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1、HUMAN CAPITAL AND PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYMENT CREATION ADDRESSING AFRICAS SKILLS GAPHUMAN CAPITAL AND PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYMENT CREATIONADDRESSING AFRICAS SKILLS GAPEconomic Commission for Africa(ECA)Subregional Office for North Africa,Rabat,Morocco,Tel.:(+212)537 717 829www.uneca.orgOxford Economics AfricaCe

2、cilia Square,100 Cecilia Street,Paarl,7646,Tel.:+27(0)21 863 2023 United Nations Economic Commission for Africa,Oxford Economics AfricaAll rights reserved.Material in this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted.Acknowledgement is requested,together with a copy of the publication.The designati

3、ons used and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa(ECA)or Oxford Economics Africa(OEA)concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area,or of its authorit

4、ies,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries,or its economic system or degree of development.Designations such as“developed”,“industrialized”and“developing”are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgment about the stage reached by a particular

5、country or area in the development process.Methodological note:Unemployment and the level of education represent key themes in this report.However,because countries follow different approaches in terms of defining and measuring unemployment and education metrics,and also for statistical soundness re

6、asons in many cases,it often proves more useful to utilise a single source for these metrics,especially for comparison,modelling and forecasting purposes.Hence,throughout this report,standardised figures often utilise sources different from those reported by statistical offices.Figures provided by s

7、tatistical offices or other in-country organisations may well be elaborated on in this report,in which case the sources will be clearly referenced.iiiHuman capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapFOREWORDAs the Fourth Industrial Revolution(4IR)takes hold and spreads a

8、cross the globe,all countries and regions will have to adapt to this new economic reality.The 4IR is leading to fundamental changes to economic structures,directly impacting the demand for skills.Trends that will require structural changes in skills include the remote working,digitalization,and effo

9、rts to ensure just transition to greener energy.The most challenging shift pertains to the worldwide impact of the technological changes,such as artificial intelligence,on jobs,with potentially huge replacements of people by machines along the entire skills spectrum.In Africa,where the working age p

10、opulation and its share in total are still rising,policies will need to focus on technology adoption that enhances both productivity and employment opportunities.This will require population that is better educated,healthier,technologically savvy,and ready for the changing world of work.However,the

11、overall gap in human capital between Africa and the rest of the world has widened slightly over the years.Digitalization that the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated mean that pre-existing skill shortages and mismatches will be accentuated.An added challenge for Africa is that the required technologic

12、al changes must also address challenges of climate change.The success of efforts to cope with climate change will thus also depend on closing the skill gaps in this area.The analysis of Africas skill landscape points to a fragmented system,containing pockets of excellence while more than 30%of popul

13、ation in Africa(excluding North Africa)aged 15+lacks basic literacy.The report on“Human Capital and Productive Employment Creation:Addressing Africas Skills Gap”,jointly produced by the ECA and the Oxford Economics,examines Africas skills gap both from a continent-wide perspective along with more in

14、-depth country case studies,with focus on changing economic structures,The aim is to flag examples of successful interventions that can be replicated.The key policy challenge in the area of skill development for Africa is to support the new and emerging sectors that can drive inclusive and resilient

15、 growth.This is critical for creating decent jobs for Africas growing population and reaching the aspiration of Agenda 2063.This report,which builds on the Best Practices in Job Creation in Africa(also with Oxford Economics),aims to contribute to addressing this challenge.Zuzana SchwidrowskiDirector

16、ECA Office for North AfricaAbout the Economic Commission for Africa As one of the five regional commissions of the UN Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC),the Economic Commission for Africa(ECA)supports Africas economic and social development,fosters regional integration and promotes international co

17、operation in support of regional development through research and technical support to governments.ivHuman capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapThe value of a well-educated and engaged civil society is widely appreciated.The flip side of that coin is the skills tha

18、t education imparts on the population.Since the Industrial Revolution we have seen how technological advances have necessitated the development of the skills needed to leverage those technologies,with the outcome being a more productive and prosperous society.Technology has never before evolved at s

19、uch a rapid rate as we see today,meaning it is more imperative than ever that our leaders should take action to ensure that our people are prepared for the future economic landscape.This report examines the skills mismatch that we see across the African continent today.Not only does this mismatch cu

20、rtail economic development,with some sectors unable to take off due to the lack of skilled labour,but the mismatch also runs the risk of producing an unemployable workforce,thus perpetuating Africas unemployment problem.A key insight of this report is that governments across the continent are in a p

21、osition to address this issue,not by simply committing more resources towards education,but by taking a critical view of the types of skills each country will need,while at the same time ensuring that the sectors that will absorb those skills are being given room to flourish.At Oxford Economics Afri

22、ca we translate our passion for economics into fruitful partnerships with our clients,with the central aim of supporting development in Africa.We firmly believe that this report will contribute to that development by putting upskilling top of mind,and by showing how our leaders can prepare the conti

23、nent for the future.Noelani King ConradieManaging DirectorOxford Economics AfricaAbout Oxford Economics AfricaOxford Economics Africa,based in the Western Cape Province of South Africa,is a majority-owned subsidiary of Oxford Economics that specializes in political and macroeconomic research in Afri

24、ca.OEA investigates and interprets the economic,risk,and political conditions of African countries to caution against pitfalls and guide investors towards opportunities.OEA has a strong reputation for independence and quality and has a highly qualified team of economists,econometricians,quantitative

25、 analysts and political analysts,who are all experts in their fields and have decades of experience in covering Africa.Insights are provided within the context of comprehensive knowledge of the African continent,its history,and each countrys economic setting.vHuman capital and productive employment

26、creation:Addressing Africas skills gapACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis study,entitled“Human Capital and Productive Employment Creation:Addressing Africas Skills Gap”,is the second report resulting from the collaboration between the Subregional Office for North Africa of the Economic Commission for Africa(ECA),a

27、nd NKC African Economics,headquartered in South Africa and part of the Oxford Economics Group.It builds on the first joint report on“Best Practices in Job Creation:Lessons from Africa”,published in 2021.The research for this report was carried out by Jacques Nel,Head of Macro at Oxford Economics Afr

28、ica,with coordination provided by Amal Elbeshbishi,Economist in the Employment and Skills for Development Section of the Subregional Office for North Africa of the ECA(ECA SRO-NA).The report was prepared under the guidance of Zuzana Schwidrowski,Director of the ECA SRO-NA.Appreciation is expressed f

29、or comments provided by Soumaya Iraqui-Houssaini(Section Chief),Zoubir Benhamouche(Economist)and Aziz Jaid(Economist)of the Employment and Skills for Development of the ECA SRO-NA.The publication benefited from the discussions,conclusions and recommendations of the webinar on Human Capital and Produ

30、ctive Employment Creation:Bridging the Skills Gap in Africa,organized by the Subregional Office for North Africa of the Economic Commission for Africa,in Rabat on December 7,2022.The Subregional Office for North Africa of the Economic Commission for Africa thanks the panel for participating in the w

31、ebinar and their ensuing recommendations that served to further inform and refine the findings highlighted in this report.viHuman capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapLIST OF ABBREVIATIONSADC Africa Data CentresADF African Development Fund AU African UnionAWS Amazo

32、n Web ServicesDECI Digital Egypt Cubs InitiativeDFC US International Development Finance CorporationEU European UnionEUI Egypt University of InformaticsICT Information&Communications Technology IFC International Finance CorporationILO International Labour Organisation IMF International Monetary Fund

33、 I4G Ingressive for GoodKNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics MCIT Ministry of Communications and Information TechnologyMENA Middle East and North AfricaPDSA Practical Data Scientist AcademyUN United NationsUNDP United Nations Development Programme UNIDO UN Industrial Development Organisation UIS

34、 Unesco Institute for StatisticsWHO World Health Organisation WIOCC West Indian Ocean Cable CompanyviiHuman capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapTABLE OF CONTENTSForeword.iiiExecutive summary.viiiIntroduction.1Human capital in Africa.3Skills demand vs skills supply

35、.11Addressing the skills gap.211.Cte divoire.222.Egypt.243.Kenya.264.Morocco.285.South Africa.306.Rwanda.327.Zambia.34A changing global context.36Migration and brain drain/gain.37Digital infrastructure.43Digitisation and 4IR.46Climate change.49Conclusion.51Sources.52viiiHuman capital and productive

36、employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapEXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe levels of human capital and skills differ widely between continents and over time.While skills and human capital on the African continent have improved over time,a gap with other continents remains(Penn 2019).Of more concern,the g

37、ap in human capital between Africa and the rest of the world has widened slightly over the years.While the fast pace of Asias human capital growth has contributed to this growing gap,the fact remains that Africa is behind its peers in other continents and the rest of the world.There is a strong link

38、 between a countrys human capital and total factor productivity:increasing a countrys populations skills capacity also improves the efficiency level of that countrys inhabitants.Furthermore,while there is a large gap in the human capital level between Africa and the rest of the world,human capital l

39、evels also differ widely within Africa(Penn,2019).A large cluster of countries has lower levels of human capital and total factor productivity,with a striking geographic or regional divide.Human capital tends to be higher in Southern African and North African countries.When assessing the dynamics be

40、tween skills demand and skills supply within an economy,a conundrum regarding causation emerges.Similar to the-chicken-or-the-egg archetype,the demand for specific skills is both a product of the size of the sector requiring those skills,as well as a factor in determining the size of the aforementio

41、ned sector.The symbiotic relationship between a good supply of skills for a sector that is showing strong growth also has converse implications:the inability to find the necessary skills to develop a sector will hamper the development of that sector,thus reducing the demand for those skills.1 Furthe

