for renewable electricity certificates.(b)Allocated certificates to PV electricity divided by the

269、theoretical yearly PV production 56.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 44 Table 25:Statistics about PV in the electricity certificate system 5658.To summarize,the renewable electricity certificate system in the present shape is being used by larger PV systems and parks

270、but does not provide a significant support to increase smaller PV installations in Sweden in general.Number of approved PV systems in the certificate system at the end of each year Total approved solar power in the certificate system at the end of each year Average size of PV systems in the certific

271、ate system at the end of each year Number of issued certificates from solar cells per year Number of produced certificates eligible in kWh per installed power and year 2006 3 103 kW 34.3 kW 20 MWh 194 kWh/kW 2007 6 184 kW 30.6 kW 19 MWh 103 kWh/kW 2008 16 508 kW 31.7 kW 129 MWh 254 kWh/kW 2009 27 1

272、059 kW 39.2 kW 212 MWh 200 kWh/kW 2010 62 3 227 kW 52.1 kW 278 MWh 86 kWh/kW 2011 138 4 196 kW 30.4 kW 556 MWh 133 kWh/kW 2012 395 8 104 kW 20.5 kW 1 029 MWh 127 kWh/kW 2013 972 18 419 kW 19.0 kW 3 705 MWh 201 kWh/kW 2014 1 866 36 437 kW 19.5 kW 10 771 MWh 296 kWh/kW 2015 3 270 63 934 kW 19.6 kW 24

273、544 MWh 384 kWh/kW 2016 5 107 104 070 kW 20.4 kW 45 535 MWh 438 kWh/kW 2017 7 428 159 050 kW 21.4 kW 74 148 MWh 466 kWh/kW 2018 11 282 250 912 kW 22.2 kW 120 919 MWh 482 kWh/kW 2019 16 683 380 227 kW 22.8 kW 181 908 MWh 478 kWh/kW 2020 19 903 492 759 kW 24.8 kW 290 152 MWh 589 kWh/kW 2021 6 615 333

274、954 kW 50.5 kW 255 206 MWh 764 kWh/kW Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 45 3.2.4 Tax reduction for green technology As mentioned in paragraph 3.2.1 on the expiration of the direct capital subsidy for PV installations for private individuals in July 2020,the possibility

275、 of receiving compensation for residential PV installation will remain.A tax reduction program for green technology gained legal effect January 1st 2021 and replaced three existing support systems,namely the direct capital subsidy for PV installations(2009:689)42 for private persons,the subsidy for

276、storage of self-produced electricity(2016:899)60 and the subsidy for private installations of charging points for electric vehicles(2017:1318)61.It is often referred to as the green deduction.Unlike the direct capital subsidy for PV installations,this is a support system that is managed and administ

277、ered by the system suppliers and ultimately by the Swedish Tax Agency(Skatteverket).It is designed much like the ROT tax deduction,see 3.9.6.This means that instead of the system owner applying for the economic support and handling the process,the tax deduction reduce the price for the house owner a

278、lready on the invoice,and the system suppliers will report the deducted amounts to the tax authorities 17.This system provides a percentual tax deduction for the hardware and installations costs of the three energy efficiency measures for private house owners.PV installations are offered a 15%deduct

279、ion,while batteries and charging points for electric vehicles get a 50%tax deduction.This deduction can be made by private persons and can be used once per year and person.There is a maximum annual accepted amount of 50,000 SEK.In the case of all three measures being installed at once,which has both

280、 cost and installation benefits,there is a possibility that the maximum amount will be reached.Since PV have the lowest deduction level,the ROT-tax deduction might be applied to the PV installation while the charging point and the battery installation is included in the green deduction.To facilitate

281、 the administration for both companies and the Swedish Tax Agency,a level of 97 percent of the total investment cost has been approved as deductible costs for the green deduction 62.This means that the direct capital subsidy for private individuals of 20 percent of the total cost was replaced by a s

282、upport of 15%of 97%total system cost,which equals 14.55%percent,by 2021.The advantage of the tax reduction for green technology,as compared to the former direct capital subsidy,is that there is no limiting budget,and thus no queue in this system as everyone who meets the requirements can take advant

283、age of the tax deduction directly at the investment time.3.2.5 BIPV development measures There were no specific BIPV measures in Sweden in 2021.Self-consumption measures Self-consumption of PV electricity is allowed in Sweden and is the main business model that is driving the market.Several utilitie

