1、1Making the Economic Case for Cycling2Authors and AcknowledgmentsThis research brief was developed with generous support from the Transforming UrbanMobility Initiative(TUMI).AuthorsDana Yanocha,ITDPSarah Mawdsley,ITDPReviewersMackenzie Allan,ITDP GlobalDanielle Hoppe,ITDP BrazilJacob Mason,ITDP Glob

2、alCarlos F.Pardo,NUMOD.Taylor Reich,ITDP GlobalLi Wei,ITDP ChinaCover Photo:Areporter via shutterstock3IntroductionSource:A.Aleksandravicius via Shutterstock4IntroductionUnlocking economic benefits of cycling Cycling has signifcant economic beneftsfor individuals,cities,and societyand functions as a

3、 low-cost,high-yield,scalable solution to climate and equity issues.Investments in cycling infrastructure also create jobs and opportunities to expand existing industries or develop new ones.While many cities have seen frsthand the benefts of investing in infrastructure and other street design impro

4、vements that support safe,direct,and connected cycling trips,other cities are not convinced that such investments yield enough economic value to equal or exceed the upfront costs.In this brief,we make the economic case for cycling and demonstrate how investments in cycling infrastructure are the key

5、 to unlocking economic and other benefts.“Riding bicycles will not only benefit the individual doing it but the world at large.”Udo E.Simonis,economist and global environmental policy advocateIn Part 1,we explore how a larger share of trips made by bicycle reduces costs for individuals and society a

6、nd can generate revenue for cities.We also analyze how increased demand for bicycles and cycling trips creates jobs and economic opportunities.In Part 2,we discuss the type and scale of investment needed to maximize the economic benefts of cycling.Why now?The Sixth Assessment Report of the United Na

7、tions Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC),released in August 2021,emphasizes the need for a large-scale system change in how people around the world travel in order to reduce the extreme consequences of climate change.This system change would mean reducing reliance on fossil fuels in the

8、 transportation sector to zero.There are indeed technology-based solutions that can support this transition,including electrifcation of private and public vehicles.However,these solutions are not yet affordable,accessible,or deployable at a large scale in many parts of the world.Fortunately,we do no

9、t have to wait until electrifcation technology becomes more affordable or the logistics around range and charging infrastructure make widespread uptake of both private and public electric vehicles more realistic.A signifcant shift toward cycling would reduce harmful emissions and slow the negative i

10、mpacts of climate change,but this shift requires coordinated,comprehensive investment.Source: via shutterstock5Instead,we can prioritize and fnance the infrastructure and access to bicycles needed to shift a signifcant share of trips from private vehicles to cycling right now.Unlike electric cars,bi

11、cycles are already widely available in most places,and infrastructure to support them can be built quickly and at a much lower cost than vehicle infrastructure.This signifcant shift toward cycling is essential to reduce harmful emissions and pollutants that threaten human health and to slow the nega

12、tive impacts of climate change.This will require sizable investments from national governments,multilateral development banks,philanthropy,and other major stakeholders in a much more coordinated Economic Opportunities from Expanded Investment and Access to Cyclingand comprehensive way than we have s

13、een in the past.These investments would deliver not only the physical infrastructure needed to make cycling and walking safer and more attractive to more people but they would also generate cost savings and returns as a result of improved health outcomes and local economic development.In addition,th

14、ey have the potential to spark new industries and entrepreneurial opportunities.Most importantly,the scale of investment needed to achieve systemic change and have a real impact on climate change is comparatively small and presents one of the highest returns on investment.6Part I:Economic Benefits o

15、f CyclingSource:withGod via Shutterstock7Because the majority of vehicle ownership costs are paid upfront(purchase)or on a scheduled basis(insurance,loan,or lease payment)and are not tied to the actual use of the vehicle,the marginal cost of each trip is low,which creates an incentive to maximize th

16、e beneft of those initial expenditures by using the vehicle more often.In most parts of the world,a new car costs more than the average annual household income;bicycles and even electric bicycles(e-bikes),on the other hand,cost less than 6%of annual income to purchase.2 While bicycles do involve som

17、e maintenance costs,they are signifcantly less expensive than vehicle maintenance,and fuel,parking,and insurance costs are relatively low or even zero(in the case of pedal bicycles).Purchase,operations and maintenance,fuel,and insurance costs for a bicycle total approximately$3.00 per 100km traveled

18、;a private car is six times more expensive,at approximately$18.00 per 100km.31.Creating Walkable&Bikeable Communities.2.The Electric Assist.3.The Compact City ScenarioElectrifed.1.1 More trips by bicycle benefits individuals,businesses,and citiesCost per 100km(USD)Investments in cycling infrastructu

19、re contribute to cost savings for individuals and society.They also generate local economic development that benefts governments(through increased property values and municipal revenues)and businesses(increased commercial retail sales).1.1.1 Reducing car trips and avoiding car ownership minimizes co

20、sts to individuals Average household spending on transportation in lower-density,car-centric neighborhoodsis twice as much as spending on transportation in walkable and bikeable neighborhoods,according to the US Department of Housing and Urban Development.1 Owning a vehicle entails more costs for in

21、dividuals than just the purchase price:It presents recurring expenses like maintenance,fuel,parking,and insurance,but it can also lead owners to believe that using the vehicle for more trips is the best way to maximize their investment.Total Cost per 100km TraveledIn Patna,India,a 15%increase in tri

22、ps made by bicycle would reduce premature mortality by 755 lives per year,and save the city$166 million.Source:arun sambhu mishra via ShutterstockEvaluations of the return on investment(ROI)of cycling infrastructure and other factors that increase cycling mode share demonstrate overall societal cost

23、 savings and increased economic productivity across several sectors,as discussed below.7 Some of these benefits are non?local,which suggests that regional or even national strategies aimed at reducing demand for vehicles and expanding bicycle use may be effective.8 Savings from fewer premature death

