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1、POWER TO HYDROGENPOWER TO MOBILITYPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLINGINNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RENEWABLE POWER IRENA 2023Unless otherwise stated,material in this publication may be freely used,shared,copied,reproduced,printed and/or stored,provided that
2、appropriate acknowledgement is given of IRENA as the source and copyright holder.Material in this publication that is attributed to third parties may be subject to separate terms of use and restrictions,and appropriate permissions from these third parties may need to be secured before any use of suc
3、h material.Citation:IRENA(2023),Innovation landscape for smart electrification:Decarbonising end-use sectors with renewable power,International Renewable Energy Agency,Abu Dhabi.ISBN:978-92-9260-532-2ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report was developed under the guidance of Roland Roesch(Director,IRENA Innova
4、tion and Technology Center),Francisco Boshell(IRENA)and Dolf Gielen(ex-IRENA).The report was authored by Arina Anisie,Juan Pablo Jimenez Navarro(IRENA),Tomislav Antic,Francesco Pasimeni and Herib Blanco(ex-IRENA).Other contributors included:Remi Cerdan,Daniel Gutierrez Navarro,Liliana Gomez,Stefan G
5、ahrens,Elena Ocenic(IRENA);Huiming Zhang(IRENA/CEPRI);and Guillaume Dekelver,Alexandre Neve,Karim Farhat,Elpiniki Apostolaki,George Wenzel,Sandrine Bosso,Thibault Martinelle and Niels Leemput(Engie Impact).The report was reviewed by:Li Bo,Ye Jin,Zheng Bin and Yao Lulu(China Electric Power Research I
6、nstitute CEPRI);Jerson Reyes Snchez(Comisin National de Energa,Chile);Norela Constantinescu(ENTSO-e);Lelde Kiela-Vilumsone(EU Commission);Michelangelo Aveta(EURELECTRIC);Reji Kumar Pillai(India Smart Grid Forum);Yoh Yasuda(Kyoto University);Minique Vrins(Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Manageme
7、nt,Netherlands);Reda Djebbar and Martin Thomas(Natural Resources Canada);Mirei Isaka(New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization NEDO,Japan);Deger Saygin(OECD);Susanne Nies(Smart Wires);Yu Yan(State Grid Corporation of China SGCC);and Paula Nardone,Paul Komor,Ricardo Gorini,Luis Ja
8、neiro,Emanuele Bianco,Binu Parthan,Sophie Sauerteig(IRENA)and Benjamin Gibson(ex-IRENA).Additional reviews of the respective sections of this report were conducted by:Section I Power to mobility:Gilles Dillen(Amsterdam Municipality);Chandana Sasidharan(Alliance for Energy Efficiency Economy AEEE,Ind
9、ia);Xavier Moreau(Altergrids);Hu Chen,Ma Wenyuan,Gao Zihan,Huang Xiaohua and Cheng Xin(China Electric Power Research Institute CEPRI);Tomoko Blech and Mika Zaurin Casanova(CHAdeMO);Marisca Zwesitra(ELAAD);Marcus Alexander(Electric power Research Institute EPRI);Nilmini Silva-Send(Energy Policy Initi
10、atives Center EPIC);Ganna Glandykh(European Educational Research Association EERA);Indradip Mitra(GIZ India);Til Bunsen(International Transport Forum ITF);Gert Rietveld(National Meteorology Institute);Hiroshi Enomoto(New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization NEDO);Patrik Akerman(
11、Siemens);and Alexander Landia and Robert Seiler(The Mobility House).About IRENA The International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA)is an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy future and serves as the principal platform for international co-op
12、eration,a centre of excellence,and a repository of policy,technology,resource and financial knowledge on renewable energy.IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy,including bioenergy,geothermal,hydropower,ocean,solar and wind energy,in the pursuit o
13、f sustainable development,energy access,energy security and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity.www.irena.orgSection II Power to heat and cooling:Gao Zihan(China Electric Power Research Institute CEPRI);Kees van der Leun(Common Futures);Torben Funder-Kristensen,Andrea Voigt(Danfoss);Baskar Vai
14、ramohan,Rick Ranhotra,Perry Stephens and Allen Dennis(Electric Power Research Institute EPRI);Dina Koepke and Zoran Stajic(Emerson);Alexandre Manon(Energy Pool EU);Thomas Nowak(European Heat Pump Association EPHA);Wim van Helden(IEA SHC Task 58/AEE,Institute for Sustainable Technologies);Saman Nimal
15、i Gunasekara(KTH Stockholm);James Freeman(Mitsubishi Electric);Mitsutoshi Okada(New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization NEDO);Hans Keller,Jaap van Kampen,Olli Nissinen,Simon Kobler and Mazur Oskar(Siemens);Herbert Zondag(TU/e and TNO);and Yvonne Delft(VoltaChem/TNO EERA).Sectio
16、n III Power to hydrogen:Kofi Mbuk(Carbon Tracker);Li Yang(CEPRI);Martin Hartvig(Energinet);Leonore Van Velzen,Caron Oag and Scott Crawford(EMEC);Kai junge Puring(Fraunhofer Institute);Nikolaos Lymperopoulos(Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking FCH JU Europa);Kohei Masubuchi(New Energy and Indus
17、trial Technology Development Organization NEDO);Volkmar Pflug,Lack Kogut,Stefan Bischof and Christian Tollmien(Siemens);and Octavian Partenie(Vattenfall).The respective sections of this report benefitted from interviews with:Section I Power to mobility:Mark Frank(DPD Switzerland);Jonathan Sprooten(E
18、lia);Mathias Wiecher(E.ON);Sveinung Kval(Norwegian EV association);Gregory Polasne(Nuvve);Dirk Uwe Sauer(RWTH Aachen University);and Henrik Engdahl(Volvo).Section II Power to heat and cooling:Veronika Wilk(AIT Austria);Torben Funder-Kristensen(Danfoss);Olivier Racle,Lorraine Devouton,Antonio Di Cecc
19、a and Johanna Ayrault(Engie);Thomas Nowak(European Heat Pump Association EPHA);Marek Miara(Fraunhofer Institute);Wim van Helden(IEA SHC Task 58/AEE,Institute for Sustainable Technologies);Saman Nimali Gunasekara and Monica Arnaudo(KTH Stockholm);Wim Vandezande(Mayekawa);Silvia Madeddu(Potsdam Instit
20、ute for Climate Impact Research);Sandro Iacovella(Thermovault);and Tim Ryan(Tiko Energy).Section III Power to hydrogen:Nicolas Geilis(Elia);Jan Justus Schmidt(Enapter);Martin Hartvig(Energinet);Nikolaos Lymperopoulos(Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking FCH JU Europa);and Benjamin Maluenda Phil
21、ippi(Ministry of Energy Chile).IRENA is grateful for the support received for the production of this report from the Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry(METI)of the Government of Japan,and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs(MFA)of the Government of Norway.For further information or to provide feedba
22、ck:publicationsirena.orgThis report can be downloaded from www.irena.org/publicationsDisclaimerThis publication and the material herein are provided“as is”.All reasonable precautions have been taken by IRENA to verify the reliability of the material in this publication.However,neither IRENA nor any
23、of its officials,agents,data or other third-party content providers provides a warranty of any kind,either expressed or implied,and they accept no responsibility or liability for any consequence of use of the publication or material herein.The information contained herein does not necessarily repres
24、ent the views of all Members of IRENA.The mention of specific companies or certain projects or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by IRENA in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.The designations employed and the presentation of material herein d
25、o not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of IRENA concerning the legal status of any region,country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries.INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RE
26、NEWABLE POWERFrancesco La CameraDirector-GeneralInternational Renewable Energy AgencyFOREWORDRecent global events have led to a new sense of urgency in the energy transition discourse,but it is clear that delivering a clean energy future in line with the collective commitment to limit global tempera
27、ture increase to 1.5C of pre-industrial levels will entail measures that reach far beyond renewable energy generation.A successful,inclusive energy transition that benefits all must also address aspects such as energy security,access,competitiveness,investment and social equity.The 28th Conference o
28、f the Parties to the UNFCCC(COP28)will define concrete plans that governments should implement in the coming 2-3years to significantly accelerate decarbonisation.To inform these zero-carbon pathways and translate them into concrete action,governments will require guidance as to the optimal mix of in
29、novations for their specific national contexts.Innovation is therefore not only the driving force behind the ongoing transformation of the global energy system-it also holds the key to significantly accelerating its delivery to meet increasingly urgent climate objectives.Global investment across all
30、 energy transition technologies reached a record high of USD 1.3 trillion in 2022;but this must quadruple in annual terms to meet the 1.5C Scenario detailed in IRENAs World Energy Transitions Outlook.Investment will need to be channelled to a range of emerging technologies,such as energy storage and
31、 electrolysers for green hydrogen production,as sizeable stimulus packages are implemented in major economies including the Inflation Reduction Act in the United States and the Net Zero Industry plan in the European Union.To a great extent,these initiatives and associated investments are the result
32、of technological innovation,as well as innovations in policy,market design and financing instruments.FOREWORDUnder the 1.5C Scenario,electricity would become the energy carrier of the future meeting more than 50%of global energy consumption,compared to 22%in 2020.It will be needed to electrify the t
33、ransport and heating/cooling sectors,as well as to produce green hydrogen to decarbonise hard-to-electrify sectors such as fertiliser production,as well as chemical and synthetic fuel production for shipping and aviation.Meanwhile,holistic,smart electrification strategies will be required to deliver
34、 an effective structural transformation of the energy economy,allowing the electrification of transport,buildings and industry to facilitate an accelerated uptake of solar and wind power,while minimising the investments needed.Many smart electrification solutions are already available and ready for
35、commercialisation,with pioneering companies creating,trialling and deploying potentially transformative innovations.However,timely and focused government actions are essential to support innovation and integrate emerging solutions.In 2019,IRENA published its first innovation landscape report,that pr
36、esented a toolbox of innovations that policymakers can use to integrate high shares of renewable energy in power systems while maintaining their affordability and reliability.This 2023 edition of the report provides a new toolbox comprising 100innovations that countries can embed in tailored nationa
37、l strategies to decarbonise end-use sectors.Decision-makers should adopt a systemic approach,combining innovations in technology and infrastructure with those in market design and regulation,system planning and operation,and business models.This requires careful consideration and understanding in or
38、der to identify and address obstacles to the process of coupling the power system with the end-use energy sector.Also,the unique factors that prevail in each national energy system must be taken into account when transferring knowledge,sharing experiences and replicating success stories.The accelera
39、ting pace of innovation offers great promise for a sustainable low-carbon future powered by the adoption of renewable energy and smart electrification strategies.This innovation toolbox aims to provide key information on existing and emerging innovations that policymakers can draw upon to support en