42、rmore,a countrys employment makeup from a sectoral perspective is indicative of the skill demands in those sectors,and the availability of 1 These mutually re-enforcing externalities have been pointed out by,for example,Snower(1994)for advanced economies and Brixiova(2010)for African countries.The g

43、ap between Africa and the rest of the world has widened slightly over the yearsSource:Penn World Table,2019ixHuman capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapthose skills in the economy.The positive externalities associated with skill acquisition provide basis for policy

44、 interventions.This point that the employment makeup of a country is determined by the structure of an economy and the availability of skills to support that structure has important implications for economic development and competitiveness.2 Importantly,the best way to move to a new equilibrium wher

45、e the demand for more sophisticated skills by firms matches the supply of those skills among workers will require investment in both human capital and infrastructure(both hard and soft,such as regulation),by both the public and private sectors.Investment in education and the modernisation of educati

46、on provision need to be accompanied by incentives and the necessary infrastructure to get industries of the future off the ground and on a sustainable footing.A more productive and educated labour force can act as a catalyst for economic sophistication,but the foundation for these sectors to develop

47、 needs to be in place for this virtuous chain reaction to be set off.As the Fourth Industrial Revolution(4IR)takes hold and spreads across the globe,all countries will have to adapt to a new economic reality.This new reality will take the form of fundamental changes to economic structures,and the em

48、ergence of new economic sectors at the expense of some traditional sectors.This will of course have a direct bearing on the demand for skills as modern sectors will require modern skills.Major trends that will require structural changes include the global transition towards greener energy,the prolif

49、eration of remote working,increasing demand for digital infrastructure,and the broader impact of climate change(and the related efforts to contain it).The first point of order in bridging the continents skills gap should be to ensure that the lack of information does not represent an obstacle.This r

50、efers to information regarding employment opportunities making it easier to connect employer and employee as well as information regarding the type of skills required.The former can be pursued by ensuring that the population has the means to leverage online platforms that match jobseekers with vacan

51、cies.In turn,clarity on the skills required necessitates a well-defined strategy and closer collaboration between government,industry bodies,and institutions tasked with formulating and implementing the education curricula.Tertiary institutions together with technical&vocational training centres sho

52、uld have clear communication channels with government and private enterprises in strategic sectors to ensure that education and training evolve with the respective industries needs.State-sponsored internship programmes will also ensure that individuals can acquire practical experience once the educa

53、tion programme/training is complete.These could potentially be funded through tax incentives to temporarily subsidise employment costs.Importantly,the identification of strategic sectors and efforts to develop these sectors should be aligned with governments broader development agenda.While governme

54、nt creates the infrastructure to ensure that a steady stream of sufficiently qualified individuals enters the labour market particularly in critical sectors where skills shortages exist it also needs to establish the policy framework to support the development of these critical 2 As the World Econom

55、ic Forum,we define competitiveness as the set of institutions,policies,and factors that determine the level of productivity of a country.A more productive and educated labour force can act as a catalyst for deeper economic sophisticationxHuman capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Af

56、ricas skills gapsectors.Crucially,it should be noted that labour market outcomes should not be seen as a product of labour market policies alone,but rather as a positive offshoot of the broader policy environment.Accordingly,policies favouring the creation of new businesses,particularly in strategic

57、 sectors,should be a top priority.This could require amendments to business regulations and fiscal policy while also necessitating the provision of hard and soft infrastructure.1Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapINTRODUCTIONSkills and education levels of t

58、he population impact the quality of jobs generated in a country or region and should thus be a key consideration in broader employment creation initiatives.Given their link with productivity,skills and education are particularly relevant in the African context,which is characterised by low levels of

59、 productive employment,especially among the youth.According to the World Economic Forum,on average in Africa(excluding North Africa)high-skilled employment accounts for only 6%of the total employment,in contrast to the global average of 24%.A large share of Africans works in the informal sector.At t

60、he same time,firms across the continent emphasise the inadequately skilled workforce as a major constraint to their activities,pointing to long-standing skill shortages and mismatches.Several mega-trends,especially technological progress and digitalisation,as well as climate change,demographic chang

61、es,along the changes in values and preferences that accompany them,impact the current and the future nature of work and demand for skills on the continent.The following comprehensive skills set will be essential for populations in Africa and elsewhere to succeed in the rapidly changing regional and

62、global environment:(i)cognitive,(ii)socio-emotional,(iii)technical,and(iv)digital.With rapid technological progress,digital skills are increasingly important for success in the 21st century labour market.Yet in the 2020s,skills development continues to be a major challenge for the continent.For exam

63、ple,more than 30%of the African population south of the Sahara aged 15+lacks basic literacy according to World Bank indicators.At the same time,according to a recent International Finance Corporation(IFC)study,about half of the jobs in Africa already require some digital skills.Technological progres

64、s and the adoption of digital technologies have the potential to help build skills among workers,including those with low education,hence boosting productivity across sectors and jobs,provided barriers to digital inclusion are addressed(OECD,2020).To realise this potential,policies should support fi

65、rms access to capital,besides workers possessing basic education and foundational skills,including basic digital literacy.The purpose of this study is to examine the current state of human capital on the continent,in terms of educational attainment and formal skills acquisition,and to ascertain wher

66、e the shortages and mismatches are in terms of skills demand and skills supply.3 The analysis also includes national case studies where shortages and mismatches have emerged,allowing for a deeper assessment of their drivers.The report and its case studies also assess policies which have been pursued

67、,successfully or not,to address skills shortages.3 Although human capital includes education,health,and aspects of“social capital,”the main focus of this report on education,where human capital is measured in terms of years of education and the return on edutation.Firms across the continent emphasis

68、e the inadequately skilled workforce as a major constraint to their activities 2Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapThe structural shifts that the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine crisis have accelerated mean that several key skills shortages and mis

69、matches will be accentuated.Identifying these shortages and mismatches and finding appropriate ways to address them represent key factors governments will need to be especially mindful of when developing policies for inclusive and resilient recovery.In addition,the migration of skilled individuals a

70、nd the implications of freer movement of people under the African Continental Free Trade Area will have to be incorporated into a strategy that aims to address skills shortages and mismatches and generate job-rich growth.Looking at the current state of human capital through the lens of changing econ

71、omic structures and increasing occurrence of multiple and cascading shocks will highlight the most pertinent issues preventing sustainable employment creation.It will also suggest measures that can be put in place to address these issues.3Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing A

72、fricas skills gapHUMAN CAPITAL IN AFRICAHuman capital refers to the attributes an individual holds that are relevant to economic activity.These attributes usually take the form of knowledge,skills,education,health,elements of social capital and other factors to a specific economic activity.According

73、 to human capital theory,investments in human capital improve the productivity of individual workers,with more productive workers then becoming a key driver of economic growth and development.The fourth industrial revolution(4IR)will lead to increased intensity in the use of digital technologies,whi

74、ch will disrupt a wide range of industries and change the nature of employment opportunities(WEF,2016).Hence,the attainment of different levels of digital skills(from basic to advanced),which would enable the adoption of new technologies and the creation of digital-savvy jobs,will have greater signi

75、ficance in human capital formation in the 4IR.Since the 4IR will be disruptive,with technology replacing workers,it presents a unique challenge to Africa with its rapidly rising,urbanizing,and youthful population seeking jobs(IMF,2018).Starting from a relatively low literacy and foundation skills,Af

76、rica already lags other regions in the development of human capital and digital skills,presenting a huge task to upskill the continents population.This will be critical in the context of the 4IR that exacerbates labour market segregation into“low-skill/low-pay”and“high-skill/high-pay”jobs.In this se

77、ction,we present an overview of how educational attainment and human capital have evolved across the continent over time compared to other regions and the current state of digital skills in Africa.Driven by the high fertility rates compared with the rest of the world,Africas working-age population(a

78、ged 15-64)is expected to nearly double from 783 million in 2021 to 1.56 billion in 2050(Haver,2022).The proportion of the continents working-age population to its total population will increase from 56.2%in 2021 to 62.6%by 2050,The demographic opportunity and challenge that will continue to arise in

79、 Africa during the 4IRSources:Haver Analytics,UN,20224Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapcreating an opportunity for demographic dividend.In contrast,the size of the working-age population for the rest of the world is expected to grow by only 4.4%to 4.5 bil

80、lion over the period,while the share of the working-age population is expected to decrease from 67.0%in 2020 to 63.2%in 2050.There are also stark differences in the working-age population growth rates between the different regions in Africa.In the Eastern,Western,and Central African regions the work

81、ing-age populations are forecast to more than double between 2021 and 2050.North Africa is expected to see growth of 50.6%over the period and Southern Africa growth of 30.6%,with the latter regions being already about halfway through the demographic transition.4 The increase in Africas working-age p

82、opulation over the next three decades presents both huge opportunities and challenges for improving economic growth and employment on the continent as well as reducing inequality.If productively employed,the rise in the working-age population could drive higher earnings and(therefore)GDP growth,but

83、only to the extent that productive jobs can be created.The job opportunities of the future will require new skill sets,including digital skills,hence Africa could potentially squander its demographic dividend due to skills gaps in critical areas.The variable mean years of schooling is a key componen

84、t of the measurement of a countrys human capital and is defined as the average number of completed years of education of the population aged over 25.Over the past two decades,the mean years 4 Regarding the proportion of the working-age population to the overall population,the Eastern,Western,and Cen

85、tral African regions are expected to see the largest gains between 2021 and 2050.This share should rise from 55.4%in 2021 to 63.8%in 2050 in East Africa,while West Africa is expected to see an increase from 54.1%to 61.9%during the same period.Even though Central Africa should also experience large g