24、s Physically inactive lifestyles are a major cause of death:noncommunicable diseases associated with lack of exercise are increasingly prevalent in modern society.By promoting moderate everyday physical activity,cycling infrastructure contributes major benefts to public health,reducing premature mor

25、tality among the cycling population.This effect is especially meaningful among people older than 50,who are typically less likely to cycle without protected infrastructure.9 8?ccording to a costbenefit analysis framework developed in Copenhagen,Denmark?includes 6 costs(and benefits)associated with a

26、ir pollution,climate change,noise,congestion,trip time,traffic crashes,health,vehicle and infrastructure operation and maintenance,and tourism.4.ITDP,internal report.Project Evaluation:Mexico City Bike Lanes.5.ITDP.A global high shift cycling scenario.6.Transport transitions in Copenhagen:Comparing

27、the cost of cars and bicycles.7.Is the widespread use of urban land for cycling promotion policies cost effective?A cost-beneft analysis of the case of Seville.8.Cost-beneft of bicycle infrastructure with e-bikes and cycle superhighways.9.NACTO,Designing for All Ages&Abilities:Contextual Guidance fo

28、r High-Comfort Bicycle Facilities.In addition to saving money,individuals can also save time when shifting trips from vehicles to bicycles,especially during peak commute times when vehicle traffic congestion is highest,and where protected cycle lanes and other bicycle-friendly streets separate cycli

29、sts from vehicle traffic.This creates more reliable,virtually traffic-free trips for cyclists.In Mexico City,cycle lanes save users 11.5 minutes and 5.40 pesos per trip on average compared to using a different transport mode.41.1.2 Reducing vehicle trips and increasing bicycle trips minimizes costs

30、to societyReplacing vehicle trips with bicycle trips improves health outcomes,reduces air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions,reduces congestion,and yields other societal benefits,most of which can be quantified:A dramatic increase in cycling worldwide could save society$24 trillion cumulatively

31、between 2015 and 2050.?Every kilometer cycled generates 0.16($0.18)in economic gains to society,and every kilometer driven costs society 0.15($0.16).9Cost savings from the health sector also include fewer premature deaths as a result of better air quality.12 Vehicles with internal combustion engines

32、 produce smog and soot that is harmful to human health,and they emit greenhouse gasses that contribute to climate change.Outdoor air pollution is a serious concern,especially in low-and middle-income countries,which account for 91%of premature deaths from air pollution.13 The World Health Organizati

33、on recommends expanding cycling and walking networks as a key strategy to reducing air pollution and the associated burden of disease.Savings from fewer road deaths Traffc crashes involving cyclists and vehicles also contribute to premature mortality and disability,which present economic costs to so

34、ciety.Segregated cycle lanes and intersections that separate cyclists from vehicle traffc help to reduce serious crashes and associated economic costs,even as cycling makes up a larger share of all trips.For example,in Bogota,Colombia,despite a signifcant increase in bicycle use from 0.2%of trips in

35、 2000 to 7%in 2019,the citys cycle lane network decreased cycle-related deaths by 34%and injuries by 8%.An analysis of 16 European countries conducted by the International Transport Forum(ITF)shows that higher rates of cycling are associated with lower cyclist fatality rates?.17The World Health Orga

36、nizations Health Economic Assessment Tool(HEAT)can be used to predict the economic impacts of increased walking or cycling on reductions in premature mortality.Of course,public health improvements from increased cycling will also have benefts in reduced healthcare costs and increased quality of life

37、,but the HEAT model does not include those effects.10.Quantifying Health&Economic Benefts of Bicycle Superhighway:Evidence from Patna.11.Spain:Toledo uses HEAT to calculate benefts of new cycle path.12.Dutch cycling:Quantifying the health and related economic benefts.13.Ambient(outdoor)air pollution

38、.14.Quantifying the Economic Costs of Air Pollution from Fossil Fuels.15.Upadhyay,Reecha.“Air Pollution and its Impact on Business and the Economy”.16.Cyclist Safety:An Information Resource for Decision-Makers and Practitioners.17.Exposure-Adjusted Road Fatality Rates for Cycling and Walking in Euro

39、pean Countries.?n?atna,?ndia,a 15?increase in cycling mode s?are e?ates to?55 lives saved?er year d?e to increased?ysical activity and$166 million?er year in?ealt?care savings.?n?oledo,?ain,a 5?increase in cycling mode s?are?o?ld contri?te$?50,000?er year to t?e economy as a res?lt o?lives saved?rom

40、 noncomm?nica?le disease.?e glo?al cost o?air?oll?tion as a res?lt o?remat?re mortality,disa?ility,?re?term?irt?s,and sick leave is estimated at$?.?trillion,or?.?o?glo?al?.?ir?oll?tion costs?ndian?sinesses at least$?5?illion,or a?o?t?o?,?ic?co?ld?e red?ced?it?e?er ve?icle tri?s and more tri?s?y?icyc

41、le.10*From the ITFs“Exposure-Adjusted Road Fatality Rates for Cycling and Walking in European Countries”18.The High Toll of Traffc Injuries.19.The Compact City Scenario-Electrifed.20.Country-level Social Cost of Carbon explorer.Savings from fewer greenhouse gas emissionsCycling,including e-bike use,

42、could feasibly increase worldwide from its current roughly 5%share of urban passenger trips to 18%by 2050.This increase,along with proportionate increases in walking and public transit,would reduce CO2-equivalent emissions by about two gigatonnes annually which is more than half of the sectors emiss

43、ions in 2015.19 At the current global social cost of carbon,this reduction would be valued at$836 billion annually.20Average exposure(annual km cycled per person)Switzerland?Rate of Cyclist Fatalities by ExposureFatality rate for cycling(fatalities per 100 million km)?atalities and serio?s in?ries c