40、d-use sector decarbonisation using renewables.IRENA stands ready to support countries by tailoring this innovation toolbox to their specific contexts in order to accelerate a just and fair energy transition that serves national energy policy objectives.1236CONTENTSFigures.8Tables.10Boxes.12Abbreviat
41、ions.15EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .16INTRODUCTION .24SECTION IPOWER TO MOBILITY 32ELECTRIFICATION OF MOBILITY STATUS AND PACE OF PROGRESS.331.1The importance of smart electrification for decarbonising mobility.351.2Blind spots for policy makers.38TOOLBOXFOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF MOBILITY .402.1The Toolbox
42、.432.2Case study:California .48INNOVATION LANDSCAPEFOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF MOBILITY.503.1Technology and infrastructure.533.2Market design and regulation.663.3System planning and operation .733.4Business models.805467897CONTENTSSECTION IIPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING 86ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND
43、 COOLING STATUS AND PACE OF PROGRESS.874.1 Importance of smart electrification for future heating and cooling systems.914.2Blind spots for policy makers.92TOOLBOX FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING .955.1Guidelines for implementation.985.2Case studies .104INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART
44、 ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING .1096.1Technology and infrastructure.1126.2Market design and regulation.1326.3System planning and operation.1386.4Business models.143SECTION IIIPOWER TO HYDROGEN 148GREEN HYDROGEN STATUS AND PACE OF PROGRESS.1497.1 Importance of smart electrification in the de
45、velopment of green hydrogen.1527.2Blind spots for policy makers.153TOOLBOX FOR SMART GREEN HYDROGEN PRODUCTION .1558.1Guidelines for implementation.1578.2Case studies .160THE INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART HYDROGEN PRODUCTION.1619.1Technology and infrastructure.1649.2Market design and regulation.175
46、9.3System planning and operation .1889.4Business models .193REFERENCES.1988INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RENEWABLE POWERFIGURESFIGURE S.1 Systemic innovation.17FIGURE S.2 Toolbox for smart electrification strategies.21FIGURE I.1 Final energy mix in
47、 2018 and 2050.24FIGURE I.2 Dimensions of systemic innovation .25FIGURE I.3 Direct and indirect avenues for smart electrification .28SECTION IPOWER TO MOBILITYFIGURE 1.1 Electricity share in transport and EV stock in IRENAs 1.5C Scenario.34FIGURE 1.2 Global EV demand for electricity,charging infrast
48、ructure and investment.34FIGURE 1.3 Impact of EV smart charging on the electricity grid.36FIGURE 1.4 Impact of EV smart charging on electricity grids in Belgium and Germany.37FIGURE 2.1 Implementation guidelines for smart electrification strategies for e-mobility.43FIGURE 3.1 Indicators of the impac
49、t of innovations on the electrification of end uses.50FIGURE 3.2 Innovations in technology and infrastructure for power to mobility.53FIGURE 3.3 The battery performance dilemma.55FIGURE 3.4 Example of battery innovation.56FIGURE 3.5 The necessary diversity of charging infrastructure.58FIGURE 3.6 Inn
50、ovations in market design and regulation for power to mobility .66FIGURE 3.7 Innovations in system planning and operation for power to mobility.73FIGURE 3.8 Innovations in business models for power to mobility.80SECTION IIPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLINGFIGURE 4.1 Electricity shares and market roll-out of
51、heat pumps under IRENAs 1.5C Scenario for the industry and buildings sectors.89FIGURE 4.2 Annual proportion of heat supplied to Swedish district heating systems from electric boilers and heat pumps,1970-2013.90FIGURE 5.1 Implementation guidance for smart electrification in the heating and cooling se
52、ctor.98FIGURE 5.2 Temperature ranges and technologies for industry sectors .1019FIGURES,TABLES AND BOXESFIGURE 5.3 Layout of the Taarnby DHC system.104FIGURE 5.4 Layout of the platform .107FIGURE 6.1 Innovations in technology and infrastructure for power to heat and cooling.112FIGURE 6.2 Advances in
53、 heat pump technology.114FIGURE 6.3 Marginal cost of heating with residential heat pumps and gas boilers under different energy cost assumptions in selected countries between H1 2021 and H1 2022.115FIGURE 6.4 Temperature ranges for different industrial processes and heat pumps .118FIGURE 6.5 Operati
54、ng temperature ranges and time scales for TES technologies.121FIGURE 6.6 Levelised cost of heat for seasonal thermal storage technologies.123FIGURE 6.7 Illustration of a fifth-generation DHC system.127FIGURE 6.8 Innovations in market design and regulation for power to heat and cooling.132FIGURE 6.9
55、Innovations in system planning and operation for power to heat and cooling.138FIGURE 6.10 AC demand and PV electricity yield in Maricopa County,Arizona,2010.140FIGURE 6.11 Innovations in business models for power to heat and cooling.143FIGURE 6.12 Layout of a waste heat recovery system.145SECTION II
56、IPOWER TO HYDROGENFIGURE 7.1 End-use applications where clean hydrogen can be an effective alternative for deep decarbonisation:Clean hydrogen policy priorities.149FIGURE 7.2 Green hydrogen production,investment and consumption in IRENAs 1.5C Scenario .150FIGURE 7.3 Historical development and future
57、 announcements of electrolysis projects.151FIGURE 7.4 Technical alternatives to increase system flexibility.152FIGURE 8.1 Implementation of smart electrification strategies for hydrogen economies.157FIGURE 9.1 Innovations in technology and infrastructure for power to hydrogen.164FIGURE 9.2 Plans for
58、 the hydrogen backbone project in the Netherlands for 2030 .172FIGURE 9.3 Innovations in market design and regulation for power to hydrogen.175FIGURE 9.4 Green hydrogen supply chains .180FIGURE 9.5 Bilateral auction system schematic .181FIGURE 9.6 Relationship between average Emissions Trading Syste
59、m(ETS)price and CCfD subsidy at strike price of USD 65/tCO .183FIGURE 9.7 Innovations in system planning and operation for power to hydrogen.188FIGURE 9.8 Innovations in business models for power to hydrogen.193FIGURE 9.9 Co-locating electrolysers with end uses.194FIGURE 9.10 Transporting hydrogen t
60、o end-use locations.194FIGURE 9.11 Co-locating renewables and electrolysers with end uses.19510INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RENEWABLE POWERTABLESTable S.1 One hundred smart electrification innovations across three categories.18Table I.1 Electrific
61、ation progress towards 2050 based on IRENAs 1.5C Scenario .26Table I.2 A hundred innovations for smart electrification of end uses spread across the four dimensions of systemic innovation.29SECTION IPOWER TO MOBILITYTABLE 2.1 Main characteristics of transport segments influencing the choice of a sma
62、rt electrification strategy.41TABLE 2.2 Innovation toolbox for smart electrification of the transport sector.42TABLE 2.3 The essential kit for power to mobility.44TABLE 2.4 The smart charging kit for power-to-mobility.45TABLE 2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of V2G.46TABLE 2.6 The mobility segment k
63、it for power-to-mobility.47TABLE 2.7 Smart electrification strategy in California.48TABLE 3.2 Overview of the status and impact of innovations for smart electrification of the mobility sector .51SECTION IIPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLINGTABLE 5.1 Differences between heating/cooling customers that affect th
64、e choice of a smart electrification strategy.96TABLE 5.2 Innovation toolbox for smart electrification of heating and cooling.97TABLE 5.3 The essential kit for the heating and cooling sector.99TABLE 5.4 The heating-for-buildings kit.100TABLE 5.5 The heating-for-industry kit.10011FIGURES,TABLES AND BO
65、XESTABLE 5.6 The district heating kit.102TABLE 5.7 The cooling kit.103TABLE 5.8 Implementation guidance for smart electrification in district heating and cooling in Taarnby,Denmark.106TABLE 5.9 Implementation guidance for smart electrification of the residential sector in Switzerland tiko case study
66、.108TABLE 6.1 Implementation guidance for smart electrification in district heating and cooling in Taarnby,Denmark.109TABLE 6.2 Overview of the status and impacts of innovations for smart electrification of heating and cooling sectors.110TABLE 6.3 Low-temperature technological alternatives for TES.1
67、22TABLE 6.4 High-temperature TES technologies.124SECTION IIIPOWER TO HYDROGENTABLE 8.1 Innovation toolbox for smart electrification of the hydrogen sector.156TABLE 8.2 The essential kit for smart hydrogen production.157TABLE 8.3 Smart hydrogen production kit for grid-connected electrolysers.158TABLE
68、 8.4 Smart hydrogen production kit for off-grid electrolysers.159TABLE 8.5 Smart electrification strategy for the Orkney Islands hydrogen R&D platform.160TABLE 9.1 Indicators quantifying the impact of key innovations on end-use sectors electrification strategies 161TABLE 9.2 Overview of the status a
69、nd impact of innovations in the smart production of green hydrogen .162TABLE 9.3 Water electrolysis technologies as of today.165TABLE 9.4 Flexibility capacity and services of three types of electrolyser.178TABLE 9.5 Amount of hydrogen production tax credit,by degree of carbon intensity.18412INNOVATI
70、ON LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RENEWABLE POWERBOXESBox I.1 Electrification and energy security in Europe.27SECTION IPOWER TO MOBILITYBOX 1.1 Norways progress in electrifying mobility.35BOX 1.2 Impact of smart charging in Belgium and Germany.37BOX 2.1 Bidire
71、ctional charging:When does it make sense?.46BOX 3.1 Innovation areas in EV model evolution.54BOX 3.2 Innovation areas in EV battery technology.55BOX 3.3 Innovation areas in battery recycling technology.57BOX 3.4 Key aspects for developing charging infrastructure.58BOX 3.5 Wireless charging solutions
72、.59BOX 3.6 Portable charging for a fleet of three-wheelers in India.61BOX 3.7 V2G Demonstration Station in China.61BOX 3.8 BMW ChargeForward in California.62BOX 3.9 E-mobility blockchain applications.63BOX 3.10 Smart transformer terminals facilitate EV charging in China.64BOX 3.11 Avoiding the need
73、for new EV submeters in California.65BOX 3.12 Submeters for the EV charging platform of State Grid,the electric utility in China.65BOX 3.13 Regulatory framework for the distribution system operator in Great Britain .67BOX 3.14 Examples of smart charging providing system flexibility .68BOX 3.15 Smart
74、 charging standards .71BOX 3.16 V2G grid connection codes in Germany,Australia and the United States.72BOX 3.17 Stakeholder co-operation for e-mobility in the United States and Germany.74BOX 3.18 Smart planning for EV charging in Hamburg,Germany.74BOX 3.19 Grid transparency efforts by ELIA,Belgiums
75、transmission system operator.75BOX 3.20 Clean transportation corridors in the United States and Uruguay.76BOX 3.21 Nova Scotia Powers smart charging pilot increases the use of renewable electricity .77BOX 3.22 The Netherlands reduces EV peak load by controlling charging,while Germany tests demand-si
76、de redispatch with EV charging.7813FIGURES,TABLES AND BOXESBOX 3.23 Example of initiatives using EVs as resilience solutions .79BOX 3.24 An EV aggregator for a V2G trial in the United Kingdom.81BOX 3.25 EV charging as a service in California.82BOX 3.26 Micro mobility platforms,an E-MaaS model.83BOX
77、3.27 Commercial businesses with EV chargers,advertising on chargers and on-demand charger installation.84BOX 3.28 Battery swapping for two-and three-wheelers in Taiwan and Ample,a US-based battery swapping start-up.85BOX 3.29 Battery swapping pilot project for heavy trucks in China .85SECTION IIPOWE
78、R TO HEAT AND COOLINGBOX 4.1 Success factors for the deployment of large-scale heat pumps:The Swedish case .90BOX 5.1 Industrial high-temperature requirements.101BOX 6.1 The economics of heat pumps.115BOX 6.2 Marienhtte steel and rolling mill.117BOX 6.3 E-cracking furnace experimental unit.120BOX 6.