86、ains in the relative size of its working-age population,which is expected to rise from 51.7%in 2021 to 59.5%in 2050,this region will continue to lag behind the rest of the continent,remaining below the 60%threshold throughout 2021-50.he Southern and Northern African regions are expected to remain ah

87、ead of the pack,remaining in first and second place,respectively,from 2021-50.The working-age populations share in Southern Africa is expected to increase from 64.9%in 2021 to 67.4%in 2050,while North Africa should see a rise from 62.0%to 63.9%during the same period.Africa could potentially squander

88、 its demographic dividend due to digital skills gapsSources:UNESCO Institute of Statistics,World Bank5Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapof schooling have improved notably throughout Africa thanks mainly to a drive to improve the attainment of primary educa

89、tion from a low base.On average,the level of schooling increased by 1.8 years,from 3.9 in 1997 to 5.7 in 2017(UIS,2022).Although levels increased across the board,the rankings have remained broadly unchanged with South Africa,Botswana and Mauritius having the highest levels of schooling over the pas

90、t 20 years.Despite progress in improving access to education,the vast majority of African countries have not caught up to the world median for mean years of schooling which stood at 8.9 years in 2017.This reflects(i)unacceptably large sections of the continents population,especially in the least-dev

91、eloped countries,that are still deprived of access to primary education and(ii)poor learning outcomes.Advances in improving levels of primary The gross enrolment of populations at tertiary institutions is lower than in other regions and differs widely across the continentEDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT BY RE

92、GIONWhile there is notable variation in the improvement of the level of schooling between the different regions,the relative positions of the regions education attainment remained the same between 1997 and 2017.Southern Africa retained the first-place position as the region with the highest level of

93、 schooling from 1997 to 2017,increasing from 5.3 years to 7.2 years during this period.The 1.9 years increase in the level of schooling is noteworthy as it is above the continental average,despite coming from a higher baseline.North and Central Africa experienced the largest rise in the average year

94、s of schooling during 1997-2017.North Africa saw an increase of 2.5 years to 6.5 between 1997 and 2017 while the average years of schooling in Central Africa rose by 2.3 years to 6.8 during the same period.Interestingly,West and East Africa are the two worst-performing regions,based on their level o

95、f schooling,while also experiencing the smallest gains from 1997 to 2017.West Africas average years of schooling increased by a meagre 1.4 years,from 2.6 in 1997 to 4.0 in 2017.East Africas average years of schooling rose by 1.7 years,from 3.2 in 1997 to 4.9 in 2017.This highlights the compounding e

96、ffect of education and the growing inequality between regions and countries.Regions with higher levels of schooling experienced the most gains with regard to educational attainment,while the regions with the lowest level of education are falling more behind as time progresses.Sources:UNESCO,World Ba

97、nk 20206Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapeducational attainment have also not translated to equally successful increases in secondary and post-secondary education.We next look at levels of tertiary educational attainment across Africa,which is indicative

98、of a countrys readiness to adopt advanced digital skills and innovate.The gross enrolment of populations at tertiary institutions differs widely across the continent.Mauritius has the highest enrolment rate with 38.7%of the adult population having attended some form of tertiary education,while on th

99、e opposite side of the spectrum Eritrea has an enrolment rate of only 2.6%(UIS,2022).Most countries are below the global average for gross tertiary enrolment of 35%,with the Africa average(excluding North Africa)of 8.6%being very low.The MENA average of 37.9%is much higher,and four of the top five c

100、ountries on this list are from the North African region:Algeria,Tunisia,Egypt and Morocco.While high mean years of schooling are positively correlated with gross enrolment for tertiary education ratios(as expected),we see that some countries are better than others at converting levels of secondary e

101、ducation into post-secondary education.South Africa and Botswana,for example,perform comparatively worse in the rankings for enrolment in tertiary institutions compared with the rankings for mean years of schooling.In most African countries it is projected that the proportion of 25-to 29-year-olds a

102、ttaining post-secondary education will nearly double by 2050(WIC,2018).Generally speaking,North Africa outperforms the rest of the continent in this regard.The proportion of 25-to 29-year-olds attaining post-secondary education in Egypt is expected to increase from the current figure of around 36.5%

103、to 64.9%by 2050.These ratios are expected to more than double in Morocco and Algeria over the next three decades:In Morocco,from 18.6%to 45.7%,while in Algeria,from 23.2%to 49.7%.While also expected to show strong growth,the corresponding figures for the rest of the African continent are much lower.

104、In the west,the best-performing country is Gabon,with this ratio expected to increase from 16.6%to 30.7%by 2050,while that of Nigeria is expected to increase from 17.9%to 29.8%over the same period.In the east,the top-performing country is Kenya(from The level of human capital and skills differs wide

105、ly between continents and over timeSource:Wittgenstein Centre for Demography and Global Human Capital7Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap12.6%currently to 24.0%by 2050).While regional laggards include Rwanda(from 4.1%to 7.1%)and Ethiopia(from 3.0%to 6.6%).F

106、urthermore,Southern Africa will see some of the weakest performances in this regard.At the one end of the spectrum,Botswana records a commendable performance with enrolment expected to increase from the current figure of around 26.5%to 44.1%by 2050,followed by Zambia(from 15.8%to 26.9%).In turn,Ango

107、la and Mozambique are expected to maintain some of the lowest ratios globally,with Angolas figure expected to increase from a mere 0.8%to 2.1%while that of Mozambique is expected to increase from 1.3%to 3.1%.Regional giant South Africa is expected to see its ratio double from 10.6%to 21.4%by 2050.Ne

108、vertheless,most African countries are expected to have levels of post-secondary education which will be below the global average over the next three decades highlighting the urgent need for interventions to develop skills which will make African countries competitive in the 4IR.The level of human ca

109、pital and skills differs widely between continents and over time.While human capital and skills on the African continent have improved over time,there remains a gap with other continents(Penn 2019).Of greater concern,the disparity between Africa and the rest of the world has widened slightly over th

110、e years.While the There is a strong link between a countrys human capital and total factor productivity Source:Penn World Table,2019Source:Penn World Table,20198Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapfast pace of Asias human capital growth has contributed to th

111、is expanding gap,the fact remains that Africa is trailing its peers in other continents and the rest of the world.There is a strong link between a countrys human capital and total factor productivity:increasing the skills capacity of a countrys population also improves the efficiency level of that c

112、ountrys inhabitants.Furthermore,while there is a large gap in the human capital level between Africa and the rest of the world,human capital also differs widely within Africa(Penn,2019).A large cluster of countries has lower levels of human capital and total factor productivity,with a striking geogr

113、aphic or regional divide.Human capital tends to be higher in Southern African and North African countries,with Botswana,South Africa,and Zimbabwe registering the best performances in the south,and Egypt and Tunisia dominating in the north.Gabon is the standout performer from a West African perspecti

114、ve,followed by Ghana,while Kenya and Uganda are the best performers in the east.These latter two countries,however,still lag behind some peers in North,Southern,and West Africa.A countrys level of human capital and its mean years of schooling are highly correlated:as the level of schooling increases

115、,so does human capital.Human capital and schooling are two inextricable parts of skills and skills development.The level of human capital is a proxy for the current state of skills within a country,while the mean education level indicates how widely these skills are disseminated and how we expect th

116、em to grow and develop in the future.Again,the North African and Southern African countries are on top of this list,with South Africa and Botswana in particular standing out from the rest on both metrics.As is the case with human capital and education,the relative distribution of digital skills betw

117、een African countries is highly unequal.Human capital and education facilitate the transfer of skills to populations,with digital skills being one of the most highly sought-after skill groupings.There is a notable correlation between the presence of digital skills in a country and its internet usage

118、(World Bank GovData360,2022).This is because the development of digital skills is enhanced through the internet and other online forms of learning.Digital skills development and achieving success in the digital space require curiosity to learn,but both outcomes require internet access.Human capital

119、and schooling are two inextricable parts of skills developmentSources:Penn World Table,UNESCO Institute of Statistics,World Bank 20209Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapAs in the previous graphs,North African and Southern African countries are at the top of

120、 the mix,with the notable exception of the island nations:Mauritius,Cabo Verde and the Seychelles.These nations have increased access to the internet and the digital skills needed,which likely relates to their small populations and service-orientated business sectors,like tourism or online services.