44、a?sed?y inade?ate cycling and?alking?acilities in?rican cities cost$?illion,a?ro?imately?o?rica?s total?.?ed?cing road cras?mortality and mor?idity?y 50?over?years?o?ld increase?y as m?c?as?in?an?ania and t?e?ili?ines,1?in?ndia,15?in?ina,and?in?ailand.?Savings from less car Infrastructure Car-specif

45、ic infrastructure like parking garages,surface parking lots,signals,etc.,presents construction and maintenance costs as well as societal costs,such as sprawl.When it is not necessary to build and maintain new roads,car parking,and other vehicle supportive infrastructure,that frees up budget for othe

46、r uses.11The major costs to society posed by traffc congestion are delays and lost time for both private and freight vehicles,which reduce economic productivity.Urban traffc congestion costs the US freight sector approximately$66 billion annually,23 and major US cities like New York City and Los Ang

47、eles lost$11 billion and$8 billion,respectively,due to traffc congestion(including private vehicles)in 2019.24 Similarly,in Egypt,the estimated direct congestion costs for the Greater Cairo metropolitan area is between EGP13 and EGP14 billion(US$827$890 million).25 Congestion also contributes to air

48、 pollution(due to vehicles idling)as well as noise pollution and traffc crashes.While studies evaluating the direct impacts of increased cycling and walking on traffc congestion are minimal,improving facilities for cycling and walking is a low-cost,quick-to-implement approach to reducing congestion

49、compared to alternatives like installing intelligent transportation systems(ITS)or expanding public transport capacity or service.26 Impacts on congestion are anticipated to be greater when cycle lanes and pedestrian facilities are implemented together,offering more benefts as a network that can sup

50、port trips between many different origins and destinations.21.The E-Bike Potential:Estimating regional e-bike impacts on greenhouse gas emissions.22.Buehler and Pucher,2021.Cycling for Sustainable Cities.p.151.23.Bottlenecks/Congestion/Infrastructure Funding.24.Global Traffc Scorecard.25.Cairo Traff

51、c Congestion Study.26.The Role of Walking and Cycling in Reducing Congestion.27.Bicycle infrastructure and traffc congestion:Evidence from DCs Capital Bikeshare,Inrix 2020 Global Traffc Scorecard.In Jakarta,a city known for its congestion,protected cycle lanes give people an alternative to losing ti

52、me sitting in traffic.Source:ITDP IndonesiaSavings from reduced congestion?e cost o?air?oll?tion and?or every 10 kilometers driven?y car is 0.?0,nearly 10 times t?e cost?er 10 kilometers cycled,at 0.0?.?c?ieving 15?o?assenger miles traveled(?)?y e?ike?o?ld red?ce?emissions?y 1?.?n average red?ction

53、o?5 kg?emitted?er year?val?ed at$?co?ld?e ac?ieved?er e?ike.?n?as?ington,?,?a?ital?ikes?are red?ces neig?or?ood tra?ic congestion?y?,?ic?is val?ed at a?ro?imately$1?0,000 in lost time saved.?n?rastr?ct?re constr?ction and maintenance?or cars costs nearly$1.5?illion?er 1,000?assenger kilometers(?)glo

54、?ally,com?ared to?icycles at$10.?million?er 1,000?.?1229.The Association between Residential Housing Prices,Bicycle Infrastructure and Ridership Volumes.30.Liu&Shi,Impact of bike facilities on residential property prices;Karadeniz,Exploring active transportation investments and associatedbenefts for

55、 municipal budgets:a scoping review;Racca&Dhanju,Property Value/Desirability Effects of Bike Paths Adjacent to Residential Areas.31.Bicycling facility inequalities and the causality dilemma with socioeconomic/sociodemographic change.This benefts homeowners by increasing the value of their home,but i

56、t also generates more property tax revenue for cities,which is especially benefcial when such revenue supports public services like education,water,and sewage services.However,increased property values do not positively impact all groupsrenters and some long-time homeowners lose out,for example.Citi

57、es that assess property taxes typically do so based on property value,and these taxes can become unaffordable if property values rise too much,too quickly.This can lead to displacement,particularly of vulnerable groups like renters.However,this does not mean that installing bicycle infrastructure le

58、ads to displacement:A study published in 2021 of 29 US cities found no signifcant relationship between the presence of bicycle lanes and socioeconomic or demographic changes to neighborhoods,leading researchers to suggest that installing cycle lanes is not linked to displacement.311.1.3 High-quality

59、 cycling infrastructure raises property values and municipal revenuesResidential property values have been used to signal preference for amenities such as parks and green space,showing that current and potential homeowners are typically willing to pay more to live near these amenities.Similarly,the

60、presence of cycling infrastructure in urban neighborhoods has been shown to impact property values.A study conducted using home values in Tempe,Arizona,in the US found that areas with a higher density of bicycle infrastructure also have higher home sale prices.29 In that study,proximity to cycle inf

61、rastructure that separates cyclists completely from vehicle traffc,such as off-street trails,was associated with higher home values compared to proximity to on-street cycle lanes.Studies from Portland State University,the University of Cincinnati,and the University of Delaware show that?(not just re

62、sidential).3028.The Compact City Scenario-Electrifed.Less car infrastructure can open spaces for social recreation.Source:ITDP Brazil?(?eele?(?E-bikeBicycle?$0$500$1,000$1,500Cost per 1,000 passenger KM(million USD)Infrastructure Costs by Mode13Pedestrians and cyclists spend more per month,especiall

63、y at food service businesses,than drivers do.In fact,cyclists have been found to spend more per trip and to make shopping and dining trips more often than drivers.32 Shared e-scooter programs in cities have been linked to statistically signifcant increases in unplanned spending(at a rate of more tha