79、4 Electrification project of the steel industry in Chenzhou,China.120BOX 6.5 Seasonal aquifer storage of Stockholms airport.123BOX 6.6 Economics of thermal storage.123BOX 6.7 Worlds first Carnot battery stores electricity in heat:Third-life storage plant.125BOX 6.8 Districlima,Barcelona,Spain.126BOX
80、 6.9 Fifth-generation district heating and cooling system in the Netherlands.128BOX 6.10 A ubiquitous IoT in Chinas electric power system .129BOX 6.11 Blockchain for operating virtual power plants in Germany .130BOX 6.12 Agile Octopus .133BOX 6.13 Energy efficiency programme for buildings in Paris,F
81、rance .136BOX 6.14 First building codes requiring heat pumps approved in California .137BOX 6.15 Heat mapping project in Europe.139BOX 6.16 Coupling cooling loads and solar PV generation in Arizon.140BOX 6.17 Heating as a service(HaaS)in Denmark.144BOX 6.18A Waste heat recovery from the Facebook dat
82、a centre in Denmark.145BOX 6.18B Waste heat recovery from a data centre in Tibet,China.145BOX 6.19 Eco-industrial park in Denmark .146BOX 6.20 Community-owned district heating utility in Denmark.14714INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RENEWABLE POWERSEC
83、TION IIIPOWER TO HYDROGENBOX 9.1 Examples of compressed hydrogen storage projects.169BOX 9.2 Hydrogen backbone projects in the Netherlands .172BOX 9.3 HyAI(Hydrogen Artificial Intelligence)project.173BOX 9.4 H Green Steel optimisation software.174BOX 9.5 Hydrogen and NG/H leak detection for continuo
84、us monitoring and safe operation of future hydrogen or NG/H networks.174BOX 9.6 The European Commissions Delegated Act on renewable hydrogen,February 2023.176BOX 9.7 Electrolysers capability to provide ancillary services.178BOX 9.8 An electrolyser providing ancillary services in Germany .179BOX 9.9
85、Collaborative efforts towards market standardisation.The IPHE.179BOX 9.10 Bilateral auctions for procurement of hydrogen in Germany.181BOX 9.11 CCfD implementation.183BOX 9.12 Clean hydrogen production tax credit.184BOX 9.13 One-stop permitting shops and green channel for hydrogen projects approval.
86、186BOX 9.14 Standard and evaluation of low-carbon hydrogen,clean hydrogen and renewable hydrogen in China.186BOX 9.15 Regulatory sandbox in Denmark.187BOX 9.16 Capacity maps developed by Energinet,a transmission system operator in Denmark.189BOX 9.17 Harnessing the power of the winds in Chile:The Ha
87、ru Oni project.189BOX 9.18 Electrical storage:The Eco-Energy World Gladstone project in Australia and the Delta Green project in France.190BOX 9.19 Power-to-power route in a demonstration project on Dachen Island(Taizhou,China).191BOX 9.20 Examples of electricity and gas transmission system operator
88、 co-operation .192BOX 9.21 Chile as a hydrogen exporter;Japan as a hydrogen importer .195BOX 9.22 Decarbonisation of a major industrial cluster in Valencia,Spain .196BOX 9.23 Pressurised alkaline electrolyser to provide grid-balancing services in Austria .196BOX 9.24 HySynergy:Excess heat for distri
89、ct heating in Denmark .197BOX 9.25 Power-to-gas-to-heat facility in Lahti,Finland .19715ABBREVIATIONSABBREVIATIONS4GDH fourth-generation district heating5GDH fifth-generation district heating AC alternating currentAEM anion exchange membraneAI artificial intelligenceALK alkalineBNEF Bloomberg New En
90、ergy FinanceCAAS charging as a service/cooling as a serviceCCFD carbon contract for differenceCO2 carbon dioxideDC direct currentDER distributed energy resourcesDHC district heating and coolingDSO distribution system operatorEJ exajouleE-MAAS electric mobility as a serviceEMEC European Marine Energy
91、 CentreENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System Operators for ElectricityETS Emission Trading System/Economic Transition ScenarioEU European UnionEUR euroEV electric vehicleFPPA flexible power purchase agreementGW gigawattH2 hydrogenHAAS heat as a serviceHPA hydrogen purchase agreementHTHP hi
92、gh-temperature heat pumpsHYAI Hydrogen Artificial IntelligenceIEA International Energy AgencyIEC International Electrotechnical CommissionIOT Internet of ThingsIPHE International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the EconomyIPT inductive power transferIRENA International Renewable Energy Ag
93、encyISO International Organization for StandardizationKM kilometreKG kilogrammeKW kilowattKWH kilowatt hourLOHC liquid organic hydrogen carrierm3 cubic metreMAAS mobility as a serviceMFRR manual frequency restoration reserveMT million tonnesMW megawattMWH megawatt hourNEDO New Energy and Industrial
94、Technology Development Organization P2P power to powerPCM phase-change materialPEM polymer electrolyte membranePPA power purchase agreementPV photovoltaicRES renewable energy sourceSOEC solid oxide electrolyser cellTFEC total final energy consumptionTES thermal energy storageTSO transmission system
95、operatorTWh terawatt hourUSD United States dollarV1G unidirectional smart chargingV2B vehicle to buildingV2G vehicle to gridV2H vehicle to home VRE variable renewable energy16Smart electrification is a cost-effective decarbonisation pathway for energy systems that is based on the electrification of
96、energy end-use sectors via the incorporation of large shares of renewables in power systems and the unlocking of the flexibility of sources.Smart electrification enables(1)power systems to accommodate new loads in a cost-efficient manner and creates(2)flexibility in power systems,which allows the in
97、tegration of a larger share of renewables,making power systems more robust and resilient.For end uses,electrification is(3)the most cost-effective solution for decarbonising these sectors.EXECUTIVE SUMMARYInnovation is the engine powering the global energy transformation towards a carbon-neutral fut
98、ure.This transformation focuses on how we produce energy but also on how we consume it.Both supply and demand must be transformed together and in co-ordination for a faster and more effective decarbonisation of the entire system.On the supply side,wind and solar technologies have experienced rapid g
99、rowth in recent years,making available large amounts of clean electricity in power systems.However,the demand side has not evolved in parallel and until recently,society has consumed energy following traditional fossil fuel-based approaches.Today,the transport and heating sectors still largely rely
100、on fossil fuels.According to IRENAs 1.5C Scenario,the share of direct electricity in total final energy consumption must increase from 22%in 2020 to 29%by 2030,and to 51%by 2050;this can be achieved with tremendous growth in electric-powered technologies,many of which are already available(IRENA,202
101、3).They include electric vehicles(EVs)and heat pumps,which can provide heat for buildings and many industrial processes.In addition,end-use sectors that are difficult to electrify directly can be decarbonised using“green”hydrogen produced by electricity generated from renewable energy,also known as
102、indirect electrification.With direct and indirect electrification,global electricity demand would triple by 2050,compared with 2020,under IRENAs 1.5C Scenario(IRENA,2023c).This brings challenges to the power system and increases the importance of energy efficiency measures.However,given the enormous
103、 benefits of electrification for decarbonising end-use sectors,governments around the world should not see smart electrification as a threat but rather as a major opportunity to accelerate economic growth,improve energy security,reduce the growing impacts of climate change and achieve other importan
104、t sustainability goals.Yet,electrifying the consumption of energy is a complex task that goes beyond the adoption of technology solutions and requires the involvement of all stakeholders across the energy value chain,from the power sector to end-use sectors.This comprehensive approach is known as sm
105、art electrification.17EXECUTIVE SUMMARYTECHNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARKET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYSTEM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELSSYSTEMIC INNOVATIONSmart electrification with renewables creates a virtuous cycle.Electrification drives new uses and markets for renewables.This,in turn,accelerate
106、s the switch to electricity for end uses,creating even more flexibility and driving further growth of renewables and technological innovation.In this context,innovation can reduce costs and create additional investment and business opportunities;transform the policy arena;and accelerate the virtuous
107、 cycle.Therefore,innovation is the foundation for a global energy revolution and for the rollout of effective smart electrification strategies.However,any innovation that is meant to contribute to the decarbonisation of future energy systems will not succeed if implemented in isolation.Innovative so
108、lutions,built upon combinations of individual innovations,should bring together the necessary elements to deliver a transformative impact on the way societies consume energy today.Therefore,these innovative solutions go beyond technology-based solutions and include innovations in market design and r
109、egulation,system planning and operation,and business models.Innovative solutions will consequently emerge from the complementarities of advances across multiple components of energy systems,leveraging the synergies of these innovations in a process called systemic innovation.Systemic innovation is e
110、ssential to achieve an effective structural transformation of the energy economy and includes innovations in:Technology and infrastructure,which play key roles in facilitating the electrification of end-use sectors,and related infrastructure.Market design and regulation,including new market structur
111、es and changes in the regulatory framework to incentivise and shape the electrification of end-use sectors and encourage smart electrification.System planning and operation,including innovative ways of planning the coupling of the power sector with the end-use sector and operating systems to maximis
112、e the integration of renewable power generation and minimise the extra load on power systems.Business models that create the business case for new services,making power systems more flexible and accelerating the electrification of end-uses.FIGURE S.1|Systemic innovationINNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART
113、 ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RENEWABLE POWER100 INNOVATIONS FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF END-USE SECTORS POWER TO MOBILITY1 EV model evolution2 EV battery 3 Battery recycling technology4 Diversity and ubiquity of charging points5 Wireless charging 6 Overhead charging 7 Portabl
114、e charging stations8 V2G systems9 Digitalisation for energy management and smart charging10 Blockchain-enabled transactions11 Smart distribution transformers12 Smart meters and submeters13 Dynamic tariffs 14 Smart charging:local flexibility provision 15 Smart charging:system flexibility provision16“
115、Right to plug”regulation17 Streamline permitting procedures for charging infrastructure18 Standardisation and interoperability19 V2G grid connection code20 Cross-sectoral co-operation and integrated planning21 Including EV load in power system planning22 Grid data transparency 23 Clean highway corri
116、dors24 Operational flexibility in power systems to integrate EVs25 Management of flexible EV load to integrate VRE26 Management of flexible EV load to defer grid upgrades27 EV as a resilience solution28 EV aggregators29 EV load peak shaving using DERs30 Battery second life 31 EV charging as a servic
117、e32 Electric mobility as a service33 Ownership and operation of public charging stations35 A single bill for EV charging at home and on the go35 Battery swappingTABLE S.1|One hundred smart electrification innovations across three categoriesThis innovation landscape includes 100 key innovations that
118、can play a role in transforming and decarbonising the energy use sector following smart electrification strategies.It draws from a review of hundreds of innovative solutions that are emerging worldwide from start-ups,large companies,regulators and system operators,and that contribute to the smart el
