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1、Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensityThe IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues including oil,gas and coal supply and demand,renewable energy technologies,electricity markets,energy efficiency,access to energy,demand side management and much more.Through its work,t
2、he IEA advocates policies that will enhance the reliability,affordability and sustainability of energy in its 31 member countries,11 association countries and beyond.This publication and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitat
3、ion of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Source:IEA.International Energy Agency Website:www.iea.orgIEA member countries:AustraliaAustriaBelgiumCanadaCzech RepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIrelandItalyJapanKoreaLithuaniaLuxembou
4、rgMexicoNetherlandsNew ZealandNorwayPolandPortugalSlovak RepublicSpainSwedenSwitzerlandRepublic of TrkiyeUnited KingdomUnited StatesThe European Commission also participates in the work of the IEAIEA association countries:ArgentinaBrazilChinaEgyptIndiaIndonesiaMoroccoSingaporeSouth AfricaThailandUkr
5、aineINTERNATIONAL ENERGYAGENCYTowards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity Abstract PAGE|3 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Abstract Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity is a new report by the International Energy Agency,designed to inform policy makers,hydrogen producers
6、,investors and the research community in advance of the G7 Climate,Energy and Environmental Ministerial meeting in April 2023.The report builds on the analysis from the IEAs Net Zero by 2050:A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector and continues the series of reports that the IEA has prepared for the
7、G7 on the sectoral details of the roadmap,including the Achieving Net Zero Electricity Sectors in G7 Members,Achieving Net Zero Heavy Industry Sectors in G7 Members and Emissions Measurement and Data Collection for a Net Zero Steel Industry reports.This report assesses the greenhouse gas emissions i
8、ntensity of the different hydrogen production routes and reviews ways to use the emissions intensity of hydrogen production in the development of regulation and certification schemes.An internationally agreed emissions accounting framework is a way to move away from the use of terminologies based on
9、 colours or other terms that have proved impractical for the contracts that underpin investment.The adoption of such a framework can bring much-needed transparency,as well as facilitating interoperability and limiting market fragmentation,thus becoming a useful enabler of investments for the develop
10、ment of international hydrogen supply chains.Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity Acknowledgements PAGE|4 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Acknowledgements Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity was prepared by the Energy Technology Policy(ETP)Division of the Direct
11、orate of Sustainability,Technology and Outlooks(STO)of the International Energy Agency(IEA).The project was designed and directed by Timur Gl,Head of the Energy Technology Policy Division.Uwe Remme,Head of the Hydrogen and Alternative Fuels Unit,and Jose Miguel Bermudez Menendez co-ordinated the ana
12、lysis and production of the report.The principal IEA authors and contributors were Simon Bennett,Stavroula Evangelopoulou,Mathilde Fajardy,Carl Greenfield,Francesco Pavan and Amalia Pizarro Alonso.Several colleagues across the agency contributed analytical input,including Toms de Oliveira Bredariol
13、and Jrme Hilaire.Laurent Antoni,from the International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy(IPHE)was also a contributor and author of the report.The following IEA colleagues contributed with valuable comments:Keisuke Sadamori,Laura Cozzi,Dan Donner,Paolo Frankl,Tim Gould,Ilkka Hann
14、ula,Christophe McGlade,Peter Levi and Tiffany Vass.Lizzie Sayer edited the manuscript.Essential support throughout the process was provided by Caroline Abettan,Reka Koczka and Per-Anders Widell.Thanks also to Poeli Bojorquez,Curtis Brainard,Astrid Dumond,Isabelle Nonain-Semelin of the Communications
15、 and Digital Office.The work could not have been achieved without the financial support provided by the Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry,Japan.The report benefited from the insights gathered during a high-level expert workshop on“Achieving scale-up of low-emission hydrogen and ammonia for net
16、zero in G7 countries”(held on 21 February 2023)and a series of consultations with Jochen Bard and Dayana Granford Ruiz(Fraunhofer-Institut fr Energiewirtschaft und Energiesystemtechnik,Germany);Herib Blanco;Timo Bollerhey and Martin Erdmann(Hintco);Matthias Deutsch and Mauricio Belaunde(Agora Energi
17、ewende);Johanna Friese(Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit,Germany);Cline Le Goazigo(World Business Council For Sustainable Development);No van Hulst and Tim Karlsson(IPHE);Heino von Meyer(International PtX Hub);Daria Nochevnik(Hydrogen Council);Andrei V.Tchouvelev(Hydrogen Council,Interna
18、tional Organization for Standardization);and Kirsten Westphal(German Association of Energy and Water Industries).Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity Acknowledgements PAGE|5 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Peer reviewers provided essential feedback to improve the quality of the report.They
19、 include:Olumoye Ajao and Curtis Jenken(National Resources Canada);Saood Mohamed Alnoori(Office of the Special Envoy for Climate Change,United Arab Emirates);Chelsea Baldino(International Council on Clean Transportation);Ruta Baltause(Directorate General for Energy,European Commission);Jochen Bard(F
20、raunhofer-Institut fr Energiewirtschaft und Energiesystemtechnik,Germany);Herib Blanco;Trevor Brown(Ammonia Energy Association);Anne-Sophie Corbeau(Center on Global Energy Policy,Columbia University,United States);Harriet Culver,Katherine Davis and Liz Wharmby(Department for Energy Security and Net
21、Zero,United Kingdom);Matthias Deutsch,Zaffar Hussain and Leandro Janke(Agora Energiewende);Tudor Florea(Ministry of Energy Transition,France);Johanna Friese(Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit,Germany);Cline Le Goazigo(World Business Council for Sustainable Development);Yukari Hino and Mas
22、ashi Watanabe(Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry,Japan);Yoshikazu Kobayashi(The Institute of Energy Economics,Japan);Martin Lambert(Oxford Institute for Energy Studies,United Kingdom);Rebecca Maserumule and No van Hulst(IPHE);Jonas Moberg(Green Hydrogen Organisation);Pietro Moretto(Joint Reserac
23、h Centre,European Commission);Jane Nakano(Center for Strategic and International Studies,United States);Alejandro Nuez(ETH Zrich,Switzerland);Alloysius Joko Purwanto(Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia,Indonesia);Stefano Raimondi,Marcello Capra and Roberto Cianella(Ministry of Enviro
24、nment and Energy Security,Italy);Sunita Satyapal,Marc Melaina and Neha Rustagi(Department of Energy,United States);Petra Schwager and Juan Pablo Davila(United Nations Industrial Development Organization);Matthijs Soede(Directorate General for Research and Innovation,European Commission);Jan Stelter(
25、NOW GmbH);Koichi Uchida(State Department,United States);Kirsten Westphal(German Association of Energy and Water Industries);and Xenia Zwanziger(Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action,Germany).The individuals and organisations that contributed to this study are not responsible for a
26、ny opinions or judgements it contains.The views expressed in the study are not necessarily views of the IEAs member countries or of any particular funder or collaborator.All errors and omissions are solely the responsibility of the IEA.Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity
27、Table of contents PAGE|6 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Table of contents Executive summary.7 Introduction.11 Hydrogen and its derivatives in a net zero energy system.13 Hydrogen today.14 The role of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels in the transition to net zero.15 Trade of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-ba
28、sed fuels.20 The cost of hydrogen supply.22 Accelerating deployment to meet ambitions.28 Clear hydrogen definitions to address deployment barriers.30 International co-operation to facilitate deployment.31 Defining hydrogen according to its emissions intensity.33 Introduction.34 Elements of regulatio
29、ns and certification systems for hydrogen.36 The emissions intensity of hydrogen production routes.38 Emissions intensity and costs of hydrogen production in IEA scenarios.52 Towards an international emissions accounting framework to define hydrogen.59 Considerations for an international accounting
30、framework.60 Avenues for implementation.70 Practical considerations for effective implementation.76 Considerations for the G7.83 Annex.86 Abbreviations and acronyms.86 Units of measure.87 Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity Executive summary PAGE|7 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Executiv
31、e summary A clear understanding of the emissions associated with hydrogen production can help enable investment and boost scale-up Most large-scale projects for the production of low-emission hydrogen are facing important bottlenecks.Only 4%of projects that have been thus far announced are under con
32、struction or have taken a final investment decision.Uncertainty about future demand,the lack of infrastructure available to deliver hydrogen to end users and the lack of clarity in regulatory frameworks and certification schemes are preventing project developers from taking firm decisions on investm
33、ent.Transparency on the emissions intensity of hydrogen production can bring much-needed clarity and facilitate investment.Using colours to refer to different production routes,or terms such as“sustainable”,“low-carbon”or“clean”hydrogen,obscures many different levels of potential emissions.This term
34、inology has proved impractical as a basis for contracting decisions,deterring potential investors.By agreeing to use the emissions intensity of hydrogen production in the definition of national regulations about hydrogen,governments can facilitate market and regulatory interoperability.This report a
35、ims to assist governments in doing so by assessing the emissions intensity of individual hydrogen production routes,for governments to then decide which level aligns with their own circumstances.The production and use of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels needs to scale up The G7 is a corners
36、tone of efforts to accelerate the scale-up of the production and use of low-emission hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels.G7 members Canada,France,Germany,Italy,Japan,the United Kingdom,the United States and the European Union account for around one-quarter of todays global hydrogen production
37、and demand.At the same time,G7 members are frontrunners in decarbonising hydrogen production and technology development for new hydrogen applications in end-use sectors.The G7 can use its technological leadership and economic power to enable a greater increase in the production and use of low-emissi