284、s offer various agreements for the excess electricity of a micro-producer.Since the spring of 2014 an ongoing debate about what tax rules that apply to micro-producers has been conducted,and consequently several changes in the different tax laws have occurred since then.Listed in this section are so

285、me specific tax laws that affect self-consumption and micro-producers.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 46 Table 26:Summary of self-consumption regulations for small private PV systems in 2021.PV self-consumption 1 Right to self-consume Yes 2 Revenues from self-consume

286、d PV Savings on the electricity bill 3 Charges to finance Transmission,Distribution grids&Renewable Levies None Excess PV electricity 4 Revenues from excess PV electricity injected into the grid Various offers from utilities+0.6 SEK/kWh+Feed in compensation from the grid owner 5 Maximum timeframe fo

287、r compensation of fluxes One year 6 Geographical compensation(virtual self-consumption or metering)On site only Other characteristics 7 Regulatory scheme duration Subject to annual revision 8 Third party ownership accepted Yes 9 Grid codes and/or additional taxes/fees impacting the revenues of the p

288、rosumer Grid codes requirements 10 Regulations on enablers of self-consumption(storage,DSM)Tax reduction for green technology 11 PV system size limitations 1.Below 43.5 kWp and 63 A,and net-consumer on yearly basis,for free feed-in subscription towards the grid owner.2.Below 100 A and maximum 30 MWh

289、/year for the tax credit.3.Below 500 kWp for no energy tax on self-consumed electricity.12 Electricity system limitations None 13 Additional features Feed in compensation from the grid owner 3.3.1 General taxes on electricity In Sweden,taxes and fees are charged at both the production of electricity

290、 and at the consumption of electricity.Taxes that are associated with the production of electricity are property taxes(see section 0),taxes on fuels and taxes on emissions to the atmosphere.The taxes associated with electricity consumption are mainly the energy tax on electricity and the value added

291、 tax(VAT).The manufacturing and agriculture industry paid 0.006 SEK/kWh in energy tax in 2020.The Energy tax rate has been increased in steps for residential customers the last couple of years after the Swedish Energy Commission(see section 3.1)decided to remove the specific tax on nuclear and finan

292、ce that with a higher energy tax 63.The Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 47 latest increase occurred the first of January 2021 when the energy tax was increased from 0.353 SEK/kWh(excluding VAT)to 0.356 SEK/kWh.The exception is some municipalities in northern Sweden w

293、here the energy tax now is 0.260 SEK/kWh(excluding VAT)64.Additionally,a VAT of 25%is applied on top of the energy tax.Altogether,roughly 40%of the total consumer electricity price(including grid fees)was taxes,VAT and certificates in 2021,see Figure 14.3.3.2 Energy tax on self-consumption There has

294、 been an ongoing modernization of the Swedish tax rules when it comes to taxation on self-consumed electricity.The current rules,which were implemented July 1st 2021,can be can be summarized as 65:A solar electricity producer that owns one or more PV systems whose total power amounts to less than 50

295、0 kWp does not have to pay any energy tax for the self-consumed electricity consumed within the same premises as where the PV systems is installed.A solar producer that owns several PV systems,which total power amounts to 500 kWp or more,but where all the individual PV systems are smaller than 500 k

296、Wp,pays an energy tax of 0.005 SEK/kWh on the self-consumed electricity used within the same premises as where the PV systems is installed.A solar producer that owns a PV system larger than 500 kWp pays the normal energy tax of 0.356 SEK/kWh on the self-consumed electricity used within the same prem

297、ises as where the PV systems is installed,but 0.005 SEK/kWh in energy tax for the self-consumed electricity from the other systems if they are less than 500 kWp.The current legislation has the effect that few PV systems over 500 kWp are built for self-consumption in Sweden.The full energy tax on sel

298、f-consumed electricity limits the profitability for those systems.This leads to that the technical potential of PV systems on large industrial properties currently is unexploited.When it comes to systems smaller than 500 kWp the main economic obstacle for real estate owners that plan to build severa

299、l small PV systems has been removed with this legislation.However,the administrative burden of measuring and reporting the self-consumed electricity if the total power limit of 500 kWp is exceeded remains.However,it is only since July 1st,2021,that the limit has been 500 kWp.Before that,PV system ow

300、ners had to pay energy tax on self-consumed electricity produced by systems larger than 255 kWp.The former limit actively hindered the market development in the industrial and large commercial segments.The limit-increase was welcomed by the Swedish industry,even though many advocates for the limit b