119、ectrification of mobility,heating and cooling,and hydrogen production.EXECUTIVE SUMMARYPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING1 Low-temperature heat pumps2 Hybrid heat pumps3 High-temperature heat pumps4 Waste heat-to-power technologies5 High-temperature electricity-based applications for industry6 Low-temperatur
120、e thermal energy storage7 Medium-and high-temperature thermal energy storage8 Fourth-generation DHC9 Fifth-generation DHC10 IoT for smart electrification11 AI for forecasting heating and cooling demand12 Blockchain-enabled transactions13 Digitalisation as flexibility enabler 14 Dynamic tariffs15 The
121、rmal load flexibility 16 Flexible power purchase agreements17 Standards and certifications for improved predictability of heat pump operation18 Energy efficiency programmes for buildings and industries19 Building codes for power-to-heat solutions20 Streamline permitting procedures and regulations fo
122、r thermal infrastructure 21 Holistic planning for cities22 Heat and cold mapping23 Coupling cooling loads with solar generation24 Smart operation with thermal inertia25 Smart operation with seasonal thermal storage26 Smart operation of industrial heating27 Combining heating and cooling demands in di
123、strict systems28 Aggregators29 DERs for heating and cooling demands30 Heating and cooling as a service31 Waste heat recovery from data centres32 Eco-industrial parks and waste heat recovery from industrial processes33 Circular energy flows in cities Booster heat pumps34 Community-owned district heat
124、ing and cooling35 Community-owned power-to-heat assets20INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RENEWABLE POWERPOWER TO HYDROGEN1 Pressurised ALK electrolyser2 PEM electrolyser3 SOEC electrolyser4 AEM electrolyser5 Compressed hydrogen storage6 Liquefied hydr
125、ogen storage 7 Hydrogen-ready equipment8 Digital backbone for green hydrogen production9 Hydrogen leakage detection 10 Additionality principle11 Renewable PPAs for green hydrogen12 Cost-effective electricity tariffs13 Electrolysers as grid service providers14 Certificates15 Hydrogen purchase agreeme
126、nts 16 Carbon contracts for difference17 Regulatory framework for hydrogen network 18 Streamline permitting for electrolyser projects19 Quality infrastructure for green hydrogen20 Regulatory sandboxes21 Electricity TSOs including hydrogen facilities in their planning22 Co-locating electrolysers with
127、 renewable generators(onshore and offshore)23 Smart hydrogen storage operation and P2P routes24 Long-term hydrogen storage25 Co-operation between electricity and gas network operators26 Local hydrogen demand 27 Hydrogen trade28 Hydrogen industrial hub29 Revenues from flexibility provided to the powe
128、r system 30 Sale of electrolysis by-products(oxygen and heat)AEM=anion exchange membrane;AI=artificial intelligence;ALK=alkaline;DER=distributed energy resources;DHC=district heating and cooling;EV=electric vehicle;IoT=Internet of Things;PEM=polymer electrolyte membrane;PPA=power purchase agreement;
129、P2P=power-to-power;SOEC=solid oxide electrolyser cell;TSO=transmission system operator;VRE=variable renewable energy;V2G=vehicle to grid.A“one-size-fits-all”solution for smart electrification does not exist.Optimal strategies and implementation of innovations will vary between countries and to accou
130、nt for system-specific attributes,including both the technical and economic aspects of a given power system and end-use sector,and social and cultural dimensions.21EXECUTIVE SUMMARYFIGURE S.2|Toolbox for smart electrification strategiesPOWER TO MOBILITYPOWER TO HYDROGENPOWER TO HEATAND COOLINGSMART
131、CHARGING KITESSENTIAL KITUnidirectionalchargingBidirectionalchargingPersonalvehicleFleetMOBILITY SEGMENT KITTOOLBOX FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION STRATEGIESESSENTIAL KITHEATING KITHeating forbuildingsHeating forindustryDistrictheatingCOOLING KITESSENTIAL KITSMART HYDROGEN PRODUCTION KITGrid connected el
132、ectrolysersOff-grid electrolysersThis work goes beyond an overview of promising innovations.It also provides guidance on how these innovation toolboxes can be used to build smart electrification strategies.To do so,innovations are grouped in“kits”that can complement one another.The kits are defined
133、for the three end-use sectors based on the strategys ambition.First,the essential kit incorporates the innovations that are fundamental to start the transition to electrification.Next,more specific kits are defined to build on top of the essential kit,according to needs and objectives in each contex
134、t.INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RENEWABLE POWERThis report is organised into three sections:Each section follows the same structure:Status and pace of progress of electrification of end-use sector This section provides a quick overview of where the
135、 sector is today in the electrification process,which path could lead to decarbonisation goals,and the importance of a smart electrification approach.It also summarises the main challenges and identifies the blind spots that are often overlooked and hinder the deployment of smart electrification str
136、ategies.Toolboxfor smart electrification strategyThis section includes the guidelines for implementation.Using the innovation toolbox,it illustrates how smart electrification strategies can be developed for different context specificities and needs.Innovation landscape for smart electrification of e
137、nd-use sectorThis section lists and describes the key innovations for each dimension and explains why it is important.It also includes examples of how the innovation has been implemented.POWER TO HYDROGENPOWER TO MOBILITYPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING24INTRODUCTION Systemic innovation is needed to achiev
138、e smart electrification of end-use sectors The world has already begun a historic shift towards cleaner sources of energy.Rapid reductions in the cost of solar and wind technologies have led to widespread adoption of these technologies,which are now dominating the global market for new power generat
139、ion capacity.But the pace of change must accelerate if we are to meet sustainability and climate goals.We need an even faster expansion of renewables,along with a smarter,much more flexible electricity grid.Equally important is the need for significant increases in the range of products and processe
140、s that run on clean electricity in major end-use sectors,notably industry,buildings and transport.Because the electrification of end uses enables the use of efficient technologies,widespread electrification combined with efficiency measures will decrease total global energy consumption.In IRENAs ana
141、lysis,meeting the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change will require the share of electricity in the energy mix to rise from 22%in 2020 to 51%in 2050,as shown in FigureI.1.TFEC(%)20202050(1.5C Scenario)374 EJ Total final energy consumption353 EJ Total final energy consumption4%Others22
142、%Electricity(direct)51%Electricity(direct)5%Modernbiomassuses6%Traditionaluses ofbiomass63%Fossil fuels14%Modern biomass14%Hydrogen(direct use and e-fuels)*7%Others Fossil fuels12%Renewable sharein hydrogen:94%91%Renewable share in electricity28%Renewable share in electricitySource:(IRENA,2023).FIGU
143、RE I.1|Final energy mix in 2018 and 205025INTRODUCTIONBut the electrification of end uses alone is not enough.Electrification must be done in a“smart”way,both by interconnecting the power sector with other energy sectors,such as heat and mobility,and by enabling flexible sources across all energy se
144、ctors.Electric vehicles,for example,not only cut greenhouse gas emissions dramatically,they can also feed electricity to the grid,reducing the need to build additional generation capacity.Smart electrification,through sector coupling,flexibility and energy efficiency,thus prevents a higher electrici
145、ty load for the power system and is a tremendously powerful tool for decarbonising the energy sector,including end uses.Smart electrification enables the power system to accommodate new loads in a cost-efficient manner.It also builds flexibility into the power system,thereby permitting the integrati
146、on of a higher share of renewables and making the power system more robust and resilient.Smart electrification is the most cost-effective solution for decarbonising major end uses such as transport and heating.Moreover,smart electrification with renewables creates a virtuous cycle.Electrification dr
147、ives new uses and markets for renewables.That,in turn,accelerates the switch to electricity for end uses,creating even more flexibility and driving further growth in the use of renewables and continued technological innovation.Growth and innovation also cut costs and create additional opportunities
148、for investment and business.Innovation is the foundation for smart electrification and the global energy transformation.Most innovations cannot be implemented in isolation,nor are they limited to technology-based solutions.Along with innovation in technology and infrastructure,innovations are also n
149、eeded in market design and regulation,system planning and operation,and business models.Innovative solutions will consequently emerge from the complementarities of advances across multiple components of energy systems and leveraging the synergies of these innovations in a process called systemic inn
150、ovation.The 100 key innovations identified in this report are spread across four dimensions:(1)technology and infrastructure,(2)market design and regulation,(3)system planning and operation,and(4)business models(FigureI.2).It is only by matching and leveraging synergies in innovations in all parts o
151、f the power system and end-use sectors and including all relevant actors and stakeholders that successful solutions can be implemented on the ground.TECHNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARKET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYSTEM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELSSYSTEMIC INNOVATIONFIGURE I.2|Dimensions of systemic i
152、nnovation 26INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION DECARBONISING END-USE SECTORS WITH RENEWABLE POWERSmart electrification cannot be pre-packaged.Optimal strategies for power system design and the application of innovation will vary among countries and their specific attributes,including bot
153、h the technical and economic aspects of a given power system and its social and cultural context.Electricity will be the main energy carrier in future energy systems Achieving the Paris Agreement goal of limiting the increase in the global average temperature to 1.5C relative to pre-industrial level
154、s is the unifying principle behind IRENAs 1.5C Scenario.To achieve that scenario,the share of electricity in total final energy consumption(TFEC)will have to grow from 21%in 2019 to 29%by 2030,and to 51%by 2050;this can be achieved through tremendous growth in technologies that operate on electricit
155、y,many of which are already available(IRENA,2023).These include electric vehicles(EVs)and heat pumps,which provide heat for buildings and many industrial processes.In addition,end uses that are difficult to electrify directly,such as other industrial processes,can be electrified and decarbonised ind
156、irectly with“green”hydrogen produced using renewably generated electricity.By 2050,global electricity demand is set to be 3 times what it was in 2020,posing challenges for power systems and raising the importance of energy efficiency.However,given the enormous benefits of electrification and decarbo
157、nisation,governments around the world should not see rapid,smart electrification as a threat or onerous task but rather as a golden opportunity to accelerate economic growth,improve energy security(BoxI.1),reduce the growing impacts of climate change and achieve other important sustainability goals.