38、on hydrogen.However,G7 members cannot undertake this challenge alone.The development of an international hydrogen market will require the involvement of a wide range of other stakeholders,including among emerging economies.Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity Executive sum
39、mary PAGE|8 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels have an important role to play in the clean energy transition.Global hydrogen demand reached 94 million tonnes in 2021,concentrated mainly in its use as a feedstock in refining and industry.Meeting government climate ambitions requ
40、ires a step-change in demand creation for low-emission hydrogen,particularly in new applications in sectors where emissions are hard to abate,such as heavy industry and long-distance transport.At the same time,hydrogen production needs to be decarbonised;today,low-emission hydrogen represents less t
41、han 1%of global production.The development of international supply chains can help to meet the needs of countries and regions with large demand and limited potential to produce low-emission hydrogen.Regional cost differences and growing demand in regions with less potential to produce low-emission h
42、ydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels could underpin the development of an international hydrogen market to trade these fuels,despite the additional costs arising from conversion and transport.The global energy crisis has further strengthened interest in low-emission hydrogen as a way to reduce d
43、ependency on fossil fuels and enhance energy security,becoming a new driver for global trade in hydrogen.Hydrogen definitions based on emissions intensity can form the basis for robust regulation The emissions intensity of hydrogen production varies widely depending on the production route.Today,hyd
44、rogen production is dominated by unabated fossil fuels;emissions need to decrease significantly to meet climate ambitions.The fuel and technology used,the rate at which CO2 capture and storage is applied,and the level of upstream and midstream emissions all strongly influence the emissions intensity
45、 of hydrogen production.For example,production based on unabated fossil fuels can result in emissions of up to 27 kg CO2-eq/kg H2,depending on the level of upstream and midstream emissions.Conversely,producing hydrogen from biomass with CO2 capture and storage can result in negative emissions,as a r
46、esult of removing the captured biogenic carbon from the natural carbon cycle.The average emissions intensity of global hydrogen production in 2021 was in the range of 12-13 kg CO2-eq/kg H2.In the IEA Net Zero by 2050 Scenario,this average fleet emissions intensity reaches 6-7 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 by 2030
47、 and falls below 1 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 by 2050.The emissions intensity of hydrogen produced with electrolysis is determined by the emissions from the electricity that is used.Using the methodology developed by the International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Towards hydrogen definitions based on thei
48、r emissions intensity Executive summary PAGE|9 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Cells in the Economy(IPHE)1,renewable electricity2 generation has no associated emissions,resulting in 0 kg CO2-eq/kg H2.In the case of grid electricity,the emissions intensity varies greatly between peak load and baseload hours,depending
49、 on which technology is used to meet additional demand for the electrolysers.To reduce emissions,it is therefore important to ensure that grid-connected electrolysers do not lead to an increase in fossil-based electricity generation.Carbon capture and storage technologies can reduce direct emissions
50、 from fossil-based hydrogen production but measures to mitigate upstream and midstream emissions are needed.Hydrogen production from unabated natural gas results in an emissions intensity in the range of 10-14 kg CO2-eq/kg H2,with upstream and midstream emissions of methane and CO2 in natural gas pr
51、oduction being responsible for 1-5 kg CO2-eq/kg H2.Retrofitting existing assets with capture of CO2 from the feedstock-related use of natural gas(capture rate around 60%)can bring the emissions intensity down to 5-8 kg CO2-eq/kg H2.Higher capture rates(above 90%)can be achieved with advanced technol
52、ogies,reducing emissions intensity to 0.8-6 kg CO2-eq/kg H2,although no plants using these technologies are in operation yet.At high capture rates,the emissions intensity of hydrogen production is dominated by upstream and midstream emissions,which account for 0.7-5 kg CO2-eq/kg H2,underscoring the
53、importance of cutting methane emissions from natural gas operations.Governments should define roadmaps to decarbonise hydrogen production,both domestic and imported,in accordance with their national circumstances.This report therefore does not provide a generic acceptable upper threshold for the emi
54、ssions intensity of hydrogen production.However,governments should take into account factors such as emissions intensity,supply volumes and affordability to inform decision-making to scale up production and use of low-emission hydrogen.The higher production cost of low-emission hydrogen and the rela
55、tively young age of existing unabated fossil fuel-based hydrogen production assets in the chemical sector are barriers to the uptake of low-emission hydrogen.Retrofitting existing production assets with CO2 capture and storage can be a cost-effective near-term option to partially decarbonise product
56、ion.In regions with abundant renewable resources,the use of renewable electricity to produce hydrogen is set to be the most cost-effective option,even before 2030.1 The IPHE has developed a methodology for calculating the greenhouse gas emissions intensity of hydrogen production and conditioning,and
57、 is due to complete the methodology for hydrogen transport.The IPHE methodology will serve as the basis for the first international standard on this topic and can serve as a first step for the adoption of emissions intensity of hydrogen production in regulations.2 IPHE methodology assigns zero emiss
58、ions to solar PV,wind,hydro-and geothermal power.Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity Executive summary PAGE|10 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Reference to the emissions intensity of hydrogen production in regulations can enable interoperability and limit market fragmentation Several cert
59、ification systems or regulatory frameworks defining the sustainability attributes of hydrogen are currently being developed,but there is a risk that lack of alignment may lead to market fragmentation.Existing efforts have some commonalities in scope,system boundaries,production pathways,models for c
60、hain of custody and emissions intensity levels.But inconsistencies in approaches risk becoming a barrier for the development of international hydrogen trade.Referring to the emissions intensity of hydrogen production,based on a joint understanding of the applied methodology used for regulation and c
61、ertification,can be an important enabler of market development,facilitating a minimum level of interoperatibility and enabling mutual recognition rather than replacing or duplicating ongoing efforts.Regulation and certification that uses the emissions intensity of hydrogen production should also be
62、able to accommodate additional sustainability criteria.Governments and companies may wish to consider other potential sustainability requirements when making decisions about the use of hydrogen as a clean fuel and feedstock.Criteria related to the origin of the energy source,land or water use,and so
63、cio-economic aspects such as working conditions are already incorporated into some regulations and certification schemes.The use of emissions intensity is a first step to enable interoperability,but should not preclude governments and companies incorporating additional criteria.The use of“product pa
64、ssports”can help to bring all these criteria together,as well as to standardise processes,minimise costs and maximise transparency.Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity Introduction PAGE|11 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Introduction Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions in
65、tensity is a new report by the International Energy Agency,designed to inform policy makers,hydrogen producers,investors and the research community in advance of the G7 Climate and Energy Ministerial in April 2023.The report builds on the analysis from the IEAs Net Zero by 2050:A Roadmap for the Glo
66、bal Energy Sector and continues the series of reports that the IEA has prepared for the G7 on the sectoral details of the roadmap,including Achieving Net Zero Electricity Sectors in G7 Members,Achieving Net Zero Heavy Industry Sectors in G7 Members and Emissions Measurement and Data Collection for a
67、 Net Zero Steel Industry.Achieving net zero emissions by 2050 requires large-scale deployment of clean energy technologies at an unprecedented speed.Low-emission hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels have an important role to play in the decarbonisation of sectors with hard-to-abate emissions,su
68、ch as heavy industry and long-distance transport.However,the availability of these low-emission fuels is today limited,and efforts are needed in the short term to scale up their production and use.This would help to bring production costs down and to develop international supply chains that can supp
69、ort the decarbonisation roadmap of regions with limited potential to produce these fuels domestically to meet their growing demand.Momentum around hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels has been growing over the past years.They are now widely recognised as an important tool to support government
70、climate ambitions and net zero greenhouse gas emissions commitments announced in recent years.The global energy crisis sparked by Russian Federation(hereafter,“Russia”)s invasion of Ukraine has further strengthened interest in low-emission hydrogen in particular,as a way to reduce dependency on foss
71、il fuels and enhance energy security.Industry has responded to this call for action,and announcements of new projects to produce low-emission hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels are growing at a very impressive speed.However,only a small fraction of these projects have secured the investment r
72、equired to begin construction.The lack of clarity in regulatory frameworks and uncertainty around certification are important factors contributing to the slow progress in real-world implementation.The use of terminologies that are based on colours to describe different production technologies(e.g.“g
73、rey”hydrogen for production based on unabated fossil fuels,“blue”hydrogen for production based on fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage,or“green”hydrogen produced through use of renewable electricity in Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity Introduction PAGE|12 I EA.
