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1、Trade and Development in the State of Palestine Through a Gender Lens Trade and Development in the State of Palestine Through a Gender Lens Geneva,2022UNCTAD/DITC/2022/2 2023,United NationsThis work is available through open access,by complying with the Creative Commons licence created for intergove
2、rnmental organizations,at http:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/.The findings,interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author(s)and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States.The designations employed and the presenta
3、tion of material on any map in thiswork do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Photocopies and reprod
4、uctions of excerpts are allowed with proper credits.This publication has been edited externally.United Nations publication issued by the United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmenteISBN:978-92-1-002458-7iiiACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis report was prepared by an UNCTAD team including Nu
5、rsel Aydiner-Avsar(lead author)and Simonetta Zarrilli.The team gratefully acknowledges comments and suggestions provided by staff at the Ministry of National Economy of Palestine and by Professor Talib Awad.Ahmad Uwaidat and his team were responsible for field interviews with relevant stakeholders i
6、n the West Bank and Gaza Strip.The study greatly benefitted from the findings of the interviews.Khairedine Ramoul provided substantive support throughout the drafting process by facilitating contacts,feedback,and exchange of views and information with the Palestinian Ministry of National Economy.The
7、 report was coordinated and supervised by Simonetta Zarrilli,Chief of the Trade,Gender and Development Programme at UNCTAD.David Einhorn was in charge of English editing.The report is one of the outputs of the project entitled Trade Policies and Frameworks to Foster Regional Integration and the Achi
8、evement of the Sustainable Development Goals in Selected Conflict and Post-conflict Arab Countries(Iraq and the State of Palestine),financed by the 13th Tranche of the United Nations Development Account.ivTRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSTABLE OF CONTENTSACKNOWLED
9、GEMENTS.iiiLIST OF FIGURES.vLIST OF TABLES.v1.INTRODUCTION.12.SOCIOECONOMIC PROFILE .32.1.Poverty,inequality,and quality of life.32.2.Education.42.3.Structure of the economy.53.TRADE AND TRADE POLICIES .73.1.Trade policies and practices.73.2.Trade profile .74.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMY .94.
10、1.Gender-related policies and institutions.94.2.Womens agency and participation in decision-making processes.104.3.Women in the economy and employment.114.3.1.Womens status in the labour market.114.3.2.Employment in agriculture.154.3.3.Employment in industry.194.3.4.Employment in services.244.3.5.En
11、trepreneurship.284.4.The gendered impact of the COVID-19 pandemic .305.CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS.32REFERENCES.40vTABLE OF CONTENTSLIST OF FIGURESFigure 1.Poverty rate according to monthly consumption patterns by region,2009 and 2017.3Figure 2.Composition of the population by sex and edu
12、cational attainment,2020.4Figure 3.Occupied Palestinian Territory:Composition of higher education graduates and students by field of specialization,20192020.5Figure 4.Percentage contribution to GDP by economic activity and region,2020.6Figure 5.Employment distribution by sex and economic activity,20
13、21.13Figure 6.Employment distribution by sex and employment status,2021.13Figure 7.Employment distribution by sex and occupation,2021.14Figure 8.Occupied Palestinian Territory:Composition of agricultural labour by sex and work status,2019.15LIST OF TABLESTable 1.Occupied Palestinian Territory:Key tr
14、ade indicators,2020.8Table 2.Occupied Palestinian Territory:Top 10 export products,2019.8Table 3.Womens participation in professional and decision-making positions,2020.11Table 4.Key labour market indicators,2015 and 2021.12Table 5.Occupied Palestinian Territory:Average daily wage by sex and economi
15、c activity,2021.14Table 6.Share of subsectors in total industrial employment by region and sex,2019.20Table 7.Policy recommendations and implementation framework.3511.INTRODUCTION1.INTRODUCTIONThe Occupied Palestinian Territory(OPT)(i.e.the West Bank and Gaza Strip territories)has significantly diff
16、erent political and economic characteristics than other Arab countries because it has experienced the longest occupation in modern history.Direct and indirect control of the economy,land,resources(particularly water),borders,urban planning,movement of persons,and commodities by an occupying power ha
17、s implied a different set of social relations and networks in the OPT(Marrar,2009).Occupation leads to restrictions on movement and inequitable access to land and resources.Hence,it adversely influences growth and labour market trends(ILO,2018).The Paris Protocol of 1994 ingrained the Palestinian ec
18、onomys dependence on Israel via a customs union that leaves no room for independent Palestinian economic policies.1 The customs union ties the OPT to Israel through the latters trade policies,tariff structures,and value-added tax rate.Trade tax revenues are administered by Israel,allowing it to cont