64、n$900 per e-scooter)by riders at local quick-serve restaurants and stores that sell food and beverages.33 This is contrary to the perception of many local business owners that customers who drive(and park close)to their businesses account for the highest percentage of their sales.34 It is also contr

65、ary to the perception that reducing access to local businesses by car,such as by reducing or removing vehicle parking,will translate to fnancial losses.35Data from corridor improvement projects in several US cities and Toronto shows that both the number of customers and customer spending increase(or

66、 there is no signifcant impact)as a result of adding bicycle lanes in commercial areas.36 Similarly,in Seoul,South Korea,after Yonsei-ro,once a heavily congested four-lane road,was redesigned as a pedestrian-priority and bus-only corridor,commercial businesses saw an 11%increase in revenue-generatin

67、g transactions and a 4%increase in total revenues compared to when the street was designed for cars.37 Cities in Germany,Denmark,France,and the United Kingdom have also reported retail sales increasing after pedestrianization and cycle-supportive redesigns.38 It is important to note,however,that oth

68、er variables aside from the street design may have contributed to reported changes in retail sales.Still,it appears that costs incurred from reallocating space from cars to cyclists and pedestrians are,for the most part,outweighed by more sustainable transport trips that generate equivalent or highe

69、r revenues compared to car trips.Increased retail sales are not only benefcial for local businesses but also for governmentsthat rely on revenue from consumption taxes(which includes value added tax and sales tax).Consumption taxes make up approximately one-third of the total revenue raised on avera

70、ge by countries with free-market economies(OECD countries),but they can make up a much larger share of total revenue raised,as is the case in Chile,where consumption taxes account for 53%of federal revenue.39 Therefore,investments in cycle infrastructure can be helpful in growing national budgets,es

71、pecially when those budgets are linked to revenues from consumption.32.Bicyclists as Consumers:Mode Choice and Spending Behavior in Downtown Davis,California.33.Wheels to Meals:Measuring the Economic Impact of Micromobility on the Local Economy.34.Reallocation of road space.35.The Business Case for

72、Active Transportation:The Economic Benefts of Walking and Cycling.36.Liu&Shi;Volker&Handy;Arancibia et al.37.Yonsei-ro,Seouls First Transit Mall.38.The Business Case for Active Transportation:The Economic Benefts of Walking and Cycling.39.Income Taxes in Chile.Cyclists are good for business-they mak

73、e more frequent shopping and dining trips,and spend more per trip,compared to drivers.Source:Shawn Goldberg via Shutterstock1.1.4 Improving access by bicycle to commercial areas results in higher retail sales14Bicycle-related industries provide jobs,especially in regions where demand for cycling is

74、relatively high.Jobs in the cycling sector can be grouped into the following categories:bicycle and parts manufacturing;retail,including sales,repair,and services;infrastructure,including shared micromobility;and bicycle tourism.In Europe,where data on bicycle industries is widely available,bicycle

75、tourism makes up the largest share of cycling sector jobs,accounting for approximately four out of every fve bicycle-related jobs.40 The bicycle tourism sector has grown in places where bicycle-friendly environments(i.e.,connected,protected cycle lanes)and positive attitudes towardand demand forcycl

76、ing have been achieved.41 Higher demand for and use of bicycles as a result of cities building high-quality cycle infrastructure can also cultivate new markets and economic growth.Indeed,there are currently an estimated 1.8 billion bicycles in use globally,serving an urban population of 3.9 billion.

77、There is certainly potential to expand this market.42Demand for bicycles fuels market growth and creates jobs in these and related industries.Economic impact analyses show that investments in cycling infrastructure generate employment opportunities,but the extent of these vary signifcantly by projec

78、t type and location.Estimates from the US suggest 10 to 23 jobs at the state level and 8 to 11 at the municipal level could be generated for every$1 million spent on cycling and walking infrastructure projects.The International Energy Agency(IEA)presents similar estimates:between 8 and 24 jobs per$1

79、 million invested in cycling and pedestrian infrastructure.43 Comparatively,for every$1 million spent on road projects,an average of eight state-level jobs are created.For bicycle infrastructure projects,a large portion of the budget is spent on labor-intensive planning and design work carried out b

80、y engineers and construction workers,while road project budgets focus more on construction equipment and materials,like asphalt or concrete.Bicycle infrastructure projects also yield more direct jobs(as opposed to indirect or induced jobs)than roads and even pedestrian and trail projects.44 Addition

81、ally,there is potential for employment as a result of increased retail spending on cycling-related products,parts,and services.An estimated 11 to 26 jobs at the state level could be generated for every$1 million in revenue from bicycle-oriented businesses.451.2.1 Bicycle manufacturingInvestment in c

82、ycle infrastructure and services expands the market for bicycle manufacturing.In the European Union,a doubling in bicycle mode share would increase jobs in bicycle manufacturing and wholesale by 42%.46 This presents an economic opportunity for national economies,in terms of job creation and also rev

83、enue from product sales and exports.Markets for bicycles,e-bikes,and cargo bikes,in particular,are growing.Industry forecasts estimate that the value of the global bicycle market could reach$34.6 billion by 2027,up from$29.2 billion in 2020.47 Growing markets lead to higher sales revenues,which in t

84、urn create jobs.Furthermore,jobs manufacturing“durable goods”like bicycles and any other goods with a life span of more than three yearshelp generate additional jobs in the supply chain,as well as indirect jobs supported by the re-spending of income.48 40.Economic Benefts of Increased Cycling41.Urba

85、n cycling mobility:Management and urban institutional arrangements to support bicycle tourism activitiescase study from Curitiba,Brazil.42.The Compact City ScenarioElectrifed.43.Employment multipliers for investment in the transport sector.44.Pedestrian and Bicycle Infrastructure:A National Study Of

