1、Technological Transformation for JobsTania BegazoMoussa P.Blimpo Mark A.DutzBegazo Blimpo DutzTechnological Transformation for JobsDIGITAL AFRICADIGITALAFRICADIGITALAFRICADIGITALAFRICATechnological Transformation for JobsTania BegazoMoussa P.BlimpoMark A.Dutz 2023 International Bank for Reconstructi

2、on and Development/The World Bank1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433Telephone:202-473-1000;Internet:www.worldbank.orgSome rights reserved1 2 3 4 26 25 24 23This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions.The findings,interpreta-tions,and conclusions expressed in th

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7、nditions:AttributionPlease cite the work as follows:Begazo,Tania,Moussa P.Blimpo,and Mark A.Dutz.2023.Digital Africa:Technological Transformation for Jobs.Washington,DC:World Bank.doi:978-1-4648-1737-3.License:Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGOTranslationsIf you create a translation of this

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12、ited to,tables,figures,or images.All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications,The World Bank Group,1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433,USA;e-mail:pubrightsworldbank.org.ISBN(paper):978-1-4648-1737-3ISBN(electronic):978-1-4648-1837-0DOI:10.1596/978-1-4648-1737-3C

13、over design:Bill Pragluski,Critical Stages,LLC.Library of Congress Control Number:2023900708 vContentsForeword.xiAcknowledgments.xiiiAbout the Authors .xvMain Messages.xviiOverview.xxiAbbreviations.xliCHAPTER 1Digital Technologies:Enablers ofTechnological Transformation for Jobs .1What are digital t

14、echnologies?1Africas jobs and technology challenges 2Impacts of digital technology use on jobs and poverty 12Africas large internet uptake gap 21Data and knowledge gaps for future work 30Notes 35References 43CHAPTER 2Enterprises:Creating Better Jobs for More People through Innovation.49Digital techn

15、ology use by African enterprises 49COVID-19 and digital divides 66Drivers of enterprise use 72Technology policies for more and better firms 81Notes 95References 99CHAPTER 3Households:Supporting Productive Use of DTs for Inclusive Economic Impact.103Household internet use is low,uneven,but growing 10

16、3The COVID-19 paradox:Increased internet usage but widened digital divides 110Understanding constraints to household internet use 112A policy framework to transform use into inclusive impact 127Conclusion 132Notes 132References 133CHAPTER 4Digital and Data Infrastructure:Stimulating Greater Availabi

17、lity and Use through Policy and Regulatory Reforms .137Market challenges of internet connectivity:Affordability,use,and quality 137vi ContentsAffordability to increase use 147Availability to reduce digital divides 166Data infrastructure and regulation for affordability and willingness to use 177Look

18、ing ahead:Regional integration and climate transition 185Summary of key findings for more inclusive use 189Annex 4A Supplemental data 192Notes 193References 196BOXES1.1 What are“good jobs”?21.2 The World Banks“economic transformation for jobs”framework 62.1 Rapid diffusion of website technology duri

19、ng COVID-19 672.2 Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mobile app use in Africa 702.3 Public inputs to strengthen value chains in Senegal,Kenya,and Peru 912.4 A job creation program in Senegal:Effective design for technological transformation 933.1 E-commerce for economic inclusion in Chinas Taobao Vi

20、llages 1223.2 Reliable electricity and the digital economy 1253.3 Smart Villages in Niger for inclusive availability and productive use 1314.1 Regressive broadband pricing constrains use by the poor 1424.2 High broadband prices and limited offerings constrain data use by SMEs 1434.3 Creating digital

21、 institutions in situations of fragility,conflict,and violence:Transforming the sector in Somalia 1574.4 Senegals digital acceleration journey:The role of infrastructure regulatory reforms 1604.5 The evolving taxation of digital services 1644.6 Alternative technologies for covering rural and remote

22、areas 169FIGURESO.1 Conceptual framework for policy analysis of DTs impacts on job and income growth xxiiiO.2 Effects of mobile internet availability on job creation and household welfare,Nigeria and Tanzania xxvO.3 Gap between mobile internet coverage and usage,Sub-Saharan Africa and other regions,

23、201021 xxviiO.4 Association between firms use of more sophisticated DTs and productivity and job growth,selected countries,201921 xxviiiO.5 Association between microenterprises use of technologies and higher productivity,sales,andjobs,201718 xxixO.6 Smartphone and computer use,by firm size,selected

24、countries,201921 xxxO.7 Correlates of smartphone and computer adoption by African firms,201721 xxxiO.8 Policy routes for increasing households inclusive uptake and productive use of DTs xxxiiiO.9 Extent of competitive constraints in market structures across the digital value chain in Africa,2021 xxx

25、v1.1 Projected share of the global workforce,by region,in 2025,2050,and 2100 3Contents vii1.2 Use of selected agricultural technologies,by region,2015 51.3 Conceptual framework for policy analysis of DTs impacts on job and income growth 91.4 Expanded conceptual framework for policy analysis of DTs j

26、ob and income impacts through the lens of digital divides 111.5 Impacts of mobile internet availability on job creation and household welfare,Nigeria and Tanzania 141.6 Impact of decision support tool on Nigerian rice farmers yields and profits 211.7 Availability of internet-enabled(3G and 4G)networ

27、ks,by region,201021 221.8 Unique 3G+mobile internet usage,by region,201021 231.9 Gap between mobile internet coverage and usage,Sub-Saharan Africa,201021 241.10 Internet usage and gaps,by region 241.11 Average mobile internet availability and usage,by technology type,Sub-Saharan Africa versus other

28、regions,2010and 2021 251.12 Mobile internet uptake gaps,by country,Sub-Saharan Africa,2021 262.1 Association of higher technological sophistication with higher enterprise productivity,selected African countries,201921 502.2 Association between firms use of sophisticated technologies and growth of pr

29、oductivity and jobs,selected African and comparator countries,201921 512.3 Unconditional performance improvements among microenterprises using DTs relative to nonusers,selected African countries,201718 532.4 Association between microenterprises use of technologies and higher productivity,sales,and j

30、obs,selected African countries,201718 542.5 Technological sophistication of enterprises,by broad sector,selected African and comparator countries,201921 562.6 Technological sophistication of enterprises,by firm size,selected African and comparator countries,201921 582.7 Use of DTs by enterprises,by

31、firm size and general business function,selected African and comparator countries,201921 592.8 Use of smartphones and computers by enterprises,by firm size,selected African and comparator countries,201921 602.9 Use of more sophisticated DTs by enterprises,selected African and comparator countries,20

32、1921 612.10 Average microenterprise uptake and use of DTs,by owner age and gender subgroup,selected African countries,201718 622.11 Top Sub-Saharan African countries in digital-solution business density and totalinvestment,2020 632.12 Local and regional shares,and top regional subsectors,of digital-

33、solution providers,Sub-Saharan Africa,2020 652.13 Major hubs of regional digital-solution businesses,Sub-Saharan Africa,2020 66B2.1.1 Growth of e-payment use in websites,Sub-Saharan African countries versus other regions,201920 672.14 Increases in enterprise uptake,use,and investment in digital solu

34、tions afterCOVID-19 outbreak,by firm size,Sub-Saharan African versus comparator countries,202021 692.15 Increases in enterprise use of and investment in DTs after COVID-19 outbreak,by firm size,selected African countries,202021 70B2.2.1 Change in number of monthly average users of digital apps,selec

35、ted African and comparator countries,April 2020 to March 2021 71viii Contents2.16 Effects of higher pre-COVID-19 technological readiness on enterprises post-COVID-19 sales,by technology sophistication quintile,2021 722.17 Reported barriers to enterprise use of technology,by firm size,selected Africa

36、n countries,201921 742.18 Correlates of smartphone and computer adoption by African firms,201721 762.19 African enterprises perceptions of own technology use relative to other firms within country,201921 792.20 Correlation of worker and manager skills with use of better technologies,selected African

37、 countries,201921 802.21 Correlation of better management capabilities and organizational practices withenterprise use of better technologies,selected African countries,201921 812.22 Instruments to support generation and adoption of DTs for GBFs and SBFs 83B2.4.1 Coordination of complementary suppor

38、t mechanisms tailored to specific value chains 943.1 Internet usage,by subregion,Sub-Saharan Africa,200020 1043.2 Wireless broadband and internet coverage,usage gaps,and coverage gaps,bysubregion,Sub-Saharan Africa,2020 1043.3 Internet usage in 10 Sub-Saharan African countries,2008,2012,and 2018 105

39、3.4 Correlation of household income with uptake of mobile services and mobile broadband internet,by income decile,selected Sub-Saharan African countries,201718 1063.5 Gender gap in mobile internet usage,by region,all low-and middle-income countries,201720 1073.6 Mobile data consumption per capita,by

40、 region,2018 1083.7 Correlation between internet usage and GNI per capita,Sub-Saharan Africa and the rest of the world,2019 1093.8 Probability of employment adjustments during COVID-19 pandemic by firms,byincome group,Sub-Saharan Africa and the rest of the world,2020/21 1113.9 Changes in household e

41、xpenditures during or after the COVID-19 outbreak,Kenya and Sierra Leone 1123.10 Association of factors with internet use,selected West African countries,2018/19 1143.11 Correlates of internet adoption across nine Sub-Saharan Africancountries,201718 1153.12 Constraints to internet usage in selected

42、Sub-Saharan African countries,201718 1163.13 Correlates of global mobile internet usage,2018 1183.14 Smartphone versus feature phone adoption and affordability of data-only broadband internet prices,Africa and the rest of the world 1203.15 Share of informal employment workers employed in the informa

43、l sector,formal sector,and households,excluding and including agriculture,by gender and subregion,Africa 1263.16 A framework for closing the DT uptake gap and boosting DT users welfare 1284.1 Mobile data traffic per capita,by subregion and country income group,Africa,2020 1384.2 Correlation between

44、mobile data traffic per capita,2020,and GDP,2018 1394.3 Average data and smartphone prices,by region,African subregion,and global country income group 140B4.1.1 Comparison of absolute and implied prices of data plans,by vendor,selected African countries,2021 1424.4 Internet speed,service quality,and