19、rol two-thirds of Palestinian tax revenue,estimated at hundreds of millions of dollars per year.Moreover,there has been a sharp decline in donor budget support over the last decade.2 These factors,combined with unpredictability and fluctuations,have become a major source of fiscal uncertainty in the
20、 OPT(UNCTAD,2020).In addition to the leakage of fiscal revenue,the international competitiveness of Palestinian producers is held back by the destruction of the productive base due to conflicts,geographic and economic fragmentation,technological regression,restrictions on imported inputs and technol
21、ogy,loss of land and natural resources,expansion of Israeli settlements,the OPT being a source of cheap labour for Israel,and the near collapse of the economy of the Gaza Strip(UNCTAD,2020).The COVID-19 pandemic only exacerbated already existing challenges,which also have gendered dimensions,as disc
22、ussed later in this study.1 The Paris Protocol refers to the Protocol on Economic Relations between the Government of the State of Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization,representing the Palestinian people,which was signed on 24 April 1994.It was followed by the Interim Agreement on the We
23、st Bank and the Gaza Strip,commonly known as the Oslo II agreement,which was signed on 28 September 1995 and was abandoned by the 2002 Roadmap for Peace.2 That support fell from 32per cent of GDP in 2009 to 3.5per cent in 2019.3 Palestinians who work in Israel and the Israeli settlements are almost
24、all men;63.9per cent of them work in construction,12.8per cent in industry,and 11.2per cent in commerce,hotels and restaurants(PCBS,2022).Women in the OPT have high levels of education,but unlike in other developing countries this does not translate into womens increased labour force participation i
25、n the OPT.The highly gender-segmented labour markets leave women with opportunities in only a few sectors in non-growth areas of the economy,since the labour market is not able to absorb many new entrants.The decline of agriculture due to the loss of land and water has also adversely affected womens
26、 employment.Moreover,the decline of agriculture has not been accompanied by a corresponding rise in manufacturing,which tends to be female-intensive,especially in low-skilled segments,unlike in other developing countries.As a result,economic activity and employment are concentrated in the less-dynam
27、ic and low-productive services sector(UNCTAD,2020).Additionally,women face limited access to resources and economic opportunities and experience gender-based violence,factors that constrain their employment.Employment opportunities in Israel and its settlements,as well as in other Arab countries,are
28、 also mostly available to Palestinian men,as such employment is concentrated in the construction sector and because commutes are difficult(UNCTAD,2020).3 Although such employment improves the living conditions of Palestinians,it perpetuates low female labour force participation by strengthening the
29、male breadwinner model.Especially since the start of the 2000s,the Palestinian economy has changed from a private-sector-driven structure to one sustained by government spending and donor aid.In addition,massive joblessness among men has further worsened the job prospects for women and created disin
30、centives to join the labour market(Marrar,2009).Compared to their situation in economic life,womens participation in political life has improved over time,and the OPT government has worked during the past 20 years toward getting the State to conform to international standards concerning gender equal
31、ity and womens empowerment,as presented in this study.2TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSWomen and men play different roles in society and in the economy,and they enjoy different opportunities.Moreover,women are not a homogenous group and,therefore,they are differe
32、ntly impacted by economic policies,including trade policies,depending on their income,position in the labour market,education level,etc.The political and economic context further shapes how trade and development policies interact with gender equality and womens economic empowerment.The occupation ma
33、kes the OPT unique and requires a case-by-case gender analysis,which also reflects the approach of this study.This study looks at the socioeconomic structure of the OPT through a gender lens and investigates the interaction between trade and gender.It distinguishes between womens different economic
34、roles as workers and entrepreneurs/business owners,and between different economic sectors such as agriculture,4 The qualitative techniques used primarily included case studies,focus group discussions,and semi-structured interviews.In total,there were five focus groups comprised of women business own
35、ers/producers,workers and representatives of stakeholders relevant to each value chain in various locations in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip,10 interviews with governmental and nongovernmental organizations relevant to trade and gender issues in the OPT,and five featured cases in the three sector
36、s.The full details and findings of the field study are available in Uwaidat(2022).industry,and services.Specifically,the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD)carried out a qualitative analysis of womens participation in the economy and in trade in selected subsectors of the OPT
