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1、World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change1World Heritage GlaciersSentinels of climate changePublished in 2022 by the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO),7,place de Fontenoy,75352 Paris 07 SP,France and the IUCN,International Union for Conservation of Nat

2、ure and Natural Resources,Rue Mauverney 28,1196 Gland,Switzerland.UNESCO and IUCN 2022ISBN:978-92-3-100557-2 DOI:10.3929/ethz-b-000578916This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 IGO(CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO)license (http:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/).

3、By using the content of this publication,the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (http:/www.unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbysa-en).The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of

4、any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO and IUCN concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors;they are not neces

5、sarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.Suggested citation:UNESCO,IUCN,2022:World Heritage Glaciers:Sentinels of climate change,Paris,UNESCO;Gland,IUCN.Images and figures marked with an asterisk(*)do not fall under the CC-BY-SA license and may not be used or reproduced without the

6、prior permission of the copyright holder.Contributors:Tales Carvalho Resende and Mikhail Stepanov(UNESCO);Jean-Baptiste Bosson and Matthew Emslie-Smith(IUCN);Daniel Farinotti,Romain Hugonnet and Matthias Huss(ETH Zurich/Swiss Federal Institute for Forest,Snow and Landscape Research)and Etienne Berth

7、ier(LEGOS/CNRS).Proofreader:Jill GastonAcknowledgments:Robbert Casier,Guy Debonnet,Dorine Dubois,Lazare Eloundou Assomo,Maria Gropa,Susanna Kari,Anil Mishra,Nolwazi Mjwara,Ernesto Ottone Ramirez,Richard VeillonGraphic design:Scienseed and Philippe LaubyThis publication is a contribution to the UNESC

8、O FutureKeepers”campaign(https:/whc.unesco.org/en/futurekeepers)made possible by the Australian Government.World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change3“Since wars begin in the minds of men and women,it is in the minds of men and women that the defences of peace must be constructed.”Limiting

9、global warming to 1.5C could save glaciers in two-thirds of World Heritage sites Glaciers are crucial sources of life on Earth as they provide vital water resources to half of humanity for domestic use,agriculture and hydropower.They are also sacred places for many local communities and attract mill

10、ions of tourists globally.Glaciers are some of the most valuable indicators for understanding climate change.Among the most dramatic evidence that Earths climate is warming is the retreat and disappearance of glaciers around the world.Closely observing and quantifying this phenomenon is essential to

11、 develop effective adaptation responses.Around 18,600 glaciers have been identified in 50 World Heritage sites.These glaciers span an area of about 66,000 km,representing almost 10%of the Earths glacierized area.Research studies performed with satellite data highlight that these glaciers have been r

12、etreating at an accelerating rate since 2000.World Heritage glaciers lose on average some 58 billion tonnes of ice every year equivalent to the total annual volume of water consumed in France and Spain togetherand contribute to almost 5%of global observed sea-level rise.Projections indicate that gla

13、ciers in one-third of World Heritage glacierized sites will disappear by 2050 regardless of the applied climate scenario and glaciers in around half of all sites could almost entirely disappear by 2100 in a business-as-usual emissions scenario.The most important protective measure to counteract subs

14、tantial glacier retreat worldwide is to drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions.If emissions are drastically cut to limit global warming to 1.5C relative to pre-industrial levels,glaciers in two-thirds of World Heritage sites could be saved.At site level,adaptative measures need to be strengthen

15、ed to respond to inevitable glacier changes in the near future.These include identifying knowledge gaps and improving monitoring networks,designing and implementing early warning and disaster risk reduction measures,making glaciers a focus of targeted policy,and promoting knowledge exchange,stakehol

16、der engagement and communication.The successful implementation of these measures requires the mobilization of key stakeholders(e.g.,governments,civil society,Indigenous Peoples,local communities and the private sector)to develop sustainable financing and investments,notably through the establishment

17、 of an international fund for glacier research and monitoring.Limiting global warming to 1.5C could save glaciers in 2/3 of World Heritage sitesShort summaryWorld Heritage GlaciersSentinels of climate changeWorld Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change5Short Summary _ 4 1 World Heritage glacie

18、rs:keystones of life _ 61.1 The critical importance of glaciers for sustaining life on Earth _ 61.2 The dynamics of glaciers _ 71.3 World Heritage sites:hosting some of the planets most iconic glaciers_10 2 World Heritage glaciers in a changing climate _ 162.1 Glaciers in a warming climate_ 162.2 Si

19、gnificant ice mass loss and sea-level rise in the early 21st century _ 172.3 World Heritage glaciers accelerated melting_ 222.4 Disappearing World Heritage glaciers_ 23 3 Limiting global warming to 1.5C:a critical action to protect World Heritage glaciers_25 4 Conclusion _ 29 5 References _ 30 6 Rel

20、evant UNESCO policies,strategies and guidelines on World Heritage,glaciers and climate action _ 32ContentsWorld Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change6The critical importance of glaciers for sustaining life on EarthCovering about 10%of the planets surface,ice masses1 are crucial for sustainin

21、g life on Earth.Glacial ecosystems provide vital resources to a significant proportion of the global population because of their high biological diversity and ecosystem services such as sediment sinks,freshwater reservoirs and habitats for biodiversity.The benefits include freshwater for domestic us

22、e,agriculture,industry and hydropower,as well as climate regulation2,3.About 50%of the global biodiversity hotspots on the planet are located in basins drained by glaciers4 and contain a third of the entire terrestrial species diversity5.Often referred to as natural“water towers”,glaciers in mountai

23、ns provide lowlands with essential freshwater supply.The High Mountain ranges of Asia are covered by approximately 100,000 km of glacier ice and feed the great rivers of Central Asia(Amu Darya and Syr Darya)and South Asia(Brahmaputra,Ganges and Indus),Southeast Asia(Huang He,Mekong and Yangtze).The

24、Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets are the largest bodies of ice in the world and play an important role in the global climate system.They serve as a global thermostat regulating ocean circulation,and their white ice cover cools the atmosphere by reflecting sunlight(albedo effect).The benefits of gl

25、acial ecosystems are not solely physical and biological;they are also important to humans culturally.Glaciers carry huge cultural and spiritual significance for many Indigenous Peoples and local communities (Box 1)and provide economic and educational benefits through the recreation and tourism assoc

26、iated with them.1.1Box 1:Examples of the cultural importance of glaciers 11.World Heritage glaciers:keystones of lifeAccording to the Mori legend,Hine Hukatere(a Mori demigod)loved to climb mountains and convinced her love Wawe to join her on one of their climbs.During this climb,Wawe was swept away

27、 by an avalanche,never to be seen again.Hine Hukatere was heartbroken,and her grief caused her to cry rivers of tears that flowed down the mountain and froze to form the glacier that stands today.Franz Josef Glacier,or K Roimata Hine Hukatere(The Tears of Hine Hukatere)in the Te Wahipounamu South We