45、 average cost-speed ratio,by region 144Contents ix4.5 Correlation between availability and use of mobile broadband-capable networks,by country,Africa,2022 1474.6 Effects of market concentration on affordability and 3G+4G+5G penetration 1484.7 Reduction in the poverty headcount rate from simulated po

46、licies to increase telecommunications competition,selected Sub-Saharan African countries,201518 1504.8 Extent of competitive constraints in market structures across the digital value chain,2021 1514.9 Vertical integration of large telecommunications firms active in more than one segment of the digit

47、al value chain,2021 1524.10 Operators shares of mobile subscribers and telecommunications fiber networks,by extent of state ownership and subregion,Africa,2020 1534.11 International internet capacity,proxied by submarine cables and landing stations,Sub-Saharan Africa,2021 1544.12 Alignment of digita

48、l infrastructure regulation with good international practice,selected African countries,2020 1554.13 Average spectrum concentration in 700/800 MHz bands,by region and Africansubregion,2020 1564.14 Alignment of telecommunications regulation with good international practice,selected African countries,

49、2020 1584.15 Projected mobile phone and internet adoption,by policy scenario,Ghana,2030 1594.16 Spectrum holdings and spectrum management quality,Africa,2020 1614.17 Projected impact of sector-specific tax reductions on mobile and internet adoption,Benin and the Democratic Republic of Congo,2030 163

50、4.18 Costs of universal mobile broadband and potential rural coverage,Africa and selected countries 1674.19 Cost of universal broadband with infrastructure sharing,selected Sub-Saharan African countries 1684.20 Projected broadband internet coverage,coverage gaps,and usage under baseline and policy r

51、eform scenarios,selected African countries,by 2030 1714.21 Polices to increase internet usage,by extent of user groups ability to pay and willingness touse 1754.22 Summary of proposed policy reforms for affordable internet availability 1764.23 Characteristics of data infrastructure,2020 1784.24 Atta

52、inment of good practice in enablers and safeguards of data use and reuse,selected African countries,2020 1814.25 Distance from good practice in data regulation across country income groups,Sub-Saharan Africa relative to global income groups,2020 1824.26 Perceived threats to financial markets,2021 18

53、44.27 Regional digital market layers and target outcomes 1864.28 National-level actions to facilitate deeper regional integration of digital connectivity,data,and markets 1874.29 Contributions to green outcomes from digital and data infrastructure 188MAPS3.1 Shares of population with electricity and

54、 internet access,by country,Africa,2017 1234.1 Cost of a 2 GB data-only mobile broadband plan as a share of GNI per capita,by country,Africa,2021 141x Contents4.2 Shares of population with internet coverage(3G versus 4G),Democratic Republic of Congo,Nigeria,and Tanzania,2021 1454.3 Mobile broadband

55、download speeds,selected urban areas,Africa,2020 1464.4 Estimated government cost per user for 4G(wireless)universal broadband,Africa,net present value for 202030 1724.5 Stage on Africas data infrastructure ladder,by country,2020 179TABLESO.1 Main policy recommendations for advancing the use of digi

56、tal technologies to support inclusive job growth xxxvii1.1 Coverage,usage,and uptake gaps,by user characteristic,Nigeria and Senegal,2018/19 271.2 Comparison of key drivers of mobile internet uptake,by selected region 292.1 Comparison of enterprises average technological sophistication,by business f

57、unction type,selected African and comparator countries,201921 552.2 Top five digital business subsectors,ranked by share of total investment in B2B productivity solutions,by region,2020 634.1 Summary policy recommendations and simulated effects of selected measures 1904A.1 Simplified digital value c

58、hain and market characteristics,by subregion,Africa,2020 192 xiForewordAs Africas population grows,creating more and better jobs for youth will be essential for poverty reduction and shared prosperity.This report,Digital Africa:Technological Transformation for Jobs,makes the case for putting digital

59、 technologies at the center of a good-jobs strategy for the continent.The reports overview of current challenges establishes that,although Africas mobile internet availability has increased in recent years,its internet infrastructure and the quality of available services still lag behind other regio

60、ns.Divides in the availability of quality digital services remain an issue in all countries,especially in remote and poorer subregions.Additionally,Africa lags behind other regions in the use of internet services.Although 84 percent of people in Sub-Saharan Africa live in areas where a minimal quali

61、ty level of 3G or 4G mobile internet services is available,only 22 percent were actually using these services by the end of 2021.A lack of affordable coverage partly explains this significant usage gap.Forty percent of Africans fall below the global extreme poverty line,and even basic mobile data pl

62、ansalone can represent about one-third of their incomes.African small and medium businesses also face more expensive data plans than their counterparts in other regions.Addressing these constraints will yield major dividends for development.The report offers robust evidence that internet availabilit

63、y can increase jobs and reduce poverty.Furthermore,new empirical data presented on Nigeria and Tanzania add to the rapidly growing literature about the direct impact of mobile internet availability(3G or 4G cov-erage)on jobs and welfare outcomes.The new conceptual framework in this report focuses on

64、 policies that prioritize digital tools for productive use to generate inclusive,jobs-related spillover effects while expand-ing coverage of higher-quality broadband internet.These digital tools can create greater demand that,in turn,allows for increased investments in higher-quality digital and com

65、-plementary technologies.Innovations are essential to attract people with fewer skills and boost their potential to generate higher earnings.Strategic policies are critical to encourage the use of digital technologies.Interventions can include curbing excessive market power in order to drive down co

66、sts,undertaking complementary public investments,and supporting credit and demand-support pro-grams to overcome affordability barriers and enable quality internet connectivity in underserved or remote areas.Specific data policies are also required to enable wider availability of relevant apps and to

67、 enhance trust in digital services.This report also rec-ommends a new focus on developing more appropriate and accessible apps that support managers and lower-skilled workers so that they can learn as they work.xii ForewordDigital technology is a necessary ingredient of economic transformation,and i

68、t plays a role in addressing multiple challenges from education to energy.As this report shows,it is imperative that policy makers scale up the availability and use of quality digital services across Africa to improve the lives of its citizens and unlock the potential of the continent to achieve inc

69、lusive development.Guangzhe ChenVice President for InfrastructureThe World BankOusmane DiaganaRegional Vice President for Western and Central AfricaThe World BankVictoria KwakwaRegional Vice President for Eastern and Southern AfricaThe World Bank xiiiAcknowledgmentsDigital Africa:Technological Trans

70、formation for Jobs is dedicated to Princeton University Professor Emeritus Robert(Bobby)Willig,in memory of his passion and excellence in developing and teaching microeconomics for improved public policies addressing social welfare.This books focus on innovation-led productivity as a driver of inclu

71、sive jobs growth,supported by market competition in the provision of infrastructure services and grass-roots entrepreneurship,was deeply influenced by his work.This report was prepared in support of the World Banks Digital Economy for Africa Initiative(DE4A).It is the product of a collaboration acro

72、ss the World Banks teams in the Africa;Infrastructure;and Equitable Growth,Finance and Institutions Vice Presidencies under the oversight of the Office of the Chief Economist of the Africa Region and the Office of the Chief Economist of the Infrastructure Vice Presidency.The prepa-ration of this rep

73、ort was co-led by Tania Begazo,Moussa P.Blimpo,and Mark A.Dutz.The main authors are as follows:Chapters 1 and 2:Mark Dutz,with contributions of original research for Africa from Carlos Rodrguez-Casteln and Takaaki Masaki on the effects of digital connectivity on household welfare;Xavier Cirera and M

74、arcio Cruz on digital technology adoption by firms;İzak Atiyas on mobile internet availability and use as well as digital technol-ogy adoption by microenterprises;Csar Caldern and Catalina Cant on the effects of digitalization on growth and poverty reduction;Georges Houngbonon,Justice Mensah,and Nou

75、houm Traor on the effects of digital infrastructure availability on entrepre-neurship and investment;Juni Zhu on digital business analysis;and Clara Stinshoff on Apptopia data analysis;Chapter 3:Moussa Blimpo,with contributions from Ramaele Moshoeshoe and support from Henry Aviomoh and Tchapo Gbandi

76、;and Chapter 4:Tania Begazo,with contributions from Clara Stinshoff,Estefania Vergara-Cobos,Xavier Decoster,and Tim Kelly,and original research by Edward Oughton,Genaro Cruz,and Kalvin Bahia on geospatial data and broadband internet in Africa.The authors are especially appreciative of the various ba

77、ckground research papers prepared for this report and cited throughout it.The work commenced with an internal workshop on regional digital infrastructure regulation in Africa held at the World Bank on March 28,2019,that benefited from the participation of Penny Goldberg,Paul Klemperer,and the late R

78、obert Willig.The book benefited from useful guidance and advice from Simon Andrews,Haroon Bhorat,Pablo Fajnzylber,Mary Hallward-Driemeier,Daniel Lederman,Aliou Maiga,andDeepak Mishra,among others present at the books inception and decision meetings.The team also incorporated feedback from members of

79、 the research program advisory xiv Acknowledgmentscommittee including Daniel Bjrkegren,Ibrahim Elbadawi,Avi Goldfarb,Jonas Hjort,Ayhan Kose,Njuguna Ndungu,Yaw Nyarko,and Davide Strusani.The team remains grateful for their helpful suggestions.Finally,this flagship report was conducted under the gener

80、al direction of Albert Zeufack and Vivien Foster,with contributions from Andrew Dabalen.The team is also grateful for the overarching guidance received from Hafez M.H.Ghanem,Riccardo Puliti,Boutheina Guermazi,Christine Qiang,Michel Rogy,and Isabel Neto.Beatrice Berman,Flore Martinant de Preneuf,Kell

81、y Alderson,and Breen Byrnes pro-vided superb communications support.Justice Mensah helped oversee the finalization of the book from the Office of the Chief Economist of the Africa Region.Nora FitzGerald,Mary Anderson,and Nora Mara provided timely editorial assistance.The World Banks formal publishin