121、African countries are increasingly turning to Technical and Vocational Education Training(TVET)programmes to upskill workers in preparation of the digitalisation of work and adapting to the 4IR(ILO 2,2020).Moreover,digitalised TVET platforms have the distinct advantage of being able to provide a wid

122、e range of learning programmes to large audiences at low costs,giving rise to massive open online courses(MOOC),such as edX and Khan Academy.The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the shift to digitisation in TVET and education in general as governments strive to ensure the continuity thereof during

123、crisis times which limit in-person learning.For example,in Cte dIvoire,the ministry responsible for TVET established an online education platform Ma formation en ligne,which provides learning in all fields and at all TVET levels through free online courses(GPE,2020).Although the pandemic highlighted

124、 the increased necessity of e-learning programmes,it also exposed the challenges faced by some African governments to roll out such programmes.There is currently a dearth of data regarding TVET participation in Africa,especially for contemporary data and data that reflects the various levels(seconda

125、ry,post-secondary and tertiary)of TVET.Data from before the pandemic shows that participation in TVET among African youth has been low.Looking at the number of vocational pupils in secondary education as a ratio of the population aged 15-24(UIS,2022),the participation rates vary between 0.1%(Tanzani

126、a in 2018)and 12.0%(Egypt in 2018)for countries with available data.Most African nations have participation rates below the global figure of 5.2%for 2018.The relative distribution of digital skills between African countries is highly unequalSource:World Bank GovData360,202010Human capital and produc

127、tive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapWe see countries such as Egypt,Mauritius,and Tunisia that have high levels of digital skills and internet usage as also leading in the participation of TVET on the continent.The lack of access to the internet,due to a lack of infrastructure and e

128、quipment or high cost,is a key constraint for expanding TVET through digitisation(GPE,2020).However,even in countries such as South Africa and Morocco where access to the internet is less of a problem,the participation in TVET may be low due to a deficiency of digital skills or knowledge to access e

129、-learning programmes or other constraints.Such constraints may include negative perceptions about the quality of TVET,poor training of TVET educators,a lack of credible certifications for TVET programmes,and high costs of TVET programmes(ILO 2,2020).Sources:UNESCO Institute for Statistics,UN Populat

130、ion DivisionThe COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the shift to digitisation11Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapSKILLS DEMAND VS SKILLS SUPPLYTHE SKILLS MISMATCH A skills mismatch is defined by the International Labour Organisation(ILO)as“a discrepancy betw

131、een the skills that are sought by employers and the skills that are possessed by individuals”(ILO,2020).In the face of a skills mismatch,productivity is sub-optimal,which leads to higher levels of unemployment.The skills mismatch can arise when education and training do not match the jobs available,

132、but also when skills become obsolete due to digitalisation and technological advancement.In addition,weak quality control besides poor coordination and regulation of training providers could result in suboptimal outcomes.Many firms operating in the private sector in Africa,particularly in North Afri

133、ca,identify the skills shortages and mismatches as a major constraint to their business activities(ILO,2020).The graph below depicts the severity of this constraint across the region.It shows that many African countries,including Angola,Mozambique,Namibia,and South Africa,fall below the world averag

134、e in terms of the ease of finding skilled employees.This suggests that it is particularly difficult for employers in these countries to find people with the skills required to fill their vacancies.While some African countries,such as Kenya,Senegal,Zambia,and Ghana,come in above the global average,th

135、is does not necessarily mean that employees are highly skilled.Rather,it suggests that there is a better match between the level of education and training and the skill level required by firms in the economy.While shortcomings in educational attainment across the African continent provide the most l

136、ikely explanation for the skills gap,it can be more nuanced than this.In countries such as Egypt,Tunisia,Algeria and Botswana,for example,a large share of the population(over 30%in most cases)attends tertiary education.However,the unemployment rate of individuals with advanced education remains high

137、(above 20%in general).This is The skills mismatch can arise when education and training do not match the jobs available,but also when skills become obsolete due to digitalisation012345KenyaSenegalZambiaGhanaUgandaCameroonZimbabweTanzaniaRwandaAlgeriaEgyptTunisiaBotswanaMoroccoNigeriaSouth AfricaNami

138、biaMadagascarMalawiMauritaniaEthiopiaLesothoMozambiqueAngolaEase of finding skilled employees,2019 Scale:1 to 7,where is 1=not easy and 7=easy World medianSource:World Bank,202212Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapdepicted in the graph below.This suggests t

139、hat either there is a mismatch between the number of job openings and the number of new entrants in a given field in the labour market,or that the chosen fields of study do not produce the knowledge and skills required by the economy.In North African countries,in particular,a historically strong dep

140、endence on the public sector for employment has me ant that formal education pathways have been targeted at public sector requirements,while the knowledge and skills required by the private sector have often been neglected(World Economic Forum,2017:9).THE SKILLS MISMATCH AT THE SECTORAL LEVEL The Wo

141、rld Enterprise Survey by the World Bank serves as a useful data source for understanding the skills shortages and mismatches at a more granular level(World Bank,2022a).The survey is a representative sample of an economys private sector at firm-level.The graph below shows the share of firms in both t

142、he manufacturing and services sectors that identify an inadequately educated workforce as a“major constraint”.The results suggest that firms,particularly in North African countries,perceive an inadequately educated workforce to be a major constraint,with Tunisia and Morocco taking the lead overall w

143、ith a share of more than 30%of firms.These survey results further hint that there is a mismatch between the knowledge and skills produced by the relatively well-developed tertiary education systems in North Africa and the knowledge and skills required by firms in these economies.While the share of f

144、irms identifying an inadequately educated workforce as a major constraint was much lower in other African countries,such as Kenya,Rwanda,Zambia,and South Africa,this should not detract from the importance of formulating policies that aim to ensure a better match between education systems and the ski

145、lls required at the sectoral level,and importantly,sectors that are important for future economic production.The skills gap is also perceived to be more salient in certain manufacturing and services subsectors.In Tunisia and Kenya,for example,firms in the textiles&garments industries view an inadequ

146、ately educated workforce as a major constraint,whereas in Morocco firms in manufacturing industries that exclude food and garments see the skills gap as The chosen fields of study do not always produce the knowledge and skills required by the economySource:World Bank,202213Human capital and producti

147、ve employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapa serious problem.In Egypt,the skills mismatch appears to be more prevalent in heavy industries,such as chemicals and petroleum,plastics&rubber.This data suggests that as industrial expansion has become entrenched,the skills and capabilities of the

148、 workforce have not kept up with the skills and capabilities required by firms operating in specific subsectors.THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SKILLS,GDP AND EMPLOYMENTThe structure of an economy will have a direct bearing on the employment profile of that country,and consequently,the current and to some

149、extent also future demand for skills.However,it should be noted that the proportional contributions to economic output and employment differ markedly due to the labour-intensity of each sector,and more specifically,the composition of the largest subsectors.For instance,the agricultural sector accoun

150、ts for around 23%of total employment in Namibia and 22%of employment in Zambia.However,agriculture accounts for just 8%The skills gap is perceived to be more salient in certain manufacturing and services subsectorsSource:World Bank,2022Source:World Bank,202214Human capital and productive employment

151、creation:Addressing Africas skills gapof GDP in Namibia and 7%of GDP in Zambia.The difference between the proportional contribution of agriculture to employment versus its contribution to GDP equates to nearly 15%in both countries,with agriculture accounting for a much larger share of employment tha

152、n economic output.This is indicative of the labour-intensive nature of some agricultural activities,but also reflects the persistently low productivity per individual in the sector.In contrast,Namibias industrial sector accounts for around 29%of GDP,but only accounts for some 16%of employment.Anothe

153、r interesting example is Kenya,where the services sector accounts for around half of total employment,but for nearly two-thirds of total GDP.This is again due to the disproportionate contribution of agriculture to employment as opposed to GDP:Kenyan agriculture accounts for around a third of employm

154、ent,but for just 22%of GDP.THE CHICKEN OR EGG CONUNDRUMWhen assessing the dynamics between skills demand and skills supply within an economy,a conundrum regarding causation emerges.Similar to the-chicken-or-the-egg archetype,the demand for specific skills is both a product of the size of the sector

155、requiring those skills,as well as a factor in determining the size of the aforementioned sector.The symbiotic relationship between a good supply of skills for a sector that is showing strong growth also has converse implications:the inability to find the necessary skills to develop a sector will ham

156、per the development of that sector,thus reducing the demand for those skills.Furthermore,a countrys employment makeup from a sectoral perspective is indicative of the skill demands in those sectors,and the availability of those skills in the economy.This point that the employment makeup of a country

157、 is determined by the structure of an economy and the availability of skills to support that structure holds important implications for economic growth,development and competitiveness.When looking at the schooling level of employees in each sector,the analysis suggests that agriculture in many cases

158、 contributes more to employment than to GDP,which is reflective of the relatively low productivity and education of workers in the agricultural sector.In Rwanda,around 97%of employees in the agricultural sector either have basic Sources:ILO,Oxford Economics Africa,2018-20The structure of an economy

159、will have a direct bearing on the employment profile of that country15Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapor less than basic education levels.This is significant because agriculture accounts for around 37%of employment in Rwanda.The ratio the proportion of i

160、ndividuals with basic or less than basic education levels in the agricultural sectors workforce is also at around 97%in Senegal,and is estimated to be over 70%in Botswana,Kenya,South Africa,and Zambia.The ratio of relatively low-skilled labour to total employment drops somewhat when looking at the i

161、ndustrial sector.When looking at this ratio,the median contribution of low-skilled labour to employment in the industrial sector among countries included in this analysis comes in at around 50%.The corresponding figure for the agricultural sector is nearly 80%.The shortage of skills to develop a sec

162、tor will hamper the development of that sector and possibly private sector more broadly Sources:ILO,Oxford Economics AfricaSources:ILO,Oxford Economics Africa16Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapThis trend continues when looking at the services sector.The m

163、edian contribution of low-skilled labour to employment in the services sector among countries included in this analysis comes in at around 44%.This transition away from less skilled labour is even starker when looking at individuals with less than basic education.In the agricultural sector,the media

164、n contribution of individuals with less than basic education to total employment is estimated at nearly 20%.In the services sector,this figure drops to less than 6%.In contrast,the contribution of individuals with advanced education is much higher in the services sector than in the agricultural sect

165、or.Again,looking at the median contribution to total employment among countries considered in this analysis,the contribution of individuals with advanced education comes in at around 17%in the services sector,which is markedly higher than the corresponding figure for the agricultural sector of aroun

166、d 4%.This breakdown of skills demand by sector viewed in the context of each sectors contribution to GDP holds important information regarding the potential for future job creation and competitiveness.From the analysis above we see a clear transition,given current economic structures,towards demand

167、for higher skills from the agricultural sector through to industry and then to services.In addition,we see a productivity trend running in the same direction:in all the countries considered in this analysis except for Botswana(which is highly dependent on its tourism sectors),the services sector mak