86、 Employment Impacts.45.Brown et al.,Economic Impacts of Active Transportation in New Jersey;Economic impact of bicycling and walking in Vermont;Venegas,EconomicImpact of Recreational Trail Use in Different Regions of Minnesota.46.Economic benefts of increased cycling.47.BicyclesGlobal Market Traject

87、ory&Analytics.48.Updated employment multipliers for the US economy.1.?More de?and for bicycles spurs?obs and econo?ic opportunitiesEvery$1MSpent on cycle lanesEvery$1MSpent on roads1549.Access to Affordable Bicycles:Summary of the Findings from the Literature Review and Key Informant Interviews.50.U

88、N Comtrade.51.Dados do Setor 2021.52.Forecast:Industry revenue of“Manufacture of bicycles and tricycles,not motorised”in Brazil 20112023.53.A New Era for Cycling in the Post Covid-19 Outbreak.54.Inside The Call:Dorel Sees Heightened Interest In Cycling as the“New Normal.”Brazil produces 2.5 million

89、bicycles per year,which makes it the largest producer in Latin America.51 The industry generated$379 million in revenue in 2017(1.8%of GDP),and it is forecast to generate nearly$410 million per year by 2023.52In Europe,bicycle and e-bike sales as a whole have remained relatively stable over the past

90、 decade,hovering around 20 million units per year.In recent years,however,e-bikes have been making up a larger share of overall bicycle sales,reaching 17%of bicycle sales and surpassing 3 million sold between 2018 and 2019.53In 2020,demand for bicycles and accessories was the highest it has been in

91、decades due to restrictions on other travel modes as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.In fact,demand forbicycles in Europe during the frst half of 2020 increased more than 50%compared to thesame period in 2019.Bicycle sales skyrocketed to the point where retailers were struggling to meet demand.Cal

92、oi,a bicycle manufacturer based in Brazil,saw record numbers of orders.54?Source:BamboocyclesIn 2018,the global market for bicycle imports and exports,not including bicycle parts or accessories,was$9 billion;the market was less than$4 billion in 2000.49 China and Taiwan,the top two bicycle exporters

93、 in the world,generate nearly$3 billion and$1.3 billion in bicycle exports,respectively.50Value of Bicycle Exports(in billions),201916Demand for bicycles was further supported by local and national policies that offered fnancial subsidies or stipends toward the purchase of a new bicycle or e-bike,or

94、 even bicycle maintenance.55 In some cities,bicycle retail and repair businesses were categorized as essential,allowing them to remain open during the public health emergency when other businesses were forced to close.Temporary cycling infrastructure that facilitated safe,direct,uncrowded trips furt

95、her encouraged demand.Electric cargo bikes,built to carry goods or additional passengers,also saw an uptick in sales,especially in Europe.56The increased demand for bicycles also presents opportunities for jump-starting local bicycle manufacturing.Since bicycles require fewer parts and are less comp

96、licated to assemble,production is notably less expensive than for other modes,specifcally cars.The cost to manufacture a$300 bicycle(the average purchase price of a new bicycle)ranges from$80 to$100(up to 33%of the purchase price),while manufacturing a$50,000 automobile could cost anywhere from$35,0

97、00 to$40,000(up to 80%).571.2.2 Bicycle tourismExpanded infrastructure supporting cycling and access to bicycles also cultivates new economic opportunities like bicycle tourism,which is typically recreational in purpose and features multiday trips where noncompetitive cycling is a fundamental part o

98、f the trip.58 In the Outer Banks of North Carolina in the US,a coastal area known for its beaches,a one-time investment of$6.7 million into cycling infrastructure generates roughly$60 million in economic activity each year through cycle tourism.59 Cycle tourism has similarly become popular in Europe

99、:The cycle tourism sector is worth 44 billion per year,which is 16%more than the European cruise sector.6055.Bernhard,A.The great bicycle boom of 2020.56.European Cargo Bike Industry Survey Results 2021.57.Internal calculations conducted by authors.58.Cycle Tourism Information Pack.59.Bicycling Mean

100、s Business:The Economic Benefts of Bicycle Infrastructure.60.Economic benefts of cycling in EU 27.61.Discover Europe by bike!62.Urban bicycle tourism:path dependencies and innovation in Greater Copenhagen.63.Cycling UK,Economic Benefts of Cycle Tourism.Amateur cycling races become tourist events for

101、 host cities.Source:Raul Dominguez via Flickr.Infrastructure to support cycle tourism is key to unlocking this market.For example,the EuroVelo initiative,a network of 17 long-distance cycle routes connecting the whole European continent and spanning more than 90,000 kilometers,supports over 2.3 bill

102、ion cycle tourism trips each year.61 Notably,most cycle tourism happens outside of urban contextstraveling long distances across several cities or countrieshowever,there is growing interest in urban cycle tourism as a unique way to experience cities.62 Safe cycle infrastructure combined with placema

103、king and lively public space initiatives can draw tourists as well as support everyday cycling for local residents.The cycle tourism industry has had a positive impact in both the United Kingdom and France.In the UK,the industry contributes 650 million annually to the economy and generates almost 36

104、,000 jobs.The countrys cost-beneft ratio for investing in cycle infrastructure is 13:1,largely as a result of cycle tourism.63 Meanwhile,in France,bicycle tourists spend on average 68 a day,which is 13 more than other tourists.171.2.3 Private investment in shared micromobilityShared micromobility is

105、 a rapidly growing industry where private companies operate a feet of bicycles(or other small,lightweight vehicles like electric scooters e-scooters)that residents and tourists alike can rent for a single trip,a day,a week,or more.Bikeshare has been referred to as“the fastest growing mode of transpo