28、st New Zealand(New Zealand)7Every year,tens of thousands of pilgrims gather in the Peruvian Andes to celebrate Qoyllur Riti,or the Snow Star Festival.This centuries-old event is a native celebration of the stars to mark the start of the harvest season.It also honors a local glacier,which is held to

29、be sacred.Ukukus(spiritual leaders)used to cut blocks of ice from the glacier to share with the other pilgrims,believing the melted water had healing powers.However,they stopped this tradition after noting a decline in the glaciers size.The pilgrimage and associated festival were inscribed on the UN

30、ESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 20116.Jan Mika/S*Qoyllur Riti,or the Snow Star Festival in Peru National Institute of Culture(Peru),2004*1Antarctic ice sheet(8.3%of global land surface),Greenland ice sheet(1.2%of global land surface),and glaciers and ice c

31、aps(0.5%of global land surface)2Biemans et al.,20193Cook et al.20214UNEP and GRID-Arendal,20195Krner,20046https:/ich.unesco.org/en/RL/pilgrimage-to-the-sanctuary-of-the-lord-of-qoylluriti-005677https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/551/Huascarn National Park(Peru)Tainah Narducci/S*World Heritage Glaciers Se

32、ntinels of climate change7The dynamics of glaciersGlaciers are bodies of moving ice that develop as snow accumulated in cold places compacts and recrystallizes.The formation of a glacier takes decades to millennia,and its size varies depending on the amount of ice it retains throughout its lifespan.

33、Each year,glaciers gain and lose mass.They gain mass from snow and precipitation in their upper portions(accumulation zone)and lose mass in their lower portions(ablation zone)by partially melting in summer.In marine-terminating glaciers,they also lose mass by calving icebergs that float away.The bal

34、ance between accumulation and ablation is the mass balance of the glacier.If accumulation is greater than ablation,then the glacier has a positive mass balance and will advance.If ablation is greater than accumulation,then the glacier has a negative mass balance and will retreat(Figure 1).The glacie

35、r terminus is the end of a glacier at any given point in time.Changes in the terminus position are often used as an important indicator for monitoring the long-term dynamic behavior of glaciers.The rate of change of the glacier terminus position is determined by changes in glacier dynamics.For examp

36、le,an excess accumulation will lead to increasing glacier velocity and,ultimately,an advance of its front.In marine-terminating glaciers,ocean temperature also influences the stability of the terminus(the calving front)by melting the glacier below the water line and thinning the ice that is in conta

37、ct with the water.1.2Figure 1:Simplified diagram of glacier dynamicsSource:UNESCOWorld Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change88https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/16049https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/1557/Hoffellsjkull Glacier draining the Vatnajkull National Park(Iceland)8 ice cap Thorvardur Arnason

38、 Constrained glaciers,that have a morphology and flow pattern strongly dependent on underlying topography,e.g.ice field,cirque,valley,piedmont and tidewater glaciers.Types of constrained glaciersSource:PeakVisor Earths glaciers vary incredibly in their sizes and shapes,ranging from small cirque glac

39、iers to ice masses hundreds of meters thick in mountains and ice sheets.There are two main groups of glaciers:Unconstrained glaciers,that have a morphology and flow pattern largely independent of underlying topography,e.g.polar ice caps or the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets,World Heritage Glacie

40、rs Sentinels of climate change9Glaciers are a sensitive indicator of climate change and one that can be easily observed.Although there are around 200,000 glaciers on the planet,only a few hundred are currently monitored in-situ10 because they are often difficult to access.Satellite imagery has thus

41、become one of the most valuable methods to keep track of the worlds retreating glaciers(Box 2).Box 2:Monitoring the worlds glaciers using satellite imageryThe first attempts to compile a world glacier inventory were based mainly on aerial photographs and maps.Nowadays,satellite imagery is an importa

42、nt resource for global-scale glacier monitoring.Detailed and complete inventories of the worlds glaciers11 have been compiled with great effort over the last few decades.However,these inventories have been limited to glacier extent and surface elevation and do not provide certain key parameters such

43、 as glacier thickness.Recent research efforts have focused on establishing a consensus to better estimate glaciers ice thickness12.Knowing the thickness of glacier ice is critical for projections of future glacier changes(e.g.predicting the rate and timing of glacier retreat and disappearance),subse

44、quent effects on local and regional hydrologic cycles and global sea level,and the associated environmental and social impacts.Building on these efforts and using satellite-based data,researchers have created high-resolution digital elevation models of all the worlds glaciers and reconstructed a tim

45、e series of glacier surface elevation.This has permitted calculations of changes in the thickness and mass of the ice from 2000 to 202013.For the present report,the results were extracted for glaciers located in World Heritage sites.10Zemp et al.,201511Grtner-Roer et al.,202212Farinotti et al.,2019a

46、13Hugonnet et al.,2021 CNRS/Etienne BerthierWorld Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change1014Paragraph 49 of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention:https:/whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines/15897 cultural,218 natural and 39 mixed sites as of October 2022;l

47、ist available from https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/16https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/72/17https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/120/18https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/145/19https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/1149/20https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/119521https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/1252/22https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/16

48、04/23https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/40324https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/800/25https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/684/26https:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/63Glaciers have been identified in 50 sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List.Glaciers are one of the principal reasons justifying the inscription of certain

49、sites,including Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of America)16,Sagarmatha National Park(Nepal)17,Los Glaciares National Park(Argentina)18,Te Wahipounamu South West New Zealand(New Zealand),Swiss Alps JungfrauAletsch(Switzerland),Ilulissat Icefjord(Denmark)

50、19,West Norwegian Fjords Geirangerfjord and Nryfjord(Norway)20,Tajik National Park(Mountains of the Pamirs)(Tajikistan)21 and Vatnajkull National Park Dynamic Nature of Fire and Ice(Iceland)22.In around 30 other World Heritage sites,glaciers contribute,together with other features,to the justificati

51、on for inscription on the List.Today the UNESCO World Heritage List includes the site with the fastest glacier and largest iceberg producer in the world(Jakobshavn Isbr Glacier in Ilulissat Icefjord in Denmark),the longest glacier outside polar ice sheets(Bering Glacier in Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/G

52、lacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek in Canada and the United States of America),the highest glacier system(next to Mount Everest in Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal),the last remaining glaciers in Africa(on Mount Kilimanjaro23 in the United Republic of Tanzania,Mount Kenya National Park/Natural Forest24

53、in Kenya,Rwenzori Mountains National Park25 in Uganda and the Virunga National Park26 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo)and some of the largest glaciers of Alaska,Central Asia,Central Europe,New Zealand and the Southern Andes(Box 4).World Heritage sites:hosting some of the planets most iconic