168、es a larger contribution to GDP than it does to employment,roughly suggesting each services employee makes a larger contribution to economic output than those in the agricultural sector.Looking ahead,this suggests that sectors that are considered strategic or potential high-growth sectors,which tend

169、 to be industrial or services-oriented,will demand skills higher up the skills spectrum.Given the positive externalities that are associated with development of these sector,the required skill acquisition may warrant targeted public support.As mentioned above,there are complex dynamics between the d

170、emand and supply of skills in the context of evolving economic structures.A snapshot of the current employment makeup in relation to each countrys economic structure is indicative of Sources:ILO,Oxford Economics AfricaSectors that are considered strategic or potential high-growth sectors will demand

171、 skills higher up in the skills spectrum17Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapcurrent market demand for labour,but does not address the matter of supply,or indeed,future demand.Another informative measure of imbalances between demand and supply is the breakd

172、own of the educational attainment of unemployed individuals.This shows to what extent current economic structures are unable to absorb individuals in the labour force,broken down by education attainment.Put differently,this shows what levels of skills are currently in oversupply.For example,these fi

173、gures show that a significant number of unemployed individuals in Nigeria,Botswana and Zimbabwe have attained an advanced level of education.The demand for these specific skills in these economies seems to be below that of supply,or that labour market rigidities prevent these individuals and potenti

174、al employers from connecting.In turn,in Zimbabwe,Zambia,South Africa and Botswana,individuals with less than basic education present only a small part of unemployed people.While measurement issues should be considered,this suggests that these economies are able to create employment for individuals w

175、illing to assume low-skills jobs while unable to create jobs for more skilled individuals.In Nigeria and Gambia,individuals with less than basic education,however,make a significant contribution to total unemployment.Combining the data for economic structures,employment by sector&education level,and

176、 unemployment by education level produces an interesting holistic picture.In South Africa,there is a strong correlation between the economic structure of the economy and each sectors contribution to employment.When looking at the educational demand by sector,the services sector is by far the largest

177、 employer of individuals with advanced education.While a substantial number of individuals with basic education have found employment in the services sector,the sector is a drawcard for higher levels of skills.In fact,more individuals with intermediate education work in the services sector than in t

178、he agricultural-and industrial sector combined.Most individuals working in the industrial and agricultural sectors have basic education,with a very small number of individuals with advanced education finding employment in these sectors.The breakdown of the educational attainment of unemployed indivi

179、duals shows imbalances between supply and demandSources:ILO,Oxford Economics Africa18Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapAmong the unemployed individuals,the number of those with less than basic education roughly matches the number with advanced education.Ho

180、wever,given that the economy employs more individuals with advanced education than those without basic education,it implies that advanced education increases your likelihood of finding a job due to South Africas economic structure.Again,put differently,the contribution of individuals with advanced e

181、ducation to total employment exceeds advanced educations contribution to total unemployment.This ratio does not hold for the intermediate and basic education levels.It should also be noted that the breakdown of unemployment by education is a reflection of South Africas education system,with most une

182、mployed individuals having attained at least basic education levels.The picture for Kenya looks quite different.Firstly,the correlation between GDP contribution and employment contribution by sector is not that strong the services sector disproportionately contributes to GDP,while agriculture dispro

183、portionately contributes to employment.Individuals with basic education dominate employment in The contribution of individuals with advanced education to total employment exceeds advanced educations contribution to unemploymentSources:ILO,Oxford Economics Africa 2022Sources:ILO,Oxford Economics Afri

184、ca 202219Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapall three sectors.In turn,individuals with advanced education are most present in the services sector,but this contribution is marginal,and close to insignificant in industry and agriculture.Finally,in contrast to

185、 South Africa,the contribution of individuals with advanced education to total employment is below advanced educations contribution to total unemployment.The contribution of individuals with basic or less than basic education to employment exceeds these education levels contribution to unemployment.

186、CASE STUDY:THE SOUTH KOREAN EXPERIENCESouth Korea provides an interesting example of how an industrial economy was able to transition to a new high tech-led economy by developing its science and technology capacity.Through investment in both human capital and infrastructure over the past two decades

187、,South Korea was able to establish the IT industry and,to a lesser extent,biotech,as key drivers of economic development.A strong focus on research and development(R&D),through both government and private investment,drove the technological shift,while securing highly qualified workers was also key t

188、o increasing the efficiency of R&D investment.By reforming science education at the primary and secondary levels,and focusing on engineering and vocational training,the government was able to cultivate the science and technological manpower and reduce job mismatches required for the economic shift(B

189、rookings,2012).These policy changes have seen real GDP growth at an average of 4.8%p.a.over the past two decades,while GDP per capita has grown from around$7,600 in the early 1990s to$35,000 in 2021.Sources:Bank of Korea,Haver Analytics The graph below shows how the number of people employed in prof

190、essional,scientific,and technological activities in South Korea increased as a percentage of total employment as education and training in these fields became a policy priority.A more technologically qualified workforce meant that the full potential of R&D investments could be harnessed,which drove

191、the continued growth of industry(industrial electronics,bioengineering,micro-electronics,fine chemistry,and aerospace)despite a decline in the number of people employed in industry.Although jobs in heavy industry were displaced by automation,the technological expansion created employment opportuniti

192、es across different sectors and skill levels.The workforce was better equipped to fill these positions thanks to a reformed education system.20Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapCASE STUDY:THE SOUTH KOREAN EXPERIENCE CONT.Sources:Statistics Korea,Oxford Eco

193、nomics South Korea,therefore,provides a good example of how the chicken or egg conundrum can be addressed in real life.By simultaneously investing in infrastructure,R&D and education and training,the government was able to improve the overall productivity of the economy and contribute towards the de

194、velopment of the sciences and technology sectors.21Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapADDRESSING THE SKILLS GAPGetting an accurate sense of the magnitude of the skill shortages and mismatch between skills demand and skills supply is a complex endeavour.On t

195、he supply front,most African countries have some ground to cover when looking at conventional measures of human capital.On the demand front,numerous survey findings suggest that an inadequately educated workforce is a major constraint to doing business.Furthermore,when looking at the skills makeup o

196、f some African countries workforce,it is clear that obtaining an advanced level of education greatly reduces the probability of being unemployed,while there is an abundance of unemployed individuals with basic or less than basic education levels.While measuring the magnitude of skills mismatches in

197、any reliable and accurate quantitative manner is fraught with data limitations,there are some learnings on how to address these mismatches.Economic structures are constantly evolving,either due to internal developmental policies or due to exogenous technological developments.Consequently,addressing

198、the skills gap requires a dynamic,forward-looking approach.As is seen from the South Korean experience,this requires the simultaneous investment in education and training,while at the same time providing the infrastructure and policy framework needed for sectors of the future to develop.Managing bot

199、h the supply of and demand for skills will create synergies that are foregone when strictly focusing on a single dimension.Another important finding is that the financial burden of investment in education and training should not fall on the fiscus alone crowding-in private provision of education and

200、 training will make for a much more dynamic labour force.It is also clear that a forward-looking education curriculum requires a focus on digital skills and entrepreneurial skills.Importantly,both digital skills and entrepreneurial skills should be embedded in the entire curriculum rather than taugh

201、t separately.Although a separate digital or entrepreneurial skills classes may be useful during early childhood education,children should be acquiring digital and entrepreneurial skills throughout the education programme.Digital skills are not only needed in ICT professions,but in a variety of secto

202、rs,from agriculture to industry.Accordingly,a number of African countries have undertaken initiatives to develop digital skills and advance digital literacy.A number of these case studies are discussed below.Similarly,in todays workplace,entrepreneurial skills are needed not only for owners of firms

203、 but also for employees in large firms to take initiative and bring innovative solutions.A forward-looking education curriculum requires a focus on digital skills22Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap1.CTE DIVOIREThe ICT sector constitutes one of the key pil

204、lars of the Ivorian economy,contributing around 8%of the countrys total GDP.In this regard,government has set out to make Cte dIvoire the digital hub of West Africa,developing various policies and strategies aimed at achieving this.The overarching framework on this front is the National Digital Deve

205、lopment Strategy 2021-25,which involves 32 reforms and 96 projects totalling CFAfr2.0trn.The strategy is based on seven fundamental pillars(listed below)that are meant to promote economic growth through,inter alia,generalising the use of digital technology.To further drive the digitalisation process

206、 in the country,there are various smaller projects that are more focused and span a shorter period.One such project aims to develop the FinTech sector in Cte dIvoire.Running from 2022 to 2024,its target is to increase the penetration rate of digital financial services from 34%in 2017 to 60%in 2024.T

207、hough,there are various hindrances to achieving this target.The regulatory framework is inadequate,access to financing is limited,capacity building is weak,and the organisation of the sector is poor(LAgence de Promotion de lInclusion Financire,2021).Moreover,government has attempted to increase the

208、employability of the countrys large youth cohort.One such attempt was the one student,one computer project,which subsidised the purchase of computers for students.The project is meant to maximise Cte dIvoires impending demographic dividend given that,in 2021,41%of The National Digital Development St

209、rategy is aimed at making Cte dIvoire the digital hub of the West African region Seven pillars of Cte dIvoires National Digital Development StrategySource:CIO-Mag,202223Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapthe countrys population was under the age of 15.Concu

210、rrently,the age dependency ratio was 74%.While the project has achieved some success,poor internet access is a key hindrance.In 2019,only 36%of Ivorians used the internet,which is one of the key prerequisites of the digitalisation process.This is due to both poor coverage and high costs.The above fi

211、gure illustrates that,according to the IFC,digital skills are anticipated to be adopted at a swift pace over the next decade across all sectors(International Finance Corporation,2021).The uptake of digital skills is expected to be the most dramatic in the agricultural sector,which is unsurprising co