37、during April-May 2022.4 The olive oil sector was selected from agriculture due to its major role in Palestinian society and womens significant participation in this sector.The food products sector was selected from industry because it is traditionally a major sector in which women are highly involve
38、d.Finally,the information and communications technology(ICT)sector was selected from services due to its significant potential for future growth prospects and womens employment in the OPT.The study proposes several policy recommendations to increase Palestinian womens participation in the economy an
39、d to advance work on trade that strengthens womens economic empowerment and gender equality in the society.32.SOCIOECONOMIC PROFILE2.SOCIOECONOMIC PROFILE This section examines the situation in the OPT with respect to poverty and inequality,education and health,and the structure of the economy.The p
40、opulation of OPT was estimated at 5.23million in 2021,with 3.12million in the West Bank and 2.11million in the Gaza Strip.OPT has a young population,with those under 18 years old constituting 44.1per cent of the total in 2021.Female-headed households account for 11per cent of total households(PCBS,2
41、021a).Both the total fertility rate(4 births per woman in 20172019)and average household size(five persons per household in 2019)have declined over time(PCBS,2021c).In 2019,the OPT ranked 115th out of 189 countries and territories on the Human Development Index(HDI),which marked an 8.8per cent impro
42、vement in its HDI score between 2004 and 2019 and positioning it in the high human development category.However,in terms of its score on the Gender Development Index(GDI),5 the OPT is in the group of countries with low equality in HDI achievements(i.e.knowledge,health and living standards)between wo
43、men and men(UNDP,2020).5 GDI measures gender gaps in achievements in three basic dimensions of human development.The group of countries on the index with low equality is Group 5.2.1.POVERTY,INEQUALITY,AND QUALITY OF LIFEPoverty remains a serious economic and social issue in the OPT,where 29.2per cen
44、t of the population lives below the poverty line(figure 1).Poverty has worsened in the Gaza Strip,with a poverty rate of 53per cent in 2017 reflecting the influence of closures,and has slightly improved in the West Bank(13.9 per cent)over time.The multi-dimensional poverty rate,which includes econom
45、ic dimensions(i.e.income)and social dimensions(i.e.,education,health,employment,housing,assets,and personal freedom),is also much higher in the Gaza Strip(45per cent)than in the West Bank(11per cent).Among these different dimensions,monetary poverty is the largest,followed by employment deprivation,
46、education,and housing conditions.Assets,personal freedom,and health have relatively low shares of multi-dimensional deprivation(PCBS,2020a).The poverty rate according to monthly consumption patterns is slightly higher among women than men in both the West Bank(14.4 vs.13.3per cent)and the Gaza Strip
47、(53.8 vs.52.3)(PCBS,2021a).Figure 1.Poverty rate according to monthly consumption patterns by region,2009 and 2017(per cent)Source:Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics.Note:Deep poverty is defined based on household spending on food,clothing,and housing.The poverty line also includes other neces
48、sities such as healthcare,education,transportation,personal care,and housekeeping supplies(PCBS,2020a).19.49.113.95.838.321.953.033.826.213.729.216.800PovertyDeep PovertyPovertyDeep Poverty20092017West BankGaza StripState of Palestine4TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUG
49、H A GENDER LENSThe overall poverty rate was projected to have reached 31.9per cent in 2020 due to both a lack of economic growth and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.While the welfare loss due to the pandemic fell more on wealthier households,poverty is more widespread among households with more
50、members,limited economic activity,lower education levels,and in rural and refugee camp settings(ILO,2021).There are several policies to tackle poverty in the OPT,with social protection a priority policy area under the National Policy Agenda(20172022)and the Social Development Sector Strategy(SDSS).S
51、ocial assistance has high coverage but is inadequate to reduce poverty.Its fragmentation between government programmes and international humanitarian efforts limits its effectiveness.The use of active labour market policies that complement cash assistance is also limited.The lack of a contributory s
52、ocial insurance scheme for the private sector keeps demand for social assistance among working individuals high.Finally,almost all government programmes are financed through highly volatile tax revenues,and in the presence of fewer international donors(ILO,2021).6 Based on gender summary statistics
53、from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics,available at https:/www.pcbs.gov.ps/statisticsIndicatorsTables.aspx?lang=en&table_id=1359(accessed on 1 March 2022).2.2.EDUCATIONThe gender gap in the adult literacy rate has closed over time in the OPT.The literacy rate among women increased from 88
54、per cent in 2004 to 96.2per cent in 2020close to the literacy rate of 98.8per cent among men(PCBS,2021a).Girls consistently have higher educational enrolment rates than boys in the OPT.The gender gap in favour of girls in enrolment rates is particularly notable in secondary education(91.8per cent fo