54、glaciersAdopted in 1972,the UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage(World Heritage Convention)has,to date,been ratified by 194 States united in a shared objective to protect and cherish the worlds most outstanding natural and cultural heritage (Box 3).U

55、nder this unique international Convention,more than a thousand natural,cultural and mixed(both natural and cultural)sites are currently recognized for their Outstanding Universal Value “cultural and/or natural significance which is so exceptional as to transcend national boundaries and to be of comm

56、on importance for present and future generations of all humanity”14 and inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List15.1.3World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change11 UNESCO/Daniel CorreiaBox 3:World Heritage Convention:one of the most successful international instruments for nature conserva

57、tionThe World Heritage Convention is considered one of the most important,efficient and representative area-based global nature conservation programmes.World Heritage sites are among the places with the highest levels of legal protection and expected to demonstrate the best management practices.More

58、 than 3.5 million km(roughly the surface area of India)of land and sea are currently protected under the World Heritage Convention,whose implementation relies notably on the following27:A thorough science-based monitoring systemThe World Heritage Convention has an unparalleled system to monitor the

59、state of conservation of sites28 in order to identify and address emerging conservation issues that could have an impact on the Outstanding Universal Value of the sites.It draws on the expertise of a global network of heritage practitioners,like its technical Advisory Bodies on nature(IUCN)and cultu

60、re(ICCROM and ICOMOS),thus ensuring scientific credibility,consistency and objectivity.Action on the ground The World Heritage Convention inspires communities and nations to do more to recognize and preserve natural heritage.UNESCO provides technical assistance,builds capacity and supports on-the-gr

61、ound projects to address threats and promote effective management that ensure the highest level of protection for all UNESCO World Heritage sites.Partnership for sustainable development The World Heritage Convention recognizes heritage as a shared asset of humanity that should benefit current and fu

62、ture generations.Its implementation requires close alignment with the aims of sustainable development and international cooperation,led by States Parties in partnership with many stakeholders,notably the UNESCO World Heritage Centre,the Advisory Bodies to the World Heritage Committee29,civil society

63、,Indigenous Peoples,local communities and the private sector.27https:/whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines/28State of Conservation Information System:https:/whc.unesco.org/en/soc/29The World Heritage Committee is one of the governing bodies of the Convention.It consists of representatives from 21 of the Sta

64、tes Parties.Among its mission,it decides whether a site is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List,examines reports on the state of conservation of inscribed properties and asks States Parties to take action when sites are not being properly managed.Against a backdrop of ice blocks and the Lampl

65、ugh Glacier,representatives from Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve(United States of America)and West Norwegian Fjords-Geirangerfjord and Nryfjord(Norway)signed a Partnership Agreement in September 2019 to share best practices between site managers,including management plans,research and monitor

66、ing protocolsWorld Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change12With elevations up to 4,900 m at its terminus and fed by many hanging glaciers located above 8,000 m,the Khumbu Glacier,not far from the Mount Everest base camp in Sagarmatha National Park(Nepal),is part of the worlds highest glacier

67、system.Arsgera/S*Mount Kilimanjaro(United Republic of Tanzania),Mount Kenya National Park/National Forest(Kenya),Rwenzori Mountains National Park(Uganda)and Virunga National Park(Democratic Republic of the Congo)feature the last remaining glaciers in Africa.Although these glaciers are too small to a

68、ct as significant water reservoirs,they are of eminent scientific and cultural importance and attract thousands of tourists every year.Hyserb/S*Box 4:Some outstanding World Heritage glaciersThe Jakobshavn Isbr Glacier(also known as Sermeq Kujalleq)in Ilulissat Icefjord(Denmark)is one of the most act

69、ive glaciers in the world moving several tenths of meters per day.It drains approximately 6.5%of the Greenland ice sheet and produces around 10%of all Greenlands icebergs.It is believed that the iceberg that hit the Titanic in 1912 broke off from this glacier.Studied for over 250 years,the Jakobshav

70、n Isbr Glacier has helped develop the modern understanding of climate change and ice sheet science.Ralph Rozema/S*The Fedchenko Glacier in Tajik National Park(Tajikistan)is the largest valley glacier in Central Asia.It currently extends over 70 km,making it the longest glacier in the world outside o

71、f the polar ice sheets.Covering an area of over 700 km,the glacier may reach a maximum thickness of 1 km.Michal Knitl/S*World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change13The Malaspina Glacier in southeastern Alaska in Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of

72、 America)is the largest piedmont glacier in the world,a type of glacier in which the flow spills from a narrow valley onto a flat plain and spreads out like a fan.The glacier is about 65 km wide and 45 km long,with an area of some 3,900 km.Source:Google Earth,24 September 2014(NASA Earth Observatory

73、 website)The Great Aletsch Glacier in Swiss Alps Jungfrau-Aletsch(Switzerland),known widely by its German name Grosser Aletschgletscher,is the largest glacier in the Alps.The glacier is remarkable for creating a canyon that looks like a man-made road down the slopes to the valley.Some of the highest

74、 and most visited peaks in Europe are found in this region.KONDRATEV ALEXEY/S*Los Glaciares National Park(Argentina)is an area of exceptional natural beauty,with rugged,towering mountains and numerous glacial lakes,including Lake Argentino,which is 160 km long.At its farthest end,three glaciers(Upsa

75、la,Onelli and Perito Moreno)meet.saiko3p/S*World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change14Around 18,600 glaciers have been identified in World Heritage sites and span an area of about 66,000 km,representing almost 10%of the Earths glacierized area30(Table 1).From very small cirque glaciers(les

76、s than 10 km)to large ice caps(more than 1000 km),all types of glaciers can be found in World Heritage sites.Most World Heritage glaciers are situated in mountain regions outside the polar ice sheets(Figure 2)31,32.The World Heritage site with both the largest glacierized area and number of glaciers

77、 is Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of America),which accounts for approximately 60%of the total glacierized area and 30%of glaciers in World Heritage sites,respectively.The region33 with the largest glacierized area and number of glaciers in World Herita

78、ge sites is Europe and North America(53,068 km and 9,540 glaciers)followed by Asia and the Pacific(9,704 km and 7,904 glaciers),Latin America and the Caribbean(3,212 km and 1,119 glaciers)and Africa(16 km and 37 glaciers).Table 1:World Heritage sites ranked by glacierized area and number of glaciers

79、30Calculated based on GLIMS and NSIDC(2005,updated 2018)31Only two sites are situated in Greenland,Denmark(Aasivissuit Nipisat and Ilulissat Icefjord)32No sites in Antarctica(the worlds largest continental ice sheet,covering around 14 million km)have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List;

80、the Convention does not apply to that region because it is out of national jurisdiction.According to Article 3 of the Convention,only properties situated on the territory of a sovereign State can be inscribed.33UNESCO organizes its Member States into five regional groups:Africa,Arab States,Asia and