212、nsidering the large degree of informality currently present in Cte dIvoires farming practices and the intensifying impact of climate change,which continuously requires innovation in this field.The latter will be key as changes in temperatures and rainfall patterns will affect cocoa farming the count

213、rys main export commodity and a key source of employment,revenues,and economic growth.Adopting smart farming solutions is important to pre-empt the impact and to protect and improve the livelihood of Ivorians.Mining activity,which constitutes a large part of the industrial sector,also needs to be fo

214、rmalised and digitised to increase its efficiency and minimise its impact on the environment.Currently,the focus on this is relatively weak.Finally,the services sector,which constitutes over half of the Ivorian economy,will have the highest adoption rate across sectors as the countrys development an

215、d formalisation efforts materialise.This will require,inter alia,cheaper internet that is readily available.While the National Digital Development Strategy lays a good foundation for the above sectors to adopt digital skills over the medium term,it will be important to provide the required resources

216、 and guidance for the strategy to be implemented across sectors.Support in this regard is not yet sufficient.Cte dIvoires agricultural sector is expected to transform significantly over the next decadeSource:IFC,202124Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap2.EG

217、YPTEgypt has an Information and Communications Technology(ICT)2030 Strategy,which contributes towards the objectives of the broader national agenda,“Vision 2030”,through building a Digital Egypt.In a nutshell,Vision 2030 aims to ensure a sustainable development path,and sectors such as ICT,extractio

218、n and manufacturing are essential to achieving this.A technical skills shortage,however,presents a massive challenge to this ambitious national agenda.Digital Egypt consists of three key pillars,of which the first pillar seeks to address the digital skills shortage:Digital skills and jobs:aims to pr

219、epare school and university students,graduates,professionals,women,and persons with disabilities to carry out the broader digital mission of an organisation.This is achieved by providing training and building capacities.The strategy is based on a hierarchical approach which starts with digital liter

220、acy.This is followed by intermediate technology training programmes,advanced technological training programmes,and finally,a specialised practical masters degree implemented in cooperation with major technology companies and international universities.The other two pillars are:Digital transformation

221、:aspires to enhance the role of ICT in public sector services by transforming government services and community ecosystems to“an entirely digital and data-driven ecosystem,to provide public services in a fast and simpler way”(MCIT,2022).Several projects have already been launched to digitise governm

222、ent services,these include the Digital Egypt e-platform,mobile applications,call centres,post offices and citizen service centres.Digital innovation:aims to“build and foster an ecosystem that encourages entrepreneurship and spurs creativity”(MCIT,2022).Key to achieving this is promoting research and

223、 development,backing effective policies on ICT-based innovation,and supporting the networks that incubate creative ideas and converting them to value-added products.Digital Egypt is an all-encompassing vision and plan for achieving the ICT 2030 Strategy Egypts digital skills strategy is based on a h

224、ierarchical approachSource:MCIT,202225Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapUnder the pillar of“digital skills and jobs”the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology(MCIT)has launched several capacity building initiatives and projects which provide

225、 training opportunities to young people to qualify them for national and international labour markets.These include:Basic Digital Skills Development Programmes:aims to develop general digital capabilities of students,graduates,job seekers and internet users.Programmes include social media and intern

226、et safety,cybersecurity,and artificial intelligence(MCIT,2022).Youth Enable for Freelancing:aims to train 20,000 young people on freelancing through e-platforms.The initiative provides online training over two months in areas such as computer networks,programming,operating systems,digital marketing,

227、graphic design,mobile application,website development and Microsoft Office Professional.Training also includes how to find a job through freelancing platforms(MCIT,2022).Digital Egypt Cubs Initiative(DECI):aims to upskill around 3,000 top-performing students from schools across Egypt in different fi

228、elds of technology.The initiative starts with a foundation programme that introduces students to the basics and tools of modern technology.Thereafter,students specialise in one of the following areas:digital arts,software development,network and information security,artificial intelligence,and robot

229、ics(MCIT,2022).Practical Data Scientist Academy Amazon Web Services(PDSA-AWS):aims to upskill 500 young people in data analytics and big data with a focus on utilising these for data engineering,formatting,and data visualisation.The programme hopes to develop skill sets required to fill in-demand jo

230、bs and contribute to national projects(MCIT,2022).Egypt University of Informatics(EUI):located at Knowledge City in Egypts New Administrative Capital,the newly established institution is the first specialised university in ICT sciences in MENA.Bachelor,masters,and doctorate degrees are offered in co

231、mputing and information sciences,engineering,business informatics and digital arts and design.Students at the university can also participate in projects carried out by the MCIT to build Digital Egypt.The IT executive arm of the MCIT has also partnered with several international agencies,including t

232、he Goethe-Institute,the German Department of Foreign Affairs,Speak-Up Egypt,the Komet-Institut,and the Guide Academy,to improve language skills(English,German and French)with the aim of bridging the language gap between supply and demand for skilled manpower in the local outsourcing sector.The MCIT

233、has launched several capacity building initiatives and projects26Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap3.KENYADubbed the Silicon Savannah,Kenya has a thriving ICT sector and is home to the continents most cutting-edge start-ups,which are expected to drive digi

234、tal adoption.The World Bank(2021b)states that more than 50%of all jobs in Kenya will require digital skills by 2030,and the labour force in Kenya will need around 17 million workers with adequate digital skills across various sectors.Alas,the demand for digital skills in Kenya exceeds its current su

235、pply,and digital literacy in the country remains weak within a global context Kenya ranked 70th out of 79 countries in the Huawei Global Connectivity Index(Huawei,2020),84th out of 134 countries in the Network Readiness Index(Portulans,2021),and 105thout of 158 countries in UNCTADs Readiness for Fro

236、ntier Technology Index(UNCTAD,2021).This means there is a need to train both existing personnel and the future workforce to ensure a sufficient supply of digitally skilled workers in the job market going forward.To date,the following organisations provide/have provided digital skills training in Ken

237、ya:1.Moringa:Founded in 2014,Moringa is a multidisciplinary computer programming school located in the capital city,Nairobi,which aims to close the skills gap in the African labour market by providing high-achieving students with the necessary technical and professional training to compete in a digi

238、tal,global economy.More than 4,000 students have been enrolled at Moringa,of which over 3,000 have graduated(Moringa,2022).2.Digikids:Digikids is Kenyas leading STEM(Science,Technology,Engineering&Mathematics)educational institution that offers tailor-made coding programmes for children aged 6 to 17

239、.Courses include weekend coding classes,holiday coding boot camps,and workshops(Digikids,2022).Source:World Bank,2021The demand for digital skills in Kenya exceeds its current supply27Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap3.Digital Literacy Programme(DLP):The

240、Kenyan government initiated the DLP also known by the brand name DigiSchool in 2016.It is executed through a multi-stakeholder approach with the ICT Authority as the implementing agency.It targets students in all public primary schools and has five main components:i)providing digital devices with pr

241、eloaded interactive digital content on various topics for students and teachers,ii)capacity building for teachers and implementers,iii)devices with broadband connectivity,iv)providing content for digital learning,and v)establishing local assemblies for digital devices and related accessories.Buildin

242、g teachers competence in ICT and digital skills has contributed to the programmes success,which benefited over one million students and 91,000 teachers across 19,000 public primary schools by 2017.To date,21,637 public primary schools have access to digital devices.In addition,22,927 schools have be

243、en connected to power,of which 19,042 are connected to the national grid and 3,239 to solar power.It has been reported that 331,000 teachers have been trained in ICT integration,a further 218,253 on how to implement the Competency Based Curriculum,and 93,009 in the use of ICT and digital devices.A w

244、ide range of external and internal partners have been involved,including the Chinese Government,Huawei,and Telkom Kenya(African Union&UNICEF,2021).Although Kenya has been cited as a leader in terms of ICT initiatives and policies aimed at improving access to technology,it is estimated that less than

245、 20%of households can afford to pay for the training of intermediate and higher digital skills that will be needed over the next eight years(World Bank,2021b).It is estimated that less than 20%of households can afford to pay for the training of intermediate and higher digital skillsSource:World Bank

246、,202128Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap4.MOROCCODigital transformation is central to Moroccos goal of becoming an industrial hub in Africa.Digital skills are necessary across a variety of manufacturing sectors,such as aerospace,automotive,and textiles,wh

247、ich Morocco hopes to further advance.Like Egypt,however,Morocco also suffers from a technical skills shortage,specifically when it comes to digital skills.To this end,Morocco has implemented several national development programmes aimed at digital economy.These have included Numeric Morocco 2013,Dig

248、ital Morocco 2020,and most recently,Morocco Digital 2025(Huawei,2021).The Morocco Digital 2025 strategy has three main goals:1.Establish a successful digital administration through the digitisation of public services.2.Establish Morocco as Africas Digital&Technological Hub through installing over 2,

249、500 start-ups over the next five years and improving its United Nations E-Government Development Index ranking to be part of the top three in Africa(currently Mauritius,Seychelles,and South Africa)and among the top 40 at the global level currently ranked 106th out of 193 countries.3.Create a more in

250、clusive and egalitarian society through digitisation by narrowing the digital divide,training 50,000 young people,and developing specific initiatives in sectors such as education,health,agriculture,and handicrafts.Morocco,however,faces major gaps between the supply and demand of digital skills requi

251、red to achieve these ambitious digital transformation goals.Therefore,training and skills development are key to creating the“digital generation”needed to build the desired digital economy.Several government initiatives have been carried out to address the digital skills gap.Some of these initiative

252、s have targeted educational reform,but the appropriation of this knowledge by students and teachers has often been limited by the nature of the education system,the skills and professional development of teachers,and the implementation of these types of programmes.Against this backdrop,the private s