82、g team included production editor Mark McClure,acquisitions editor Jewel McFadden,and print coordinator Orlando Mota.xvAbout the AuthorsTania Begazo is a senior economist in the Markets and Technology unit of the World Banks Trade,Investment and Competitiveness Practice Group.She leads analytical in

83、i-tiatives and provides technical guidance on competition policy.In a previous position at the Digital Development Global Practice,she oversaw major economic policy and research initiatives related to digital infrastructure and policy to inform thought leader-ship,corporate strategy,and operational

84、engagements with clients,with an emphasis on Africa.She led the dissemination of knowledge on digital development and contributed to the formulation and implementation of country operations targeting reforms in the digital sector,building on collaboration within the World Bank Group and external par

85、t-ners.Formerly,she was the global lead of the World Bank Groups Markets and Competition Policy team,overseeing the competition policy portfolio covering more than 60 countries and key areas for thought leadership and external partnerships.She also worked for the International Telecommunication Unio

86、n,APOYO Consultora,and the Peruvian telecommunications regulator.She holds a masters degree in public admin-istration in international development from Harvard University.Moussa P.Blimpo is an assistant professor of economic inequality and societies at the University of TorontosMunk School of Global

87、 Affairs and Public Policy.Earlier,he was a senior economist in the World Banks Office of the Chief Economist for the Africa Region.He is primarily an applied economist interested in a range of research and policy issues in low-and middle-income economies,mainly in Africa.Before joining the World Ba

88、nk,he served for three years as an assistant professor of economics and international studies at theUniversity of Oklahoma.He is a senior fellow at the Clean Air Task Forces Energy and Climate Innovation Program in Africa and is a fellow at the Energy for Growth Hub;he was the founding director of t

89、he Center for Research and Opinion Polls,a think tank in Togo that he led between 2011 and 2015.He holds a doctorate in economics fromNew York University and spent two years as a postdoctoral fellow at Stanford Universitys Institute for Economic Policy Research.Mark A.Dutz is a consultant in the Eco

90、nomic Policy Research department of the International Finance Corporation of the World Bank Group.He contributes to work on productivity growth and its interaction with poverty reduction and shared prosperity.He has worked at the World Bank since 1990 and has experience in all regions and in the Off

91、ice of the Chief Economist,as well as most recently as lead economist in the Office of the Chief Economist for Africa.He also has worked as a senior consultant with Compass Lexecon LLC,as senior adviser to Trkiyes Minister of Economic Affairs and Treasury,as principal economist in the European Bank

92、for Reconstruction and Developments Office of the Chief Economist,and as consultant to Organisation for Economic xvi About the AuthorsCo-operation and Development,World Trade Organization,World Intellectual Property Organization,and Canadas Networks of Centers of Excellence.He has published journal

93、articles and books on applied microeconomics,including on competition,innovation,digital technology adoption,productivity,climate change,and investment and trade issues,as well as their links to growth and inclusion.He has also taught at Princeton University,from which he holds a doctorate in econom

94、ics and a masters degree in public affairs.xviiMain MessagesThe promise of technological transformation for a growing African workforceDigital technologies(DTs)have emerged as an essential element of a good-jobs strategy for African countries.Digital Africa:Technological Transformation for Jobs pres

95、ents the best available evidence on the transformative effects of DTsshowing,for instance,that internet use significantly increases inclusive jobs on the continent,which is poised to have the largest workforce in the world by 2100 relative to other regions.The reports robust analysis provides strate

96、gies that can be adopted to capitalize onthis growing evidence.For example,when high-quality internet(third-or fourth-generation mobile communications technology,3G or 4G)was available for at least three years,labor force participation increased by 3 percentage points in Nigeria and by 8 points in T

97、anzania.In addition,poverty rates fell by 7 percentage points in each country.These welfare impacts were higher among poorer and less-educated households.In highlighting results such as these,the report informs the digitalization and comple-mentary technology adoption policies and programs that Afri

98、can governments can employ for inclusive impactjobs that generate income growth for all,including fasterpercapita income growth for the bottom 40 percent of each countrys population as well as for women and for lower-skilled workers more generally.It is especially intended for technical advisers who

99、 provide input for government policies on economic transformation and growth in Africa,although it should also be of interest to all people in the region.Government beneficiaries include ministries and regulators in charge of information and communications,finance,industry(agriculture,manufacturing,

100、and services),competition,technology and innovation,and jobs and poverty reduction.Africas digital challenges and dividesThe primary challenge for Africa is its low productive use of DTs.Enterprises and house-holds alike need greater ability to pay for and willingness to productively use these tech-

101、nologies,as the following findings show.As a share of country populations averaged across Sub-Saharan Africa,84 percent live in areas where mobile internet services are available,yet only 22 percent used them by the end of 2021.This usage rate is the lowest in the world.Enterprise digitalization is

102、also low,and small and medium businesses in Africa pay more for data plans than those in other regions,while 70 percent of sur-veyed microenterprises do not perceive the need for internet-supported technologies.xviii Main Messages Forty percent of Africans fall below the global extreme poverty line,

103、meaning the cost of even basic mobile data plans would represent about one-third of their incomes.Only about 5 percent of extremely poor households access the internet.Africas lagging internet infrastructure and service quality constrain potential user willingness to use DTs.Although the regions mob

104、ile internet availability has increased in recent years,it still lags the worlds other regionsespecially regarding the quality of digital services,requiring support by reliable and resilient infrastructure.Policies to boost DT use for more,and better,jobsAfrica needs more activist policies that prom

105、ote the use of digital and complementary technologies,especially affordable,attractive skill-appropriate technologies that support productive and inclusive jobs.Such policies must target all potential users ability to pay for these technologies as well as their willingness to productively use them.P

106、olicies that ensure the ability to pay should address internet affordability,additional infrastructure availability,adequate data infrastructure,and availability of affordable complementary technologies.Policies that support greater willingness to use should focus on developing more attractive appli

107、cations and building the awareness and education required for productive DT adoption.These policies include innovation policies,data policies and regulations,capability support programs,and national strategies for produc-tive use of DTs.Internet affordability policies encompass effective pro-competi

108、tion regulations to reduce investment costs,including rules on licensing and market dominance,infra-structure access and sharing,and spectrum availability and use,ideally through more integrated continental markets.Regulations to help drive down operational costs include rules on access to essential

109、 infrastructure controlled by state-owned enter-prises,operation of open-access fiber networks,and progressive elimination of excise taxes.Policies for better internet quality everywhere and for availability in areas that are not commercially viable after implementing regulatory reforms require targ

110、eted interven-tions.Demand-side incentives and financing(through earmarked funds,obligations on operators,and universal service funds)can boost use,improve service quality,and support climate-resilient infrastructure development.Policies for affordable availability of data infrastructure include pro

111、-competition rules for upgrading internet exchange points that can grow into regional data centers and cloud computing facilities to help drive down costs.Effective regional integration for cross-border digital connectivity and data markets is critical to gain economies of scale and to expand and up

112、grade data infrastructure.Policies to support affordable access to complementary analog technologies require broader interventions.Improvement of electricity,transportation,and agricultural(tractors and irrigation)systems would enhance the income-generation potential of DT use and strengthen potenti

113、al users ability to pay.Innovation policies can redirect technology development toward generating and scal-ing up skill-appropriate DTs.To enable enterprises and households to use DTs and learn as they work,Africa must provide sophisticated,inclusive,and attractive apps Main Messages xixthrough touc

114、h-screen pictures,voice,and video in languages that local people speak.Development requires public-private investments in public goods,such as country-wide availability of digital addresses,geotagged land records,and local weather map-ping,as well as public goods specific to value chains.More integr

115、ated continental markets will allow entrepreneurs to profitably design and scale attractive apps that are affordable and enhance peoples earnings.Data policies are needed as both enablers and safeguards of data use and reuse to ensure the development of new,attractive,data-driven DTs,along with appr

116、opriate levels of trust in their use.Capability support programs to enhance the productive use of available DTs must be institutionalized for micro,small,and medium enterprises as well as for households.These programs include business advisory services,technology information and upgrading services,a

117、nd manager and worker skills training,together with longer-term investments in high-quality secondary and tertiary education.National strategies are essential to support familiarity with and use of DTs to support higher earnings.They could include investments in common-access facilities at inter-net

118、 cafs,local schools,or community centers,especially for microentrepreneurs.xxiOverviewAfricas imperative:Better technology for better jobsFor Africas large and growing youthful labor force to thrive,the continent urgently needs good jobs.Countries need business environments conducive to generating t

119、he kinds of jobs that enable productive learning as a basis for supporting growth in earnings over time.Africas jobs and technology challenges are immense and urgent.Its share of the global workforce is projected to become the largest in the world by the twenty-second century,rising from 16 percent

120、in 2025 to over 41 percent by 2100.More than 22 million Africans between the ages of 15 and 64 join the workforce each yearalmost 2 million people per month.This flow of workers is expected to increase to over 33 million per year by 2050(UN DESA 2022).The imperative is to create good jobs for these

121、millions of young entrants to the workforce and better jobs for todays workers.Greater adoption of improved and adequate technologies is a critical and underemphasized requirement to meet this goal.Moreover,the continent needs better technologies and products that all Africans want and can afford to

122、 buy.Africa has the potential to generate more and better jobs through greater adoption of technologies that enable scaled-up production and hence generate good jobs in expanding medium and large firms,entrepreneurial start-ups,and informal microenterprises.Often,though,productive technologies are d

123、esigned in higher-income countries for use by work-ers with higher skill levels or to replace tasks performed by people to reduce the workers required.Adoption of such technologies in Africa can lead larger local firms to become more productive and competitive but generate few additional jobs.Smalle

124、r firms rarely use these technologies,remaining at lower productivity and competitiveness,with jobs that pay too little.And these technologies are often not appropriate for more productive use by lower-skilled owners,managers,and workers in Africas labor-abundant countries.There are two ways to brid