106、rtation”in history 67 since experiencing widespread uptake starting in 2011.E-scooter share also experienced swift adoption by users following its arrival in cities in 2017,faster than carshare and station-based bikeshare.68 Currently there are more than 1,800 bikeshare programs worldwide,69 and tha

107、t number is growing in every region.In 2021,Kigali,Rwanda,launched its frst bikeshare program,with other African cities like Cairo looking to do the same in the near future.70In 2017,a new business model for shared micro-mobility emerged:operation of shared feets by private“startup”companies support

108、ed fnancially by signifcant amounts of venture capital.This meant that companies could spend a lot upfront to gain users and market share without worrying about generating revenue.Several companies quickly achieved valuations of over$1 billion.More shared micromobility vehicles on city streets meant

109、 more people riding shared bicycles and e-scooterstotal rides taken on e-scooters has grown by 140%each year,presenting a signifcant opportunity for growth,especially as new models and vehicle types are introduced to the market.71 And while venture capital investment in shared micromobility has wane

110、d,particularly following widespread and severe drops in ridership due to COVID-19 travel restrictions,72 the industry rebounded faster than other transportation modes like public buses and metros,and it is still growing.In fact,it is estimated that the global market potential for shared micromobilit

111、y could reach$500 billion by 2030.73 64.Impact conomique et potentiel de dveloppement des usages du vlo en France en 2020.65.Urban Cycling and Mobility.66.Impact conomique et potentiel de dveloppement des usages du vlo en France en 2020.67.Bike Sharing Goes Global68.The Micromobility Revolution:The

112、Introduction and Adoption of Electric Scooters in the United States.69.The Meddin Bike-Sharing World Map.70.Rwanda Launches Africas First Bike-Share Transport System71.The future of micromobility.How VCs and e-scooters kicked off the future of micromobility.72.The future of micromobility:Ridership a

113、nd revenue after a crisis.73.Sizing the micro mobility market.In Kigali,residents participate in a Car Free Day by riding shared bicycles from Guraride,a Rwanda-based bike-and scooter-share operator.Source:Rwanda Walk&Cycle CampaignThis generates 5.1 billion per year,which is an increase of 46%over

114、the last 10 years as new cycling infrastructure has been added.64 Cities like Curitiba in Brazil have also begun to invest in cycle tourism as a way to attract new tourists and raise awareness around everyday cycling in the city.65 As cycle tourism becomes more popular,cities are seeing greater dema

115、nd for supportive industries too,like long-term bicycle rentals.In France,it is estimated that the market fortourist bicycle rentals is 178 million per year.66 Both cycle tourism and long-term bicycle rentals could expand as cities invest in local and even regional cycle lane networks.18Improving cy

116、cle infrastructure can help support and expand viability for local goods delivery while also reducing emissions and road safety concerns posed by large,fossil fuelpowered delivery vehicles.Local deliveries are typically carried out using trucks or vans,which contribute inequitably to congestion,air

117、pollution,and unsafe streets for cyclists and pedestrians.The“last mile”in urban freight delivery often poses the highest delivery costs and is where delays in shipping typically occur.E-bikes and cargo bikes,with or without electricpedal-assist,are growing in popularity in denseurban areas as repla

118、cements for both highvolume(such as mail and large commercialdeliveries)and low-volume(such as food or smallgoods deliveries)delivery vehicles.In France,La Poste(the postal service)has investedin 30,000 e-bikes for last-mile deliveries.76Meanwhile,pilot projects in Croatia,Italy,andthe United States

119、 have found e-bikes to besignifcantly more effcient and cost effectivethan traditional delivery by van.A pilot in Seattle,Washington found e-cargobikes deliveredpackages at 50%fewer miles traveled perpackage,and one e-cargobike mile replaced1.4 delivery truck miles.77 Effciencies and costsavings fre

120、e up capital to hire more employees,contributing further to the local economy.78 Thiscould also be particularly impactful with adaptingto the rise in e-commerce.The global same-daydelivery service market is anticipated to increaseto$11.43 billion by 2025,up from$4.49 billionreported in 2020.79On the

121、 low-volume side,Asian and Latin American cities are experiencing more localdeliveries by bicycle and e-bike.Across Chinese cities,more than 10 million people are employed as food or goods delivery workers,and many of them are using bicycles or e-bikes.The shared micromobility industry has also spur

122、red job creation at city agencies,operating companies,equipment suppliers,etc.Approximately 5,000 full-time-equivalent jobs are attributed to the micromobility industry in North America,or one job for every 30 vehicles.74 Investments in cycle infrastructure can help attract existing shared micromobi

123、lity operatorsto offer their services,but it can also encourage private investment in locally based shared micromobility companies.Cities with established cycle infrastructure can provide safe,comfortable riding environments for people using shared micromobility,and especially users who may not cycl

124、e regularly.By expanding their cycle infrastructure,cities in nascent shared micromobility markets like Africa could capitalize on investment interest in the micromobility industry.Infrastructure expansions could also expand domestic manufacturing to meet demand for shared and personal bicycles.7574

125、.Shared Micromobility State of the Industry Report:2020.75.Rwanda Launches Africas First Public Bike-Share Transport System.76.Pro E-Bike,A New Move for Business:Electric Cycle Logistics in European Cities.77.The Seattle Neighborhood Delivery Hub Pilot Project:An Evaluation of the Operational Impact

126、s of a Neighborhood Delivery Hub Model on Last-Mile Delivery.78.Economic Analysis of Cargo Cycles for Urban Mail Delivery.79.Rapid Expansion of the Ecommerce Industry Drives the Same-Day Delivery Services Market as per the Business Research Companys Same-Day DeliveryServices Global Market Report 202