55、r girls and 72.5per cent for boys in 20192020).6 This gender difference mainly reflects the economic pressure for males to work and their high dropout rates due to finding employment at earlier ages.It is also an outcome of societal gender norms that confine women to fields related to their reproduc
56、tive roles(e.g.education and health),which lead girls to stay longer in education in order to be eligible for job positions in those fields(PCBS,2021d).Figure 2 shows the percentage distribution of the male and female adult population(age 15 and above)by educational attainment in 2020.A relatively h
57、igher share of women than men hold secondary degrees and bachelors degrees or above.0554045MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleState of PalestineWest BankGaza StripIlliterateCan read and writeElementaryPreparatorySecondaryAssociate diplomaBachelors and aboveFigure 2.Composition of the populatio
58、n by sex and educational attainment,2020(per cent)Source:Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics.52.SOCIOECONOMIC PROFILEThe field of study in higher education is not evenly distributed for men and women.Business,administration and law is the top field for graduates and students among both men and
59、women(figure 3).It is followed by education,and health and welfare for female graduates,and by engineering,manufacturing,and construction,and health and welfare for male graduates.2.3.STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMYThere has been a substantial deterioration in the economic structure in the OPT since the 19
60、90s,characterized by a clear diversion of investment towards nontradable sectors,mainly services and residential construction,at the expense of agriculture and manufacturing(ILO,2018).Two factors played a key role in the decline of agriculture in GDP over time.First,development and reconstruction pr
61、ogrammes implemented by the Palestinian National Authority(PNA)since its establishment in 1994 gave priority to 10.122.37.417.37.011.36.212.65.65.63.95.738.029.932.023.41.33.22.23.95.53.311.45.614.65.215.96.114.018.317.423.600708090100MaleFemaleMaleFemaleGraduatesStudentsOther specializat
62、ionsServicesHealth and welfareAgriculture,forestry,fsheries andveterinaryEngineering,manufacturing andconstructionInformation and communicationtechnologiesNatural sciences,mathematics andstatisticsBusiness,administration and lawSocial science and journalismArts and humanitiesEducationFigure 3.Occupi
63、ed Palestinian Territory:Composition of higher education graduates and students by field of specialization,20192020(per cent)Source:Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics.financial services,trade,and tourism.Second,Israels policies of expanded settlements and the confiscation of Palestinian natura
64、l resources led to a disabling environment for agricultural development(UNCTAD,2017).Israeli policies leading to physical barriers and controls also affected the manufacturing sector due to controls on imported capital goods and raw materials as well as restrictions on access to outside markets.In c
65、ontrast,services and construction,which are less affected by physical controls and movement restrictions,fared relatively well(ILO,2018).These trends resulted in a very high share of services in total economic activity,which is considered unhealthy due to the limited room for further expansion(ILO,2
66、018).In 2020,services constituted 61 per cent of GDP,followed by industry(12.5 per cent)and agriculture(7.1 per cent).The Gaza Strip has a substantially higher share of services and agriculture and a lower share of industry than the West Bank(figure 4).6TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTIN
67、E THROUGH A GENDER LENSIn terms of the subsectors that are significant within each broad sector,7 manufacturing dominates the industrial sector,with a much higher share in the West Bank(13per cent)than in the Gaza Strip(2.2per cent).The services sector is led by wholesale and retail trade(19.3 per c
68、ent),public administration and defence(9.8per cent),education(6.7per cent),finance and insurance(4.4per cent),health and social work(4.3per cent),and information and communications technology 7 These figures are based on data from the PCBS.They are not presented in figure 4 for the sake of brevity.(
69、ICT)(3.4per cent).Hence,low value-added services in the private sector such as wholesale and retail trade as well as public sector services dominate services in the OPT.In contrast,higher-value-added services such as finance and ICT have relatively low shares,though they have expanded over time.Due
70、to heightened conflict,the Gaza Strip has a significantly higher share of public administration and defence and lower shares of finance and ICT than the West Bank.Figure 4.Percentage contribution to GDP by economic activity and region,2020 15.316.98.160.658.470.44.54.54.312.514.25.07.16.012.20102030
71、405060708090100State of PalestineWest BankGaza StripAgricultureIndustryConstructionServicesCustoms duties andvalue-added tax onimports(net)Source:UNCTAD secretariat calculations based on data from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics.73.TRADE AND TRADE POLICIES3.TRADE AND TRADE POLICIES 3.1.