158、Table I.1 summarises the levels of electrification needed to reach the Paris Agreement targets.TABLE I.1|Electrification progress towards 2050 based on IRENAs 1.5C Scenario Recent years20302050Share of direct electricity in total final energy consumption22%(1)29%51%Share of electricity in transport
159、sector TFEC(%)1%(2)7%52%Share of electricity in the buildings sector(in TFEC terms)34%(3)53%73%Share of electricity in industry(TFEC)20%(4)25%27%Electric and plug-in hydrid light passenger vehicles stock(millions)10(5)3592 182Passenger electric cars on the road(millions)10.5(6)3602 180Electric vehic
160、le chargers(millions)1(7)3722 30027INTRODUCTIONSource:(IRENA,2023b).Notes:1.2020;2.2020;3.2020;4.2020;5.2020;6.2022;7.2020;8.2020;9.2020;10.2022;11.2021-clean hydrogen here refers to the combination of hydrogen produced by electrolysis powered by renewables(green hydrogen)and hydrogen produced from
161、natural gas in combination with carbon capture and storage(blue hydrogen);12.2022.Recent years20302050Heat pumps in industry(in millions)150C)than buildings(100C).Residential and commercial buildings can also be divided into those with small-scale heating and cooling systems or large-scale district
162、heating systems.Each end use has a different current status and pace of progress and will thus require different innovations.For example,district heating and cooling(DHC)systems still predominantly rely on fossil fuels(90%of the total heating supply),even though they could switch to renewable source
163、s,waste heat streams or other sources(IEA,2019).The use of district heating has increased 32%since 2010,accounting for 16EJ of heating world-wide in 2021.District cooling(now only 1-2%of the entire European cooling market)is expected to increase by 3.5%annually over the next five years(Research and
164、Markets,2022).For all buildings globally,62%of heating was supplied by fossil fuels in 2020,with the remainder coming from traditional uses of biomass(26%)and modern renewables(12%).3 The renewables share is expected to increase rapidly.The industrial sector uses both low-temperature heat(for exampl
165、e,food and chemicals require less than 100C)and high-temperature heat(steel,cement and glass industries require temperatures above 1 000C),and predominantly relies on fossil fuels(89%in 2020).High-temperature processes(those that require temperatures above the range of heat pumps,greater than 150C)a
166、re difficult to electrify directly at high efficiencies.These processes can alternatively be indirectly electrified using“green”hydrogen(see Section III).489CHAPTER 4:ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING:STATUS AND PACE OF PROGRESS20202030205034%53%73%447 million793 million58 millionHistoricalWher
167、e we need to be(1.5C Scenario)Electricity share in buildings(TFEC)Heat pumps-buildings20%25%27%35 million80 million0C 0C 100CSmallSpace heating and cooling,water heatingSingle small-scale low-temperature heat pumps(air and ground sourced),small-scale electric boilersResidential homeowners,commercial
168、 shops,real estate developers,hotels,sports centres,hospitals,among othersAggregation required for TSO/DSO strategies,user behavioural changes,financial capacity for investing in power-to-heat solutions,weather-dependent demandIndustry sector150CMedium/largePetrochemical industries such as ammonia,m
169、ethanol and ethylene/propyleneHigh-temperature electric heating to achieve the required process temperatures of above 150C or even above 1 000C(i.e.electric resistance furnaces,induction furnaces,electric arc furnaces,or e-cracking furnaces)Industrial operators,technology licensors,equipment vendors
170、Specific applications that traditionally rely on fossil fuelbased technologies,temperatures above 1 000C required in many cases,flexibility does not play a main role,no weather dependencya.In early generation DHC systems,pressurised hot water with temperatures above 100C was used in some cases.b.For
171、 the new generation of DHC systems,the water heating demand is met by a backup system,which helps reach the desired temperature(i.e.booster heat pump).c.Subject to the requirements of a specific industrial application.Notes:DSO=distribution system operator;TSO=transmission system operator.597CHAPTER
172、 5:TOOLBOX FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING Table 5.2 lists the 35 innovations that are briefly explored below and in greater detail in Chapter 6.TECHNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARKET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYSTEM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELSConversion technologies1 Low-temperature
173、heat pumps 2 Hybrid heat pumps3 High-temperature heat pumps4 Waste heat-to-power technologies5 High-temperature electricity-based applications for industryThermal storage6 Low-temperature thermal energy storage7 Medium-and high-temperature thermal energy storageDistrict heating and cooling systems8
174、Fourth-generation DHC systems9 Fifth-generation DHC systemsDigitalisation10 Internet of Things for smart electrification11 Artificial intelligence for forecasting heating and cooling demands12 Blockchain for enabling transactions13 Digitalisation as a flexibility enablerElectricity market14 Dynamic
175、tariffs15 Flexibility provision by thermal loads 16 Flexible power purchase agreement Sector regulations and incentives17 Standards and certifications for heating and cooling equipment 18 Energy efficiency programme for buildings and industry19 Building codes for power-to-heat/cooling solutions20 St
176、reamlining permitting procedures for thermal infrastructureIntegrated planning21 Holistic planning for cities22 Heating and cooling maps23 Coupling cooling loads with solar generation Smart operation24 Smart operation with thermal inertia25 Smart operation with seasonal thermal storage 26 Smart oper
177、ation of industrial heating27 Combining heating and cooling demands in district systemsServices for the power system28 Aggregators29 Distributed energy resources for heating and cooling demands 30 Heating and cooling as a serviceWaste heat recovery models31 Waste heat recovery from data centres32 Ec
178、o-industrial parks and waste heat recovery from industrial processes33 Circular energy flows in cities booster heat pumpsModels to enable deployment34 Community-owned district heating and cooling 35 Community-owned power-to-heat assets TABLE 5.2|Innovation toolbox for smart electrification of heatin
179、g and cooling5INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING985.1 Guidelines for implementationCreating an innovative smart electrification strategy requires leveraging the synergies among different innovations across four dimensions:technology,markets and regulation,busines
180、s models,and system planning and operation.It must also consider the available capabilities and potentials of current energy systems.For instance,Swedens substantial hydropower resources make it possible to deploy large-scale heat pumps.To guide policy makers in formulating smart electrification str
181、ategies,we propose a toolBoxwith three kits:the essential kit,which should be implemented in any situation,followed by the heating kit and then the cooling kit,based on the needs.The heating kit is further divided into kits for buildings,industry and district heating(Figure5.1).POWER TO HEATAND COOL
182、INGESSENTIAL KITHEATING KITHeating forbuildingsHeating forindustryDistrictheatingCOOLING KITFIGURE 5.1|Implementation guidance for smart electrification in the heating and cooling sectorHarry Hykko S599CHAPTER 5:TOOLBOX FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING Essential kitThe essential kit
183、includes cross-cutting innovations such as heat pumps and thermal storage,along with innovations in market design,system planning and business models,such as smart tariffs and aggregation.The innovations are listed in Table 5.3 and discussed in detail later in this section.Heating kitThe heating-for
184、-buildings kit includes additional innovations to the essential kit that are specific to the smart electrification of heating in the residential sector(Table 5.4).Hybrid heat pumps offer an intermediate step between fossil fuelbased heating and 100%electric heating,for example,while thermal storage
185、and the matching of solar resources with demand offer major gains in flexibility and overall system efficiency.The heating-for-industry kit includes the innovations needed to electrify heating in the industry sector.Industries are profit driven and typically operate continuously at high-capacity fac
186、tors.Innovations may thus encounter resistance if they significantly affect operations.On the other hand,innovations such as high-temperature heat pumps(see Box5.1)and waste heat recovery(Table5.5)have the potential to significantly increase the efficiency of operations while also reducing emissions
187、 from fossil fuel use.ESSENTIAL KITTECHNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARKET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYSTEM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELS1 Low-temperature heat pumps6 Low-temperature thermal energy storage13 Digitalisation as a flexibility enabler14Dynamic tariffs17 Standards and certification for heat p
188、umps18 Energy efficiency programmes20 Streamlining permitting procedures for thermal infrastructure21 Holistic planning for cities28 AggregatorsTABLE 5.3|The essential kit for the heating and cooling sector5INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLINGHEATING KITHEATING FOR
189、 BUILDINGS TECHNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARKET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYSTEM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELS2 Hybrid heat pumps10 Internet of Things for smart electrification11 Artificial intelligence for forecasting heating and cooling demand12 Blockchain for enabling transactions15 Flexibility pro
190、vision by thermal loads16 Flexible power purchase agreement19 Building codes for power-to-heat/cooling solutions23 Coupling cooling loads with solar generation24 Smart operation with thermal inertia29 DERs for heating and cooling demands35 Community-owned power-to-heat assetsTABLE 5.4|The heating-fo
191、r-buildings kitHEATING KITHEATING FOR INDUSTRYTECHNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARKET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYSTEM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELS3 High-temperature heat pumps4 Waste heat-to-power technologies5 High-temperature electricity based applications for industry7 Medium-and high-temperature th
192、ermal storage15 Flexibility provision by thermal loads16 Flexible power purchase agreement26 Smart operation of industrial heating30 Heating and cooling as a service32 Eco-industrial parks and waste heat recovery from industrial processesTABLE 5.5|The heating-for-industry kitNote:DERs=distributed en
193、ergy resources.5CHAPTER 5:TOOLBOX FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING BOX 5.1|Industrial high-temperature requirementsIndustrial processes require a wide range of temperatures.No singular technology can thus meet all industrial energy needs.Figure5.2 shows how different technologies can
194、 provide the required temperatures,which can go above 1 000C in specific sectors.For some uses,electricity can be used directly in electric furnaces,electric boilers,heat pumps or other electrolytic processes.One innovation still under development is the high-temperature heat pump,which can deliver
195、heat at up to 150C(Arpagaus etal.,2018).When commercially available,these pumps could be used for applications such as injection moulding in the plastic industry or many drying processes,adding significant energy savings,as shown successfully in the EU DryFiciency project(DryFiciency,2016).Three mai
196、n industrial sectors chemical,cement and steel are the most challenging to electrify,but promising solutions are being developed.For the chemical industry,electric crackers(e-crackers)are in the pilot phase.The cement industry is working on new kilns where heat is provided via plasma generators(Some
197、rs,2020).The steel sector is piloting new electrolytic reduction processes.In addition,these industries might be electrified indirectly through renewable fuels like green hydrogen.TechnologiesInnovationsTemperatures(C)BuildingsIndustry02004006008001 0001 2001 4001 6001 8002 000Infrared heater/induct
198、ion furnace/resistance furnace/electric arc furnace/plasma technologiesElectric boilerHeat pumpHigh temperature heat pumpIron ore electrolysis(Steel industry:Iron ore reduction)Electric cracking furnace(Ethylene,Propylene,Butadiene,Aromatics and Acetylene)Solar kiln(Cement industry:Clinkerisation)Ve
199、ry high temperature heat pumpIron ore electrolysis(Steel industry:Iron ore reduction electrowinning)Electric arc calciner(Cement industry:calcination)FIGURE 5.2|Temperature ranges and technologies for industry sectors Based on:(Arpagaus et al.,2018;Madeddu et al.,2020;Keller et al.2022;and Somers,20
200、22).5INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLINGThe district heating kit aims to shape the smart electrification strategy for thermal grids and includes the fourth and fifth generations6 of thermal grids and waste heat-to-power technologies(4GDH and 5GDG).Waste heat-to-po