74、CC BY 4.0.electrolysers),or on terms such as“sustainable”,“low-carbon”or“clean”hydrogen as a means to distinguish it from unabated fossil fuel-based production has proved impractical for use in contracts that underpin investment.There is currently no international agreement on the use of these terms
75、,which generates uncertainty among the different players involved in the nascent hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels markets.The uncertainty created by the lack of regulatory clarity is hindering the investment required to scale up production and develop supply chains.Clarity on regulations an
76、d certification processes needed to demonstrate regulatory compliance can reassure different market players,especially first movers.Defining hydrogen based on the greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions intensity of its production can help to provide clarity to project developers and investors on the emissions
77、 intensity of their product and its compliance with regulatory and market requirements.In addition,it can enable a certain level of interoperability of regulations across different countries and allow mutual recognition of certification schemes,which can minimise market fragmentation.This report rev
78、iews ways for putting emissions intensity at the centre of regulation and certification.It applies the methodology developed by the International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy(IPHE)to assess the GHG emissions of hydrogen production in order to illustrate the range of emissio
79、ns associated with different hydrogen production routes.The report sets out a route to implement an emissions accounting framework that can help governments to facilitate interoperability and minimise market fragmentation in order to unlock investment and speed up deployment.The G7 brings together s
80、ome of the worlds largest advanced economies,collectively accounting for about 40%of global GDP and roughly one-quarter of global hydrogen production and demand.Moreover,G7 members are among the leading countries in the implementation of policies to support the scale-up of production of low-emission
81、 hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels and the development of international supply chains.The G7 is also home to more than half of the most advanced projects currently under development for the production of low-emission hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels.The common use of hydrogen produc
82、tion emissions intensity in regulations and certifications of G7 members would provide the necessary regulatory and certification clarity to help developers and investors to move forward with their projects.This would help unlock the level of deployment and scale-up required to set in motion the dev
83、elopment of an international market for low-emission hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels in the G7.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|13 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Hydrogen and its derivatives in a net zero energy s
84、ystem Highlights Hydrogen is an important part of todays energy sector,with 94 Mt of demand in 2021 concentrated in refining and industrial applications.The G7 accounts for around one-quarter of global demand.Demand in new applications that could be key to fully decarbonising the entire energy syste
85、m remained limited to around 40 000 t in 2021.Hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels can support the decarbonisation of the global energy system,particularly in heavy industry and long-distance transport.This will require a step-change in demand creation,particularly in new applications;in the IE
86、As Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario(NZE Scenario),global demand from such applications reaches more than 300 Mt by 2050.The production of hydrogen today is based predominantly on unabated fossil fuels.Low-emission hydrogen production is more costly,but scale-up and technology innovation can make
87、low-emission hydrogen competitive in the short term in regions with abundant renewable resources or access to cheap fossil fuels and geological CO2 storage.Regional cost differences and growing demand in regions with less potential to produce low-emission hydrogen,including some G7 members,and the n
88、eed to diversify fuel supply in the wake of the global energy crisis,could require the development of an international hydrogen market to trade hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels,despite the additional costs arising from conversion and transport processes.The deployment of large-scale project
89、s for the production of low-emission hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels is facing important bottlenecks.Only 4%of announced projects(with a total production capacity of almost 1 Mt of hydrogen)are under construction or have taken a final investment decision.Lack of clarity in regulation and c
90、ertification,lack of infrastructure to deliver hydrogen to end users,and uncertainty about future demand are important impediments.G7 members have a critical role to play in scaling up production and use of low-emission hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels globally,and in the development of int
91、ernational supply chains,given their economic power,climate goals and leadership in technology innovation.Nonetheless,the successful development of a global hydrogen market will require an inclusive dialogue with other stakeholders,including producer and emerging economies.Towards hydrogen definitio
92、ns based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|14 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Hydrogen today Hydrogen is an important element of todays energy sector.Global hydrogen demand reached more than 94 Mt of hydrogen(H2)in 20213(Figure 1.1),recovering to above pre-pan
93、demic levels,when it had reached its previous maximum at 91 Mt H2.Hydrogen demand is almost completely concentrated in industrial applications(mainly in the chemical sector and in iron and steel production)and refining,where it is used mainly as a feedstock.Beyond these traditional industrial uses,h
94、ydrogen can be used as a fuel in other applications where it can contribute to the decarbonisation ambitions of governments and industry,such as in long-distance transport,the production of hydrogen-based fuels(such as ammonia and synthetic hydrocarbons),high temperature heat in heavy industry and f
95、or power generation.However,demand in these applications was limited to around 40 kt H2 in 2021(about 0.04%of global hydrogen demand).Global and G7 members hydrogen demand by sector and production by technology,2021 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:Mt H2=million tonnes of hydrogen.CCUS=carbon capture,utilisation
96、and storage.In the left figure,Other industry includes small demands in industrial applications such as electronics or glassmaking;Other includes transport,buildings,power generation sectors and production of hydrogen-based fuels and hydrogen blending.In the right figure,Other includes hydrogen prod
97、uction from bioenergy.Hydrogen demand today is met almost entirely by hydrogen production from unabated fossil fuels and by-product hydrogen from industrial processes that also use fossil fuels as feedstock,resulting in more than 900 Mt of direct CO2 emissions 3This excludes around 30 Mt H2 present
98、in residual gases from industrial processes used for heat and electricity generation.As this use is linked to the inherent presence of hydrogen in these residual streams,rather than to any hydrogen requirement,these gases are not considered here as hydrogen demand.Towards hydrogen definitions based
99、on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|15 I EA.CC BY 4.0.in 20214.The production of low-emission hydrogen,5 was less than 1 Mt,almost all from fossil fuels with carbon capture,utilisation and storage(CCUS)6,with only 35 kt H2 from electricity via w
100、ater electrolysis.The G7 plays a significant role in the hydrogen sector today.Together,G7 members account for around one-quarter of global hydrogen demand,which is lower than their share of global GDP(around 40%)but similar to their shares of global energy demand(around 30%)and energy-related CO2 e
101、missions(25%).However,the distribution of demand is slightly different to the rest of the world.Although the main applications are the same,within the G7 a larger share of demand is concentrated in refining(around 60%compared with 40%globally);demand in industrial applications(chemicals and steel)is
102、 more concentrated in China and the Middle East.New applications accounted for around 0.04%of demand in the G7 in 2021,largely concentrated in road transport.Unabated fossil fuels dominate hydrogen production in the G7,but the share of low-emission hydrogen production is higher than at the global le
103、vel,at more than 2%in 2021.The G7 accounts for more than 80%of global low-emission hydrogen production,demonstrating the leadership of G7 members in decarbonising hydrogen production.The share is higher in the production of low-emission hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS(nearly 90%of global produc
104、tion),with the United States and Canada spearheading developments.In the case of electrolysis,the G7 accounted for about 40%of global production,with China responsible for about 30%of global production.The role of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels in the transition to net zero Achieving net
105、zero emissions globally by 2050 will require an unprecedented transformation of the energy system.Hydrogen,ammonia,and hydrogen-based fuels can play an important role in this transformation,particularly in decarbonising sectors where emissions are hard to abate,such as heavy industry and long-distan
106、ce transport.These fuels can also facilitate integration of renewables and grid balancing.4 This includes 275 Mt CO2 emitted through the use of hydrogen-based products(e.g.urea and methanol)that capture carbon only temporarily.5 The term“low-emission hydrogen”used in this report includes both renewa
107、ble and low-carbon hydrogen as defined in the 2022 G7 Leaders Communiqu.The definition used by the IEA for analytical purposes in its reports is described in the 2021 edition of the Global Hydrogen Review.6 In this report,CCUS includes carbon dioxide captured for use(CCU)as well as for storage(CCS),
108、including CO2 that is both used and stored,e.g.for enhanced oil recovery or building materials,if some or all of the CO2 is permanently stored.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|16 I EA.CC BY 4.0.In the IEAs S
109、tated Policies Scenario(STEPS),which shows how the energy system evolves under current policy settings,global demand for hydrogen grows slowly in the short and medium term,reaching 110 Mt by 2030 and 120 Mt by 2035(Figure 1.2).Demand remains highly concentrated in sectors that are already using hydr
110、ogen today,with limited uptake in new applications(around 2.5%of global hydrogen demand by 2035).The uptake of hydrogen-based fuels is very small and limited to the use of ammonia in power generation in projects in Japan.Hydrogen and ammonia demand in the G7 and the rest of world by sector and by sc
111、enario IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:Mt H2=million tonnes of hydrogen;Mt NH3=million tonnes of ammonia;APS=Announced Pledges Scenario;NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario.Other includes generation of high temperature heat in industry,small demands in industrial applications su
112、ch as electronics or glassmaking,other industries and use in buildings.H2-based fuels includes ammonia used as a fuel and synthetic hydrocarbons.0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9020230203520302035STEPSAPSNZEMt HG7 hydrogen RefiningChemicalsIron and steelTransportH-based fuelsPowerOther0 20 40 6
113、0 80 100 120 140 160 180 20020230203520302035STEPSAPSNZEMt HRest of world hydrogen 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20352030203520302035STEPSAPSNZEMt NHG7 ammonia ChemicalsShippingPower0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 40020230203520302035STEPSAPSNZEMt NHRest of world ammonia
114、 demand Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|17 I EA.CC BY 4.0.In the IEAs Net Zero Emissions by 2050(NZE)Scenario,global hydrogen demand reaches 470 Mt by 2050.Getting on track with the NZE Scenario would requi
115、re a step-change in ambitions and policy implementation for demand creation in the short term,particularly in new applications.Hydrogen demand nearly doubles between 2021 and 2030,and triples by 2035,with new applications responsible for most of the growth in demand,particularly in electricity gener
116、ation,heavy industry,long-distance transport and the production of hydrogen-based fuels.The production of hydrogen-based fuels alone accounts for 18%of global hydrogen demand in 2035,the majority of which comes from the production of ammonia for use as a fuel in power generation and shipping.The use
117、 of ammonia as fuel can play an important role in the transition to a net zero emissions system7.In the NZE Scenario,the demand for ammonia grows from 190 Mt NH3 in 2021,all of it used as a chemical feedstock,to almost 450 Mt NH3 by 2035,35%of which is used as fuel for electricity generation and 20%
118、for shipping.Net zero targets and hydrogen strategies in G7 members and other major economies Government Net zero target Hydrogen strategy Year In law Adopted Announced Brazil 2050 No-Canada 2050 Canadian Net-Zero Emissions Accountability Act 2020 China 2060 No 2022 European Commission 2050 European
119、 Climate Law 2021 France 2050 Energy-Climate Act 2020 Germany 2045 Federal Climate Protection Act 2020*Italy 2050 No 2020*India 2070 No 2023 Indonesia 2060 No-Iran-Japan 2050 Act on Promotion of Global Warming Countermeasures 2017 Saudi Arabia 2060 No-Korea 2050 Carbon Neutrality Act(Framework Act o