125、ge the gap between technologies designed for use in higher-income economies and those needed in the low-and middle-income world,espe-cially in African countries.The conventional strategy involves investment in longer-term upgrading of skills to match the level for which these technologies have been

126、designed.The alternative is for entrepreneurs to design technologiesoften requiring cutting-edge adaptations of existing productsto fit with current skill levels and needs,ensuring that the technologies are attractive and easy to use,labor-augmenting,and supportive of con-tinuous learning and higher

127、 worker productivity.African economies require a technological transformation that generates both productive learning and job growth.The challenge is to produce and promote the expanded use of affordable,attractive,skill-appropriate technologies that support jobs that are more productive and inclusi

128、vethat is,jobs that generate income growth for all,including faster income per capita growth for the bottom 40 percent of each countrys population.Fortunately,Africas demographic dynamics can positively affect the use of new technologies.Great potential lies in the continents large and growing youth

129、 xxii Digital Africapopulation,including tech-savvy entrepreneurs,managers,and workers likely to gener-ate and use new digital and complementary technologies.By using better technologies,Africans can produce more goods and services for consumption in local markets and for export,thereby generating m

130、ore good jobs for Africans.Contributions of the Digital Africa reportNew analyses to support job growth strategiesThis overview and the full report provide new analyses to support improved efforts on the part of governments and the private sector to spur more inclusive job growth with appro-priate t

131、echnologies while narrowing the current digital divides.These findings can inform the implementation of the African Unions Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa(20202030)(AU 2020)and the Digital Economy for Africa initiative.1 The overview also summarizes the reports diagnostic review of curren

132、t trends and drivers of digital and data infrastructure availability,and the use of digital technologies(DTs)in Africa.Broadly defined,DTs include not only digital and data infrastructure,broadband internet,smartphones,tablets,and computers but also a wide range of more specialized productivity-enha

133、ncing digital solutionsranging from communications,management upgrading,and worker training to procurement,production,marketing,logistics,and financing and insurance.DTs enable economywide productivity gains and job growth by catalyzing the uptake and use of complementary technologies,including many

134、 that are inaccessible without digital and data infrastructure.In general,taking advantage of Internet of Things tech-nologies requires investments in the“internet”as well as the“things.”In the agriculture sector,for example,precision agriculture requires internet coverage.Foremost,however,it requir

135、es the prerequisite of tractors and irrigation systems that can then be equipped with sensors,as well as smartphones to access weather forecasts and upload pictures of unusual plant diseases.Appropriate apps with video or voice interfaces enable farmers to integrate into formal value chains,learn fr

136、om upstream seed providers and downstream buyers,and gain better access to financing and markets.Complementary technologies also include critical infrastructure for services such as electricity,transportation,and logistics.Therefore,even though the report largely focuses on provision and adoption of

137、 broadband internet,it must be viewed as an entry point or gateway to a broader discussion of the role of technology adoptionor lack thereofin the ability of African economies to meet their job creation challenges.A new conceptual framework for policy directionsThe report answers three primary polic

138、y questions:1.What are the effects of digital and data infrastructure,and the use of DTs,on enter-prise productivity,jobs,and household welfare?2.What is the extent of digital and data infrastructure availability and use of DTs and complementary technologies,and what are the main barriers preventing

139、 broader and more intensive productive use by enterprises and households?3.What are key areas where policy and regulatory interventions could be implemented tostrengthen consumers ability to pay and willingness to use DTs for productive purposes?Overview xxiiiThe reports conceptual framework lays th

140、e foundation for this policy analysis,empha-sizing that the impact of DTs on inclusive job growth depends on two objectives:ensur-ing potential users ability to pay for and willingness to use DTs(figure O.1).First,the affordable availability of digital and data infrastructure is a prerequisite for i

141、nclusive job growth.And the affordable availability of DTs,including broadband internet,depends on the affordable availability of electricity and transportation infrastructure.Second,inclu-sive job growth from DTs requires a willingness among all enterprises and individuals to use these technologies

142、meaning that these consumers find DTs attractive to use,under-stand how to use them,and believe that the DTs meet their productivity needs with opportunities to learn.A complementary requirement is that users possess sufficient capabilities to use the DTs productively.DTs can lead to faster job grow

143、th,more inclusive jobs,and improved household wel-fare,primarily through(a)jobs and labor income,and(b)entrepreneurship and capital income(figure O.1).Through the first of these channels,productive use of DTs enables better,more inclusive jobs as well as higher earnings for more people.Through the s

144、ec-ond channel,productive use of DTs increases entrepreneurial jobs and capital income,including profits earned not only by entrepreneurs and owners of larger firms but also by owners of smaller formal and informal enterprises.By focusing on productive use and inclusive impacts,the conceptual framew

145、ork highlights the critical distinction between two views of digitalization policy.Traditional digitalization policy prioritizes universal availability of digital infrastructure,largely a supply-side view.This view underscores the internets role as a general-purpose technology,through which widespre

146、ad availabilityand presumably usagewill raise Individuals orhouseholdsEnterprisesJobs andlabor incomeLower prices,greater variety,andconsumer surplusAnalog and greener technologies(electricity,transportation)Income transfersystemNonmonetary gainsFoundations for technological transformationEconomywid

147、e impacts:faster and moreinclusive jobgrowth,reducedpoverty,other welfare benefitsGovernmentEntrepreneurshipand capital incomeAvailability of DTsProductive use of DTsInclusive impacts of DTsNet reductionin costs or frictionsand productivityincreases(search,replication,transportation,tracking,and ver

148、ification)Digital factors Connectivity and data infrastructure Skills and capabilities Businesses Finance Public platformsAbility to pay for DTs:affordable availability policiesWillingness to use DTs:attractiveness and capability policiesRequired policiesFIGURE O.1Conceptual framework for policy ana

149、lysis of DTs impacts on job and income growth Source:Original figure for this publication.Note:Bolded text indicates the primary focuses and themes of this report,emphasizing the production side of the economy(enterprises and workers).DTs=digital technologies.xxiv Digital Africaoverall economic prod

150、uctivity over time.However,in contexts of limited resources,formidable needs across sectors,low income,and countries that often lack scale,this approach faces daunting challenges on the financial front.The new conceptual framework in this report focuses instead on a second view of dig-italization po

151、licyprioritizing productive use that generates large,inclusive,jobs-related spillover effects while also expanding coverage of quality broadband internet.Innovations are essential in technologies that will attract people with fewer digital skills and boost their capabilities to generate higher earni

152、ngs.This nuanced view of digitalization policy emphasizes the interdependency between demand and supply:greater demand for pro-ductive use and the ability to pay for these services will enable increased investments in higher-quality DT services.Technological transformation:A pathway to inclusive pro

153、ductivity growthTwo new empirical studies undertaken for the report have added to the rapidly growing positive evidence base by exploring the direct impact of mobile internet availability(third-generation 3G or fourth-generation 4G mobile communications technology cov-erage)on jobs and welfare.The s

154、tudies examine geospatial information on the rollout of mobile internet towers over time,combined with at least two rounds of household data over six to seven years(Bahia et al.2020;Bahia et al.2021).Figure O.2 summarizes the main jobs and welfare(consumption and poverty)results for Nigeria and Tanz

155、ania.Internet availability improved jobs and welfare outcomes in both Nigeria and Tanzania.In Nigeria,labor force participation and wage employment increased by 3 percentage points and 1 percentage point,respectively,in areas having three or more years of expo-sure to internet availability relative

156、to those without coverage,after accounting for poten-tial confounding factors.2 Total consumption increased by about 9 percent,and the proportion of households below the extreme poverty line(US$1.90 per person per day)declined by 7 percent after three years.Poorer households and those living in rura

157、l areas benefited the most,perhaps reflecting the internet connectivity already available to most urban households over the period of analysis.The job estimates for Tanzania are similarly significant.Working-age individuals(ages 1564)living in areas with internet availability witnessed increases of

158、8 percentage points in labor force participation and 4 percentage points in wage employment after three or more years of exposure.Total consumption per capita among households residing in areas with 3G availability was about 10 percent higher than in areas without coverage.Moreover,the proportion of

159、 households falling below the national basic needs poverty line dropped by 7 percentage points.3 Welfare gains were higher among households headed by women,those with lower incomes,and those with less education(not having completed primary school).Larger relative gains are observed in urban areas,re

160、flecting an earlier rollout from zero to 3G coverage in the early 2010s.Other empirical studies highlight the indirect impacts of internet availability on access to more and better jobs through effects on improving firmworker matching and improving firm productivity through entrepreneurship,innovati

161、on,and foreign direct investment.A background study for this report has found evidence of internet-induced entrepreneurship in 10 African countries.4 The probability that a household establishes a nonfarm business is 17 percentage points higher in areas with internet availability.This increase in en

162、trepreneurial activities is concentrated in the service sector,plausibly Overview xxvbecause of the low entry cost of establishing many service-related businesses relative to those in agribusiness and manufacturing(Houngbonon,Mensah,and Traore 2022).The same study also found evidence of a positive i

163、mpact of internet availability on innovation:internet availability increases the probability of a firm undertaking process and product innovation by 20 percentage points and 12 percentage points,respectively.Confidence interval(95%)Point estimate15a.Nigeria,201016b.Tanzania,2008Labor forc

164、eparticipationWageemploymentTotalconsumptionPovertya(US$1.90 per day)Labor forceparticipationWageemploymentTotalconsumptionBasic needspovertyb3+years of 3G/4G coverage3+years of 3G/4G coverageChange after 3+years3G/4G access(%)Change after 3+years3G access(%)20FIGURE O.2Effects of mobile

165、internet availability on job creation and household welfare,Nigeria and TanzaniaSource:Bahia et al.2020;Bahia et al.2021.Note:The studies examine geospatial information on the rollout of mobile internet towers,combined with three rounds of household data over seven years for Nigeria and two rounds o

166、ver six years for Tanzania.The estimates on poverty and consumption include all individuals or households,whereas labor outcomes include only working-age populations(ages 1564).The results represent percentage changes in the covered locations after three or more years of high-quality internet exposu