253、ector plays an instrumental role in the development of digital skills in Morocco.Public-private partnerships are becoming especially popular,as they allow the public sector access to the private sectors resources and know-how.One company that is playing an integral role in developing digital skills

254、in Morocco is Huawei.Huawei:bringing digital to every person,home,and organisation Huaweis vision is to“bring digital to every person,home and organisation for a fully connected,intelligent world”under its Education4All programme(Huawei,2021).To achieve this,it focuses on three priorities:1.Technolo

255、gy:making digital technologies affordable with scalable,low-cost products and solutions.2.Applications:creating digital ecosystems and building applications for communities and industry.Through its several initiatives,Huawei plays a key role in developing digital skills in Morocco 29Human capital an

256、d productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap3.Skills:improving societys digital skill set by working with local governments,communities,and other partners.To realise priority number three,Huawei has entered into a strategic partnership with the Ministry of National Education,Vocati

257、onal Training,Higher Education and Scientific Research“with the aim of equipping students with ICT skills and thus promoting their integration into the job market”(Huawei,2021).The partnership between Huawei and the ministry is based on four main axes:So far,Huawei has entered into partnerships with

258、 21 Moroccan universities and higher education institutions.The Learn On programme was also launched in 2020 to address some of the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic.This initiative allowed over 3,000 students to pursue their studies virtually,while around 500 students have received technica

259、l certifications in 5G,artificial intelligence,and Big Data.Huawei has entered into partnerships with 21 Moroccan universities and higher education institutions30Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap5.SOUTH AFRICASouth Africa has a skills shortage as well as

260、a major unemployment problem the high youth unemployment rate is of particular concern.Many young South Africans who are eager to gain future-ready relevant skills that will boost their chances of finding employment have been left jobless by the COVID-19 pandemic.The official unemployment rate is 34

261、.5%,with the broad unemployment rate standing at 45.5%.South Africas Minister of Higher Education,Science and Technology,Blade Nzimande,says that through education the government and the private sector can help provide fresh new perspectives on how to turn South Africas socio-economic fabric around

262、in a post-COVID-19 world.GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE SECTOR PARTNERSHIPSThere are a number of exciting initiatives taking place across South Africa aimed at bridging the digital divide.Microsoft and Afrika Tikkun have partnered with the Public Service Sector Education and Training Authority to provide on

263、line opportunities for 20,000 unemployed young people through the Global Skills Initiative South Africa.Registration closed in 2021,with course durations ranging from a minimum of 5:30 hours to 34 hours at the most,depending on the training course selected.The ultimate aim is to place 50,000 prospec

264、tive job seekers.Another programme,between I4G and Coursera,aims to upskill thousands of young Africans in soft and technical skills.This programme is part of I4Gs goal to train one million young people across the African continent in tech for free and bridge the digital divide.Up to now,I4G has tra

265、ined over 66,000 African youths with high participation rates recorded in the following countries:Nigeria,Kenya,Ghana,Tanzania,Cameroon,South Africa,Uganda,Rwanda,Botswana and Benin.Courseras Global Skills Report 2021 shows that 500,000 users,who are sharpening their skills through online courses fr

266、om Source:StatSA,2022Microsoft and Afrika Tikkun have partnered with the Public Service Sector Education and Training Authority31Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapsome of the worlds top universities,registered in South Africa.About 55%of South Africas user

267、 base are learning these courses on mobile devices,which Coursera notes is high compared with the rest of Africa.Overall,the Global Skills Report notes that a great degree of learning takes place via the use of mobile devices,despite the fact that Africa faces numerous connectivity challenges,includ

268、ing patchy coverage and high bandwidth costs.INVESTING IN SOUTH AFRICAS DIGITAL FUTUREGoogle and Meta are investing in massive subsea cables,bringing internet infrastructure to millions across the continent.Googles Equiano subsea cable runs from Portugal along the west coast of Africa and reportedly

269、 reached South Africa at the beginning of August 2022.It is set to boost broadband speed and improve overall connectivity reliability.Equiano should ultimately lead to lower internet costs in South Africa,unlocking economic development,which will in turn help to create new jobs.Metas 2Africa subsea

270、cable will run counterclockwise around the continent past the Cape of Good Hope,and link up back to European shores by 2024.Stakeholders have an important role to play in ensuring that opportunities and investment do not go to waste.Organisations should invest in their employees by focusing on impro

271、ving opportunity to learn and develop.It is also vital that businesses give back to their communities by investing in the upliftment of skills.A lack of skills lies at the heart of South Africas high unemployment rate,and the government ends up spending a lot of resources on unemployment benefits at

272、 the expense of investment in skills development.The cost of upskilling or reskilling a population is far less than the cost of permanent social support.South Africas social security system is among the most comprehensive and expansive in the world.Roughly 60%of all non-interest expenditure budgeted

273、 is allocated to housing development,free basic services,employment programmes,health,education and social grants.President Cyril Ramaphosa has set up a new Broad-based Black Economic Empowerment(B-BBEE)Advisory Council,which has been tasked with generating new ways to improve representativeness in

274、board and executive roles,create an equitable workforce,expand black skilled labour,and raise the overall participation of black people in South Africas economy.Google and Meta are investing in massive subsea cables,bringing internet infrastructure to millions across the continent32Human capital and

275、 productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap6.RWANDAVision 2050 is Rwandas long-term development plan which captures the governments strategy to structurally transform the economy into a services-based,middle-income country by 2035,and a high-income country by 2050.The country is im

276、plementing its first National Strategy for Transformation(NST)programme,which runs from 2017-24.These programmes form the countrys seven-year national strategies that the government uses to achieve its Vision 2050 goal.As noted in a government policy paper,more needs to be done to convert the countr

277、y from an importer of ICT skilled manpower to exporter(MINICT,2022).This will require investment in improving digital literacy and ICT skills in order to keep its citizens and businesses up to date with the changing global technological landscape.Failure to do so risks facing limitations in the adva

278、ncement of its finance,tourism,education,agriculture,and health sectors and curtailing its goal of becoming a regional ICT hub.In the inaugural NST,one of the governments objectives under the economic transformation pillar is to establish Rwanda as a globally competitive knowledge-based economy.This

279、 encompasses ensuring the digital literacy of all youth(16 to 30 years)along with achieving digital literacy of at least 60%of adults by 2024.This translates into improving the digital skills of around five million Rwandans by 2024.Some initiatives aimed at improving digital literacy and skills incl

280、ude:DIGITAL AMBASSADOR PROGRAMMEOne programme the government is using to improve digital literacy and skills in the country is its Digital Ambassador Programme(DAP)led by the Ministry of ICT&Innovation(MINICT).The DAPs approach is based on the model of recruiting and providing digital literacy train

281、ing to young women and men with entrepreneurship ambitions,with these individuals then acting as catalysts for change in their communities.Digital Ambassadors are recruited from young social innovators and are deployed in communities throughout the country in order to directly train citizens in acce

282、ssing e-Government and other digital and mobile services through the Irembo Platform.By providing digital literacy training to members of their own communities,in local languages and by focusing on locally relevant digital content and services,DAP is expected to demonstrate the full value of the int

283、ernet.By extension,it will also enable citizens and business owners to benefit from newly installed broadband connections in their areas and catalyse mass adoption of e-Government,e-Business,e-Agriculture,and mobile financial services.In order to support the Digital Ambassadors in their role of trai

284、ning citizens on digital skills,the e-learning platform Atingi was introduced.On Atingi,young people and citizens in rural regions can access content on any device,anywhere and at any time.The courses cover a wide range of topics,such as vocational orientation,digital transformation,health,and entre

285、preneurship,all of which endeavour to increase employability and skills.NST aims to ensure digital literacy for all youth along with achieving digital literacy of at least 60%of adults by 202433Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapFrom September 2017 to June

286、2019,about 41,000 citizens were trained through a proof of concept.Since November 2019,the DAP has been fully implemented and approximately 68,000 individuals have been trained under the initiative.SERVICE ACCESS POINTSUnder this programme,with funding from the World Bank,the government constructed

287、262 physical infrastructure facilities across 30 districts through which citizens can access public services online along with gaining basic ICT training.This was done with the goal of transforming rural communities into digitally literate and skilled citizens through various digital training progra

288、mmes in addition to increasing access to internet services.The MINICT reports that since 2015,the programme has serviced on average 50 citizens per day with around 20 people receiving basic digital literacy training each day.CONNECT RWANDALaunched in 2019,the initiative challenges organisations in t

289、he public and private sector as well as individuals to donate smartphones to those who cannot afford them.The ConnectRwanda initiative is part of the governments goal of ensuring that every Rwandan household owns and uses a smartphone to access services and information.Smartphones have become a part

290、icularly important tool in rural farming communities through strengthening market linkages,minimising post-harvest losses by improving farmer-trader coordination,and through better delivery of extension and advisory services to farmers.One example of the impact of this initiative is the partnership

291、between the MINICT,MTN Rwandacell(MTN Rwanda)and Rwanda Mountain Tea,to distribute 566 smartphones to tea farmers in western and southern provinces.Recipients of this initiative will be trained by MTN on handset usage,in addition to registering them to the network and setting up Mobile Money(MoMo)ac

292、counts,allowing them to use various MoMo services.Furthermore,the tea farmers will receive a 1 GB data bundle for free for three consecutive months,connecting them to the digital world.By the end of 2021,around 44,000 smartphones had been pledged for donation under the initiative.WeCodeThe programme

293、 is an initiative by the German government in collaboration with other institutions including the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning(MINECOFIN),MINICT,ICT Chamber,GIZ Rwanda,Moringa School,and Muraho Tech to train Rwandan women in coding and software development.Over the programmes two phases