72、TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICESThe Israeli occupation has been controlling trade policy and trade relationships in the OPT since 1967.The Protocol on Economic Relations(the so called Paris Protocol)sets the framework for the Palestinian foreign trade regime.It was incorporated into the Israeli-Palestin
73、ian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip(the so-called Oslo II Accord)in 1995.Hence,the foreign trade regime of the OPT is inherently linked to the foreign trade regime of Israel and thus to its rights and obligations under the World Trade Organization(UNCTAD,2020).The Paris Protoco
74、l is based on the free internal flow of goods between Israel and the OPT except for six agricultural products,and externally it applies Israeli import policies,except for a limited list of strategic goods in which the PNA has some flexibility.Indirect imports to the OPT via Israel are treated as if
75、they were produced in Israel,and this skews trade relations between the OPT and Israel.Even though the protocol allows for the signing of free trade agreements with other parties by the PNA,Israel continues to be the OPTs main trading partner.8Besides governing the OPTs trade regime,the Israeli occu
76、pation has implications for the OPTs export capacity.Almost all Palestinian imports and exports go through Israeli ports and crossing points.It is estimated that delays and security measures can increase trade costs by an average of US$538 per shipment.9 The dual-use system bans the importation of t
77、echnology and critical inputs,and requires special approval for many items.10 These restrictions undermine the development of the Palestinian export sectors,8 International Trade Centers State of Palestine website.9 UNCTAD field study findings show that some Palestinian traders deal with Israeli imp
78、orters to bypass complex Israeli trade procedures,even though it is more costly.10 The dual system refers to goods,software,and technology that can be used for both civilian and military applications.11 World Bank,World Development Indicators database,available at https:/databank.worldbank.org/sourc
79、e/world-devel-opment-indicators (accessed on 10 February 2022).especially in the Gaza Strip,which has experienced prolonged closures and severe restrictions(UNCTAD,2020).It is estimated that Palestinian exports could be twice their current levels if the restrictions implemented by Israel were not in
80、 place,given the OPTs proximity to large regional markets(World Bank,2019).There are also issues with competitiveness due to fragmentation and restrictions on movement.For example,in the stone and marble industry,quarrying sites under the control of the PNA are largely exhausted,and reserves in Area
81、 C,which forms most of the West Bank and is under Israeli military control,are not accessible by Palestinian firms.Similarly,in the Gaza Strip,Israeli restrictions on access to the sea,fish exports,and importation of equipment all adversely affect the fishing sector.Shortage of skilled labour is als
82、o an issuefor example in the furniture sector,an important source of exports and employment,due to outmigration of skilled labour to Israel(UNCTAD,2020).3.2.TRADE PROFILE The trade policies and practices briefly summarized above have adversely affected the production of exports and importable goods
83、by the Palestinian economy,resulting in a very high trade deficit of 32.2per cent as a share of GDP in 2020(table 1).This is much higher than the regional average for the Middle East and North Africa(MENA)region(excluding high-income countries),which was 3.9 per cent of GDP in 2020.11 Exports mainly
84、 originate from the West Bank given the more severe degree of restrictions and conflict in the Gaza Strip.8TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSTable 1.Occupied Palestinian Territory:Key tradeindicators,2020Millions of United States dollarsShare of GDP(per cent)Total
85、exports in goods1,054.66.8Total imports in goods6,063.439.0Net trade balance in goods-5,008.8-32.2Total exports from West Banka1,040.56.7Total exports from Gaza Strip14.10.1Total imports from Israel3,342.721.5Total exports to Israel886.15.7Total exports of services to Israel205.11.3Total imports of
86、services from Israel1801.2Net trade balance in services25.10.2GDP15,531.7Source:UNCTAD secretariat calculations based on data from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics.a Data exclude those parts of Jerusalem that were annexed by Israel in 1967.The top export product groups in the OPT are non
87、-metallic mineral manufactures(18.4per cent of total exports),furniture(11.7 per cent),miscellaneous manufactured articles(7.6per cent),and vegetables and fruits(6.7 per cent).12 Table 2 lists the top 10 registered commodities at a detailed level of disaggregation(8-digit HS code)exported from the O
88、PT.Building stones,sacks and bags,and virgin olive oil are the top export products.1312 Average for 20162020 according to UNCTAD secretariat calculations based on data from the PCBS.13 UNCTAD field study findings show that exports of sacks are relatively high,since a significant volume of sacks are