201、wer technologies are not included in the buildings kit because they require significant volumes to become profitable.However,the market innovations and business models are the same or similar across building and district heating(Table 5.6).HEATING KITDISTRICT HEATING TECHNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARK
202、ET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYSTEM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELS2 Hybrid heat pumps4 Waste heat-to-power technologies8 Fourth-generation DHC systems9 Fifth-generation DHC systems10 Internet of Things for smart electrification11 Artificial intelligence for forecasting heating and cooling demand12 Bl
203、ockchain for enabling transactions15 Flexibility provision by thermal loads16 Flexible power purchase agreement21 Holistic planning for cities22 Heat and cold mapping23 Coupling cooling loads with solar generation25 Smart operation with with seasonal thermal storage storage27 Combining heating and c
204、ooling demands in district systems30 Heating and cooling as a service31 Waste heat recovery from data centres33 Circular energy flows in cities booster heat pumps 34 Community-owned district heating and coolingTABLE 5.6|The district heating kit6 Here,we consider that 5GDH aims at combined heating an
205、d cooling with a joint supply network,whereas 4GDH focuses on dedicated heating and cooling supply networks(Lund et al.,2021).Here,we consider that 5GDH aims at combined heating and cooling with a joint supply network,whereas 4GDH focuses on dedicated heating and cooling supply networks(Lund et al.,
206、2021).5CHAPTER 5:TOOLBOX FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING Cooling kitCooling strategies are different from heating strategies due to three reasons:First,cooling is already electricity powered for the majority of applications.Further,the cooling demand is much lower than the heating d
207、emand in the Northern Hemisphere.In addition it often overlaps the times of solar generation.Furthermore,the key innovation in the heating kit,heat pumps,also plays a central role in cooling since most heat pumps can be reversed to provide cooling.5.2Case studies7 shows the innovations in the coolin
208、g kit.COOLING KITTECHNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARKET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYSTEM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELS10 Internet of Things for smart electrification11 Artificial intelligence for forecasting heating and cooling demand12 Blockchain for enabling transactions15 Flexibility provision by the
209、rmal loads16 Flexible power purchase agreement19 Building codes for power-to-heat/cooling solutions22 Heating and cooling maps23 Coupling cooling loads with solar generation24 Smart operation with thermal inertia27 Combining heating and cooling demands in district systems29 Distributed energy resour
210、ces for heating and cooling demands30 Cooling as a service33 Circular energy flows in cities34 Community-owned district heating and cooling assetsTABLE 5.7|The cooling kit5INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING1045.2 Case studiesTwo case studies show how this reports
211、 toolBox can be used to create smart electrification strategies.Smart electrification in district heating and cooling Taarnby,Denmark Taarnby,Denmark,put a new DHC system into operation in 2020.The system is considered to be the smartest DHC system in the world,and it integrates heating,cooling and
212、electricity generation,while also taking advantage of heat and cold from water storage and wastewater treatment.The DHC system has three main sources of heating and cooling(Figure5.3):Four large reversible water-to-water heat pumps extract heating and cooling from groundwater,with a total capacity o
213、f 4.5MW for cooling and 6.5MW for heating.Waste heat from the water treatment plant provides another 4MW of heat capacity.A storage tank holds 2 000m3 of chilled water,providing 2.5MW of cooling.The water storage increases the systems peak cooling capacity,stabilises the heat pumps operation and act
214、s as a 13 MWh“virtual battery”.The city also plans to add an aquifer thermal energy storage system by 2025,which will allow about 5 000MWh of cooling to be stored in the winter for use during the summer.CHP(Combined heatand power plant,biomass and waste)HeatstorageHeatpumpChilled waterstoragetankWas
215、tewatertreatmentplantOffice and hoteldistrictGroundwater storageTreated wastewaterto resund2010District heating forwardDistrict heating returnDistrict cooling forwardDistrict cooling returnWastewaterTreated wastewaterSource:(Ramboll,2022).FIGURE 5.3|Layout of the Taarnby DHC system5105CHAPTER 5:TOOL
216、BOX FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING The most innovative features of the system are as follows:In winter,the heat pumps not only supply heat to buildings,they also cool the groundwater by extracting heat from it.The cold storage then provides free cooling during summer.Heat from the
217、water treatment plant is no longer wasted.The thermal storage systems reduce costs by storing energy when electricity prices are low and supplying energy when they are higher.They also add flexibility to the grid,making it possible to integrate more variable renewable energy and avoid overinvestment
218、s in the electricity grid or in battery storage.Co-producing heating and cooling is more efficient than producing each separately.Stricter building codes ensure that the 11 buildings connected to the DHC grid are highly efficient,while individual smart meters for each customer provide real-time data
219、 and enable the utility to control energy use remotely.Seasonal tariffs increase efficiencies and lower costs,while bonuses or penalties reward or penalise customers depending on the temperature of the air they return to the system.For cooling,for example,high temperatures(above 16C)make the system
220、more efficient.Pavlo Glazkov S5INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING106Table 5.8 shows the combination of innovations adopted by the Taarnby DHC system.It combines innovations from the essential kit and the strategy for the thermal grid under the classification prop
221、osed in the section“Guidelines for Implementation”.The sector coupling,thermal storage and the many opportunities for flexibility enable the DHC system to integrate a remarkably large share of renewables (91%)and optimise system operations in real time.Taarnbys case is thus a flagship example of sma
222、rt sector integration,demonstrating the synergies among transport,district heating and cooling,water infrastructure and the electricity system.More generally,the EU research project Heat Roadmap Europe has identified DHC as a key solution for reaching climate,energy efficiency and security goals.TEC
223、HNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARKET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYSTEM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELSESSENTIAL KIT1 Low-temperature heat pumps6 Low-temperature thermal energy storage14 Dynamic tariffs18 Energy efficiency programmes21 Holistic planning for citiesHEATING KIT:DISTRICT HEATING4 Waste heat-to-p
224、ower technologies8 Fourth-generation DHC systems9 Fifth-generation DHC systems10 Internet of Things for smart electrification11 Artificial intelligence for forecasting heating demand15 Flexibility provision by thermal loads25 Smart operation with seasonal storage27 Combining heating and cooling dema
225、nds in district systems30 Heating as a service33 Circular energy flows in cities booster heat pumps 34 Community-owned district heatingTABLE 5.8|The smart electrification strategy for district heating and cooling in Taarnby,DenmarkNote:DHC=district heating and cooling.5107CHAPTER 5:TOOLBOX FOR SMART
226、 ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING Smart electrification in the residential sector aggregator platform A Swiss start-up,tiko,has aggregated refrigerators,heat pumps and other electrical appliances owned by many customers(more than 7 000 households)to create what is now the largest virtual power
227、 plant in Europe(tiko Energy,2022).The companys digital platform controls these appliances to shift or reduce the peak demand.This provides valuable flexibility to the grid,while also reducing users bills(Figure5.4).In addition,the platform couples the power consumption of appliances with private el
228、ectricity generation,such as rooftop PV,to reduce bills even further.Source:(tiko Energy,2022).Self-consumptionoptimisationConfort and savingon central heatingOn premisespeak shavingRoom temperatureprogramingSolutionsAssetstiko hardwareReduce consumers billsProvide flexibility to the gridVirtual pow
229、er plant$FIGURE 5.4|Layout of the platform 5INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING108tikos virtual power plants have a total capacity of 100MW,making the company a key player in the integration of variable renewable energy,distributed power generation,electrification
230、 of heating and cooling,and the digitalisation of energy systems in Switzerland(Swisscom Energy Solutions AG,2018).Table 5.9 presents the innovation elements that are combined in the tiko pilot case,which includes elements from all four dimensions of the essential kit,including innovative elements s
231、uch as heat pumps,digitalisation or aggregators.In addition,it brings innovative elements from the buildings kit since buildings is its market segment.It also incorporates the cooling dimension via the coupling of PV with the cooling demand.TECHNOLOGY ANDINFRASTRUCTUREMARKET DESIGNAND REGULATIONSYST
232、EM PLANNINGAND OPERATIONBUSINESSMODELSESSENTIAL KIT2 Low-temperature heat pumps2Hybrid heat pumps13 Digitalisatian as a flexibility enabler14 Energy efficiency programmes21 Holistic planning for smart cities28AggregatorsSTRATEGY FOR BUILDINGS4 Waste heat-to-power technologies8 Fourth-generation DH s
233、ystems9 Fifth-generation DH systems10 Internet of Things for smart electrification11 Artificial intelligence for forecasting heating demand15 Flexibility provision by thermal loads23 Smart operation with thermal inertia25 Smart operation with seasonal storage29 Distributed energy resources for heati
234、ng and cooling demandsSTRATEGY FOR COOLING23 Coupling cooling loads with solar photovoltaic TABLE 5.9|The smart electrification strategy of heating for residential sector in the residential sector in Switzerland tiko case studyNote:DH=district heating6109This chapter presents an overview of 35 innov
235、ations for smart electrification of heating and cooling by answering two main questions for each innovation:WHATWhat is the innovation about?WHYWhy is the innovation important for smart electrification?The chapter also groups the innovations into four main dimensions:technology and infrastructure,ma
236、rkets and regulation,business models,and system planning and operation.For each innovation,the icons in Table 6.1 are used to describe its readiness level,the impact on the electrification of end uses(e.g.heat pump uptake)and the impact on smart electrification(e.g.how much this innovation contribut
237、es to demand response and to increased flexibility of the power system).Further,Table 6.2 shows the status and impacts of the innovations across all four dimensions.CHAPTER 6INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLING TABLE 6.1|Implementation guidance for smart electrificat
238、ion in district heating and cooling in Taarnby,DenmarkINNOVATION READINESS LEVELIMPACT ONElectrification of end-use sectorSmart electrification Innovation is in an early stage,with a few demonstration projects LowLow Innovation is in early commercialisation stage,with a few pilot projectsMediumMediu
239、m Innovation is already implemented in a few countriesHighHigh Innovation is mature and deployed at a large scale in some regionsVery highVery high6INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING110TABLE 6.2|Overview of the status and impacts of innovations for smart electrif
240、ication of heating and cooling sectorsDimensionCategoryInnovationInnovation readiness levelImpact on electrification of end uses Smart electrificationTECHNOLOGY AND INFRASTRUCTURECONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES1 Low-temperature heat pumps2 Hybrid heat pumps3 High-temperature heat pumps4 Waste heat-to-power
241、technologies5 High-temperature electricity-based applications for industryTHERMAL ENERGY STORAGE6 Low-temperature thermal energy storage7 Medium-and high-temperature thermal energy storageDISTRICT HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS8 Fourth-generation district heating and cooling systems9 Fifth-generation d
242、istrict heating and cooling systemsDIGITALISATION10 Internet of Things for smart electrification11 Artificial intelligence for forecasting heating and cooling demands12 Blockchain for enabling transactions13 Digitalisation as a flexibility enablerMARKET DESIGN AND REGULATIONELECTRICITY MARKET DESIGN
243、14 Dynamic tariffs15 Flexibility through thermal loads16 Flexible power purchase agreementEND-USE SECTOR REGULATION AND INCENTIVES17 Standards and certifications for improved predictability of heat pump operation18 Energy efficiency programmes for buildings and industriesVery highMediumLowHigh6111CH
244、APTER 6:INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLINGDimensionCategoryInnovationInnovation readiness levelImpact on electrification of end uses Smart electrificationMARKET DESIGN AND REGULATIONEND-USE SECTOR REGULATION AND INCENTIVES19 Building codes for power-to-heat/cooling