81、the Pacific,Europe and North America,and Latin America and the Caribbean.RankGlacierized area in 2000Number of glaciersAll World Heritage glacierized sites(50)66,000 km18,6001Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of America)(39,074 km)Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/G

82、lacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of America)(6,107)2Vatnajkull National Park Dynamic Nature of Fire and Ice(Iceland)(8,137 km)Tajik National Park(Mountains of the Pamirs)(Tajikistan)(3,934)3Tajik National Park(Mountains of the Pamirs)(Tajikistan)(5,117 km)Te Wahipounamu South West

83、New Zealand(New Zealand)(2,278)4Ilulissat Icefjord(Denmark)(2,960 km)Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks(Canada)(878)5Los Glaciares National Park(Argentina)(2,612 km)Huascaran National Park(Peru)(563)6Xinjiang Tianshan(China)(1,925 km)Xinjiang Tianshan(China)(467)7Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks(Canada)(973

84、 km)Golden Mountains of Altai(Russian Federation)(432)8Te Wahipounamu South West New Zealand(New Zealand)(884 km)Waterton Glacier International Peace Park(Canada,United States of America)(407)9Qinghai Hoh Xil(China)(724 km)Qinghai Hoh Xil(China)(362)10Aasivissuit Nipisat Inuit Hunting Ground between

85、 Ice and Sea(Denmark)(700 km)Los Glaciares National Park(Argentina)(340)World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change15Figure 2:Map of World Heritage glacierized sitesNote:Zones in purple correspond to glacierized areas.Source:GLIMS and NSIDC(2005,updated 2018).World Heritage Glaciers Sentinel

86、s of climate change16Ilulissat Icefjord(Denmark)Michal Balada/S*World Heritage glaciers in a changing climate 2Glaciers in a warming climateAmong the most dramatic evidence that Earths climate is warming is the retreat of glaciers around the world.Glacial changes have important implications for wate

87、r availability in relation to a wide array of ecosystem processes and human uses.The annual melting of glaciers provides meltwater to streams and downstream communities for their daily lives.As temperatures rise due to climate change,the amount of meltwater that glaciers produce will increase and mo

88、re water from long-term glacial storage will be released.However,this increase is temporary.Once a maximum meltwater contribution(peak water)is reached,annual runoff is then reduced as the glacier shrinks beyond a size where it is no longer able to produce a large volume of meltwater(Figure 3).In a

89、future scenario,where glaciers continue to recede,one can assume that most of the runoff will be concentrated in the wetter times of the year,while little to no base flow will be available during the dryer periods.As such,glaciers might no longer be able to provide their buffering role in years of h

90、eat waves and drought.For many small glaciers in the Andes,Central Europe and Western Canada,peak water either has passed or is expected to occur within the next decade34.In the Himalayas,annual glacier runoff is projected to rise until roughly 2050,followed by a steady decline thereafter35.2.1Figur

91、e 3:Schematic illustration of the changes in glacier runoff and volume in response to global warmingSource:Adapted from Huss and Hock,201834Huss and Hock,201835Kraaijenbrink et al.,2021World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change17The decrease in glacier runoff is likely to have negative impa

92、cts on agricultural production and food security and result in water stress that could be exacerbated by increasing demand for water due to expanding farmland to feed a growing population36.Changes in glacier runoff could also impact hydropower production.An estimate from one of Perus largest hydrop

93、ower plants,Canon del Pato,suggested that there could be a reduction of 15%in the plants energy production in the case where glaciers disappear completely37.Besides these impacts,glacier changes will lead to plant and animal species shifting ranges to adapt to the changing habitat38.The accelerated

94、glacier and snow melt due to climate change will increase the formation of glacial lakes39.These lakes are formed when meltwater fills depressions or holes created on the surface of the land by glacial erosion.Glacial lake expansion may foster positive and negative impacts.On the one hand,these lake

95、s can provide important ecosystem services.On the other hand,they can trigger glacial hazards40.The banks of such lakes(moraines)may collapse when they fill up leading to sudden and violent flooding in the downstream valleys.Floods of this sort,referred to as glacial lake outburst floods(GLOFs),can

96、have disastrous consequences for the populations and biodiversity of the entire regions downstream of the lakes.Such collapses not only trigger floods but can also alter water quality due to high sediment loading and damage key downstream infrastructure41.As temperatures rise and ice melts,more wate

97、r flows to the seas from glaciers and ice caps.Ocean water gets warmer and expands in volume.This combination of effects plays a major role in raising the average sea level.In marine-terminating glaciers,glacial retreat and melting can trigger landslide-induced tsunamis42.In addition,as more ice mel

98、ts,more darker surfaces will appear,leading to more heat being absorbed,hence amplifying the cycle of warming43.Climate change impacts and risks are becoming increasingly complex and more difficult to manage.Multiple climate hazards can occur simultaneously,and multiple climatic and non-climatic ris

99、ks can interact,resulting in compounding overall risk and in risks cascading across sectors and regions44.For instance,the devastating flooding in Pakistan in August 2022 that left almost one-third of the country under water is reported to have been triggered by a combination of heavier-than-usual m

100、onsoon rains.Locally,impacts of the flood may have been enhanced by glacier lake outbursts due to melting glaciers following a severe heat wave in spring.45.36Lutz et al.,202237Vergara et al.,200738Cauvy-Frauni and Dangles,201939Compagno et al.,202240Zheng et al.,202141Farinotti et al.2019b42Higman

101、et al.,201843Pistone et al.,201444IPCC,202245Pakistan Meteorological Department,202246Estimated based on Hugonnet et al.,2021 and Mouginot et al.,201947European Environment Agency,202248NASA Sea Level Change,https:/sealevel.nasa.gov/understanding-sea-level/key-indicators/global-mean-sea-levelSignifi

102、cant ice mass loss and sea-level rise in the early 21st century2.2All glacierized World Heritage sites had a negative mass balance from 2000 to 2020,meaning that they lost more ice than they gained.Overall,World Heritage glaciers lost around 1,163 billion tonnes(Gt)of ice during that period46,repres

103、enting on average some 58 billion tonnes of ice per yearan amount equivalent to the total annual volume of water consumed in France and Spain together47.Assuming that all meltwater ultimately reached the ocean,ice loss in World Heritage sites caused around 4.5%of the observed global sea-level rise f

104、rom 2000 to 202048 some 3.22 millimetres.Net ice mass loss in World Heritage sites over those two decades occurred in all regions across the world and was mainly concentrated in the Arctic region(glaciers peripherical to the Greenland ice sheet and Iceland)and North America(Table 2).Around two-third

105、s of the World Heritage networks ice mass loss occurred in glaciers outside the polar ice sheets.World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change18Table 2:Largest net ice mass losses in World Heritage sites from 2000 to 2020 and equivalent sea-level riseSiteGlacier region(According to the Randolp