167、re relative to those without such coverage after accounting for potential confounding factors.The figure shows difference-in-difference average value point estimates with 95 percent confidence intervals.3G=third-generation mobile communications technology;4G=fourth-generation mobile communications t

168、echnology.a.Nigerias poverty status of households is calculated based on the international poverty line of US$1.90 per day(2011 purchasing power parity)and after applying the Consumer Price Index to adjust for both spatial and temporal inflation.b.Tanzanias poverty status of households is calculated

169、 based on the cost of acquiring enough food to provide adequate daily nutrition per person(food line)plus the cost of some nonfood essentials(nonfood component).xxvi Digital AfricaThe effect on process innovation stems largely from the adoption of DTs for business functions,such as sales,distributio

170、n,and marketing,and is boosted by the availability of digital skills within the firm.Another new study for this report provides evidence that internet availability is associated with increases of 6 percentage points and 3 percentage points,respectively,in the probability of foreign direct investment

171、 in the financial and technology services sectors(Mensah and Traore 2022).The number of foreign direct investment projects in financial services increased by almost 20 percent following the arrival of submarine internet cables.Internet availability also expands the demand side of production and boos

172、ts aggregate growth.Evidence from a background study of the rollout of 3G internet networks in Ethiopia(Abreha et al.2021)suggests that internet availability can boost jobs by closing gaps in information between buyers and sellers.Enterprises operating in areas with 3G availability experienced an av

173、erage 29 percent decline in markups,an 18 percent rise in firm productivity,and a 28 percent increase in jobs.These improvements are interpreted as resulting from increased competition as consumers become aware of price informa-tion and alternatives in nearby markets and as firms respond to increase

174、d competition and compressed profit margins by reducing costswith increased productivity enabling output expansion and more jobs.Finally,another study undertaken for this report indicates that internet availability boosts aggregate economic growth,with job expansion presumed from the output expan-si

175、on accompanying faster growth.Aggregate country-level data show that increases in mobile internet subscriptions and the population share of internet users contribute to the growth of output per worker and reductions in poverty and income inequality(Caldern and Cant 2021).Internet use has a significa

176、nt effect in reducing poverty,and mobile connections are found to have a significant effect on reducing income inequality.Digital transformation in Africa:Challenges and dividesDespite the good news on the positive causal inclusive impacts of internet availability on jobs and poverty,Africa faces th

177、e challenge of insufficient use.Too few people can truly access these benefits.Though mobile internet availability has increased,Africas internet infrastructure coverage and the quality of available services still lag other regions.Divides in availability of quality digital services remain an issue

178、in all countries,especially in remote and poorer subregions.This divide is compounded by Africas large usage gap(Atiyas and Dutz 2022).Although 84 percent of country populations averaged across Sub-Saharan Africa had at least some level of 3Gmobile internet availability and 63 percent had some level

179、 of 4G mobile internet services,only 22 percent used mobile internet services as of the end of 2021(figure O.3,panel a).These figures represent a usage gap of 62 percent as a share of total population.Africas uptake gap,or internet users with internet availability,is 74 percent,almost three-quarters

180、,on average across countries (figure O.3,panel b),the highest in the world.Recent increases in digital infrastructure investment following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic have not been accompanied by concomitant increases in use.Instead,there are growing digital divides in use between large forma

181、l and micro-size informal enterprises;between enterprises owned by young men and those owned by older women;and between richer,urban,and better educated households and poorer,rural,and less educated households.Overview xxviiEnterprises:More jobs for more peopleTo increase the availability of jobs,Af

182、rican enterprises must invest to expand their technol-ogy frontier,which appears to be relatively stagnant.African and global entrepreneurs must also generate more digital and complementary technologies that align with Africas current skills profile and production context(such as smaller-scale farms

183、)and that evolve with workers as they increase capabilities.In addition,most enterprises must adopt and use DTs and complementary technologies more intensively.Such skill-and context-appropriate technologies would enable existing and newly entering workers,managers,and entrepreneur-owners to continu

184、ously raise productivity and generate higher earnings.Productivity and job gains from sophisticated technologies The use of more sophisticated DTs and related technologies is associated with higher productivity across African countries for enterprises employing five or more full-time employees(Cirer

185、a,Comin,and Cruz 2022).Firms with higher average technological sophistication have higher productivity on average,with varying degrees of responsiveness(figure O.4,panel a).Interestingly,the association between technology use and productivity 90a.Mobile internet availability and usage inSub-Saharan

186、AfricaShare of internet nonusers amongthose with 3G+coverage(%)Share of population(%)b.Uptake gap,by region8070605040302050403020200002000213G+coverageUnique mobile internet subscriptionsEast Asia and

187、PacificEurope and Central AsiaLatin America and the CaribbeanMiddle East and North AfricaNorth AmericaSouth AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaFIGURE O.3Gap between mobile internet coverage and usage,Sub-Saharan Africa and other regions,201021Source:Atiyas and Dutz 2022,based on Global System for Mobile Communic

188、ations Association(GSMA)data.Note:The figure incorporates updated 201621 data based on an improved 2022 methodology for calculating unique subscribers.Inpanel a,mobile internet availability(3G+coverage)and use(unique mobile internet subscribers)are expressed as unweighted averages across countries,a

189、s a share of total country population.In panel b,the“uptake gap”is the percentage of people who live within the footprint of a mobile broadband network but who do not use mobile internet.“North America”comprises Bermuda,Canada,and the United States.3G+=third-generation(or later)mobile communications

190、 technoloby.xxviii Digital Africais stronger for informal than formal Senegalese firms.There is also a positive association between the use of more sophisticated technologies and job growth for Senegal(formal firms)and Ghana(figure O.4,panel b).Findings for microenterprises show a positive progressi

191、on in the number of more sophisticated DTs(figure O.5,light blue bars)associated in turn with higher productivity,sales,and job levels.Six internet-enabled and three non-internet-enabled DT uses (figureO.5,dark blue bars)are the only significant conditional correlates of higher job levels.So a great

192、er range of more sophisticated DT uses based on internet-enabled com-puters or smartphones relative to DT uses based only on second-generation(2G)phones is associated with higher jobs levels.Despite these beneficial associations,the average African enterprise with five or more full-time employees in

193、 Ghana,Kenya,Malawi,and Senegal lags in the use of computers relative to Brazil and in the use of smartphones for most enterprise size groupings.Informal enterprises(with Senegal being the only available country with nationally rep-resentative data)lag much more(figure O.6).Microenterprises lag even

194、 more,with large digital divides:only 7 percent of all microfirms and 3 percent of microfirms owned by older women(over 30 years of age)use a smartphone.The digital divide in computer use is even larger:only 2 percent of microfirms owned by young women(30 years of age or younger)use a computer,but f

195、our times as many(8 percent)microfirms owned by young men do(Atiyas and Dutz 2023).Factors affecting productive use of DTsThe key DT-related issue for African enterprises is low productive use.The main factors affecting enterprise use of smartphones,computers,and the more-sophisticated DTs that rely

196、 on these access technologies are related to the ability to pay for them and the FIGURE O.4Association between firms use of more sophisticated DTs and productivity and job growth,selected countries,201921 Source:Cirera,Comin,and Cruz 2022,based on 201921 FAT(Firm-level Adoption of Technology)survey

197、data.Note:The figure shows regression coefficients(circles)and 95 percent confidence intervals(vertical lines)from country-level regressions of a new technology sophistication index that averages the most intensively used technologies across general business functions(GBF Int)for each firm on produc

198、tivity levels(panel a)and changes in full-time workers over the preceding three years(panel b),while controlling for sector,firm size,and region.Country samples are restricted to enterprises with five or more employees.Senegal is the only country that includes a representative subsample of informal

199、as well as formal enterprises.60Log value added per worker1.01.32.04.01.4GBF Int1.91.240200BrazilVietnamSenegal(formal)Senegal(informal)MalawiGhanaKenyaa.Association with productivity 4030100Log change in employment(%)200.16GBF Int0.150.100.120.110.230.03BrazilVietnamSenegal(formal)Senegal(informal)

200、MalawiGhanaKenyab.Association with job growthOverview xxixwillingness to use them(figure O.7).These factors are relatively similar across larger enter-prises(with five or more workers)and microenterprises.Ability to pay.Affordable availability of DTs is linked to the prices of quality internet servi

201、ces,access technologies,and apps relative to enterprise earnings,as well as access to financing to help pay for DTs.Small and medium enterprises in Africa face high prices and lack adequate business offerings in terms of speed and data allowances.Ability to pay is also linked to the affordable avail

202、ability of complementary infrastructure,especially that of reliable electricity as well as transportation and logistics services.FIGURE O.5Association between microenterprises use of technologies and higher productivity,sales,andjobs,2017180.590.280.440.470.180.250.200.290.130.430.460.300.440.460.30

203、0.220.180.330.470.460.290.290.340.440.270.240.180.290.500.500.3200.100.20Increase(log points)0.300.400.500.60Use internet for recruitmentUse internet for online bankingaUse POS/inventory control softwareUse accounting softwareaUse internet for emailUse a computerbUse SMS to advertisebUse MM to pay e

204、mployeesUse voice to communicate w/customersbUse internet for online bankingaUse accounting softwareaUse internet to better understand customersUse a computerbUse 3G/4G smartphoneUse SMS to advertisebUse phone for bankingUse MM to pay suppliersUse MM to receive payments from customersUse voice to co

205、mmunicate w/suppliersUse voice to communicate w/customersbUse 2G mobile phoneUse internet to better understand customersUse a computerbUse 3G/4G smartphoneUse SMS to advertisebUse phone for bankingUse MM to pay suppliersUse MM to receive payments from customersUse voice to communicate w/suppliersUse

206、 voice to communicate w/customersbUse 2G mobile phoneIncrease in jobsIncrease in salesIncrease in productivityInternet-enabled computers or smartphones requiredOnly 2G phones requiredSource:Atiyas and Dutz 2023,based on 201718 Research ICT Africa(RIA)survey data.Note:The figure shows the association