120、n Carbon Neutrality and GreenGrowth)2019-United Kingdom 2050 Climate Change Act 2020 United States 2050 No 2022*Note:G7 countries highlighted in bold.*The German National Hydrogen Strategy is under revision and an update is expected in 2023.*Italy published a draft hydrogen strategy in 2020 for publ
121、ic consultation but its final version has not yet been adopted by the government.*A draft of the United States Department of Energy National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap was released for public consultation and an updated version will be released later in 2023 7 The use of ammonia in combusti
122、on systems can lead to the production of nitrogen oxides(NOx),indirect greenhouse gases,and nitrous oxide(N2O),a greenhouse gas.However,there are technologies available that can limit the emissions of these gases in gas turbines and remove them from the exhaust gases in combustion engines,limiting t
123、heir environmental impact.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|18 I EA.CC BY 4.0.The G7 has a critical role in scaling up the production and use of low-emission hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels within m
124、ember countries and stimulating developments in the rest of the world.In the NZE Scenario,hydrogen demand in the G7 grows more quickly than in the rest of the world,more than doubling by 2030 and more than tripling by 2035.In addition,the uptake of hydrogen as a fuel in new sectors is particularly s
125、trong,accounting for around half of global demand in new hydrogen applications by 2030,compensating for the decline in hydrogen demand in oil refining.In the IEAs Announced Pledges Scenario(APS),which takes into account all announced government climate targets and assumes that they are met on time a
126、nd in full,the role of the G7 in scaling up global hydrogen demand is even larger than in the NZE Scenario.This is because all G7 members have net zero targets,most of which have already been adopted in national laws,and have adopted hydrogen strategies with ambitious targets to boost production and
127、 demand(Table 1.1).The uptake of hydrogen in new sectors to meet longterm net zero targets means that,in the APS,the G7 is responsible for nearly 80%of global hydrogen demand in new applications by 2030,and nearly 70%by 2035.The accelerated adoption of hydrogen in new applications in both the APS an
128、d NZE Scenario is due to the technological leadership of the G7.Today,the United States and Europe account for the majority of projects under development for the use of hydrogen(either pure or blended with natural gas)in gas turbines.EU member states account for more than 90%of projects aiming to us
129、e pure hydrogen in direct reduction of iron.Japanese companies have spearheaded efforts to develop ammonia turbines and co-firing ammonia and coal for electricity generation,and Canadian and European companies are at the forefront of technology development for the use of hydrogen,ammonia and methano
130、l in shipping.Demand creation is only one piece of the puzzle:the other is cleaner production.In the STEPS,global hydrogen production remains dominated by unabated fossil fuels,with a slow adoption of low-emission hydrogen production technologies,which account for only 6%of global hydrogen productio
131、n by 2030 and 9%by 2035(Figure 1.3).Faster deployment is hindered by lack of clarity around future demand for low-emission hydrogen,as well as other factors that currently hinder investment decisions.As in the case of demand generation,for hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels to play a role in
132、the energy transition,there is an urgent need for more ambitious action on policy implementation to enable a rapid transformation in the way hydrogen is produced today.In the NZE Scenario,such hurdles are overcome and there is fast adoption of low-emission hydrogen production technologies.By 2030,mo
133、re than half of global hydrogen is produced through electrolysis powered by low-emission electricity or Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|19 I EA.CC BY 4.0.by fossil fuels with CCUS,growing from less than 1 M
134、t in 2021 to more than 90 Mt H2 by 2030 and reaching 200 Mt H2 by 2035.Global and G7 members hydrogen production by technology by scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:APS=Announced Pledges Scenario;STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario;NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario;CCUS=carbon capture,utilisation and stor
135、age.Other includes hydrogen production from bioenergy.G7 members continue to be leading actors in the deployment of low-emission hydrogen production technologies in the NZE Scenario.By 2030,the G7 is responsible for around one-third of global low-emission hydrogen production in the NZE Scenario.Low-
136、emission hydrogen production in the G7 grows from less than 1 Mt H2 today to more than 30 Mt H2 by 2030 and more than 50 Mt H2 by 2035,requiring a step-change in the speed of deployment of these technologies.In the NZE Scenario,some G7 members become importers of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based
137、fuels due to their limited access to abundant renewable resources or cheap fossil fuels and geological CO2 storage.Others become exporters thanks to their much larger resources for low-emission hydrogen production(see section Trade of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels).However,imports outstr
138、ip exports,with the G7 needing to import around 8 Mt H2-equivalent(eq)net by 2030 and 15 Mt H2-eq by 2035 to meet its demand.8 Most of the hydrogen,ammonia and other derivatives imported are produced using low-emission technologies,meaning that the G7 is a significant driver of the deployment of low
139、-emission hydrogen production capacities overseas.8 The quantities of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels traded are given in hydrogen equivalent terms,i.e.the mass of hydrogen consumed to produce the hydrogen carrier.For example,180 kg of hydrogen are consumed to produce 1 000 kg of ammonia.0
140、 20 40 60 80 1002021 2030 2035 2030 2035 2030 2035STEPSAPSNZEMt HG7 Fossil fuelsFossil fuels with CCUSBy-productElectricityOtherNet imports0 50 100 150 200 25020230203520302035STEPSAPSNZEMt HRest of world Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions i
141、ntensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|20 I EA.CC BY 4.0.In the case of the APS,the deployment of low-emission hydrogen production capacities is slower,both at the global level and in the G7.However,the G7 accounts for a larger share of global low-emission hydrogen production compared to the NZE
142、Scenario(60%by 2030 and nearly 50%by 2035)due to the 2030 and net zero emissions targets adopted by its members.Trade of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels The level of hydrogen trade is very low today and limited to sporadic shipments in demonstration projects.However,in the future,countries
143、 that have limited opportunities to produce low-emission hydrogen domestically,either due to lack of abundant renewable resources or limited access to cheap fossil fuels and geological CO2 storage potential,may have to rely on imports from other regions with more favourable conditions for low-emissi
144、on hydrogen production to meet their hydrogen needs.In addition,the global energy crisis sparked by Russias invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 has increased attention to the energy security benefits that could be achieved through the development of a global hydrogen market.Trade in hydrogen,ammoni
145、a and hydrogen-based fuels has technical and cost challenges,but can help countries with insufficient domestic resources to reach their climate pledges,and can simultaneously contribute to enhance energy security by diversifying the energy mix and the portfolio of suppliers.Hydrogen trade can also c
146、reate export opportunities and revenues for countries with abundant renewable potentials or access to low-cost fossil fuels and CO2 storage.Japan has led the development of international supply chains for hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels.Japan has completed three demonstration shipments of
147、liquefied hydrogen(from Australia,in 2022),ammonia(from Saudi Arabia,in 2020)and liquid organic hydrogen carriers(from Brunei,in 2020).Other countries have also started to increase efforts for the development of international trade of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels,notably in Europe,as a
148、way to reduce dependency on fossil fuels.Australia,Canada,and several countries in South America,the Middle East and Africa are positioning themselves as potential exporters in readiness for the possible development of an international hydrogen market by signing co-operation agreements with potentia
149、l future importers.The existing strong industrial base in G7 members is set to require hydrogen imports to meet demand;this,and the efforts to develop export capacity in others,could make the trade of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels an increasingly important feature of the energy system ov
150、er the next decades.However,this is unlikely to occur in the near term with current policy settings.In Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|21 I EA.CC BY 4.0.the STEPS,international trade of hydrogen,ammonia and
151、 other derivatives remains limited to 0.6 Mt H2-eq by 2030 and only reaches slightly more than 6 Mt H2-eq by 2050(Figure 1.4).In energy terms,this is equivalent to less than 5%of liquefied natural gas(LNG)traded globally in 2021.Global trade of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels and share of
152、global imports in the G7 by scenario IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario;APS=Announced Pledges Scenario;NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.Hydrogen includes both liquified hydrogen shipping and gaseous hydrogen trade via pipeline.The energy content is based on the lower heating v
153、alue(LHV)of each carrier.Meeting decarbonisation objectives for the energy system is set to enable a much quicker scale-up of international trade of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels,and the creation of the respective global market.In both the APS and the NZE Scenario,the international trade
154、 of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels grows to almost 45 Mt H2-eq and more than 70 Mt H2-eq respectively by 2050.In energy terms,this would be equivalent to almost 30%and 45%of LNG traded globally in 2021.G7 members are key players in the development and scale-up of international trade of hy
155、drogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels,accounting for more than half of the global trade of these fuels by 2030 in the APS and the NZE Scenario.Imports of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels represent an important share of the demand for these fuels in the G7.In the NZE Scenario,imports of hy
156、drogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels in the G7 reach 10 Mt H2-eq by 2030,meeting nearly one-fifth of their demand.By 2050,G7 imports grow up to 35 Mt H2-eq,meeting one-third of demand.In the APS,imports of hydrogen and ammonia develop more slowly in the G7,reaching only around 2 Mt H2-eq or 5%of
157、demand by 2030.However,by 2050,the situation in the APS is quite similar to the NZE Scenario,with close to 30 Mt H2-eq of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels being imported to meet more than one-quarter of demand.0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8020230205020302050ST
158、EPSAPSNZEMt H-eqOtherderivativesAmmoniaGaseoushydrogenLiquefiedhydrogenG7 share(right axis)Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|22 I EA.CC BY 4.0.The cost of hydrogen supply The cost of hydrogen production depen
159、ds on the technology and cost of the energy source used,which usually has significant regional differences.Prior to the global energy crisis sparked by Russias invasion of Ukraine,the levelised cost of hydrogen production from unabated fossil-based sources was in the range of USD 1.0-3.0/kg H2(Figur
160、e 1.5).In 2021,these production routes offered the cheapest option to produce hydrogen,compared to the use of fossil fuels with CCUS(USD 1.5-3.2/kg H2)or the use of electrolysis with low-emission electricity(USD 3.1-9.0/kg H2).Levelised cost of hydrogen production by technology and by scenario,2021
161、and 2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario;APS=Announced Pledges Scenario;NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario;CCUS=carbon capture,utilisation and storage.Solar PV,wind and nuclear refer to the electricity supply to power the electrolysis process.Wind includes both offshore and on
162、shore wind.The capital cost is USD 780/kW H2 for the unabated natural gas reforming system and USD 1470/kW H2 for the one equipped with CCUS;USD 1960/kW H2 for unabated coal gasification and USD 2040/kW H2 for the one equipped with CCUS;USD 1240-1500/kWe for electrolyser in 2021,USD 460-570/kWe in S
163、TEPS 2030,USD 340-390/kWe in APS 2030,USD 270-320/kWe in NZE Scenario by 2030.The dashed area represents the CO2 price impact,based on USD 0-90/t CO2 for STEPS,USD 0-135/t CO2 for APS and USD 15-140/t CO2 for NZE Scenario.The large increase in fossil fuel prices observed during 2022,particularly for
164、 natural gas,has significantly increased the cost of producing gas-based hydrogen in certain regions.For example,at prices of USD 25-45 per million British thermal units(MBtu),such as those observed during June 2022 in gas markets in Europe,the cost of producing hydrogen from unabated natural gas is
165、 USD 4.8-7.8/kg H2,with natural gas alone being responsible for at least 80%of this cost.This is up to three times the cost prior to the energy crisis.In the case of the production of hydrogen from natural gas with CCUS,the levelised cost of hydrogen production is USD 5.3-8.6/kg H2,of which more tha