106、h Glacier Inventory)Net ice mass loss from 2000 to 2020 in billion tonnes(Gt)Equivalent sea-level rise from 2000 to 2020(mm)All World Heritage glacierized sites(50)1,1633.221Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of America)Alaska4871.352Ilulissat Icefjord(Denma

107、rk)Arctic(Greenland ice sheet)3500.973Vatnajkull National Park Dynamic Nature of Fire and Ice(Iceland)Arctic(Iceland)1320.374Los Glaciares National Park(Argentina)Southern Andes880.245Aasivissuit Nipisat Inuit Hunting Ground between Ice and Sea(Denmark)Arctic(Greenland ice sheet)390.116Tajik Nationa

108、l Park(Mountains of the Pamirs)(Tajikistan)Central Asia120.037Te Wahipounamu South West New Zealand(New Zealand)New Zealand100.038Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks(Canada)Western Canada and USA90.029Swiss Alps Jungfrau-Aletsch(Switzerland)Central Europe70.0110Xinjiang Tianshan(China)Central Asia40.01Sou

109、rce:Analysis(Box 4)of Hugonnet et al.,2021 data in World Heritage sites outside the polar ice sheets.Results for the two sites located in Greenland were estimated using Mouginot et al.,2019.Results should be taken with caution given existing uncertainties.The site with the largest net ice mass loss

110、from 2000 to 2020 was Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of America)(487 Gt),followed by Ilulissat Icefjord(Denmark)(350 Gt),Vatnajkull National Park Dynamic Nature of Fire and Ice(Iceland)(132 Gt),Los Glaciares National Park(Argentina)(88 Gt)and Aasivissuit

111、 Nipisat(Denmark)(39 Gt).These five sites together account for around 95%of the World Heritage networks total ice mass loss.Many sites that made a limited contribution to the World Heritages overall total ice loss still lost a considerable amount of their glacier mass(Figure 4).At least one-fifth of

112、 all sites lost more than 25%of their glacier mass in just 20 years(Table 3).World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change19Figure 4:Glacier retreat observed by satellite imagery in selected World Heritage sites Source:U.S.Geological SurveySource:AGU BlogosphereSource:Adapted from ESAFebruary

113、2000July 2019Landsat images from 21 February 2000(left)and 27 July 2019(right)illustrating glacier retreat on top of Mount Kilimanjaro(United Republic of Tanzania)Landsat images from 1999,2016 and 2021 illustrating both the retreat and the separation of the Upsala Glacier(U)from Bertacchi Glacier(B)

114、in Los Glaciares National Park(Argentina).Cono Glacier(C)is the next tributary to the north.Copernicus Sentinel-2 image from 29 April 2019 of Jakobshavn Isbr Glacier in Ilulissat Icefjord(Denmark).The red arrow shows the glaciers terminus position in 2000,the orange arrow the 2010 position and the y

115、ellow arrow the 2019 position.World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change20Intense glacier retreat has already affected local hydrology and landscape configuration in some sites.For instance,the expansion of glacial lakes in Tajik National Park(Tajikistan)49,and tsunamis and changes in river

116、 flow in Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of America)have been associated with glacier retreat50.For instance,a massive landslide in Wrangell-St.Elias National Park and Preserve generated a tsunami that stripped 20km of forest and reached elevations as hig

117、h as 190 m,the fourth-highest tsunami ever recorded(Figure 5).However,local impacts and direct observations of how glacier changes affect biological communities in most World Heritage sites remain poorly documented because of the remote and lightly populated character of many of these sites.49Osipov

118、a et al.,2020 50Loso et al.,2021Figure 5:Impacts of the 2015 landslide and tsunami in Wrangell-St.Elias National Park and Preserve(United States of America).The person in the photo is standing just below the limit of inundation 2 km away from the Tyndall Glacier terminus at about 190m above the fjor

119、d level.Source:Higman et al.,2018World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change21Table 3:Glacier ice losses relative to 2000 in World Heritage sitesRankCodeSiteGlacierized area(km)Mass in 2000(Gt)Mass loss relative to 2000(%)1YuThree Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas(China)170.357.22LaL

120、os Alerces National Park(Argentina)541.445.63UvUvs Nuur Basin(Mongolia,Russian Federation)822.837.04SiSichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries Wolong,Mt Siguniang and Jiajin Mountains(China)280.735.95NfWest Norwegian Fjords Geirangerfjord and Naeroyfjord(Norway)240.933.26TsWestern Tien-Shan(Kazakhstan,Kyrgyz

121、stan,Uzbekistan)240.627.17OlOlympic National Park(United States of America)391.326.58WgWaterton Glacier International Peace Park(Canada,United States of America)420.726.59JaSwiss Alps Jungfrau-Aletsch(Switzerland)31925.725.910LpLaponian Area(Sweden)1809.525.711MaGolden Mountains of Altai(Russian Fed

122、eration)23910.419.812TwTe Wahipounamu-South West New Zealand(New Zealand)88453.919.213KaVolcanoes of Kamchatka(Russian Federation)29621.916.614GhGreat Himalayan National Park Conservation Area(India)1557.016.015RmCanadian Rocky Mountain Parks(Canada)97359.415.916HuHuascarn National Park(Peru)49317.9

123、15.217SaSagarmatha National Park(Nepal)24916.714.718KhKhangchendzonga National Park(India)28416.213.019LgLos Glaciares National Park(Argentina)2,612687.612.920NdNanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks(India)19410.810.521MpHistoric Sanctuary of Machu Picchu(Peru)150.48.022SgSangay National Pa

124、rk(Ecuador)391.07.323QhQinghai Hoh Xil(China)72454.06.024KwKluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of America)39,0749,295.05.225VaVatnajkull National Park-Dynamic Nature of Fire and Ice(Iceland)8,1372,704.04.926XtXinjiang Tianshan(China)1,925124.03.327TaTajik Nat

125、ional Park(Mountains of the Pamirs)(Tajikistan)5,117380.73.2Source:Analysis(Box 4)of Hugonnet et al.,2021 data in World Heritage sites outside the polar ice sheets.Ice mass in 2000 was estimated based on Farinotti et al.,2019a.Sites with glacierized area 10,000 km(1 sites)Ice loss relative to 2000(%

126、)0246810-20-2020World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change2353 Huss and Hock,2015Figure 7:Temporal evolution of glacier ice loss rates in World Heritage sites,2000-2020Note:All the sites listed experienced glacier mass loss from 2000 to 2020 but at different ra

127、tes.Values on the Y-axis correspond to the ratio of ice loss rates from 2000 to 2020.A site with a ratio of 2 means that ice loss rates doubled during this period.Positive values mean that glacier ice loss accelerated,and negative values show it decelerated.Codes in the X-axis represent World Herita

128、ge sites as indicated in Table 3.Disappearing World Heritage glaciers2.4During the last decade,various global glacier evolution models have been used to provide estimates on the future sea-level contribution from glaciers53.Independent of the emission scenario applied,glaciers and ice sheets are exp