207、 between average firm use of selected digital technologies(DTs)and the percentage increase in three outcome variables:productivity,sales,and jobs.The included business-related uses of DTslisted in order from simple-access technologies to more sophisticated usesare those for which the conditional cor

208、relates are significant at least at the 5 percent level based on ordinary least squares with robust standard errors using unweighted data.Controls include whether the enterprise has ever had a loan,has access to electricity,is run by transformational entrepreneurs,and has links with more sophisticat

209、ed upstream suppliers or downstream buyers,among others,together with country fixed effects.The data cover 3,325 formal and informal microenterprises(the median firm being informal and self-employed with no full-time workers)across seven African countries.Dark blue bars represent non-internet-enable

210、d DTs;light blue bars represent internet-enabled DTs.2G=second-generation mobile communications technology;3G=third-generation;4G=fourth-generation;MM=mobile money;POS=point of sale;SMS=shortmessage service.a.Variable is significant across all three performance outcomes:productivity,sales,and jobs.b

211、.Variable is significant across both sales and jobs.xxx Digital Africa6966757492975054432548694673979970925230030405060708090Share of firms(%)100SmallMediumLargeSmallMediumLargeSmallMediumLargeSmallMediumLargeSmallMediumLargeSmallMediumLargeSmal

212、lMediumLargeGhanaKenyaMalawiSenegal(formal)Senegal(informal)BrazilVietnamHave smartphoneHave computerFIGURE O.6Smartphone and computer use,by firm size,selected countries,201921 Source:Cirera,Comin,and Cruz 2022,based on 201921 Firm-level Adoption of Technology(FAT)survey data.Note:Included enterpri

213、ses are those employing at least five full-time workers.“Large”firms have 100 or more employees;“medium”firms,2099 employees;and“small”firms,519 employees.Affordability is influenced by whether enterprises,be they larger firms or microfirms,have loans;information is also available on whether microfi

214、rms have a credit line with suppliers,an indicator of their creditworthiness.Access to finance,as reflected by having a loan,is one of the largest correlates of use.Larger firms that have a loan are 12 percent more likely than those without loans to use smartphones and 9 percent less likely to use a

215、 2G phone(Cirera,Comin,and Cruz 2022).Microenterprises that have a loan are 18 percent more likely to use smartphones and nearly 15 percent less likely to use a 2G phone;they are also over 9 percent more likely to use a computer(Atiyas and Dutz 2023).Having electricity and being in an urban location

216、 are associated with computer use for larger firms and with smartphone use for microenterprises.Willingness to use.Willingness to use DTs is linked to both the firms capabilities and the DTs attractivenessin turn related to both the availability of information about DTs and whether they meet the pro

217、ductive needs of users.Regarding capabilities,skills(especially at the managerial level in larger firms)and vocational training(in microenterprises)are strongly associated with both smartphone and computer use(Atiyas and Dutz 2023;Cirera,Comin,and Cruz 2022).Enterprise technological capabilities are

218、 also affected by the firms Size,with those employing five or more workers and microfirms that are larger(rela-tive to other microfirms)being more likely to use computers;Age,with those that have been in operation longer being less likely to use a smart-phone than younger firms;and Formality status,

219、with formal firms of any size being more likely than informal firms to use computers.Overview xxxiThe attractiveness of DTs,and the consequent adoption of smartphones and computers,is likely driven by the need to adopt specific DTs when larger firms have business relationships with multinational com

220、panies and when microenterprises have large firms as customers.Business and socioeconomic factors.Finally,specific elements of the business envi-ronment(linked to market access and competition-related incentives)and socioeco-nomic factors(whether social norms and rules make ownership of access devic

221、es difficult for women)also affect DT use.Among microenterprises,female-owned firms are less likely than male-owned firms to use either a smartphone or a computer(Atiyas and Dutz 2023).Because most microfirms are owned and managed by self-employed individuals with no full-time paid employees,this di

222、gital divide may reflect prevailing social norms and rules that make access to finance and ownership of access devices more difficult for women.ComputerSmartphoneMobileFirm ageFormalMediumLarge firms as customersHave loanLargeHave credit line with suppliersHave electricityUrban locationFemale ownerM

223、anagers educationVocational training0.3 0.2 0.10.100.20.3Firm agea.Adoption correlates for larger enterprisesb.Adoption correlates for microenterprisesFormalMediumLargeBusiness relationship with MNCsLoans for purchasing machineHave electricityLocated in capital cityFemale ownerManagers educationMana

224、gers experience in MNCs0.3 0.2 0.10.100.20.3FIGURE O.7Correlates of smartphone and computer adoption by African firms,201721 Sources:Atiyas and Dutz 2023;Cirera,Comin,and Cruz 2022.Note:Reported results are marginal effects based on probit regressions on enterprise characteristics,controlling for co

225、untry fixed effects.Error bars indicate 95 percent confidence intervals.Panel a is based on 201921 FAT(Firm-level Adoption of Technology)survey data.“Larger”enterprises are those with at least five full-time employees.Panel b is based on 201718 Research ICT Africa(RIA)data.The median“microenterprise

226、”is informal and self-employed with zero full-time employees.MNCs=multinational companies.xxxii Digital AfricaPolicy recommendationsPublic policies and investments are needed both to incentivize the creation of attractive appsespecially solutions that are simple to use and boost the productivity of

227、enterprises with lower-skilled workersand to stimulate use by enterprises,including through invest-ments in capabilities.Three broad policy recommendations arise from these findings:1.Institutionalize technology upgrading and worker and management capability support programs.2.Support start-up entre

228、preneurs in developing more appropriate technologies for Africas current and future asset base,including through incentives for creating skill-appropriate technologies,intellectual property rights protection,and regulations facilitating a more job-inclusive development of machine learning and other

229、forms of artificial intelligence.3.Facilitate enterprise financing for the generation and use of DTs as well as complemen-tary technologies.Public financing support policies should include(a)targeted partial credit guarantees,matching grants,and vouchers for the adoption of technologies and needed c

230、apabilities;and(b)credit infrastructure with a focus on credit bureaus and secured transactions as well as mechanisms to access key data for credit ratings.Households:Inclusive impact through productive useSeveral factors could explain the low internet use and low intensity of use by African house-h

231、olds.The latest evidence from seven West African Economic and Monetary Union(WAEMU)countries finds that three key factors correlate with low adoption(Rodriguez-Casteln et al.2021):1.Affordable availability,encompassing the ability to pay(influenced by household expen-diture,the price of mobile servi

232、ces,and asset ownership);access to electricity;and urban location 2.Attractiveness of alternative modalities of internet access 3.Capabilities,including tertiary educational attainment,French language proficiency(infrancophone countries),and sector of employment,together with socioeconomic factorsCo

233、nstraints on the ability to pay and willingness to useMany Africans do not use DTs because the costs appear to outweigh the benefits.Two main groups of factors underpin the low perceived benefits to costs:ability to pay for DTs and willingness to use them.Ability to pay involves the availability of

234、quality digital services and the price and affordability of access devices,data plans,and apps relative to purchasing power.A package that covers a few hours of basic daily use1.5 gigabytes of data over 30 daysamounts to about a third of the income of the 40 percent of Africans who fall below the gl

235、obal extreme poverty line(US$1.90 per person per day at 2017 purchasing power parity).Low-consumption users face prices per unit of data that are more than double those for high-consumption users,holding back higher intensity of use among low-income users.Overview xxxiiiAttractiveness of DTs,and hen

236、ce the willingness to use them,is linked to multiple factors:Do users have information about the existence of DTs and how to use them?Do DTs meet minimum speed and latency requirements for effective use?Do they meet users productive(and other)needs?Are they designed for the users skills level?Do the

237、y raise trust concerns related to data protection,cybercrime,or data surveillance?Do the expected benefits of using DTs outweigh the costs of devices,data plans,and other invest-ments?Ultimately,household members capabilitiestheir skills and technological sophisticationalso affect their ability to e

238、xtract value from DTs.Policies to expand access to credit,better regulations,and market-induced price reductions can help address affordability.Policies that can induce the development of easy-to-use DTs and capability-enhancing content are also needed to meet the produc-tive needs of households,esp

239、ecially among poor people,who face constraints on many fronts including skills gaps and a lack of information on how internet use could benefit them.Providing information to households on the variety of ways DTs can help peoplethrough community-based associations,town hall meetings,religious organiz

240、ations,and social networkscould help to address some of these constraints.Policy routes to productive internet use by householdsGiven the low income levels and high inequality across Africa,broader internet adoption among households is financially sustainable only if adoption results in higher earni

241、ngs.Policy makers can play a role in promoting and enabling productive uses.Figure O.8 depicts a framework to increase internet use,offering two complementary approaches:Route 1 targets internet adoption as an end goal,while Route 2 views adop-tion as the means to enhance peoples earnings and liveli

242、hood opportunities and achieve greater economic impact.Although Route 2 may close gaps at a slower pace,it would be more financially sustainable in the long term.The goal is to create a positively reinforc-ing cycle through which productive internet use enhances earnings,feeding back into more DT us

243、e.Provide more information,attractive content,digital skills,affordability(subsidies,credit);facilitate leveraging of networksLarge andincreasing usagegap and lowintensity of usePillar 1Identify opportunities for DT-enabledproductivity gainsHigherearningsPillar 2Incentivize generation ofadequate DTs

244、Pillar 3Bundle with adequate complements(such as electricity,skills,and seed capital)Route 1:internetuse as an endAddress barriers to useProductive use Universal access (more people using)Lower intensity of use (relative to Route 2)Financial unsustainability More people using Greater intensity of us

245、e Greater feedback into more use Financial sustainabilityRoute 2:internetuse as a meansto an endFIGURE O.8Policy routes for increasing households inclusive uptake and productive use of DTs Source:Adapted from Blimpo and Cosgrove-Davies 2019.Note:DTs=digital technologies.xxxiv Digital AfricaInternet

246、use as the end goal.Under Route 1,policies focus mainly on addressing the symptomatic barriers to use.These interventions will contribute to achieving the universal access goal faster,especially if countries support adoption and use with significant subsidies.Via this route,increased internet use id

247、eally would lead to increased productivitywhich may happen in some households.However,without the presence of analog com-plements(such as electricity and skills),productive use and the returns that encourage further use are weaker.This strategy may thus be financially unsustainable because it requir

248、es sustained provision of credit or subsidies for adoption and use.Internet use as a means to an end.Under Route 2,internet use is seen as the means to increasing household earnings and reducing poverty.The policy goal is to increase the pro-ductive use of the internet to increase household earnings

249、,thereby strengthening the abil-ity to pay and stimulating further internet use.This approach views the internet and related DTs as inputs and tools to enable technological transformation and higher earnings.As with many other types of inputs,DTs are necessary,but insufficient,to generate income.Ava

250、ilability of electricity,adequate education and skills,road access,and attain-able financing are all complements with varying degrees of relevance,depending on the context.(This policy alternative requires synergies among at least three types of inter-ventions,shown as the three pillars in figure O.