301、e completely abolished,amongst them the Swedish solar trade association 66.Another positive prospect in this matter is that the government has declared their purpose to remove the 0.006 SEK/kWh energy tax for real estate owners that own several small systems,and thereby remove the administrative bar

302、rier,by sending in a state aid notification to the EU Commission 67.3.3.3 Deduction of the VAT for the PV system Sweden has a non-deductible VAT for permanent residences 68.However,homeowners associations or property owners are granted the right of deduction for VAT for a roof-mounted PV systems as

303、long as the acquisition is attributable to the associations or companys VAT liable sales of surplus electricity.This position,published in November 2020 by the Swedish Tax Agency,replaced the former position from 1 March 2018 69,as it was legally tried in case 6174-18 of the Swedish Supreme Administ

304、rative Court 70.Before that,only if all generated electricity was delivered to an electricity supplier,and the PV system was therefore exclusively used in economic activity,deduction of the VAT for the PV system was allowed.Worth noting is that it was crucial for the case that a roof mounted PV syst

305、em is not a part of the permanent residence.Consequently,this does not necessary apply to building-integrated PV.To summarize,a homeowners association or property owner may deduct VAT on the investment,operation and preparation of a PV system corresponding to the proportion of electricity that will

306、be sold to the electricity grid 71.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 48 3.3.4 VAT on the revenues of the excess electricity A PV system owner that sells the excess electricity will receive compensation from the electricity trading utility company and from the grid owne

307、r(see section 0).If the total annual renumeration from the property(including other revenue streams than selling excess electricity)exceeds 30 000 SEK,excluding VAT,the house owner needs to register for VAT and handle the VAT streams between the utilities that buy the excess electricity and the tax

308、agency(see Figure 24).If the total annual sales do not exceed 30 000 SEK the PV system owner are exempted from VAT 72.At a reimbursement from a utility company of 0.5 SEK/kWh,60 000 kWh can be sold per year before reaching the limit.At a self-consumption rate of 50%it corresponds to a PV system of a

309、 size of about 120 kWp.Hence,as a general rule of thumb,the 30 000 SEK limit corresponds to PV systems of 100200 kWp,which would be an exceptionally large PV system size for a regular homeowner.The limit of 30 000 SEK was implemented the 1st of January 2017 and is an improvement for the Swedish PV m

310、arket.In 2016,a private homeowner needed to go through the administration of registering for VAT and reporting the VAT to the Government.The new set of rules makes it much easier for a household to invest in PV in Sweden.Furthermore,it has also reduced the administration for the tax agency as it doe

311、snt need to handle the registration of thousands of private PV owners.As the Government is not losing any tax income,as illustrated in Figure 24,it is a win-win situation for all parties as compared to before the 1st of January 2017.3.3.5 Tax credit for micro-producers of renewable electricity The 1

312、st of January 2015,an amendment to the Income Tax Act was introduced 73.The tax credit is 0.60 SEK/kWh for renewable electricity fed into the grid.The right to receive the tax credit applies to both physical and legal persons.To be entitled to receive the tax credit the PV system owner must:feed in

313、the excess electricity to the grid at the same connection point as where the electricity is received,not have a fuse that exceed 100 amperes at the connection point,notify the grid owner that renewable electricity is produced at the connection point.The basis for the tax reduction is the number of k

314、Wh that are fed into the grid at the connection point within a calendar year.However,the maximum number of kWh for which a system owner can receive the tax credit may not exceed the number of kWh bought within the same year.In addition,one is only obliged to a maximum of 30 000 kWh per year.The grid

315、 owner will file the measurement on how much electricity that has been fed into and out of the connection point in one year and the data will be sent to the Swedish Tax Agency(Skatteverket).The tax reduction will then be included in the income tax return information,which should be submitted to the

316、Swedish Tax Agency in May the following year.The tax credit of 0.60 SEK/kWh is received on top of other compensations for the excess electricity,such as compensation offered by electricity retailer utility companies(see section 7.1),the grid benefit compensation(see Figure 24:Illustration of the rev

317、enue and VAT streams for the excess electricity for a private PV owner before and after the 1st of January 2017.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 49 section 3.3.6)and revenues for selling renewable electricity certificates and guarantees of origins(see section 3.2.3 an

318、d 3.3.6).The tax credit system can be seen as a feed-in premium for the excess electricity.However,unlike the case in other European countries,the Swedish tax credit system does not offer a guaranteed revenue over a specific period.This means that the extra income that a micro-producer receives from