129、ected to continue losing ice mass and remain important contributors to global sea-level rise in the 21st century.Glaciers and ice caps,excluding the large polar ice sheets,are projected to lose about 30%of their mass during this century for a low greenhouse gas emission scenario corresponding to a 1

130、.5C global warming(Representative Concentration Pathway RCP 2.6)and about 60%for the current business-as-usual high-emission scenario corresponding to global warming higher than 4C(RCP8.5)54.The magnitude of the relative ice melt will strongly depend on the size of the glaciers.The most noticeable i

131、mpact will be on small glaciers,as they rapidly respond to climatic variations,while impacts on larger glaciers will take longer.54IPCC,2019Ratio of ice loss ratesWorld Heritage sites0246810-2-4YuLaTwTsSgNdXtKaKhRmSiUvTaKwQhHuSaLgMaJaVaMpGhOlNfLpWgWorld Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change2

132、4A first attempt to compute the individual responses of World Heritage glaciers was recently undertaken55.Projections indicate that,regardless of the applied climate scenario,glaciers in all World Heritage sites outside the polar ice sheets with glacierized areas less than 10 km may almost completel

133、y disappear by 205056.This represents around one-third of all World Heritage glacierized sites and includes the last remaining glaciers in Africa(on Mount Kilimanjaro,Mount Kenya and the Rwenzori-Virunga mountains)as well as other iconic sites in Europe and North America such as the Dolomites(Italy)

134、,Pyrnes Mont Perdu(France,Spain),Yellowstone National Park and Yosemite National Park(United States of America).In a business-as-usual high-emission scenario(RCP8.5),glaciers in at least 10 other sites57(mainly sites with a glacierized area ranging from 10 to 100 km)could almost completely disappear

135、 by 2100,and ice mass loss may reach more than 8,000 Gt58 in total(or around 20 mm sea-level rise equivalent)an amount equal to the volume of water that could submerge the entire surface area of Brazil under one meter.However,if emissions are cut to limit global warming to 1.5C(RCP2.6),ice mass loss

136、 could be reduced by around 30%compared to a business-as-usual scenario,and glaciers in two-thirds of World Heritage glacierized sites could be saved.These results emphasize the strong influence the reduction of emissions could have on the magnitude of ice loss and on World Heritage glaciers preserv

137、ation.55Bosson et al.,201956The Dolomites(Italy),Durmitor National Park(Montenegro),Huanlong Scenic and Historic Interest Area(China),Hyrcanian Forests(Iran),Kilimanjaro National Park(Tanzania),Lorentz National Park(Indonesia),Mount Kenya National Park/Natural Forest(Kenya),Nahanni National Park(Can

138、ada),Natural System of Wrangel Island Reserve(Russian Federation),Putorana Plateau(Russian Federation),Pyrnes-Mont Perdu(France,Spain),Rwenzori Mountains National Park(Uganda),Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona(Switzerland),Virgin Komi Forests(Russian Federation),Virunga National Park(Democratic Republic

139、of the Congo),Yellowstone National Park(United States of America)and Yosemite National Park(United States of America).57 Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu(Peru),Los Alerces National Park(Argentina),Olympic National Park(United States of America),Sangay National Park(Ecuador),Sichuan Giant Panda San

140、ctuary Wolong Mt Siguniang and Jiajin Mountains(China),Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas(China),Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park(Canada,United States of America),West Norwegian Fjords Geirangerfjord and Nryfjord(Norway),Western Caucasus(Russian Federation)and Western Tien-Shan

141、(Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Uzbekistan).58Estimates from Choi et al.,2021 were adapted for the two sites in Greenland and added to those of Bosson et al.,2019.World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change25The Dolomites(Italy)beerchatdanai/S*Limiting global warming to 1.5C:a critical action to prot

142、ect World Heritage glaciers3The main action to counteract substantial glacier retreat worldwide due to climate change is to drastically cut greenhouse gas emissions to limit global warming to 1.5C in line with the Paris Agreement agreed under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

143、(UNFCCC).In its Decision 41 COM 7,the World Heritage Committee,as the Governing Body of the World Heritage Convention,reiterated to the States Parties to the Convention the importance of“undertaking the most ambitious implementation of the Paris Agreement”by“holding the increase in the global averag

144、e temperature to well below 2C above pre-industrial levels and by pursuing efforts to limit the global average temperature increase to 1.5C above pre-industrial levels,recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change”.The Committee further invited“all States P

145、arties to ratify the Paris Agreement at the earliest possible opportunity and to undertake actions to address Climate Change under the Paris Agreement consistent with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities,in the light of different national circumstances,that ar

146、e fully consistent with their obligations within the World Heritage Convention to protect the Outstanding Universal Value of all World Heritage properties”59.To protect the Outstanding Universal Value,integrity and authenticity of World Heritage sites from the adverse impacts of climate change,UNESC

147、O and its partners have developed several institutional policies,strategies and guidelines for climate action(see list at end of report)including a dedicated policy on climate action for World Heritage,which is currently being updated.The policy document provides a framework for developing action pl

148、ans at the site level.In line with this framework,the following pathways for action are proposed to foster discussion on how to reduce emissions most efficiently and to respond to inevitable changes in World Heritage glacierized sites,with the understanding that implementation must be tailored to lo

149、cal physical,cultural and societal contexts.Identify knowledge gaps and improve monitoring networksGlacier monitoring is in many ways the starting point to assess different downstream impacts and develop effective response measures.Continuous in-situ observations and monitoring of glaciers are lacki

150、ng in numerous sites and many aspects of glacial changes still remain highly uncertain(e.g.glacial lakes)due to limited monitoring networks.Reasons include missing long-term financial and/or human resources,difficult access to remote regions,and a lack of infrastructure.Monitoring strategies therefo

151、re need to be improved and different techniques such as in-situ measurements,remote sensing,satellite data and modelling must be combined to generate high-quality products.Improved data-gathering infrastructure is needed to monitor climate change at glaciers,including for example establishing a netw

152、ork of automated weather stations at high elevations and additional on-site monitoring.On the modelling front,more detailed climate change projections,relying on a variety of models and several different emissions scenarios are needed,particularly considering that climate change impacts are dispropo

153、rtionately high in mountains.Modelling should also include assessing the types of habitats that could succeed glaciers in the future.In addition,monitoring strategies need to be more inclusive and proactively involve Indigenous Peoples and local communities.They should use co-production approaches,a

154、cknowledge the value of traditional research practices and recognize local and indigenous knowledge systems.59Decision 41 COM 7 of the World Heritage Committee:https:/whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/6940World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change26Design and implement early warning and disaster

155、risk reduction measuresComprehensive and successful adaptation actions addressing disasters must be built on a robust foundation of the best available understanding of current and future glacier evolution.The modernization of hydrometeorological networks and disaster response capacities,as well as a