89、export-ed to Israeli markets especially by large Palestinian producers(directly or through subcontracting arrangements).This is because this sector has low profit margins,making it not lucrative for Israeli producers.14 UNCTAD secretariat calculations based on data from the PCBS.Table 2.Occupied Pal
90、estinian Territory:Top 10 export products,2019Thousands of United States dollarsShare in total exportsBuilding stone143,84613.0Sacks and bags55,6265.0Virgin olive oil52,8274.8Upholstered seats38,2663.5Dates 37,5703.4Scrap of iron36,3553.3Marble and travertine30,0612.7Gravel29,6702.7Wooden furniture
91、for bedrooms25,9842.4Footwear leather25,6742.3Source:PCBS(2020b).Israel is the destination market for 84 per cent of Palestinian goods exports and the origin of 55 per cent of goods imports to the OPT.Primary and low-valued-added manufactured goods constitute the main Palestinian exports to Israel,w
92、hile final consumer goods and durables dominate imports from Israel(UNCTAD,2020).Asian Arab countries have a 10per cent share in Palestinian exports,while in terms of imports,other Asian countries(20 per cent)and European Union countries(11per cent)follow Israel.14 Total trade figures are presented
93、due to a lack of gender-disaggregated data on trade in the OPT(as is the case for most countries).Only a few national surveys assess womens access to resources in the context of women-owned enterprises.This forms the main motivation to carry out a field study on womens participation in the economy,a
94、nd specifically in trade,in the OPT.94.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMY4.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMY Women have exceptionally low participation rates in the wider economy and specifically in trade in the OPT.This could be attributed to a wide range of interrelated factors,including discri
95、minatory policy and legal frameworks,limited access to and control of resources(e.g.land,finance,other assets),limited access to business services and skill development programmes,predominance of poor working conditions(including low wages),and discriminatory social and cultural norms.Womens partici
96、pation in the economy and in trade is critical from both a developmental and a human rights perspective,so gender inequalities in economic and social life need to be addressed toward this end.4.1.GENDER-RELATED POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONSGender equality and womens empowerment are acknowledged as impor
97、tant goals in the OPTs National Policy Agenda for the 20172022 period.Specifically,the agenda recognizes the need to eliminate all forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls and to remove barriers that prevent the full participation of women in community and economic development an
98、d public life under the national priority of social justice and the rule of law.The need to institutionalize gender mainstreaming in policymaking,planning,and budgeting is stated in the context of policy measures to strengthen accountability and transparency(State of Palestine,2016).Similarly,the Na
99、tional Development Strategy for 20212023 recognizes gender equality and womens empowerment as one of the national policy targets(State of Palestine,2021a).However,there is a lack of formal mechanisms in the OPT for gender-sensitive assessment,follow-up,and monitoring of economic policies,as reported
100、 by governmental representatives interviewed during the UNCTAD field study.Economic and social empowerment programmes that target gender disparities are typically discussed in isolation,as opposed to a systematic approach.The Ministry of Womens Affairs was established in 2003 at the national level w
101、ith several functions to strengthen womens empowerment in the OPT.First,it oversees the development of frameworks and policies to support gender equality.Second,it is responsible for implementing the National Strategy to Combat Violence against Women,carrying out the Women,Peace,and Security agenda,
102、promoting womens economic empowerment and political participation,and mainstreaming gender in government institutions.Third,the ministry is the lead institution for implementing the Cross-Sectoral National Gender Strategy for the 20172022 period,which envisions a“Palestinian society in which men,wom
103、en,girls and boys enjoy equal rights and opportunities in both public and private spheres.”The strategy includes five strategic objectives,30 policies,and 300 policy interventions.However,the ministry lacks the human and financial resources necessary for effective implementation and coordination of
104、policies and strategies,including those related to the 2030 Agenda(UNESCWA,2021).In 2005,35 womens units(changed to“gender units”in 2008)were established in all ministries to mainstream gender in different sectors and areas through ministerial policies,plans,and programmes.However,these units have n
105、ot functioned as effectively as they could,and mostly became separate entities and not cross-cutting units within ministries.In the case of agriculture,a gender focal point was appointed in 2016 to review all strategies,policies,studies,and projects from a gender perspective(FAO,2021).There is also