245、 solutions20 Streamlining permitting procedures for thermal infrastructuresSYSTEM PLANNING AND OPERATIONINTEGRATED PLANNING21 Holistic planning for cities22 Heating and cooling maps23 Coupling cooling loads with solar generationSMART OPERATION24 Smart operation with thermal inertia25 Smart operation
246、 with seasonal thermal storage26 Smart operation of industrial heating27 Combining heating and cooling demand in district systemsBUSINESS MODELSSERVICES FOR THE ENERGY SYSTEM28 Aggregators29 Distributed energy resources for heating and cooling demand30 Heating and cooling as a serviceWASTE HEAT RECO
247、VERY MODELS31 Waste heat recovery from data centres32 Eco-industrial parks and waste heat recovery from industrial processes33 Circular energy flows in cities booster heat pumpsENERGY COMMUNITIES34 Community-owned district heating and cooling35 Community-owned power-to-heat assetsVery highMediumLowH
248、igh6INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING6.1 Technology and infrastructureTechnology innovations are typically at the base of the systemic innovation approach.They make it possible to implement innovations in other dimensions and create new revenue streams.Here,the
249、technology innovations are divided into four broad categories:conversion technologies,thermal energy storage(TES),new generations of district heating and cooling(DHC)systems and digitalisation(Figure6.1).7 FIGURE 6.1|Innovations in technology and infrastructure for power to heat and cooling7 Digital
250、isation can be defined as the innovative use of information and communications technologies,converting data into value through various applications they can have in a sector.Since it requires the presence of equipment to make use of such information,digital technologies are considered an important i
251、nnovation in infrastructure.Notes:AI=artificial intelligence;DHC=district heating and cooling;IoT=Internet of Things.TECHNOLOGY AND INFRASTRUCTURECONVERSION TECHNOLOGIEST1 Low-temperature heat pumps2 Hybrid heat pumps3 Medium-and high-temperature heat pumps4 Waste heat-to-power technologies5 High-te
252、mperature electricity-based applications for industryTHERMAL ENERGY STORAGE6 Low-temperature thermal energy storage7 Medium-and high-temperature thermal energy storageDISTRICT HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS8 Fourth-generation district heating and cooling systems9 Fifth-generation district heating and c
253、ooling systemsDIGITALISATION10 Internet of Things for smart electrification11 Artificial intelligence for forecasting heating and cooling demands12 Blockchain for enabling transactions13 Digitalisation as a flexibility enabler6CHAPTER 6:INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND C
254、OOLINGConversion technologiesWHATElectrically-driven heat pumps are the most promising technology for the electrification of the heating and cooling sector.They efficiently transfer thermal energy from many different possible sources,including outdoor air,underground heat,water or waste heat from in
255、dustry sewage treatment to indoor spaces or processes where the heat is needed.Heat pumps are already a mature technology for efficiently supplying heat at temperatures up to 100C(even from ambient air with temperatures below 0C as a source).They also now exclusively use refrigerants that do not dep
256、lete the ozone layer;refrigerants with high global warming potential are being phased out.81Low-temperature heat pumpsCONVERSIONTECHNOLOGIESInnovationreadinesslevelRelevant toImpact onelectrificationof end useImpact onsmartelectrification8 In Europe,heat pump manufacturers have the challenge of movi
257、ng towards“fourth-generation”refrigerants with low global warming potential as part of the EU phase-down of currently used hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants by 2030(EU Regulation 517/2014).1Ales Horak S6INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING114Heat pump technology is al
258、so advancing rapidly(Figure6.2).New innovations include:Increased efficiency through use of more than one source,for example,air and ground.Increased ability to produce heat efficiently and economically in cold weather(the central goal of the US Department of Energys“Cold Climate Heat Pump Technolog
259、y Challenge”).Built-in backup systems that allow switching to another source of heat or cooling(e.g.ground instead of air)rather than relying on backup systems using fossil fuels.Compact plug-and-play systems,which are simpler and can be installed inexpensively.Dual-or variable-speed compressors to
260、increase efficiency,reduce noise and enable more control for demand-response services.More efficient and silent fan designs.Improved integration into buildings energy systems and more control of the balance between heat pump and backup system operation(thus allowing monovalent or monoenergetic opera
261、tion)(McSurdy,2019).OLDNEWOFFONOFFMEDHIGHSingle source:draws heatfrom airDual source:draws heat fromair and groundHeat modeperformsmore efficientlyin warmer climatesEffective inwarm and coolclimatesFans withonespeed motorsFans withdual/variablespeed motorsRequiresback-up system(gas)Built-inback-up s
262、ystem(ground/air)LargeoutdoorsystemCompact“plug and play”outdoor systemSingle-speedcompressorTwo-speedcompressorFIGURE 6.2|Advances in heat pump technologyBased on:(McSurdy,2019).16115CHAPTER 6:INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLINGWHYLow-temperature heat pumps are the
263、 most important technology for decarbonising9 heating and cooling end uses.They also offer major improvements in the overall energy efficiency of the buildings sector.BOX 6.1|The economics of heat pumpsHeat pumps have been used most often in countries with comparatively low electricity prices,such a
264、s Sweden,which has large amounts of hydro and nuclear power.Elsewhere,heat pump adoption has,until recently,been hindered by lack of awareness and confidence,and by the perception of higher upfront investment costs compared with fossil fuelbased alternatives as well as the misperception that heat pu
265、mps cannot deliver comfortable levels of heat for residential use in cold-weather climates.In fact,in countries like Sweden or Denmark,heat pumps are already cost competitive with their biggest competitor,gas-condensing boilers.In other countries,such as the United Kingdom,heat pumps are slightly co
266、stlier.Figure 6.3 shows the marginal costs of air-to-air heat pumps,air-to-water heat pumps and gas boilers for selected countries.Recently,heat pumps have become much more economically attractive due to the European energy crisis,and soaring gas prices.If gas prices were to remain as high as they w
267、ere in 2022,then market conditions would strongly favour heat pumps over gas boilers.The challenge then lies in creating the right incentives to accelerate the shift from gas boilers to heat pumps.3000500Gas boilerAWHPAAHPGas boilerAWHPAAHPGas boilerAWHPAAHPGas boilerAWHPAAHPGas boilerAWH
268、PAAHPGas boilerAWHPAAHPGas boilerAWHPAAHPUSD/MWh H1 2021 energy pricesH1 2022 energy pricesDenmarkFranceGermanyItalySwedenUnitedKingdomUnitedStatesSource:(IEA,2022b).Notes:AAHP=air-to-air heat pump;AWHP=air-to-water heat pump;H1=the first half of the fiscal year;MWh=megawatt hour.FIGURE 6.3|Marginal
269、 cost of heating with residential heat pumps and gas boilers under different energy cost assumptions in selected countries between H1 2021 and H1 20229 In this statement,it is assumed that the CO intensity factor of the electricity is lower than that of the equivalent fossil fuelbased heating genera
270、tion,i.e.boilers.16INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLINGWHATHybrid heat pumps combine a heat pump with a backup technology(e.g.a gas boiler),which supplies heat when conditions are not optimal for the heat pumps operation.Those conditions could include periods of ex
271、treme cold weather or times of high electricity prices.Under extremely low outdoor temperatures,the backup system can supply either part of the energy demand,allowing the heat pump to operate at high efficiencies,or all the demand by switching off the heat pump.The system can be operated at maximum
272、efficiencies and lowest costs by controlling the balance between the heat pumps and the backup technologys operation.The backup technology is typically a gas or biomass boiler,but solar technologies or even micro combined heat and power units can be used.Hybrid heat pumps are suitable for both large
273、-and small-scale residential,industrial and district heating systems(Beccali etal.,2022).They do require an effective control system that factors in weather,comfort and market conditions.They can thus support the use of new innovative control management systems,including artificial intelligence(AI)t
274、echniques.WHYWhile the hybridisation of heat pumps with gas boilers may not be the optimal solution for rapidly decarbonising the energy system,hybrid heat pumps can speed up the market roll-out of heat pumps by addressing some of the concerns about heat pump-only systems and allowing users to insta
275、ll heat pumps on top of their existing systems.Hybrid heat pumps can also accelerate the adoption of smart electrification strategies and the use of additional clean technologies,such as solar or geothermal energy.Hybrid heat pumps should thus be viewed as a transitional innovation.2Hybrid heat pump
276、sCONVERSIONTECHNOLOGIESInnovationreadinesslevelRelevant toImpact onelectrificationof end useImpact onsmartelectrification26CHAPTER 6:INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLINGWHATHigh-temperature heat pumps(HTHPs)can deliver heat at temperatures between 90C and 150C(Arpaga
277、us etal.,2018),although there is no consistent definition of an HTHP.10 Research efforts are currently underway to increase HTHPs temperature range to up to 200C(de Boer etal.,2020).WHYIt is crucial to make HTHPs commercially available because that will allow electrifying many more applications,espe
278、cially in industry.Since many industrial processes require temperatures above 100C,heat pumps that can deliver heat above 100C will be able to electrify a large share of the industrial demand.In Europe,for example,industry would be able to meet 26%of the total EU process heat demand(or 508terawatt h
279、ours/year)using heat pumps(de Boer etal.,2020).Figure6.4 shows the industrial processes that might be electrified using heat pumps.For many processes,such as pasteurisation and drying,electrification also leads to important energy savings.So far,however,HTHP technology is not considered mature and o
280、nly a limited number of suppliers exist.3High-temperature heat pumpsCONVERSIONTECHNOLOGIESInnovationreadinesslevelRelevant toImpact onelectrificationof end useImpact onsmartelectrificationBOX 6.2|Marienhtte steel and rolling millThe Austrian steel and rolling mill Marienhtte in Graz,Austria,installe
281、d two large heat pumps that can supply heat at up to 95C with a heating capacity of 6-11MW.As a source,the pumps utilise the mills waste heat at a temperature of 30C to 35C,using energy that would otherwise be dissipated to the environment.The heat pumps enable the mill to avoid using 46GWh each yea
282、r from fossil fuels,thereby reducing annual CO2 emissions by 11 700tonnes(de Boer etal.,2020).10 Generally,100C is seen as the lowest threshold temperature for labelling a heat pump as an HTHP.Some authors include a new heat pump category,very-high-temperature heat pumps(VHTHPs),for those heat pumps
283、 that provide heat sink temperatures up to 150C.36INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING118PaperSectorProcessTemperaturefood andbeveragesChemicalsAutomotiveMetalPlasticTextilesWoodSeveralsectorsTechnology readiness level(TRL):MechanicalengineeringDryingBoilingBleachi
284、ngDe-inkingDryingEvaporationPasteurisationSterilisationBoilingDistillationBlnachingScaldingConcentrationTemperingSmokingDistillationCompressionThermoformingConcentrationBoilingBioreactionsResin moldingDryingPicklingDegreasingElectroplatingPhosphatingChromatingPurgingInjection moldingPellets dryingPr
285、eheatingSurface treatmentCleaningColouringDryingWashingBleachingGlueingPressingDryingSteamingCockingStainingPickingHot waterPreheatingWashing and cleaningSpace heating90-240110-18040-15050-7040-25040--14070-12040-10060-9050-9060-8040-8020---14080-11020-6070-13060
286、-20020-10020-10030-9030-9020-8040-7090-30040-15050-7020-12040-9040-16060-13040--180120-17040-15070-10080-9050-8040-7020-11020-10030-0180200(C)Conventional HP 80C,established in industryCommercial available HP 140CFIGURE 6.4|Temperature ranges for different indus
287、trial processes and heat pumpsSource:(Arpagaus et al.,2018).Notes:HP=heat pump;HTHP=high-temperature heat pump;VHTHP=very-high-temperature heat pump.36119CHAPTER 6:INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLINGWHATWaste heat-to-power technologies recover energy from waste heat
288、 and convert it into electricity.However,the temperatures of waste heat streams are generally too low to generate electricity using traditional steam turbine technology.Alternative technologies include organic Rankine cycles,which use organic fluid to recover low-temperature waste heat,and the Kalin
289、a cycle,which takes advantage of the different boiling points of ammonia and water in a working fluid that mixes the two substances.WHYConversion of waste heat into power increases energy efficiency by capturing energy that would otherwise be lost.Although technologies converting low-temperature hea