166、n 75%is attributable to natural gas prices.024681020212030 STEPS2030 APS2030 NZE20212030 STEPS2030 APS2030 NZE20212030 STEPS2030 APS2030 NZE20212030 STEPS2030 APS2030 NZE20212030 STEPS2030 APS2030 NZE20212030 STEPS2030 APS2030 NZE20212030 STEPS2030 APS2030 NZENatural gas w/oCCUSNatural gas w/CCUSCoa
167、l w/o CCUSCoal w/CCUSSolar PVWindNuclearUSD/kg HTowards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|23 I EA.CC BY 4.0.At such natural gas prices,the cheapest option for producing hydrogen today in many regions would be from el
168、ectrolysis using renewable electricity,if production capacity was available.The record highs in gas prices have started to recede after the turmoil of last year.With the gas prices observed in Europe the first quarter of 2023(USD 15-20/MBtu),the cost of hydrogen production from unabated natural gas
169、is around USD 2.9-4.2/kg H2,and from natural gas with CCUS,in the range of USD 3.3-4.7/kg H2.Moreover,not all markets have been as strongly affected as Europe and see more affordable production of gas-based hydrogen.For example,at gas prices typically observed for the Middle East(USD 1.5-4/MBtu),hyd
170、rogen production from unabated natural gas costs around USD 0.6-1.0/kg H2,and from natural gas with CCUS USD 1.0-1.4/kg H2.In the case of the United States(gas prices around USD 3/MBtu in the first quarter of 2023),where an operative network for CO2 transport and storage is already in place,hydrogen
171、 production from unabated natural gas costs around USD 0.8/kg H2,and from natural gas with CCUS USD 1.3/kg H2.Impact of natural gas and CO2 prices on the levelised cost of hydrogen production from natural gas IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:CCUS=carbon capture,utilisation and storage.The capital cost of the unab
172、ated natural gas reforming system is USD 780/kW H2 and USD 1470/kW H2 for the one equipped with CCUS;the cost of CO2 transport and storage is USD 30/t CO2 and the capture rate is 93%.The cost of producing hydrogen from unabated fossil fuels will remain highly influenced by the cost of the fossil fue
173、ls,but also by the potential adoption of policies such as carbon pricing(Figure 1.6).For example,a carbon price of USD 100/t CO2,i.e.slightly above the carbon prices observed in the EU and UK Emissions Trading Systems since the end of 2021,would result in an additional cost of USD 1/kg H2 in the pro
174、duction of hydrogen from unabated natural gas and USD 2/kg H2 for unabated coal.In the case of the use of fossil fuels with CCUS,the impact of CO2 prices would be very limited(less than USD 0.1/kg H2 for natural 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 USD/kg HNatural gas price USD/MBtuUnabated natural gasUSD
175、 150/t COUSD 100/t COUSD 50/t COUSD 0/t COUSD 150/t CO with CCUS0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 USD/kg H2Natural gas price USD/MBtuNatural gas with CCUSTowards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|24 I EA.CC BY 4.0.gas a
176、t a carbon price of USD 100/t CO2).Moreover,as for renewable electrolysis,the competitiveness of producing hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS can improve with higher deployment,as shown in the APS and NZE Scenario.Deployment in STEPS is very limited,and so,therefore,is the cost reduction.The addit
177、ional capital cost to enable CCUS is expected to decrease as a result of scale-up and technology development,meaning the cost of producing hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS could become cheaper than from unabated fossil fuels,depending on fossil fuel and CO2 prices.Levelised cost of hydrogen prod
178、uced from renewable electricity by region and by scenario,2021 and 2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario;APS=Announced Pledges Scenario;NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario;NW Europe=North-West Europe.Wind includes both offshore and onshore wind.The capital cost for an installed
179、electrolyser system is assumed at USD 1240-1500/kWe for electrolyser in 2021,USD 460-570/kWe in STEPS 2030,USD 340-390/kWe in APS 2030,USD 270-320/kWe in NZE Scenario by 2030.The cost of hydrogen produced using electrolysis is driven by the capital cost of electrolysers and the cost of the electrici
180、ty used to power the electrolyser.The capital costs of electrolysers are set to decrease strongly in the short term thanks to economies of scale and further technology innovation.The cost of renewable electricity has already decreased sharply in the last decade(80%reduction in the cost of solar modu
181、les between 2010 and 2020),and is expected to continue to decline thanks to widespread deployment of renewables,which are projected to become the largest source of global electricity generation by early 2025.The recent increases in commodity prices may slow down further cost declines in the near ter
182、m but are unlikely to stop them altogether over the longer term.As the capital cost of electrolysers goes down,the share of the cost of renewable electricity in the cost of producing hydrogen from renewable resources becomes more important.The cost of producing hydrogen from renewable electricity th
183、erefore strongly depends on the location of production,resulting in a very wide range of costs at a global level(Figure 1.7).If large-scale deployment takes place(as projected in all three IEA scenarios),the levelised cost of hydrogen could drop 0 2 4 6 8 10 12UnitedStatesJapanNWEuropeAustraliaMiddl
184、eEastNorthAfricaChinaIndiaChileUSD/kg HSolar PVWind20212030 STEPS2030 APS2030 NZETowards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|25 I EA.CC BY 4.0.below USD 2/kg H2 by 2030 in countries and regions with excellent solar irr
185、adiation,such as Africa,Australia,Chile,China and the Middle East.While solar PV-based electrolysis could become the cheapest way to produce hydrogen by the end of the decade,locations with excellent wind resources(offshore or onshore)could also see a significant drop in the levelised cost of hydrog
186、en,reaching values under USD 3/kg H2 in the North-West European region and under USD 2/kg H2 in the United States.With these costs,the production of hydrogen using electrolysis powered with renewable electricity can become competitive with fossil-based routes(both unabated and with CCUS).This is esp
187、ecially the case in locations with access to cheap solar PV electricity.Indicative production costs for hydrogen-based commodities produced via electrolysis in the Announced Pledges Scenario,2021 and 2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:VRE=variable renewable energy;APS=Announced Pledges Scenario;H2-DRI=hydroge
188、n-based direct reduced iron.The VRE cost range represents electrolysis powered by solar PV,offshore wind or onshore wind.An additional hydrogen storage cost to guarantee a minimum load of 80%is considered.Current reference values show production costs using the dominant incumbent means of production
189、 today with unabated fossil fuels.The cost of capital is assumed at 5%,while the other techno-economic assumptions are sourced from the references below.Incentives from support schemes such as the Inflation Reduction Act(IRA)have not been taken into account.Source:IEA(2023),Energy Technology Perspec
190、tives 2023.The considerable cross-region variations in the production costs of hydrogen can also have an important effect on the production costs of certain end-products,such as ammonia or steel,thereby affecting the competitiveness of the production of these products across differerent regions.Base
191、d on recent grid electricity prices,producing ammonia and steel with hydrogen using grid-connected electrolysers would cost around 50-170%more in Western Europe and Japan than in China,01 0002 0003 000Western EuropeJapanUnited StatesChinaCurrent referenceUSD/tonne Ammonia via electrolysis0 5001 0001
192、 500Western EuropeJapanUnited StatesChinaCurrent referenceUSD/tonne Crude steel via H2-DRIRecent grid electricityVRE 2021VRE APS-2030Current referenceTowards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|26 I EA.CC BY 4.0.and 40
193、-100%more than in the United States(Figure 1.8).Western Europe becomes much more competitive if the production costs that could be achieved using low-cost variable renewable energy are considered,although cost still remains higher than in China and the United States.Substantially lower costs can be
194、envisaged if countries are successful in implementing their announced pledges and scaling up the deployment of renewables and low-emission hydrogen production.Moreover,although cost differences will persist,these differences would be less marked.In the APS,using variable renewable energy to produce
195、ammonia leads to costs in the range of USD 480-1 500/t,and USD 520-980/t for crude steel in 2030.Competitiveness is a key consideration for governments in designing their industrial strategies and assessing those of their key suppliers.This can lead to different priorities in the development interna
196、tional supply chains of hydrogen,ammonia and other derivatives.The cost of transport and conversion processes The production cost of hydrogen is only part of the final cost that consumers will need to pay.Today,most hydrogen production is captive,meaning that hydrogen production and consumption are
197、integrated processes for large centralised industrial users.In this case,the production cost is the same as the cost faced by the final user.However,the adoption of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels in new applications which are more distributed(such as in the transport sector)will require t
198、he creation of domestic hydrogen transport and distribution infrastructure.Moreover,significant regional differences in production costs and an increasing focus on diversifying supplies may lead to the creation of international markets.In such markets,countries with limited potential to develop low-
199、emission hydrogen production capacities will rely on imports of hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels from regions with abundant renewable resources or with access to cheap fossil fuels and CO2 storage potential.The need for domestic and international trade infrastructure for hydrogen,including
200、for conversion into other hydrogen carriers and potential reconversion into hydrogen,are further cost elements in addition to production costs.In certain cases,conversion and reconversion costs if needed as well as transport costs,can be greater than the production costs.When shipped as liquefied hy
201、drogen over long distances,the shipping cost represents the main cost component of the delivered hydrogen.For example,the cost of transporting liquefied hydrogen from Chile to Japan can account for 50%of the final delivered cost of hydrogen(Figure 1.9).Shipping liquified hydrogen is a very expensive
202、 option for shipping hydrogen and will remain so in the near future,but this cost can be expected to decrease significantly with scale-up.If ammonia is chosen as the transport carrier,the transport costs decrease,but the cost of converting hydrogen into ammonia Towards hydrogen definitions based on
203、Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|27 I EA.CC BY 4.0.and the subsequent cost of cracking it back to hydrogen significantly affects the delivered cost of hydrogen.However,in cases where ammonia can be directly used without being reconverted to hydr
204、ogen,the reconversion costs can be avoided.In the case of hydrogen shipping using liquid organic hydrogen carriers,shipping costs are also expected to be lower than using liquified hydrogen,due to the possibility of using existing tankers,although the energy required in the conversion and reconversi
205、on processes strongly affects the final cost of delivery.Near-term levelised cost of delivered hydrogen and ammonia from solar PV,by transport option,in selected trade routes IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:LH2=liquified hydrogen.NH3=ammonia.Transport includes the cost associated with investment and operation of
206、 storage tanks at import and export shipping terminals assuming 20 annual shipments and shipping cost;in the case of pipeline,it includes the cost related to the construction and operation of hydrogen pipelines.For liquified hydrogen shipping,the tanker size assumed is 160 000 m3;for ammonia shippin
207、g it is 76 000 m3.For pipeline,the dashed area represents the cost variation in the case of a new or repurposed 48-inch pipeline operating between 25%and 75%of its design capacity during 5 000 full load hours.For ammonia,an additional hydrogen storage cost is considered,to guarantee a minimum load o
208、f the Haber-Bosch process of 80%.The levelised cost of hydrogen production from solar PV is assumed to be USD 1.6/kg H2 in Chile and USD 2/kg H2 in North Africa;and the levelised cost of ammonia production from solar PV is assumed to be USD 500/t of ammonia in Chile and USD 600/t of ammonia in North
209、 Africa.01234567LHNHLOHCHDelivery as hydrogenDomesticproductionUSD/kg H2Chile to Japan 0 180 360 540 720 9001 0801 260NHNHDelivery asammoniaDomesticproductionUSD/t NH301234567LHNHLOHCPipelineHDelivery as hydrogenDomesticproductionUSD/kg H2ProductionConversionTransportRe-conversionNorth Africa to Ger
210、many 0 180 360 540 720 9001 0801 260NHNHDelivery asammoniaDomesticproductionUSD/t NH3Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|28 I EA.CC BY 4.0.In the case of shorter distances between the sites of production and de
211、mand(up to around 3 000 km),transporting compressed gaseous hydrogen via pipeline may be the cheapest option.For example,compressing and transporting hydrogen between North Africa and Germany using newly built pipelines could add around USD 0.5-0.9/kg H2 to the production cost,if a new pipeline is b