251、8.)These policy interventions are expected to increase productive use,which will in turn boost household earnings.With higher earnings,households can afford to buy smart-phones and mobile broadband data and increase the intensity of internet use.Digital and data infrastructure:Policy reforms to incr

252、ease availability and use Two sets of complementary and mutually reinforcing policies are required for DTs to support inclusive job growth in Africa:those that ensure the ability to pay for DTs and those that elicit willingness to use DTs for productive purposes(as illustrated earlier in figure O.1)

253、.Downside risks include the potential for increased digital divides affecting low-income people displaced by the adoption of newer technologies and unable to adjust and adapt.The potential for mis-use by business(data protection,cybersecurity,and consumer protection)and government(surveillance and m

254、isinformation)must also be managed.Policies to ensure ability to payPolicies to ensure all potential users ability to pay must address internet affordability,additional infrastructure availability,adequate data infrastructure,and affordable availability of complementary technologies.The big problem

255、in effectively addressing affordability issues is that prevailing market structures do not yet enable enough compe-tition in Africa.Markets are concentrated(figure O.9).Monopolies and duopolies still exist in many African countries,including in key bottleneck markets such as international connectivi

256、ty.State-owned enterprises remain important in the sector and have the potential to thwart competition.Moreover,vertical integration of dominant firms in Africa creates risks to competition:53 firms in 36 countries have at least 40 percent market share in mobile retail or fiber backbone and are vert

257、ically integrated into two other segments(World Bank,forthcoming).Regulation of dominant operators is weak.Internet affordability requires effective pro-competition regulations to reduce investment costsincluding rules on licensing and market dominance,infrastructure access and sharing,and radioelec

258、tric spectrum Overview xxxvavailability and usewithin the context of more integrated continental markets.Regulations are also required to drive down operational costs,including rules on access to essential infrastructure controlled by state-owned enterprises,operation of open-access fiber networks,a

259、nd minimization of excise taxes.An empirical analysis of six countries conducted for this report shows that cost-reducing policy reforms(on spectrum,infrastructure sharing,and taxation)can save 1020 percent of the cost required to achieve near-universal availability,resulting in over US$200 million

260、in savings for governments across the countries included in the analysis(World Bank 2022).Increasing market competition can deliver additional benefits and could achieve levels of use similar to those spurred by supply-side subsidies,as simulations for Ghana show.Infrastructure availability in areas

261、 that are not commercially viable after implement-ing regulatory reforms requires targeted subsidies and financing(through earmarked funds,obligations on operators,universal service funds,or alternative solutions)to incentivize universal access and service and to support climate-resilient developmen

262、t.Upstreaminfrastructure layerMarket structurevariableAFENAAFWMonopoliesDuopoliesAllAfricaSOESLEConcentration(HHI)aMarketstructurebNew entry(201720)cState presence(majority,minority)dInternationalconnectivity(submarinecables,gateways)Passiveinfrastructure(towers)Fixedwholesale(fiberbackbone)Mobilewh

263、olesale(roaming,MVNO,sharing)FixedretailMobileretailMobilemoneyData andcloudservicesDigitalplatformsMiddleinfrastructure layer21 countriesallowing forMVNO butno entry5,000+digital firmsheadquarteredin AfricaDownstreaminfrastructure layerDigital servicesFIGURE O.9Extent of competitive constraints in

264、market structures across the digital value chain in Africa,2021 Source:World Bank,Africa Digital Market Players Database(internal),2021,built on data from numerous sources,including TeleGeography,Global System for Mobile Communications Association(GSMA),Africa Bandwidth Maps,Afterfibre.org,Policytra

265、cker,TowerXchange,PeeringDB,and Xalam Analytics.Note:Red circles represent higher risk to competition,on average;orange circles,medium risk;and green circles,lower risk.The sample covers 54 African countries for mobile retail,38 for fixed retail,52 for fiber backbone,26 for telecommunications towers

266、,35for submarine cables,25 for data centers,and 15 for mobile money.AFE=Eastern and Southern Africa;AFW=Western andCentral Africa;HHI=Herfindahl-Hirschman index(market concentration measure);MVNO=mobile virtual network operator;NA=North Africa;SLE=state as minority shareholder;SOE=majority or fully

267、state-owned enterprise;=not available.a.A market with HHI of less than 1,500 is considered to have a competitive market structure,HHI of 1,500 to 2,500 is moderately concentrated,and an HHI of 2,500 or greater is highly concentrated.b.In terms of monopolies and duopolies,less than 5 percent of count

268、ries are monopolies/duopolies=green,520 percent of countries=orange,above 20 percent of countries=red.c.For new entry,new entry in less than 5 percent of countries=red,in 520 percent of countries=orange,in more than 20 percent of countries=green;d.SOE presence in less than 10 percent of countries=gr

269、een,in 1050 percent of countries=orange,and in more than 50 percent of countries=red.xxxvi Digital AfricaIf demand-side policies were to increase potential 4G use above the current level in uncovered areas(currently less than 5 percent)to 40 percent for the six studied African countries,expansion wo

270、uld become commercially viable,and 4G availability would reach the same near-universal levels as it would under a pure supply subsidy.This find-ing highlights the importance of demand-side programs to not only expand use but also boost coverage.Furthermore,affordable availability of data infrastruct

271、ure requires transparent,pro-competition rules for upgrading internet exchange points and for accessing data centers and cloud computing to help drive down costs.Policies to increase willingness to usePolicies on attractiveness and capabilities are required to promote DT use for productive purposes.

272、These include national strategies for productive use of DTs,innovation policies,data policies and regulations,and capability support programs.The implementation of these tailored strategies is essential to support familiarity with and use of DTs as well as to ensure productive gains by all enterpris

273、es.These strategies could include investments in common-access facilities and demonstrations at internet cafs,local schools,or commu-nity centers,especially for microentrepreneurs.For DT use to be inclusive,Africa must provide sophisticated yet simple-to-use and attractive apps through touch-screen

274、pictures,voice,and video in the languages people speakenabling enterprises and households to want them,use them,and learn as they work.Africa must redirect technologies to the different contexts across its countries,particularly its differing skill compositions.To that end,entrepreneurs are needed t

275、o fur-ther develop existing DTs to enable productive use and learning by all people in the region.Development of new DTs by private entepreneurs may require prior public-private investments in public goods,such as countrywide availability of digital addresses,geotagged land records,and local weather

276、 mapping.Data policies are needed as both enablers and safeguards for data use and reuse to ensure the development of new,attractive,data-driven DTs along with appropriate levels of trust in their use.Finally,capability support programs must be institutionalized for micro,small,and medium enterprise

277、s as well as for households,so that they know how to make productive use of available DTs.These programs include business advisory services,technology information and upgrading services,and manager and worker skills training,together with longer-term investments in high-quality secondary and tertiar

278、y education.The role of regional cooperationLooking ahead,African countries have the potential to benefit further from deeper regional integration and the adoption of environmentally friendly DTs to advance the continents technological transformation.The African Union has developed and is implementi

279、ng the Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa(20202030)to boost DT use and innovation to promote Africas integration(AU 2020).Creating a single continental market for both connectivity and data will require the harmonization and compatibility of national policy and regulatory frameworks.Integrat

280、ed regional connectivity and data markets,in turn,can facilitate the scalability of DTs across the continent,boosting positive network effects,economies of scale and scope,and competition benefits.The operation of continental data infrastructure and cross-border connectivity infrastructure enabled b

281、y domestic and regional regulatory frameworks is fundamental for a single digital market.Table O.1 presents how national Overview xxxviiTABLE O.1Main policy recommendations for advancing the use of digital technologies to support inclusive job growth GoalPolicy areaTopicEmerging sectoraEvolving betw

282、een“emerging”and“transitioning”Transitioning sectorbPolicies to ensure ability to pay Affordability of internetPro-competition regulationLicensing and regulation of dominanceEntry liberalization:simpler licensing,no exclusivities,including for cross-border connectivityRules to allow ISPs to deploy i

283、nfrastructure,elimination of voice over internet protocol(VoIP)restrictionsSMP rules:designation and remedies;control of license transfers/mergersAccess and sharing of essential infrastructureInterconnection rules for domestic networksInfrastructure sharing/access to essential infrastructure,regulat

284、ion of regional roaming and cross-border transportationRules for coinvestment and wholesale-only networksManagement of radio frequencies Spectrum policyPublished national spectrum frequency register Spectrum rules:allocation,assignment,pricing,sharing/transfer,coordination at regional level5G spectr

285、um allocation and assignment;unlicensed spectrum and dynamic spectrum accessCost-reducing regulationSOEsSOEs open to private shareholdingRestructuring of SOEs for better governanceOpen access to state fiber networks(energy);SOE accountabilityPPPs for open-access fiber network,co-investments for unco

286、vered areasSectoral taxes and feesElimination of sector-specific(excise)taxes on telecommunications servicesRevision of taxes on digital servicesCost-oriented regulatory feesHarmonization of subnational fees for infrastructure deploymentAvailability of internet and complementary technologies(analog