127、1.E-bikes can deliver packages at 50%fewer miles traveled per package compared to delivery vans.Source:David Fuentes Prieto1.2.4 Improved logistics for local goods delivery19Finally,cycling infrastructure and access to bicycles,especially traditional and electric cargo bikes and tricycles that can h

128、old large,heavy goods,supports the street vending economy in cities where informal vending is prevalent.It is diffcult to estimate the size of informal vending sectors or to what extent they contribute to local and national economies;however,the number of street vendors tends to be higher in places

129、where trading accounts for a signifcant portion of the economy.In Lima,Peru,9%of the urban employed population are street vendors;in Hanoi,Vietnam,the share is 11%,and in Dakar,Senegal,it is 13%.In these cities and others,street vending is dominated by women.84 In Mexico City,street vendors often us

130、e carts and bicycles to move goods to their vending location or to different sites throughout the day 80.Data gathered internally by ITDP China.81.The Benefts of Cargo Bikes in Rio De Janeiro:A Case Study.82.The Benefts of Cargo Bikes in Rio De Janeiro:A Case Study.83.E-Bikes Are Changing the Way Co

131、mpanies do Business.84.Street vendors and cities.85.Insights from Mexico City:The Right to Mobility and Work in Public Space.86.A database of fnancial incentives to purchase bicycles in European countries is available at:https:/ of E-Cargo Bikes in India.88.Street vendors and cities.to maximize reve

132、nue,some even selling directly from their bicycles.85 Safe cycle infrastructure would encourage more vendors to transport their goods via bicycle as opposed to using vehicles,which present high purchase and maintenance costs,parking challenges,and lost time due to traffc.Government subsidies to purc

133、hase cargo bikes and e-cargo bikes,86 which are typically more expensive and diffcult to fnd compared to road or commuter bicycles,could also encourage a shift to cycle-based informal vending.In India,replacing older tricycles used for deliveries with electric cargo bikes could boost supply chains a

134、nd logistics businesses run by small-time vendors.87 Enabling safe,comfortable bicycle transport for street vending not only benefts the vendors themselves but ensures that vulnerable groups like the urban poor and those who are food insecure continue to have access to food outlets provided by infor

135、mal vendors,which are more affordable than grocery stores.88In Guangzhou,60%of e-bike riders use their e-bikes to deliver food or goods locally.80 In Rio de Janeiro,cargo bikes have had a huge impact on the economy.A survey of cargobike use in the Copacabana neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro showed tha

136、t 372 businesses used cargo bikes for local deliveries,with each business supporting at least two full-time cycle delivery workers making around 30 trips per day.81 Business owners expressed that cargo bikes were crucial to the proftability and viability of their businesses.82 In addition to cost sa

137、vings,replacing delivery trucks and vans with cargo bikes enables faster delivery times,especially where there is infrastructure to support cycling.Businesses and individuals also beneft from expanding the employee pool beyond those who have access to a vehicle.83 Additionally,decreased congestion a

138、nd fewer serious injuries or fatalities from crashes with cyclists and pedestrians yields economic benefts(see section 1.1).1.2.5 Street vending and the informal economyBicycle-supported street vending enables vendors to maximize revenue by moving to different locations throughout the day.Source:Pra

139、deepGaurs/S 20Part II:Unlocking the economic benefits of cycling21To realize the benefts described in Part I,cities must dedicate funding to build and maintain a connected network of cycle infrastructure or seek investment from external sources like development banks or philanthropy to do so.Some in

140、frastructure projects,like cycle highways or building out a cycle lane network,require signifcant investment,and other projects require more targeted,tactical funding.While some investments will be more impactful than others,the return on investment for a network of safe and convenient bicycle infra

141、structure is high.It is also important to note that in addition to high-quality cycle lanes,supportive infrastructure and policies that expand access to bicycles will be needed to maximize benefts.The upfront purchase cost of a bicycle is,in many cities,a signifcant barrier to cycling,especially in

142、countries 89.View of Bicycling in Addis Ababa,Ethiopia:Opportunities and challenges.90.The Economic Impact of Bike Sharing in European Cities.Cycle Lane Costs per Kilometer,by Type and Regionwhere domestic manufacturing of bicycles is limited and imported bicycles are subject to high value added tax

143、es(VAT).89 Not knowing how to ride a bicycle,which is especially prevalent among women,is also a major barrier regardless of cost.Investments in supportive infrastructure like bikeshare can help to reduce these barriers to accessing a bicycle as well as eliminate the need to purchase accessories lik

144、e a helmet or lock.Bikeshare also shifts both the cost and responsibility for maintenance from the individual to the system operator.Analyses of public bikeshare systems in Europe show that every euro invested generates health and economic gains valued between 1.37 and 1.72.90 Furthermore,fnancial s

145、ubsidies to individuals to help bring down the cost of purchasing a bicycle can also help encourage more everyday cycling.Cost per KM(000s USD)UnprotectedProtected(Low End)Protected(High End)22A study conducted in Victoria,Australia,showed that the passing distance between vehicles and cyclists was

146、closer(and therefore cyclists were at higher risk)on streets with unprotected cycle lanes than on streets with no cycle infrastructure at all.92 Installing and maintaining cycling infrastructure is much less expensive compared to othertransport infrastructure like roadways(at least$1 million/lane km

147、),metros(at least$50 million/km),93 or even bus rapid transit(at least$700,000/lane km).94 However,a network of high-quality,protected bicycle lanes can be a signifcant investment especially whenconsidering supportive infrastructure and comprehensive street redesigns.Tying investments in bicycle par

148、king improvements and bikeshare to a cycle lane network build-out addresses related security and access barriers in addition to providing safe spaces to ride.Secure parking infrastructure,especially for more expensive e-bikes,is particularly important since riders are less likely to purchase a bicyc