156、ctions by humanitarian agencies and research organizations contribute to risk reduction.Many national governments and international partners recognize the dangers of hazards such as glacial lake outburst floods and support monitoring and response measures.However,the number of World Heritage sites w

157、ith established policies,plans or processes for managing or reducing risks associated with disasters remains low60,and disaster response mechanisms focus solely on response,rather than prevention,communication or early warning.Local populations within and in the vicinity of many sites remain under-e

158、quipped,untrained and uninformed about nearby glacial hazards.Adaptation measures should therefore focus on implementing preventive measures,including for example creating vulnerability assessment and risk exposure maps,developing local risk plans,regulating land-use planning,and creating early warn

159、ing systems to be complemented by comprehensive education and awareness programmes.For instance,in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve,one of the components of Kluane/Wrangell-St.Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek(Canada,United States of America),where tsunamis resulting from increased calving

160、rates or landslides associated with glacial retreat present a risk to local communities,tsunami hazard preparedness and community awareness programmes have been promoted,and efforts are underway to increase the number of coastal communities that are labeled as“Tsunami Ready”61.Make glaciers a focus

161、of targeted adaptation policyDespite their critical role in environmental sustainability,national adaptation policies rarely recognize the unique problems and challenges related to glaciers.Glaciers around the world are protected,either as part of their environmental protection schemes(e.g.embedded

162、in land-use plans)or through specific legislation unto itself62.However,few countries possess an adequate legal and regulatory framework or public policy to protect glaciers.Laws written specifically to protect glaciers have only recently been considered within national political agendas.For instanc

163、e,Argentina became the first country in the world to adopt a Glacier Protection Act in 2010.Given the importance of glaciers for water security,approaches and strategies for integrated water resources management should be developed and updated,taking into consideration new information and trends on

164、glaciers.On-going efforts to raise awareness of the importance of glaciers in international fora should continue and be strengthened.In 2019,the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)launched a special report on the ocean and cryosphere63,which will provide more detailed information on glac

165、iers to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report(AR6)to be released in early 2023.More recently,Tajikistan called on the international community at the 77th Session of the United Nations General Assembly in 2022 to adopt a resolution declaring 2025 as an international year for glaciers preservation and esta

166、blish a specialized“International Fund for Glacier Preservation”64 to support comprehensive 60 https:/whc.unesco.org/en/review/7461 TsunamiReady Program:https:/www.weather.gov/tsunamiready/62 Cox,201663 IPCC,201964 Statement by Mr.Sirojiddin Muhriddin,Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of T

167、ajikistan,at the General Debates of the 77th Session of the United Nations General Assembly World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change27research and develop effective response measures.At the regional level,initiatives by the Arctic Council65 and under the Antarctic Treaty have been coordin

168、ating international actions to address the effects of climate and environmental changes in the polar regions.In Europe,the eight states(Austria,France,Germany,Italy,Liechtenstein,Monaco,Slovenia and Switzerland)that ratified the Alpine Convention have also undertaken specific actions for glaciers pr

169、eservation.However,a similar solid framework for the protection of mountain ranges in the Americas and Asia does not exist yet and should therefore be explored.World Heritage can play an important role in climate adaptation strategies.Recognising and including World Heritage in adaptation approaches

170、 and policies from site level to national and international levels can strengthen actions to adapt and build resilience to climate change.Promote knowledge exchange,stakeholder engagement and communicationStrengthening community adaptation and resilience to climate change is reliant upon effective e

171、ngagement of stakeholders and rights-holders.In particular,Indigenous Peoples and local communities are on the frontline of climate change and will be the first to experience its adverse impacts.They have been constantly adapting to the effects of environmental stresses for millennia and have thus d

172、eveloped sophisticated approaches towards the management of resources in their local ecosystems,many of which are embedded in culture,traditional practices and belief systems,allowing them to adapt to climate change by forecasting weather patterns,improving agricultural practices and sustainably man

173、aging natural resources.While the risks they face are manifold,Indigenous Peoples and local communities are becoming increasingly recognized as agents of change in achieving strong and meaningful climate action.Most recently,the IPCC acknowledged Indigenous Peoples and local communities as key partn

174、ers to“support the implementation of ambitious actions implied by limiting global warming to 1.5C”66.World Heritage sites offer a unique opportunity to recognize and involve Indigenous Peoples and local communities as effective stewards of glaciers through enhanced climate action governance processe

175、s and to improve diverse knowledge mobilisation,education,awareness raising,and human and institutional capacity in relation to the risks and responses arising from climate change impacts.This could include,among other actions,establishing community-based monitoring programmes and the development of

176、 processes that involve Indigenous Peoples and local communities in the collection of data and information used for adaptation planning at all levels.As such,when a wide diversity of stakeholders(including municipalities,rural communities,civil society,private sector,national governments,etc.)in a g

177、lacial ecosystem have greater awareness of its dependence on glacial meltwater,they can be prompted to adapt to the changes occurring and to prepare for some of the hazards that come with glacial decline,like short-term flooding and long-term drought.World Heritage site managers also constitute a fl

178、agship network of heritage custodians to be empowered to share experiences through site-to-site field visits,e-communication and global managers conferences.65 The Arctic Council is a high-level intergovernmental forum established in 1996 by eight Arctic states(Canada,Denmark,Finland,Iceland,Norway,

179、the Russian Federation,Sweden and the United States of America)to promote cooperation,coordination and interaction among the Arctic states,Arctic Indigenous Peoples and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues,in particular those of sustainable development and environmental protection in the

180、 Arctic.66 IPCC,2018World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change28“Climate change impacts on mountain regions of the world”,an exhibition on the changes occurring in mountainous regions,was displayed in several locations around the globe,reaching vulnerable communities.Box 5:UNESCOs action to

181、 protect glaciers worldwideUNESCO has been advocating for the protection of glaciers for more than 50 years.During the early 1960s,UNESCO supported the compilation and assemblage of data of the first worldwide inventory of existing ice and snow masses67.Since then,UNESCO has developed several initia

182、tives on glaciers around the world,particularly in the Andean region and in Central Asia(see list at end of report).Activities focus,for example,on providing a scientific basis for national and regional strategies on climate adaptation promoting regional platforms to share knowledge and best practic

183、es,on assessing risks to local communities of hazards such as landslides and glacier lake outburst floods,and on promoting indigenous and local knowledge systems,as well as research,education and capacity development to assess the impact of climate change on glaciers.UNESCO has also been proactively

184、 supporting international scientific ATLASWATERANDEANTHETHE IMPACT OF GLACIER RETREATON WATER RESOURCESANDGLACIERA Centre collaborating withUN EnvironmentUNESCOPublishingUnited NationsEducational,Scientific andCultural OrganizationThe Andean Glacier and Water Atlas was published by UNESCO in 2018.67