294、,running from 2018-21,it has successfully trained over a hundred Rwandan women in software development,with some of the recipients finding employment in Rwandan companies such as MobiCash,Irembo,and GT Bank.ConnectRwanda is part of the governments goal of ensuring every Rwandan household owns and us

295、es a smartphone to access services and information34Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gap7.ZAMBIAZambian Financial Sector Deepening Ltd(FSD Zambia),in collaboration with UK Aid,SIDA,Rural Finance Expansion Programme(RUFEP),and Jersey Overseas Aid,seeks to edu

296、cate and support Zambians on affordable financial services and to broaden financial inclusion.Financial education(FE)is instrumental to financial inclusion,and through FE,consumer awareness and financial literacy development are broadened,according to the organisation.FSD Zambia defines FE as the pr

297、ocess of introducing people to“the knowledge,skills,and attitudes required for responsible earning,spending,saving,borrowing,and investing”.Digital FE is playing an increasingly important role in the financial inclusion debate,and FSD Zambia has noted that the digitisation of education programmes ha

298、s now become a key component of the skills development agency.This is partly due to the comparatively low cost,which can be facilitated through mobile learning(MLearning).Taking note of the rapid increase in mobile penetration rates in recent years,FSD Zambia introduced FE initiatives through mobile

299、 phones.In collaboration with the financial services provider Zazu,the mobile platform pilot programme in 2018 offered free access to FE courses through SMS,interactive voice response,or voice(English or Bemba).The pilot programme was much more successful than anticipated,which prompted FSD Zambia t

300、o explore opportunities for scaled-up digital FE.In 2017,FSD Zambia and learning platform Mwabu introduced a blended learning and certification programme which augmented in-person learning with virtual education.In April 2022,the Ministry of Technology&Science released the Zambia Inclusive Digital E

301、conomy Status report 2022,which outlined strategies to increase the use of digital technologies.Utilising the UN Capital Development Funds(UNCDF)Inclusive Digital Economy Scorecard(IDES)tool,Zambia attained a digital economy score of 45,which means that the country is still in the start-up phase of

302、digital economy.This aligned with the World Banks assessment that to enable Zambia to make greater use of digital technologies as a transformation tool,individuals,businesses,and government must have the requisite digital skills.While the 7NDP(Seventh National Development Plan,the cornerstone of pol

303、icy)envisions ICT as a mainstream education point in schools the national curriculum made ICT a compulsory project in practice,digital skills education,and digital financial skills development in particular,has fallen behind target.The World Bank emphasised in 2020 that a digital transformation stra

304、tegy is required to enhance private sector productivity and accountability across public and private sectors.The digital transformation agenda is connected to the countrys 2030 Vision,which incorporates Zambias ambition to become an information and knowledge-based society by 2030.Through digital fin

305、ancial skills developments,Zambia aims to reduce developmental inequality,enhance human development,diversify the economy and boost job creation,and reduce poverty&vulnerability.Zambia has posted remarkable growth in the ICT sector in recent years despite a shortage of skilled labour the World Bank

306、noted that this may be an indicator of the increased demand for programming skills.Within the digital enterprise segment,the largest category is digital financial services a direct consequence of the rapid uptake of digital financial services.Among Digital financial education is playing an increasin

307、gly important role in the financial inclusion debate35Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapthe factors that authorities have identified as fostering an enabling environment for further growth in the segment is policy&legal framework reform,and technical skill

308、s&capacity.Focusing on the latter will unlock the diversification of the economy through the incubation of entrepreneurial talent and the provision of skilled labour to accelerate growth in the sector.In a Working Paper(April 2022),the Brookings Institute and the Zambia Institute for Policy Analysis

309、 and Research(Zipar)identified economy-wide and industry-specific constraints which limit growth of priority sectors such as finance&business,agro-processing,transport,storage,ICT,and formal wholesale&retail trade.These barriers include labour market regulations and skills shortages.While Zambia has

310、 made progress towards improvements in the business climate and policy transparency,critical skills shortages in sectors such as ICT limit output growth.The Working Paper calls for a structural transformation which would contribute to employment creation and poverty reduction in accordance with the

311、strategic Vision 2030 policy paper.The Brookings Institute and Zipar stress the timeliness surrounding the creation of“productive employment for the countrys expanding and youthful labour force”,warning that the challenge of job creation“will only intensify in coming years”.Nearly half 46%of the pop

312、ulation is below the age of 15,which portends an unemployment crisis unless adaptive job creation solutions or,more likely,human skills development,can bridge the gap between an under-skilled labour force and sectoral rotation towards skills-intensive industries.The weak transferability of skills ac

313、ross the sector spectrum is a key challenge in this regard:reduced employment opportunities within the primary sector(specifically low-skilled mining jobs)will not be absorbed by expansions within the skills-intensive secondary and tertiary sector.At the same time,the manufacturing sector is unable

314、to absorb the labour force excess emanating from sectoral rotation from the primary sector.Critical skills shortages in sectors such as ICT limit output growth36Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapA CHANGING GLOBAL CONTEXTThe need to improve human capital ac

315、ross the African continent is irrefutable.The overarching need to give this improvement a digital dimension is equally evident.This digitisation trend was accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic.Lockdowns forced many businesses to rethink their digital strategies while remote working became the norm in

316、 services sectors across the globe.In fact,a senior executive survey by Cognizant(Cognizant,2021)finds that nearly half of respondents(49%)expect the pandemic to destroy traditional,non-digital businesses and those that do not reposition themselves online aggressively enough.A similar percentage(46%

317、)anticipate less personal interaction with customers,and well over one-third(37%)say they will need to rely on digital channels for customer engagement.These findings suggest that there is an immediate need for the incorporation of digital training and literacy in skills development.In addition to i

318、ncreased digitisation,a number of underlying trends will have a direct bearing on the nature of future skills demand and the availability of supply.This section examines four salient trends that will shape the future labour force,namely labour migration,digital infrastructure,digitisation&4IR,and cl

319、imate change.These findings suggest that there is an immediate need for the incorporation of digital training and literacy in skills development37Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapMIGRATION AND BRAIN DRAIN/GAINTHE LOSS OF TALENTMigration per se is the most

320、 human of activities:the reason there are people living in every inhabitable place on Earth is the consequence of the human drive to find a better place to live.The label of brain drain is applied when it is the case that the emigrant stock leaving a country is overwhelmingly better qualified than t

321、he overall population,which has the consequence of gradually reducing expertise in a population.Policymakers and experts have long been concerned about Africas brain drain the skills lost to the continent as its sons and daughters leave its shores in search of better lives overseas.In 2018,the Afric

322、an Union estimated that 70,000 skilled professionals were emigrating from Africa every year,seeking better professional opportunities.The pernicious effects of the brain drain are many.Most obviously,the African countries of origin are left without precious skills,and must wait longer,or even look a

323、broad themselves,for the services that their emigrant compatriots had provided.Source countries also suffer a shrinkage of their tax base.Occasionally,an African administrator will provide a statistic that reveals the magnitude of the problem.As of February 2022,1,200 Algerian doctors were qualified

324、 to practice in France a country that was already home to more than 4,400 doctors who had obtained their qualifications in Algeria in 2017.A study carried out in Tunisia in 2020 found that in the previous five years,39,000 engineers and 3,300 doctors had emigrated and that a third of emigrants had a

325、 higher education degree.In April this year,the Nigerian Medical Association said more than 9,000 doctors had left the country over 2016-18.In April,Moroccos National Council for Human Rights said that“almost one in three”Moroccan doctors practice abroad.Egyptian officials,too,are concerned about th

326、e scale of emigration by doctors,saying that 11,500 physicians in the public service resigned,either to go into private practice or,more probably,to emigrate,from January 2019 to March 2020.AFRICANS ABROADThe magnitude of the issue is extremely hard to quantify,largely because of the paucity of data

327、 collected by African governments.Most African migrants reside in other countries on the continent,whether with the aim of settling there or with the objective of eventually moving on to a more advanced economy,but the numbers of these migrants are not known.To give an idea of migration in this rese

328、arch,therefore,it has been necessary to rely on the statistics collected by agencies in developed countries that host African emigrants.The Mo Ibrahim Foundation estimates that in 2013,France,the UK,and the US hosted about 50%of the total sub-Saharan African diaspora.We have considered the statistic

329、s from these countries agencies along with other important destinations in the EU Germany,Spain,the Netherlands,and Italy as well as Canada.The number of African migrants to France has been growing steadily over the past decade and a half as has the proportion of total immigration that the flow of p

330、eople Migration leaves the African countries of origin without precious skills38Human capital and productive employment creation:Addressing Africas skills gapfrom Africa represents.In 2020,3.2 million Africans made the trip to France(up from 2.3 million in 2010),and they accounted for 63.2%of all mi

331、grant arrivals(up from 46.0%a decade earlier).WHO IS THE DIASPORA?The above statistics show overall migration.A discussion of brain drain,however,is not only about migration:it is about the migration of skilled professionals.So,to what degree are African diaspora populations made up of the exception

332、ally well-educated?As one would expect,given that receiving countries always manage migration on a points-based system in which educated migrants are more welcome,migrant populations are considerably better educated than the typical profiles of the societies from which they come.(In 2016,in fact,the

333、 proportion of foreign-born adults in the UK with a university degree was larger than that of the native British population;though,that is unusual the same was not true in other major EU countries.)In 2018,32%of immigrant adults living in the US had a bachelors degree or higher;17%of all college-educated adults in the US were born abroad.Unfortunately,data constraints limited the degree to which i