106、a lack of effort at the senior level,dominated by men,to create a gender-sensitive culture within these entities.Instead,the focus tends to be on technical and administrative aspects of gender mainstreaming in policymaking,as observed during the UNCTAD field study.Other ministries also assist in wom
107、ens empowerment.For example,the Ministry of Social Development provides psychological,social,and legal counselling,protection,vocational rehabilitation,and training for women survivors of gender-based violence.It also supports the socioeconomic integration of marginalized women and girls(e.g.those w
108、ith disabilities,and those living in refugee camps or communities where Israeli restrictions are most visible such as East Jerusalem)(UNESCWA,2021).The Palestinian Labour and Workers Law falls short of adequately supporting womens participation in the labour market.It excludes many groups such as se
109、asonal workers,self-employed individuals,and unpaid family workers(PCBS,2021d).In terms of international frameworks on gender equality,the OPT signed the Convention on the Elimination of 10TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSAll Forms of Discrimination against Women(
110、CEDAW)without reservations in 2014,and endorsed United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 as well as other international conventions related to gender issues,such as those on human rights.The CEDAW Committee recommended harmonising legislation in line with CEDAW and repealing discriminatory la
111、ws that allow for the continued violation of womens rights in areas such as marriage,divorce,child custody,and inheritance.Progress areas include the establishment of the National Referral System for women victims of violence,a planned national observatory to monitor violence cases against women,and
112、 a planned study on the economic impact of marital violence(UNESCWA,2021).The OPT embraced the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and has committed to realizing the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)in line with its national development priorities.It submitted its first Voluntar
113、y National Review on implementation of the 2030 Agenda to the United Nations High-Level Political Forum in 2018,and released a summary report in 2021 on the progress made across all SDGs since 2015,and also in the context of the policy measures to fight the COVID-19 pandemic(State of Palestine,2021b
114、).Overall,progress has been made in terms of legal protections for gender equality and in education and health outcomes.Early marriages have been reduced over time and are expected to decline further as a result of the Presidential Decree that went into effect in early 2020 prohibiting males and fem
115、ales from getting married before they reach the age of 18 (PCBS,2021a).However,gender-based violence continues to be a critical issue.15 This information is from https:/www.pcbs.gov.ps/statisticsIndicatorsTables.aspx?lang=en&table_id=1359(accessed on 1 May 2022).This ratio was as high as 22.7per cen
116、t in 2009 according to PCBS gender summary statistics,available at https:/www.pcbs.gov.ps/statisticsIndicatorsTables.aspx?lang=en&table_id=1317(accessed on 1 May 2022).16 PCBS gender summary statistics,available at https:/www.pcbs.gov.ps/statisticsIndicatorsTables.aspx?lang=en&table_id=1317(accessed
117、 on 1 May 2022).4.2.WOMENS AGENCY AND PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING PROCESSESPalestinian women have been more active in daily politics compared to other countries given the countrys conflict situation.However,they still lag men in terms of active participation in decision-making positions.Among t
118、he cabinet members in the 18th government,only 3 of 24 ministers(12.5 per cent)were women.15 Similarly,only one of 16 governors is a woman.The share of women in management and senior positions is 13.7per cent in 2022,only a slight increase from 12.3per cent in 2011.16 Women hold relatively higher sh
119、ares as members of councils and high-ranking professions(e.g.medical practitioners,lawyers)compared to their shares in leadership roles.The situation for women in this regard is consistently worse in the Gaza Strip than in the West Bank(table 3).The OPT has introduced its second National Action Plan
120、 on Women,Peace and Security for the implementation of the United Nations Security Council Resolution(UNSCR)1325,which was adopted on 31 October 2000.The National Committee for the Implementation of UNSCR 1325 was established in 2012,and the National Strategic Framework was introduced in 2016 as an
121、actionable framework.These initiatives aim to advance womens participation in international peace processes and local peacebuilding as well as at all decision-making levels(State of Palestine,2020).However,women are largely excluded from formal dialogue efforts to end conflict,and their voices have