212、uilt.This cost could fall to only USD 0.2/kg H2 if an existing natural gas pipeline is repurposed to transport hydrogen,although this option presents some technical challenges that may limit its applicability.Accelerating deployment to meet ambitions There is a very large gap between the production
213、of low-emission hydrogen today and what is needed to put the world on track with the APS and the NZE Scenario.However,a sizeable number of projects have been announced,aiming to develop large capacities for the production of low-emission hydrogen.If all announced projects are realised,the annual pro
214、duction of low-emission hydrogen could reach 24 Mt by 2030(Figure 1.10).These projects are spread across the globe,although G7 members account for roughly half of the potential production that could be achieved from all the projects under development.The production of low-emission hydrogen from anno
215、unced projects would be enough to meet 80%of the APS requirements but only around one-quarter of the needs of the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.How many of the announced projects will become operational by 2030 is uncertain.With current policy settings,most of these projects will not be realis
216、ed due to barriers to deployment being encountered by project developers today,including lack of demand,uncertainty on regulation and certification,and lack of infrastructure to deliver hydrogen to end users.In addition,emerging economies(which account for around one-quarter of the potential product
217、ion from announced projects)face other important barriers,such as difficulties in accessing finance and the need to develop a skilled workforce.Without policy action to overcome these barriers,deployment will remain limited to 6 Mt,as projected in the STEPS.The maturity of the projects under develop
218、ment can provide a good indication of the feasibility of reaching their full production potential by 2030.Currently,only 4%of the projects(in terms of their production output in 2030)are at advanced stages of development,i.e.are under construction or have reached a final investment decision(FID).Abo
219、ut one-third of the potential production of low-emission hydrogen corresponds to projects at the concept stage,meaning that they are at very early stages of development(e.g.only a co-operation agreement among stakeholders has been announced),while the remaining portion consists of projects undergoin
220、g feasibility and engineering studies.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|29 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Around 2%of the CCUS projects are at advanced stages of development,representing 0.2 Mt of low-emission hydrogen produ
221、ction by 2030.In the case of electrolysis projects,only 5%are at advanced stages of development(representing around 0.7 Mt of low-emission hydrogen production),with the bulk of potential production coming from projects undergoing feasibility and engineering studies(58%of potential production)or at c
222、oncept stage(37%of potential production).This means that the vast majority of the projects are still far from being realised.The construction and commissioning of hydrogen projects can take from around two years(for electrolysis projects smaller than 100 MW)to around a decade(in the case of large CC
223、US projects).Global low-emission hydrogen production and G7 share based on announced projects and by scenario,2021 and 2030 IEA.IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario;APS=Announced Pledges Scenario;NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario;CCUS=carbon capture,utilisation and storage.Other
224、includes hydrogen production from biomass,with and without CCUS.Source:IEA(2022),Hydrogen Projects Database(March 2023).In 2021,G7 members produced more than 80%of all hydrogen coming from operational projects using fossil fuels with CCUS,and 40%from operational electrolysis projects.Moreover,almost
225、 half of the announced projects that are currently under construction or have taken an FID and therefore could become operational by 2030 are located in G7 members,representing nearly 0.5 Mt of potential low-emission hydrogen production.In addition,projects with a potential production of 8.5 Mt of l
226、ow-emission hydrogen by 2030 are undergoing feasibility and engineering studies in G7 countries.This is 55%of all the projects in the world at this development stage,highlighting the important role that the G7 can play in scaling up low-emission hydrogen production in the short term.0%20%40%60%80%10
227、0%0 20 40 60 80 AnnouncedProjects2030STEPS2030APS2030NZEMt HProduction by technologyFossil fuels with CCUSElectrolysisOtherG7 share(right axis)0%20%40%60%80%100%0 2 4 6 8 10OperationalAdvancedFeasibiltiystudyConceptOperationalAdvancedFeasibiltiystudyConceptFossil fuels with CCUSElectrolys
228、isMt HProduction by maturity statusTowards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|30 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Clear hydrogen definitions to address deployment barriers Despite the strong momentum behind hydrogen and the growing int
229、erest shown by both governments and industry,progress in project implementation is still slow and far from what would be needed for hydrogen to play its role in meeting climate ambitions.This highlights the need to rapidly address several barriers contributing to the slow pace of project deployment:
230、The potential scale of demand for low-emission hydrogen in the near term is uncertain,and it is unclear how much of this demand will be specifically for low-emission hydrogen.Many governments have identified potential mechanisms to create this demand,such as such as auctions,mandates,quotas and requ
231、irements in public procurement.However,the majority of these polices have not yet been implemented.In the case of hydrogen produced using renewables more specifically,uncertainty around the long-term development of energy prices prevents FIDs being taken,despite the current competitiveness of renewa
232、ble-based hydrogen in certain markets.There is a need to develop the infrastructure required to deliver hydrogen from the production side to the end users.This is particularly necessary in the case of distributed applications,or where large demand is situated far from locations that are attractive f
233、or producing low-emission hydrogen at low cost.Today there is almost no available infrastructure,and if developed it faces the risk of underutilisation due to the uncertain evolution of demand.There is a lack of clarity in regulatory frameworks and certification schemes.The scale-up of low-emission
234、hydrogen production requires clear policy frameworks,including agreed standards for environmental criteria and policies to incentivise end users to commit to longterm purchases and manage offtake risk.Standards and certification for guaranteeing that hydrogenbased commodities meet environmental crit
235、eria,either voluntary,set by regulatory obligations or linked to government and market incentives,have become a priority for project developers to gain investors confidence.Achieving a certain level of compatibility among these policy frameworks across borders will also be needed in order to facilit
236、ate international trade.Governments have an important role in implementing measures to lower all of these barriers and facilitate deployment,and regulation is an area in which government action can have a large and immediate impact.Market players,and particularly first movers,require clarity on regu
237、lations and the certification processes needed to demonstrate regulatory compliance.This is particularly the case for aspects related to hydrogen sustainability attributes.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its derivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|31
238、 I EA.CC BY 4.0.International co-operation to facilitate deployment Governments need to enhance international co-operation in order to address various barriers to the scale-up of hydrogen production and use,particularly for aspects related to defining standards and certification systems for hydrogen
239、.Finding avenues for mutual recognition of regulations and certification schemes can facilitate interoperability and minimise market fragmentation.This can help hydrogen producers to reach offtake agreements with multiple potential clients in different markets,without the need to certify their produ
240、ct individually for each client,region and regulatory authority.The G7 is an ideal forum to explore these potential avenues,drawing on the sizeable economic power and technological leadership of its members.The G7 is already taking action to enhance collaboration in addressing some of the barriers t
241、hat are preventing hydrogen scale-up.In 2021,the UK G7 Presidency and the United States initiated the G7 Industrial Decarbonisation Agenda to work on regulation,standards,investment,procurement and joint research related to industrial decarbonisation,which can indirectly trigger hydrogen demand in t
242、he industrial sector.In 2022 the G7 members launched the Hydrogen Action Pact,with the objective of joining forces to accelerate the adoption of hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels(especially ammonia),and streamlining the implementation of existing multilateral initiatives.G7 members can benefit from
243、being first movers and facilitating interoperability among their regulatory frameworks in order to scale up both domestic production and demand for hydrogen,ammonia and other derivatives,as well as facilitating international trade.This would support the development of international hydrogen trade in
244、 the near term.However,G7 members cannot undertake this challenge in isolation.The development of an international hydrogen market requires the involvement of as many stakeholders as possible,including producer and emerging economies.These countries have strong potential to produce affordable low-em
245、ission hydrogen and want to benefit from the development of a global hydrogen market in the form of economic growth,the creation of a skilled workforce or avoided environmental harm and negative impacts in their local and indigenous communities.The G7 needs to foster an inclusive dialogue,ensuring t
246、hat the voices of all these potential partners are heard and their challenges are recognised.The success of the development of a global hydrogen market will,to a large extent,depend on its inclusivity and the fair distribution of its benefits.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Hydrogen and its de
247、rivatives their emissions intensity in a net zero energy system PAGE|32 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Defining hydrogen according to their emissions intensity its emissions intensity PAGE|33 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Defining hydrogen according to its emissions intensity Highlights Clear
248、 regulations and certification systems based on the emissions intensity of hydrogen production can bring much-needed transparency and be a useful enabler of investments in production and demand applications as well as infrastructure for hydrogen trade.The colour scheme often used for hydrogen,such a
249、s“green”or“blue”hydrogen,suggests a characterisation of the production route,but does not provide any quantification of its effect on emissions.Several voluntary certification systems and regulations to define hydrogen using the emissions intensity as key indicator already exist or are under develop
250、ment.Many of them share common elements,such as emissions intensity as a key indicator,or a focus on hydrogen production,but they differ in aspects such as system boundaries or the emissions intensity levels imposed.A consistent methodology to define hydrogen based on its emissions intensity will be
251、 critical to ensure interoperability between regulatory frameworks and certification systems.The analysis in this report is based on the methodology developed by the International Partnership on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy.Emissions intensities vary widely among hydrogen production routes
252、,from 10-13 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 from the use of unabated natural gas,to 0.8-4.6 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 for partial oxidation of natural gas with carbon capture and storage(CCS)(with the ranges depending on the upstream and midstream emissions of natural gas supply).For fossil-fuel based routes,in addition to i
253、ncreasing the CO2 capture rate,minimising upstream and midstream emissions of fossil fuel operations,in particular methane emissions,will be critical to achieve low intensities.While hydrogen production from renewable electricity via electrolysis is assumed to lead to zero emissions,achieving low em
254、ission levels using grid electricity depends on the emissions intensity of the grid.For example,a grid electricity intensity of 40 g CO2-eq/kWh yields hydrogen with an emissions intensity of 2 kg CO2-eq/kg H2.Global hydrogen production is today almost completely based on the use of unabated fossil f
255、uels,resulting in an emissions intensity of 12-13 kg CO2-eq/kg H2.In the Announced Pledges Scenario(APS),the global average emissions intensity falls below 3 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 by 2050,while in the Net Zero by 2050 Scenario the intensity reaches levels of under 1 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 by 2050.Towards hydroge
256、n definitions based on Defining hydrogen according to their emissions intensity its emissions intensity PAGE|34 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Introduction Various terms are currently used to describe the environmental attributes of hydrogen.These either use colours to refer to different production routes(e.g.“gree
257、n”for hydrogen from renewable-powered electrolysis and“blue”for production from natural gas with carbon capture,utilisation and storage(CCUS)or terms such as“sustainable”,“low-carbon”or“clean”hydrogen to distinguish it from unabated fossil-based production.However,there is no international agreement