149、le and cycle regularly if they fear their bicycle will be stolen.Therefore,designated and secure bicycle parking is crucial to support the large-scale uptake of e-bikes needed to achieve the improved healthand climate outcomes described in Part 1.Including intersection improvements and redesigning k

150、ey streets within the cycle lanenetwork as Complete Streetsones that shift priority away from motorized vehicles andreallocate space to transit,cycling,walking,and public spacealso require signifcant investment.In some cases,Complete Streets redesigns require relaying or diverting utility(including

151、stormwater,drainage,sewage,electricity,etc.)lines,which presents additional costs.9591.Diversifying and normalising cycling in London,UK:An exploratory study on the infuence of infrastructure.92.How much space do drivers provide when passing cyclists?Understanding the impact of motor vehicle and inf

152、rastructure characteristics onpassing distance93.Comparison of Capital Costs per Route-Kilometer in Urban Rail.94.BRT Planning Guide Sample Operator Contract and Infrastructure Cost Calculator.95.Complete Streets Best Practices|Complete Streets Toolkit:Volume VII,p.25.A temporary cycle lane installe

153、d in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in San Luis Potosi,Mexico provides minimal protection for cyclists from vehicular traffic.Source:Mirell BetanzoThe costs of building cycling infrastructure vary significantly across regions,largely due to differences in the cost of materials and labor.Unprotect

154、ed cycle lanesthose with no physical separation between cyclists and vehicle trafficare the least expensive to implement,simply requiring paint and relatively minimal labor to install.However,unprotected lanes do not provide enough safety and comfort for most people who cycle,and thus they do not co

155、nvince enough people to cycle for everyday trips.91 In other words,while the cost to implement is low,the return on investment is also low:Installing unprotected bicycle lanes can be counterproductive,costing cities more in public backlash and political capital when there is no visible increase in t

156、he number of people using the infrastructure and/or no fewer traffic crashes involving cyclists.2396.Is the widespread use of urban land for cycling promotion policies cost effective?A cost-beneft analysis of the case of Seville.97.Cost-beneft of bicycle infrastructure with e-bikes and cycle superhi

157、ghways.98.What would happen if the bike was used more in Lima?99.Meta-analysis of rate of return on road projects.cost$313,000 to implement,is expected to generate$5.56 million in benefts by 2050.98These rates are high compared to large roadway projects,which have rates of return between 8%and 10%.9

158、9Cost-beneft analyses of cycle lanes often include a future scenario where cycling mode share increases signifcantly and benefts grow as a result.This is because a network of cycle lanes provides access for many people to many different destinations,compared to disconnected lanes that only provide a

159、ccess for a few people to a few destinations.Thus,the return on investment for cycle infrastructure projects increases with more connections and greater use.Protected,connected,and direct cycle lanes present the highest potential for use,and these can generate signifcant increases in cycling,as was

160、seen during the COVID-19 pandemic when cities implemented temporary cycle lanes.A complete Street in Quito,Ecuador.Source:Ecuadorpostales via ShutterstockFor example,in India,“completing”a street by adding a dedicated cycle track,pedestrian space,signage,lighting,and other public space elements cost

161、s approximately$1.2 million per kilometer,compared to the estimated$175,000 per kilometer cost to install a dedicated cycle lane.While this type of comprehensive approach to implementing cycling infrastructure poses high upfront costs,the return on investment is much higher than smaller one-off or l

162、ow-quality cycle lane projects.Protected cycle lanes can be double the cost per kilometer of unprotected lanes,but they provide much more safety and comfort.An analysis of Seville,Spains protected cycle lane network,installed in 2006 at a cost of approximately 17 million,shows a net value of 557 mil

163、lion and an internal rate of return(the annual growth rate of an investment)of more than 130%by 2032.96 Copenhagen,Denmarks cycle superhighway network plan is expected to have an internal rate of return of up to 23%.97 Lima,Perus cycling infrastructure plan,estimated to Beijings bicycle expressway i

164、s elevated above the street and features stairs with wheel ramps at entry points.Source:ITDP China 24100.SEMOVI to Install Permanent Bike Lane on Insurgentes.101.To Tame Traffc,Bogot Bets Big on Bike Lanes.102.Parks and Bicycles Were Lifelines After Mexico Citys Earthquake.In Jakarta,pop-up protecte

165、d cycle lanes on Sudirman-Thamrin Street,a main thoroughfare that also supports the TransJakarta BRT,helped increase cyclist counts by 46%at the Dukah Atas station and 28%at the Karet station.The temporary protected lane on Av.Insurgentes in Mexico City supported a 275%increase in cyclists during th

166、e pandemic and is being made permanent.100 In addition to Bogots existing 550 km network of cycle lanes,75 km(47 miles)of temporary lanes implemented over the course of a few days early on in the pandemic encouraged Transmilenio BRT riders to shift to cycling to reduce crowding,and they supported ab

167、out 400,000 daily bicycle trips(down from more than 880,000 before the pandemic).101Investing in cycling infrastructure is an investment in the resiliency of the transportation system.Unanticipated health,climate,and natural disasters threaten the ability to travel by car and by public transportatio

168、n if damage blocks key roadways and power and telecommunications systems are disrupted.We saw this most recently with the COVID-19 pandemic,but cities have experienced these types of disruptions before:Notably,following the earthquake in Mexico City in 2017,bicycles served not only as a mobility opt

169、ion but as a way to quickly deliver medicines and other essential goods and to survey damage before cleanup equipment and crews arrived.102 Bicycles are an adaptable,fexible transport mode when other modes fail,keeping people and commerce moving and minimizing costs associated with an economic standstill.Cycling is both a means to avoid the worst climate impacts and a means of adapting to these impacts.We can unlock the economic,climate,and health benefts of cycling by strategically investing in cycling now.Streets designed to be accessible by mode in Mexico CityCars,two-wheelers,cabsBicycles