290、t into power themselves are inefficient compared with conventional steam turbines,they also reduce costs because the waste heat is free,and they produce no additional CO2 emissions.In addition,the electricity generated can be used on site or traded in the electricity market,providing additional flex
291、ibility to the grid especially during peak hours.Even though industries have their heat integration site plans to use as much energy as possible and reduce waste heat streams,the potential to expand waste-to-power technologies is still large.WHATSeventy percent of the final energy consumed by Europe
292、an industry in 2015 came from burning fuels,primarily to supply heat(Madeddu et al.,2020).One alternative is to use electricity directly by switching to electric furnaces,electric boilers or other electrolytic processes.Promising solutions are already being developed for the three most difficult-to-
293、decarbonise sectors:chemicals,cement and steel.For the chemical industry,electric crackers(e-crackers)are in the pilot phase.For the cement industry,kilns heated by plasma generators are in the proof-of-concept stage.Meanwhile,the steel industry is piloting electrolytic reduction processes.Finally,a
294、s discussed later in this report,these industries could also be electrified indirectly using renewably produced fuels.See Box 5.1 for an overview of power-to-heat technologies,temperature ranges and sectors they can cover.4Waste heat-to-power technologiesCONVERSIONTECHNOLOGIESInnovationreadinessleve
295、lRelevant toImpact onelectrificationof end useImpact onsmartelectrificationRelevant to5High-temperature electricity-based applications for industryCONVERSIONTECHNOLOGIESInnovationreadinesslevelRelevant toImpact onelectrificationof end useImpact onsmartelectrification546INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART
296、 ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLINGWHYReplacing fossil fuels with electricity in industry significantly reduces CO2 emissions when this electricity is produced from renewables.The benefits would be substantial,since industry now consumes about 38%of the total energy used worldwide.While full e
297、lectrification is challenging,the adoption of mature and ready-to-use solutions(such as low-temperature heat pumps)can significantly increase industrys electrification rate outside of the difficult-to-decarbonise sectors.1BOX 6.3|E-cracking furnace experimental unitShell and Dow have installed an el
298、ectricity-powered experimental heat steam cracker furnace unit at the Energy Transition Campus in Amsterdam(the Netherlands).This is a key milestone in the effort to decarbonise one of the most carbon-intensive processes of petrochemical manufacturing.The solution could be scaled up by 2025 if tests
299、 in 2023 show that it can successfully replace todays gas-fired steam cracker furnaces.Source:(Shell,2022).BOX 6.4|Electrification project of the steel industry in Chenzhou,ChinaAs part of efforts to electrify the Chinese steel industry,a Chenzhou-based casting company is planning to add two additio
300、nal electricity-based production lines to add capacity.The company plans to adopt the electricity-based production lines instead of the traditional gas-based production line to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.The project plans to build six energy-saving medium-frequency furnaces and eight resistance
301、 furnaces with a total power of 31.2MW.The annual steel output will increase from 30 000 to 50 000tonnes,with the annual steel output value increasing to about USD43million(CNY300million).The annual profit is expected to be approximately USD10million(CNY70million),with 60GWh of newly increased elect
302、ricity consumption.Also,390 000tonnes of carbon dioxide and 1 110tonnes of nitrogen oxide emissions are supposed to be reduced annually.Source:(CEPRI,2022).56CHAPTER 6:INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLINGThermal storageTES makes it possible to decouple heating or coo
303、ling demand from power generation.Such decoupling offers many important benefits,including greater efficiency,flexibility,security and reliability in energy supply,while also reducing costs and greenhouse gas emissions.As described in this section,thermal energy can be stored at low or high temperat
304、ures,11 or at short or long time scales using the alternatives shown in Figure6.5(IRENA,2020b).SensibleLatentThermochemicalMechanical-thermalOperating temperatureHigh(500 C)Medium(100-500 C)Low(0-100 C)Subzero(0 C)HoursDaysMonthsChemical loopingHigh temp.CPCMsMoltensaltsLiquid airSalt hydrationAbsor
305、ptionsystemsLowtemp.PCMsUTESSolid-stateSubzerotemp.PCMsIceWTTESFIGURE 6.5|Operating temperature ranges and time scales for TES technologiesSource:(IRENA 2020b).Notes:CPCM=composite phase-change material;PCM=phase-change material;TES=thermal energy storage;UTES=underground thermal energy storage;WTTE
306、S=water tank thermal energy storage.11 Sub-zero storage is not considered.6INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING122WHATLow-temperature TES accumulates heat(or cooling)over hours,days,weeks or months and then releases the stored heat or cooling when required in a tem
307、perature range of 0-100C.Storage is of three fundamental types(also shown in Table 6.3):Sensible storage of heat and cooling uses a liquid or solid storage medium witht high heat capacity,for example,water or rock.Latent storage uses the phase change of a material to absorb or release energy.Thermoc
308、hemical storage stores energy as either the heat of a reversible chemical reaction or a sorption process.TABLE 6.3|Low-temperature technological alternatives for TESStorage typeSegmentEfficiency(%)RangeStorage periodCost(EUR/kWh)Technology TRLSensible50-900C to 100CHours to months0.1-30 Water tank T
309、ES Underground TES Solid-state thermal storage(e.g.ceramic bricks,rocks,concrete,packed beds)Medium-highLatent 75-90100CHours50-200 Ice thermal storage Sub-zero temperature Phase-change materials(PCMs),low-temperature PCMsMedium-highThermochemical 50-650C to 100C Hours to month15-130 Sorption,salt h
310、ydration,absorption and adsorption systemsMediumBased on:(IRENA 2020b).Notes:EUR/kWh=euros per kilowatt hour;TES=thermal energy storage;TRL=technology readiness level.6Low-temperature thermal energy storageTHERMAL ENERGYSTORAGEInnovationreadinesslevelRelevant toImpact onelectrificationof end useImpa
311、ct onsmartelectrification66123CHAPTER 6:INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLINGWHYBy decoupling heating and cooling demands from electricity consumption,thermal storage systems allow the integration of greater shares of variable renewable generation,such as solar and wi
312、nd power.They can also reduce the peak electricity demand and the need for costly grid reinforcements,and even help in balancing seasonal demand.Thermal storage can add increasing benefits to the grid the longer the heat can be stored.The economics are difficult,however,due to the limited number of
313、cycles and the decline in the prices of competing battery storage(Box6.5).TES systems,therefore,must be low cost.BOX 6.5|Seasonal aquifer storage of Stockholms airportStockholms Arlanda Airport has the worlds largest aquifer storage unit.It contains 200million m3 of groundwater and can store 9 GWh o
314、f energy.One section holds cold water(at 3-6C),while another has water heated to 15-25C.The system works like a giant seasonal thermos:during summer,cold water is pumped to provide cooling for the airports district heating and cooling system.The water is returned to the aquifer at a temperature of 2
315、0C.Warm water is then used in winter to preheat the ventilation air in the buildings and melt snow on aircraft parking areas.BOX 6.6|Economics of thermal storageThe economics of thermal storage depends on multiple factors,including energy prices,the energy demand served by the storage,the specific s
316、torage technologies and storage size(with costs decreasing as storage volumes increase).Figure6.6 shows the levelised cost of heat(LCoH)for different seasonal storage technologies.Some of the technologies have a wide range of LCoHs,showing the high dependence of costs on specific project conditions.
317、However,the average cost of small-scale hot water thermal storage is approximately USD100/kWh(Lund etal.,2016),which is still considerably lower than the average cost of battery storage,despite the rapid decline in battery costs from almost USD3 000/kWh in 2014 to USD850/kWh in 2021(IRENA,2022d).400
318、0500300350ATESBTESPTESTTESEUR/kWhSource:(Yang et al.,2021).Notes:ATES=aquifer thermal energy storage;BTES=borehole thermal energy storage;EUR/kWh=euros per kilowatt hour;PTES=pit thermal energy storage;TTES=tank thermal energy storage.FIGURE 6.6|Levelised cost of heat for seasonal thermal
319、 storage technologies66INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLINGWHATIn high-temperature TES,energy is stored at temperatures ranging from 100C to above 500C.High-temperature technologies can be used for short-or long-term storage,similar to low-temperature technologies,
320、and they can also be categorised as sensible,latent and thermochemical storage of heat and cooling(Table 6.4).7Medium-and high-temperature thermal energy storageTHERMAL ENERGYSTORAGEInnovationreadinesslevelRelevant toImpact onelectrificationof end useImpact onsmartelectrificationTABLE 6.4|High-tempe
321、rature TES technologiesStorage typeSegmentEfficiency(%)RangeStorage periodCost(EUR/kWh)Technology TRLSensible50-90150C to 1 000CHours to months0.1-25 Solid-state thermal storage(e.g.ceramic bricks,rocks,concrete,packed beds)Medium-highLatent 75-9050C to 850CHours to days60-120 High-temperature PCMsM
322、ediumThermochemical 75-100500C to 900C Hours to seasonal80-160 Chemical looping(calcium looping),salt hydration,absorption and adsorption systemsLow-mediumNotes:EUR/kWh=euros per kilowatt hour;PCM=phase-change material;TES=thermal energy storage;TRL=technology readiness level.76CHAPTER 6:INNOVATION
323、LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATION OF HEATING AND COOLINGWHYHigh-temperature storage offers similar benefits to low-temperature storage(e.g.providing flexibility and lowering costs).However,high-temperature storage is especially useful for smart electrification of heating and cooling in industry,gi
324、ven that many industrial processes either require high temperatures or produce high-temperature heat.Meanwhile,in many cases,industry has relatively steady heat demand over the day;storage would thus play only a small role in meeting demand peaks.Instead,energy could be stored when its prices are lo
325、w and then discharged when prices are high;this will enable industry players to leverage fluctuating prices and provide valuable demand-response services to the energy system.BOX 6.7|Worlds first Carnot battery stores electricity in heat:Third-life storage plantThe Carnot battery is a promising new
326、concept in electricity storage.It uses heat pumps to convert wind-and solar-generated electricity into heat,which is stored in salts and converted back into electricity using a steam engine generator.Storage temperatures in molten salt can range from 200C to more than 500C(Vecchi etal.,2022).The wor
327、lds first Carnot battery prototype is being built in Stuttgart at the Institute of Engineering Thermodynamics within the German Aerospace Centre(DLR)together with the European CHESTER consortium(Compressed Heat Energy Storage for Energy from Renewable Sources).The battery is based on the CHEST(compr
328、essed heat energy storage)process and uses a patented double-ribbed tube heat exchanger to move heat between the heat pump and the heat engine.It can achieve high round-trip efficiencies of over 50%with low energy losses as it converts electricity into heat and back into electricity(Smallbone etal.,
329、2017).A Carnot battery with a capacity of 1 000MWh could provide a stable energy supply to a city the size of Stuttgart,while facilitating the coupling of heat and electricity.Further,since Carnot batteries use simple,affordable materials(water and salt),they are more environmentally friendly than c
330、onventional batteries.However,achieving high efficiencies requires the maturation of high-temperature heat pump technologies.(German Energy Solutions Initiative,2020).7Eakrin Rasadonyindee S6INNOVATION LANDSCAPE FOR SMART ELECTRIFICATIONPOWER TO HEAT AND COOLING126District heating and cooling system
331、sWHATDHC systems date back to the late 19th century but have undergone considerable changes and improvements since then.Many of the newest DHC systems are known as“fourth-generation”systems.They work at lower temperatures than the earlier generation systems,making them more efficient and lowering th
332、e related supply costs,because they can use lower-quality(lower-temperature)heat sources.For a district heating system to be classified as a fourth-generation(4GDH)system,it must use smart integration to maximise the overall efficiency as well as the use of locally available renewable energy sources
333、.A key feature of 4GDH systems is that they supply heat or cooling at temperatures as close as possible to the actual temperatures required by end users a maximum of 60-70C.Such relatively low supply temperatures(for heating)reduce losses in the district heating system and facilitate greater integration of waste heat sources(e.g.excess heat from data centres)than is possible using third-generation