258、 on the use of these terms,and their existing definitions are generally considered insufficient to be used as a reference in regulations or supply contracts.For example,much existing electrolysis currently runs on grid electricity,for which a colour has not been proposed.The terms“grey”and“blue”prov
259、ide no information about important factors such as upstream and midstream methane emissions and carbon capture rate.Clear definitions based on the greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions intensity9 of hydrogen production can bring much-needed transparency and be a useful enabler of investments in hydrogen prod
260、uction,hydrogen demand applications,infrastructure and trade in hydrogen.Without such clarity on definitions,contracting parties lack criteria needed to comply with divergent regulations and certification schemes around the world(Box 2.1).This could hinder the development of projects due to risks of
261、 non-compliance in the future,as well as time and costs associated with multiple certification processes.Developing definitions based on a common methodology or agreed standard to determine the GHG intensity of hydrogen can simplify the certification process.A common definition would allow for compa
262、rison of the emissions intensities between different production pathways and producers,while still leaving governments the possibility to define acceptable emissions intensity levels,taking into account local circumstances and opportunities.Countries may set different thresholds,but use of a common
263、methodology to determine emissions intensity would ensure interoperability between different countries.This chapter starts with an overview of existing and proposed certification systems and regulations for hydrogen and their attributes and criteria.This is followed by an analysis of the emissions i
264、ntensity of different hydrogen production routes.The analysis is based on the methodology developed by the International Partnership on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy(IPHE),using IEA data for the 9 Greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions refer here to the emissions of CO2,methane(CH4)and nitrous oxide(
265、N2O).For the supply of natural gas and coal and in hydrogen production processes,N2O emissions are relatively small and levels uncertain,so N2O emissions are only include in the emissions of grid electricity,but not in the emissions of upstream natural gas and coal supply.Hydrogen itself is an indir
266、ect GHG,but has been not considered in the analysis here,as research on its global warming potential is still ongoing.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Defining hydrogen according to their emissions intensity its emissions intensity PAGE|35 I EA.CC BY 4.0.production technologies and upstream and
267、 midstream emissions.This analysis is then used as the basis of a proposal for defining hydrogen according to its emissions intensity.Box 2.1 Certification systems A certification system provides evidence that methodologies and analytical frameworks are applied according to a specified standard or s
268、et of requirements.Certifications can help to provide credibility and transparency by demonstrating to consumers that a product or service meets certain expectations.Issued by independent bodies,certifications cover both the test methods to assess a certain product or process and the criteria that t
269、he product or process must meet.They undergo the necessary inspections and reviews to guarantee an objective evaluation.These systems can be either mandatory or voluntary.Mandatory certification systems verify that market participants are adhering to specific criteria outlined in policies,regulation
270、s or contractual obligations.In contrast,voluntary certification systems can be used for reporting and disclosure purposes.Mutually recognised certifications enable the global interoperability of products and devices.For example,WiFi certifications based on internationally recognised standards guara
271、ntee that a variety of devices will be able to connect to wireless networks around the world.Certifications are found across all economic sectors,such as electronics,telecommunications,and pharmaceuticals.In general,the main elements of a successful certification system include:Governance:to establi
272、sh the roles and responsibilities of the standards and certification bodies.Application:of the standard on which the product or process is being tested,and any additional criteria.Evaluation:of whether the product or process meets the standard or qualification criteria,and the need for more informat
273、ion or a second review.Enforcement and verification:that the product or process in the marketplace continues to meet the qualification criteria,and of the steps to audit and verify compliance.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Defining hydrogen according to their emissions intensity its emissions
274、 intensity PAGE|36 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Elements of regulations and certification systems for hydrogen No internationally agreed framework or standard on how to define the GHG intensity of hydrogen production currently exists,though efforts are underway.The IPHE has developed a methodology to calculate th
275、e GHG emissions for different hydrogen production routes.This methodology is being used to establish an International Organization for Standardization(ISO)standard.10 Attributes and criteria of certification systems Despite the nascent nature of hydrogen markets,several certification systems or regu
276、latory frameworks defining the emissions intensity of hydrogen have been developed or are under development(Table 3.1).They can be characterised by different attributes and criteria:Purpose:Certification systems can be voluntary and used by market participants for reporting and disclosure purposes,s
277、uch as the Green Hydrogen Standard at an international level,CertifHy in the European Union or TV SD CMS 70 in Germany.Certification can also be required for regulatory reasons to prove compliance with specific legislative criteria in a country,or to benefit from government incentives,such as Califo
278、rnias Low-Carbon Fuel Standard or the hydrogen production tax credit of the Inflation Reduction Act in the United States.Funding programmes,tenders or auctions can also require that certain emissions intensity levels are met,such as the tenders for hydrogen purchase agreements of H2Global.System bou
279、ndaries:Certification systems can be differentiated by the hydrogen supply chain steps that they cover(Figure 2.1).Well-to-gate system boundaries target the supply of the fuels used in the production process,while well-to-point of delivery or well-to-tank boundaries also include the transport and po
280、ssible conversion and reconversion of hydrogen into other carriers(e.g.ammonia).Well-to-wheel system boundaries also include emissions associated with the use of hydrogen.CertifHy is based on a well-to-gate system boundary,while H2Global follows a well-to-point of delivery approach by taking into th
281、e account the transport emissions to specified delivery points in Europe.11 A well-to-wheel system boundary is used for the definition of renewable hydrogen in the Renewable Energy Directive II of the European Union.Scope:Almost all existing and proposed certification systems cover direct emissions(
282、Scope 1)and indirect emissions associated with the generation of electricity,heating/cooling,or steam purchased for own consumption(Scope 2).Most frameworks also include indirect emissions,such as in the case of hydrogen 10 The development of an ISO standard takes several years.To provide a referenc
283、e in the interim,the ISO is developing a Draft Technical Specification to measure the emissions intensity of hydrogen production,aiming for publication in 2024.11 The impact of transport emissions is illustrated in Box 2.3.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Defining hydrogen according to their em
284、issions intensity its emissions intensity PAGE|37 I EA.CC BY 4.0.production from natural gas,the upstream methane and CO2 emissions from gas production,and midstream emissions from transporting and storing the natural gas.The systems that cover the use of fossil fuels for hydrogen production also ge
285、nerally include the emissions associated with transporting and storing the captured CO2(e.g.indirect emissions from electricity use).Emissions from the manufacture of machinery and equipment are typically not included(partial Scope 3),which is also reflected in the IPHE methodology.While these embed
286、ded emissions can affect the emissions intensity of hydrogen production,particularly in the near term,indirect emissions from material production processes,such as aluminium,cement,copper or steel,are expected to decline in the medium and long term with increasing efforts to decarbonise the energy s
287、ystem.As a result,the emissions impact of electricity generation from wind,solar photovoltaic,hydropower and geothermal energy in the emissions intensity of hydrogen production is assumed to be zero.Production pathways:Certification systems or regulatory frameworks may limit the eligible technology
288、and fuel options for hydrogen production.The Green Hydrogen Standard,for example,requires electrolysis using renewable electricity,while the UK Low Carbon Hydrogen Standard lists electrolysis,natural gas with CCUS and production from biomass and waste as production options.The French certification s
289、cheme currently under development does not include constraints on technology choice.Hydrogen products:Most certification systems to date consider only the production of hydrogen(i.e.in form of H2).A few systems and regulations,such as the EU Taxonomy or RED II,also include hydrogen-based fuels.Deman
290、d sectors:In some cases,certification is linked to sector-specific regulation.The Low Carbon Fuel Standard in California and the UK Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation are limited to the transport sector.Most of the existing and proposed systems,however,are not tied to a specific demand sector.Chain
291、 of custody model:This determines the requirements for tracking and tracing product attributes along the supply chain.There are two types of chain of custody models commonly used in certification systems.In a book-and-claim model,the producer delivers a product meeting certain environmental criteria
292、 to the market,e.g.hydrogen below a certain emissions intensity threshold,and at the same time,books an equivalent amount in a certificate platform.Buyers of the product can acquire a certificate and thus claim that an equivalent amount of the product purchased meets the environmental requirements.T
293、his model allows certificates to be traded separately from the physical product,thus providing flexibility,but does not ensure any physical tracking of the product.Examples are CertifHy and the Low Carbon Fuel Standard in California.The mass balancing model links the certificate to the respective ph
294、ysical delivery of the product.The mass of the product is accounted for by tracking the mass at the input and output sides of the delivery steps involved,which provides some traceability of the physical product.Compliant and non-compliant products can be mixed,but operators are required to monitor a
295、nd record the inputs of compliant and non-Towards hydrogen definitions based on Defining hydrogen according to their emissions intensity its emissions intensity PAGE|38 I EA.CC BY pliant inputs into their operation,so that equivalent parts of the outputs can be regarded as compliant products.RED II
296、refers to mass balancing as a tracking model.Emissions intensity levels:Most certification systems require the emissions intensity level,i.e.the specific GHG emissions per unit of hydrogen,to fall below certain levels to qualify for a label or to meet the requirements of a regulation.Other schemes,s
297、uch as the planned Guarantee of Origin certificate scheme,certify the emissions intensity without any threshold levels.Additional sustainability criteria considered:Certification systems can also include further sustainability criteria,such as other environmental or social aspects.The EU Taxonomy,fo
298、r example,lists water impact,air pollution and biodiversity as additional criteria.Scope and system boundaries for emissions accounting schemes IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:LH2=liquefied hydrogen;NH3=ammonia;LOHC=liquid organic hydrogen carrier.The emissions intensity of hydrogen production routes A common a
299、nd robust methodology for determining the emissions intensity of hydrogen,including common system boundaries and scope of emissions,is critical to ensure comparability between intensity levels in different certification systems and regulatory frameworks.The analysis and discussion in this report app
300、lies the IPHE methodology(Scope 1,2 and partial Scope 3 emissions)and focuses on the production of hydrogen by using a well-to-gate system boundary.Other hydrogen supply chain steps,such as the conversion of hydrogen into other hydrogen carriers,the transport of hydrogen and hydrogen carriers(as in
301、the case Towards hydrogen definitions based on Defining hydrogen according to their emissions intensity its emissions intensity PAGE|39 I EA.CC BY 4.0.of international trade),and the reconversion of hydrogen carriers back into hydrogen are important steps that should be included to fully assess the
302、GHG impact of hydrogen supply chains.The analysis that follows focuses on production to support the definition of a proposed international emissions accounting system for the production of hydrogen.The IPHE has already developed a methodology to assess the emission impact of hydrogen conditioning,i.