185、 UNESCO and IASH,197068 https:/unesco.delegfrance.org/Inauguration-du-colloque-de-lancement-international-de-Ice-Memory-a-l-UNESCO69 Records of the General Conference,41st session,Paris,9-24 November 2021,Volume 1:Resolutions.https:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380399 UNESCO/Lima Uhryn Larysa

186、/S*research and monitoring initiatives,such as the World Glacier Monitoring Service(WGMS),and the Ice Memory project which aims at collecting,saving and managing ice cores from glaciers in danger of degradation or disappearance68.In 2021,UNESCOs main governing body-the General Conference adopted a r

187、esolution69 calling Member States,international organizations,academic institutions,professional organizations and other relevant stakeholders to strengthen mountain glacier monitoring and research,particularly in UNESCO-designated sites(World Heritage sites,Biosphere Reserves and UNESCO Global Geop

188、arks).Wild red tulips blooming in the Chatkal Mountain range in Western Tian Shan(Western Tien-Shan(Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Uzbekistan)World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change29Vatnajkull National Park-Dynamic Nature of Fire and Ice(Iceland)Kathleen Herman/S*Conclusion4Climate change will i

189、nevitably cause glaciers in World Heritage sites to keep retreating,and many will even disappear.These glacial retreats will impact biodiversity and human societies and could directly affect the Outstanding Universal Value of sites that have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their

190、 exceptional glaciers.As stated above,glaciers in one-third of World Heritage sites will disappear by 2050 regardless of the applied climate scenario and glaciers in around half of all sites could almost entirely disappear by 2100 in a business-as-usual emissions scenario.The most important protecti

191、ve measure to counteract substantial glacier retreat worldwide is to drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions.Research efforts have demonstrated that the difference in impact between low and high greenhouse gas emission pathways on 21st-century glacier retreat and its related effects is enormous.

192、If emissions are drastically cut to limit global warming to 1.5C relative to pre-industrial levels,glaciers in two-thirds of World Heritage sites could be saved.At site-level,adaptative measures need to be strengthened to respond to inevitable glacier changes in the near future.In a global context w

193、here the legal and regulatory framework on glaciers is still limited,World Heritage sites represent a unique model system for examining the effects of global warming,raising awareness on the importance of glaciers and catalyzing enhanced climate action to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement under

194、the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCC).The high profile,global reach and inspirational power of these sites underpin a strong case to mobilize key stakeholders(e.g.governments,civil society,Indigenous Peoples,local communities and the private sector)to take climate action a

195、nd develop inclusive strategies that integrate different types of knowledge systems,including scientific and traditional knowledge.New inscriptions of sites could also contribute to raising awareness at both the global and local levels on the key role World Heritage glaciers can play in environmenta

196、l sustainability.While the UNESCO World Heritage List already covers most of the largest and iconic glacier systems,there are still several areas across the world that could be potential future candidates(e.g.Torres del Paine and Bernardo OHiggins National Parks in Chile,China Altay and Karakorum-Pa

197、mir in China and Central Karakorum National Park in Pakistan70)71.Lack of sustainable funding is among one of the most prevalent issues hampering the effective protection and management of all World Heritage sites72.Hence,there is an acute need to bridge the funding gap to successfully implement act

198、ions for the effective monitoring of glaciers,notably through the establishment of an international fund for glaciers to support comprehensive research and develop effective response measures.The impacts of climate change on glaciers in World Heritage sites show the urgent action that is required to

199、 protect the outstanding universal value of glaciers and ensure the benefits they provide to humanity.Mitigating climate change through deep reductions in greenhouse gas emissions is the most important and pressing priority for safeguarding glaciers,and must be accompanied by urgent,ambitious and co

200、ordinated action to improve knowledge and monitoring,and targeted adaptation policies and measures,through inclusive engagement and communication.70 Jaeger,202171 These sites are currently on countries World Heritage Tentative Listsa pre-requisite condition for inscription as a World Heritage site72

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204、ollari,H.et al.(2022).Future growth and decline of high mountain Asias ice-dammed lakes and associated risk.Nature Communications Earth&Environment,3(191).https:/doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00520-8Cook,D.,Malinauskaite,L.,Davsdttir,B.,gmundardttir,H.(2021).Co-production processes underpinning the eco

205、system services of glaciers and adaptive management in the era of climate change.Ecosystem Services,50,101342.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2021.101342Cox,J.(2016).Finding a place for glaciers within environmental law:An analysis of ambiguous legislation and impractical common law.Appeal,21,pp.21-

206、36.https:/ Environment Agency(2022).Water abstraction by source,2000-2019.https:/www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/water-abstraction-by-source-2000-2019Farinotti,D.,Huss,M.,Frst,J.J.et al.(2019a).A consensus estimate for the ice thickness distribution of all glaciers on Earth.Nature Geoscience,1

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230、ence for a Water Secure World in a Changing Environment,ninth phase 2022-2029https:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381318Relevant UNESCO policies,strategies and guidelines on World Heritage,glaciers and climate action6World Heritage Glaciers Sentinels of climate change33Glossary of glacier mass

231、 balance and related terms https:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000192525 The Andean Glacier and Water Atlas:the impact of glacier retreat on water resourceshttps:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265810The impact of glacier retreat in the Andes:international multidisciplinary network for adap

232、tation strategies https:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000258168 Central Asian Regional Glaciological Centrehttps:/cargc.org/en/Improving knowledge of Central Asian glaciers and their resilience to climate changehttps:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000382818Reducing glacial lake hazards in Cen

233、tral Asiattps:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000382817A Manual for monitoring the mass balance of mountain glaciers with particular attention to low latitude characteristicshttps:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000129593Mountains:Early warning systems for climate changehttps:/unesdoc.unesco.org

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235、us knowledge for climate change assessment and adaptationhttps:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265504World Heritage GlaciersSentinels of climate changeWorld Heritage Glaciers:Sentinels of climate change a report by UNESCO and the International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN)with contribu

236、tions from ETH Zurich,the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest,Snow and Landscape Research(WSL),and the Space Geophysics and Oceanography Studies Laboratory(LEGOS)of the French National Centre for Scientific Research(CNRS)provides the first global assessment of both the current state and future scenar

237、io of glaciers in World Heritage sites.World Heritage glaciers cover almost 10%of the Earths glacierized area and play a crucial role in sustaining life on Earth.However,they are retreating at an accelerated rate because of climate change.By combining satellite data and projections at the site level

238、,this study quantifies the extent of World Heritage glaciers retreat and its impact on global sea-level rise and provides projections of glacier mass loss.It also provides key information to facilitate dialogue between policymakers and local stakeholders in the development of effective actions to counteract substantial glacier retreat and to respond to subsequent inevitable changes in glacierized sites.9 789231 005572Swiss Federal Institute for Forest,Snow and Landscape Research WSL