319、 the tax credit system when feeding electricity to the grid can be withdrawn,increased,or decreased by a political decision.According to the Swedish Tax Agency 76 370 micro-producers of renewable electricity received a total 385 556 429 SEK for excess electricity fed into the grid in 2021.This amoun

320、t is based on 385 556 MWh of excess electricity fed into the low voltage grid by micro producers,reported by the grid operators to the Swedish Tax Agency.The average production fed into the grid per micro-producer with a capacity of less 100 amperes was thereby 5 049 kWh in 2021,as summarized in Tab

321、le 27.Table 27:Statistics about tax credit for micro-producers of renewable electricity.Year Number of micro-producers Paid funds each year SEK The basis(excess electricity)of the tax reduction kWh Average electricity fed into the grid per micro-producer kWh/micro-producer 2015 5 391 11 421 003 19 0

322、35 005 3 531 2016 8 161 19 545 400 32 575 667 3 992 2017 12 138 30 068 341 50 113 902 4 129 2018 20 350 57 098 546 95 164 243 4 676 2019 40 442 102 164 634 170 274 390 4 210 2020 56 188 183 883 925 306 473 209 5 454 2021 76 370 231 333 857 385 556 429 5 049 Total-635 515 706 1 059 192 845-These numb

323、ers contain,not only PV,but all small-scale renewable production.Historically,the share of technologies of systems with a production capacity below 69 kW(which corresponds to the 100-ampere limit of the tax reduction)in the green electricity certificate system has been studied to get an estimation o

324、f the share of PV in the tax reduction.This methodology generated a rough estimation since both the total produced electricity in a year and the self-consumption ratio differ between the different renewable energy technologies and between all the individual production facilities.However,as explained

325、 in section 3.2.3,few incentives remain for residential PV system owners to be registered for green certificates in 2021,which eliminates the possibility for that estimation.Both in 2020 and 2019,98%of the capacity of systems below 69 kW were PV in the green electricity certificate system,and the co

326、rresponding number for 2018 was 96%.There is therefore reason to believe that the share of PV would have been around that level also in 2021,if were not for the changes in the system.A level of 98%PV among the micro-produced electricity would result in 622 805 392 SEK has been paid to PV system owne

327、rs through the tax credit for micro-production system until the end of 2021.3.3.6 Grid benefit compensation A micro-producer is entitled to reimbursement from the grid owner for the electricity that is fed into the grid.The compensation shall correspond to the value of the energy loss reduction in t

328、he grid that the excess electricity necessitates 74.The compensation varies between different grid owners and grid areas and is typically between 0.02 and 0.10 SEK/kWh.Task 1 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 50 3.3.7 Guarantees of origin Guarantees of origin(GOs),were introd

329、uced in Sweden on December 1st in 2010,and are electronic documents that guarantee the origin of the electricity.Electricity producers receive a guarantee from the Government for each MWh of electricity.The electricity producer can then sell GOs on an open market.The buyer is usually a utility compa

330、ny who wants to sell that specific type of electricity.Utilities buy guarantees of origin corresponding to the amount of electricity they would like to sell.GOs are issued for all types of power generation and applying for guarantees of origin is still voluntary.When the electricity supplier has bou

331、ght the GOs and sold electricity to a customer,the GOs are nullified.The nullification ensures that the amount of electricity sold from a specific source is equivalent to the amount of electricity produced from that source.Table 28:Statistics about solar guarantees of origin 56.Year Solar GOs issued

332、 in Sweden Solar GOs transferred within Sweden Solar GOs imported to Sweden Solar GOs exported from Sweden Solar GOs nullified in Sweden Solar GOs that expired in Sweden 2011 194 96-0 0 2012 378 173-104 90 2013 2 337 1 373-324 294 2014 7 846 4 563-1 510 972 2015 18 953 11 301-5 314 2 830 2016 36 702

333、 22 183-11 966 9 454 2017 58 806 65 936 1 481 437 69 279 96 442 16 146 2018 111 143 1 306 626 568 832 1 467 852 317 189 29 499 2019 166 670 894 568 1 527 014 526 292 976 716 51 935 2020 272 646 943 181 1 383 593 373 746 927 148 68 924 2021 316 475 518 255 969 157 201 969 952 894 111 143 A utility company that wants to sell,for example,electricity from PV can do so in two ways.Either by nullify gua