303、e.conversion and reconversion.The methodology for assessing the emission impact of transporting hydrogen and hydrogen carriers is still under development by the IPHE.Some information on the emission impact of ammonia production is provided in Box 2.3,while Box 2.4 illustrates the potential impact of
304、 transporting hydrogen,ammonia and hydrogen-based fuels by ship or pipeline.In the following text,the IPHE methodology is used to illustrate the emissions intensity of different hydrogen production routes today and for 2030.Overview of different hydrogen production routes The emissions associated wi
305、th the production of hydrogen can vary significantly between production routes,depending on the fuel,technology and the rate at which CCS12 is applied(Figure 2.2).In addition to direct emissions occurring in the production of hydrogen,indirect emissions from the production,conversion and transport o
306、f the required input fuels,such as natural gas or electricity,can affect the overall emissions associated with the production of hydrogen.Natural gas is today the main source of hydrogen production globally,accounting for 62%of production.The direct emissions of hydrogen production from natural gas
307、without CCS using steam methane reforming(SMR)are around 9 kg CO2-eq/kg H2.Further emissions occur in the production,processing and transport of natural gas,either in the form of methane emissions13 from venting or leakages,or as CO2 emissions from flaring methane at gas fields or linked to the ener
308、gy being used to produce and transport natural gas(e.g.emissions linked to the electricity for compressing natural gas).Upstream and midstream emissions for natural gas can vary widely between natural gas basins and countries,reflecting different production practices and emission mitigation efforts.
309、The application of best practices to avoid emissions from natural gas production,such as in Norway,limits the combined methane and CO2 emissions to 4.5 kilogramme CO2 equivalent per gigajoule of produced natural gas(kg CO2-eq/GJNG),of which 0.8 kg CO2-eq/GJNG are methane emissions and 3.7 kg CO2-eq/
310、GJNG CO2 emissions,mainly from energy use during gas production and transport.These upstream and midstream emissions are in 12 For the analysis in this chapter,only carbon capture and storage(CCS)has been considered.The IPHE methodology does not consider carbon capture and utilisation due to lack of
311、 consensus between government and industry whether the CO2 emissions for the CO2 used should be allocated to the producer of hydrogen or transferred to the end user.13 One tonne of methane is considered to be equivalent to 25 tonnes of CO2 based on the 100-year global warming potential from the Inte
312、rgovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)Fourth Assessment Report.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Defining hydrogen according to their emissions intensity its emissions intensity PAGE|40 I EA.CC BY 4.0.addition to the direct CO2 emissions of 56 kg CO2-eq/GJNG,created when burning the natural
313、 gas without CCS.Upstream and midstream emissions from natural gas supply can be much higher in other gas production regions in the world,reaching for example 27 kg CO2-eq/GJNG in the Caspian region(around half of the direct emissions of the unabated use of natural gas).More than three-quarters of t
314、hese upstream and midstream emissions are methane emissions from venting and leakages during gas production and transport.The global median upstream and midstream emissions from gas production today are around 15 kg CO2-eq/GJNG.Using this median value for the upstream and midstream emissions results
315、 in additional emissions of 2.4 kg CO2-eq/kg H2,and in total emissions of 11 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 for the SMR production route from natural gas without CCS.Applying CCS to the various direct CO2 sources at the SMR hydrogen plant can reduce the direct emissions to 0.7 kg CO2-eq/kg H2(capture rate 93%);tot
316、al emissions increase to 1.5-6.2 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 when including the upper and lower end of global upstream and midstream emissions for natural gas supply today.Coal accounts for around a fifth of global hydrogen production today,mainly based in China.Hydrogen production from coal gasification withou
317、t CCS results in total emissions of 22-26 kg CO2-eq/kg H2,depending on the upstream and midstream emissions for coal mining,processing and transport,which range between 6-23 kg CO2-eq/GJcoal with a median of 8 kg CO2-eq/GJcoal.More than 80%of the emissions intensity of hydrogen production from coal
318、is from direct emissions at the production plant and less than 20%is linked to coal mining,processing and transport.Applying CCS with a total capture rate of 93%reduces the emissions intensity of the coal pathway to 2.6-6.3 kg CO2-eq/kg H2,a range similar to that of natural gas SMR with CCS.The emis
319、sions from water electrolysis are determined by the upstream and midstream emissions of electricity generation.Using the current average global CO2 intensity of 460 g CO2-eq/kWh results in an emissions intensity for hydrogen of 24 kg CO2-eq/kg H2,similar to the emissions for hydrogen from unabated c
320、oal,but can be as low as 0.5 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 in a country such as Sweden,which has one of the lowest emission factors for grid electricity production in the world today(10 g CO2-eq/kWh).Nuclear electricity can be another source for hydrogen production.Although the direct emissions of a nuclear power
321、 plant are zero,the nuclear fuel cycle of uranium mining,conversion,enrichment and fuel fabrication results in emissions of 2.4-6.8 g CO2-eq/kWh.Taking into account these emissions,the emissions intensity of hydrogen production from nuclear electricity is in the range of 0.1-0.3 kg CO2-eq/kg H2.Foll
322、owing the IPHE methodology,renewable electricity from wind,solar PV,hydropower and geothermal energy has zero upstream and direct emissions,so the resulting emissions for water electrolysers using these forms of renewable electricity is also zero(Box 2.2).Towards hydrogen definitions based on Defini
323、ng hydrogen according to their emissions intensity its emissions intensity PAGE|41 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Comparison of the emissions intensity of different hydrogen production routes,2021 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:BAT=best available technology;CCS=carbon capture and storage;SMR=steam methane reforming;POx=partia
324、l oxidation;Median upstr.emis.=global median value of upstream and midstream emissions in 2021;BAT upstr.emis.=best available technology today to address upstream and midstream emissions.Upstream and midstream emissions include CO2 and methane emissions occurring during the extraction,processing,and
325、 supply of fuels(coal,natural gas)or production,processing,and transport of biomass.Error bars for natural gas and coal represent the impact of the observed range of upstream and midstream emissions today on emissions intensities.For natural gas,the lower bound corresponds to best available technolo
326、gy today(4.5 kg CO2-eq/GJ),and the upper bound to the 95%percentile of the world range(28 kg CO2-eq/GJ).For coal,the lower bound corresponds to the 5%percentile(6 kg CO2-eq/GJ)and the upper bound to the 95%percentile(23 kg CO2-eq/GJ)of global upstream and midstream emissions of coal supply.The 2021
327、world grid average is based on a generation-weighted global average of the grid electricity intensity,with the error bars representing the 10%percentile(50 g CO2-eq/kWh)and 90%percentile (700 g CO2-eq/kWh)across countries.The grid electricity intensities include direct CO2,CH4 and N2O emissions at t
328、he power plants,but not upstream and midstream emissions for the fuels used in the power plants.Dashed lines refer to the embedded emissions occurring during the production of onshore wind turbines(12 g CO2-eq/kWh)and solar PV systems(27 g CO2-eq/kWh).These embedded emissions are not included in the
329、 IPHE methodology and shown here only for illustrative purposes.Electrolysis refers to low-temperature water electrolysis with an assumed overall electricity demand of 50 kWh/kg H2,including compression to 30 bar.Hydrogen production from natural gas via SMR is based on 44.5 kWh/kg H2 for natural gas
330、 in the case of no CO2 capture,on 45.0 kWh/kg H2 for natural gas in the case of 60%capture rate,and on 49 kWh/kg H2 for natural gas and 0.8 kWh/kg H2 for electricity in the case of a 93%capture rate.Hydrogen production from natural gas via POx is based on demands of 41 kWh/kg H2 for natural gas and
331、0.6 kWh/kg H2 for electricity in the case of a 99%capture rate.Hydrogen production from coal is based on gasification,with demands for coal of 57 kWh/kg H2 and for electricity of 0.7 kWh/kg H2 in the case of no CO2 capture,demands for coal of 59 kWh/kg H2 for a CO2 capture rate of 93%and demands for
332、 coal of 60 kWh/kg H2 for a CO2 capture rate of 98%.Towards hydrogen definitions based on Defining hydrogen according to their emissions intensity its emissions intensity PAGE|42 I EA.CC BY 4.0.Box 2.2 Including lifecycle analysis in emissions intensity accounting Most existing or proposed regulatio
333、ns and certification systems do not take into account the emissions associated with the manufacturing of the technologies involved in hydrogen production(e.g.the emissions for manufacturing the electrolyser and the solar PV system in the case of electrolytic hydrogen produced from solar PV electricity).The only exception is the French ordinance on hydrogen from February 2021(Ordinance No.2021-167)