287、infrastructure)Government interventions to complement marketsUniversal access and serviceCreation of USFTransparent and more effective USF,focusing on availability of demand-responsive services and useRedefine USF scope(DTs to pull internet demand)and contribution modality(capital expenditure versus

288、 contribution)Focus on use and upgrading:targeted demand-side support,pricing rules for vulnerable groupsClimate adaptation and resilienceMandatory emergency preparedness plansPolicies for resilient and green design,construction,operation of digital infrastructureE-waste management;incentives for en

289、ergy-efficient and green digital infrastructureAffordable availability of dataData infrastructureIXPs,data centers,and cloud computingImproved governance of IXPs to allow for growth,updated telecommunications rules for regional IXPsRules on cross-border data flows that allow for regional data hubs a

290、nd edge computingNeutral data centers,rules to facilitate switching between providers,including at regional level(continued)xxxviii Digital AfricaTABLE O.1Main policy recommendations for advancing the use of digital technologies to support inclusive job growth(continued)GoalPolicy areaTopicEmerging

291、sectoraEvolving between“emerging”and“transitioning”Transitioning sectorbPolicies to ensure willingness to useAttractiveness of and capabilities to use DTs Digital entrepreneurshipReduction of barriers and support of drivers of entry and expansionElimination of administrative barriers;access to finan

292、ce(partial credit guarantees,matching grants),incubators,and acceleratorsAccess to data and effective data portability,incentives to develop pro-poor DTs,creation of public-good data platforms,elimination of barriers to regional expansionAppropriate taxation of digital services and effective competi

293、tion enforcement(entry and exit,mergers,abuse of dominance),including regional approach Technology and innovationDT generation and use by firmsInformation to increase attractiveness of DTs,support for basic digitalization,government e-services to pull demandSupport to business advisory and technolog

294、y extension services and to FDI and joint ventures for tech transfer,for generation and use of DTsTest beds for generation and adoption of new DTs in specific industries,including low-skill-based DTs that enable learning over timeData policies and regulationsEnablers of new DTs and trust;safeguards

295、for data use and reuseClear laws on data protection,cybersecurity,cybercrime,open data,e-transactions,and cross-border data flows,aligned at the regional and global levelsEffective enforcement by data protection authorities,cybersecurity agencies,and the likeCompliance and awareness for start-ups an

296、d SMEsRegional interoperability of national lawsData spaces,data sharing between government and private sector and across enterprisesRegional convergence and harmonization of frameworksSocial inclusionDTs for productive use by individuals and householdsExposure to DTs through access in community cen

297、ters,schools and health clinics,government programs,digital public service deliveryComprehensive interventions complementing internet availability and affordability:skills and capabilities;attractiveness and information;affordability and access to finance,electricity,and transportation;social normsI

298、dentification of productive DT uses by low-income,vulnerable,and underserved groups;programs to incentivize the generation and use of DTs targeting these segmentsSource:Original table for this publication.Note:5G=fifth-generation mobile internet technology;DTs=digital technologies;FDI=foreign direct

299、 investment;ISPs=internet service providers;IXPs=internet exchange points;PPPs=public-private partnerships;SMEs=small and medium enterprises;SMP=significant market power;SOE=state-owned enterprise;USF=universal service fund.a.An“emerging sector”refers to a digital sector where the digital economy is

300、 still emerging and internet use is low.b.A“transitioning sector”refers to a digital sector transitioning toward universal internet use.Overview xxxixand regional policy actions are complements to ensure ability to pay and willingness to use DTs in Africa.In addition,as African countries expand thei

301、r data use,the deployment of a greener connectivity and data infrastructure that takes advantage of renewable energy and better e-waste management will become more important to support climate mitigation and adaptation while making DTs more environmentally sustainable.Africa should embrace the adopt

302、ion of jobs-enhancing technologiesincluding cloud computing,artificial intelligence,and roboticsin ways that enhance the learning and earning potential of each countrys workforce.Positive impacts can materialize only if governments,enterprises,and households support bold policy actions to create an

303、enabling environment.This report offers an evidence-based framework to spur action toward an even brighter future for the continent.Notes1.The Digital Economy for Africa(DE4A)flagship initiative is a partnership between the World Bank,African governments,the African Union,and other development partn

304、ers.For more information,see the DE4A initiative website:https:/www.worldbank.org/en/programs/all-africa-digital-transformation.2.Because the regression specifications differ by type of outcome,some are expressed as percentage changes(when variables are in log such as for income)and others as percen

305、tage points(when variables are binary such as for poverty and labor outcomes).3.Tanzanias household poverty rate is based on the national“basic needs”poverty line:the cost of acquiring enough food to provide adequate daily nutrition per person(food line)plus the cost of some nonfood essentials(nonfo

306、od component).The food line is derived from the cost of buying 2,200 calories per adult per day according to the food consumption patterns prevailing in the population whose per adult real consumption is below the median during a period of 28 days valued at prices faced by the reference population.T

307、he nonfood component of the basic needs poverty line uses the average nonfood consumption share of the population whose total consumption per adult is in the bottom 25 percent.4.The countries studied included the Democratic Republic of Congo,Ghana,Kenya,Malawi,Namibia,Nigeria,Sudan,Tanzania,Uganda,a

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316、ica.”Policy Research Working Paper 9560,World Bank,Washington,DC.UN DESA(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs).2019.World Population Prospects 2019.2 vols.ST/ESA/SER.A/426.New York:United Nations.World Bank.2022.“Using Geospatial Analysis to Overhaul Connectivity Policies:How to

317、Expand Mobile Internet Coverage and Adoption in Sub-Saharan Africa.”Report No.169437,World Bank,Washington,DC.World Bank.Forthcoming.“Regulating the Digital Economy in Africa:Managing Old and New Risks to Economic Governance for Inclusive Opportunities.”Report,World Bank,Washington,DC.xliAbbreviatio

318、ns2G second-generation mobile communications technology3G third-generation mobile communications technology4G fourth-generation mobile communications technologyABFs all business functionsAI artificial intelligenceBAS business advisory services B2B business-to-businessDT digital technologyERP enterpr

319、ise resource planningFAT Firm-level Adoption of Technology FDI foreign direct investmentGBFs general business functionsGDP gross domestic productGPS Global Positioning SystemGSMA Global System for Mobile Communications AssociationHIC high-income countryIoT Internet of ThingsME mesa ejecutiva(Peru)ML

320、 machine learningMNC multinational companyMSMEs micro,small,and medium enterprisesOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPOS point-of-saleRCT randomized controlled trialR&D research and developmentRIA Research ICT AfricaSaaS software as a servicexlii AbbreviationsSBFs sector-spec

321、ific business functionsSMEs small and medium enterprisesSMS short message system TC technology centerTES technology extension services SOE state-owned enterpriseTFP total factor productivity 1CHAPTER 1Digital TechnologiesEnablers ofTechnological Transformation for JobsWhat are digital technologies?A

322、frica needs better and more jobs for its growing population.Digital technologies(DTs)can enable economic transformation for jobs.They do so by helping all people work better and learn as they work,catalyzing adoption and productivity of complementary technologies,and thereby boosting competitiveness

323、,production,and jobs across the economy.DTs are technologies that capture,generate,store,modify,and transmit data through binary digits,1 encompassing The internet and internet-based databases,data tools,and other information services;All software,computers,and tablets;Internet-enabled smartphones(t

324、hat is,using third-,fourth-,and fifth-generation mobile communications technology),which combine computing and telephone func-tions into one unit and progressively enable faster access to and processing of more data;Digital cameras and video;Geolocation systems;and Digital platformsthat is,software-

325、based online marketplaces and intermediation systems that facilitate peer-to-peer transactions,match buyers and sellers of goods and services,and enable crowd-based transactions.Computers,tablets,and smartphones enable critical access to the vast range of infor-mation and digital services available

326、on the internet.In addition to linking data collected by sensors on a variety of production and household goods through the IoT(Internet of Things),productivity-enhancing DTs also include cloud computing,on-demand avail-ability of data storage,and computing power so that enterprises and households,i

327、nstead of buying the underlying software,can buy the associated online services on a per-use basis and discontinue use when no longer needed.They also include artificial intelligence offerings,typically supported by machine learning,which are predictive analytic algorithms that improve their efficac

328、y over time with the use of increasingly large amounts of data.Other available DTs include blockchains(decentralized,distributed digital records linked together using cryptography to be tamper-proof and resistant to modification);2 Digital Africacryptocurrencies or digital money based on decentraliz

329、ed ledger technologies;and 3D printing or additive manufacturingthat is,the construction of objects from a digital 3D computer graphic.DTs help reduce economic production and transaction costs,including search,repli-cation,transportation,tracking,and verification costs.2Africas jobs and technology c

330、hallengesThe jobs and technology imperativeAfricas jobs challenge is to put in place business environments conducive to sustainable“good jobs”for its growing workforce(box 1.1).3 Continental Africas workforce is estimated to triple by the twenty-second centuryfrom almost 875 million working-age peop

331、le(ages 1564)in 2025 to over 2.5 billion by 2100(UN DESA 2022a).As a result,Africas share of the global workforce would increase from 16 percent to over 41 percent,surpassing South Asia and East Asia and Pacific for the largest global share by 2100(figure 1.1).This increase is overwhelmingly led by

332、Sub-Saharan Africa,whose workforce is pro-jected to more than triple,from just over 700 million people in 2025 to 1.3 billion by 2050 and 2.3 billion by 2100.Meanwhile,North Africas working-age population is projected to almost double,from 142 million to 203 million people.BOX 1.1What are“good jobs”

333、?This report defines“good jobs”as those that(a)generate sufficient income for anyone in the workforce and their household to be able to escape from and not fall back into poverty;and(b)enable productive learningin enterprises that enable increased earnings over time.However,various authors offer more expansive definitions.As Rodrik and Sabel(2022,62)acknowledge,“The definition of a good job is nec