122、not been heard or included in the various reconciliation talks held and agreements reached since 2005(UN Women,2019a).114.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMYTable 3.Womens participation in professional and decision-making positions(per cent),2020Female share of total State of PalestineWest BankGaza
123、StripMembers of National Council10.9Members of Central Council5.7Members of Local Councils2020.412.6Heads of Local Councils1.81.60Heads of Student Councils at universities4.3Members of Student Councils at universities31.8Directors or heads of companies listed on the Palestinian Capital Market Author
124、ity2.2Members of boards of companies registered in the Palestinian Capital Market Authority8.1Ambassadors10.8Persons working in missions abroad,including diplomats and administrators30.6Lawyers practicing the profession27.130.116.9Judges19.220.312.1Public prosecution staff20.421.117.6Medical practit
125、ioners18.921.817.9Engineers registered in the Engineering Association24.627.118.7Members of the Chambers of Commerce of Industry and Agriculture4.352.3Board of Directors of the Chambers of Commerce,Industry and Agriculture11.30Individuals who have accounts in the Palestinian Capital Market Authority
126、4344.137.2Sources:Gender statistics from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics and PCBS(2021a).Note:Regional statistics are not relevant and hence not available for nationwide figures.4.3.WOMEN IN THE ECONOMY AND EMPLOYMENTThis section first presents key labour market indicators for men and w
127、omen in the OPT and then presents UNCTAD field study findings based on the case studies,focus group discussions,and individual interviews with the stakeholders,institutions,and professionals involved in each of the target sectors selected from agriculture,industry,and services.The section examines h
128、ow women participate and what challenges they face in each target sector in order to derive policy recommendations accordingly.4.3.1.WOMENS STATUS IN THE LABOUR MARKETWomen in the OPT had a very low labour force participation rate in 2021(17.2per cent)compared to men(68.9per cent)(table 4).Housekeep
129、ing is the main reason for not participating in the labour force for most women,reflecting the traditional gender division of labour in the household,while study/training is the second reason for not joining the labour market(PCBS,2022).Among youth,not being in employment,education,or training is wi
130、despread among both men and women(PCBS,2022),hence there is a need for further efforts to encourage active participation of youth in the economy and society.12TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSTable 4.Key labour market indicators,2015 and 2021(per cent)State of Pal
131、estineWest BankGaza StripMaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleLabour force participation rate202168.917.273.617.261.217.3201569.617.772.518.770.320.0Unemployment rate202122.442.912.428.941.965.0201520.234.314.525.130.751.1Source:PCBS(2022).There are large discrepancies in labour force participation by educ
132、ation level for women.17 Indeed,women with 13 or more years of schooling constitute 82.4per cent of all women in the labour force(PCBS,2022).This is mainly attributed to the fact that most working women join the health and education sectors,which require a bachelors degree.In contrast,women with low
133、 education levels have employment opportunities under precarious conditions mainly in low-wage and low-value-added sectors.Hence,developing policies to support womens participation in the labour marketespecially women with lower levels of educationis a prerequisite for any initiative to support wome
134、ns economic empowerment in the OPT.For example,generating decent job opportunities,especially for low-educated women,would create an incentive for them to join the labour force.Among those who participate in the labour market,the unemployment rate is much higher for women than for men,and it has inc
135、reased over the last six years mainly as a reflection of the heightening conflict in the Gaza Strip over this period.Employment is concentrated in the West Bank(60.8per cent of total).18 In 2021,public sector employment constituted 15per cent of total employment in the West Bank and 35.1per cent in
136、the Gaza Strip.Women held a larger share of public sector employment in their total employment than men in 2020(33.6per cent and 18.6per cent,respectively),though fewer women held managerial positions(PCBS,17 In 2021,only 6.4per cent of women with 1-6 years of schooling,4.2per cent of those with 7-9
137、 years,and 4.6per cent of those with 10-12 years of schooling participated in the labour force.In contrast,40.9per cent of women with 13 or more years of schooling participated in the labour force in the same year(PCBS,2022).18 In contrast,25.1per cent of employed individuals were in the Gaza Strip
138、and 14.1per cent in Israel and Israeli settlements(PCBS,2022).Womens employment is concentrated in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh governorates in the West Bank,as government institutions and several large establishments are more present there;womens employment is concentrated in Gaza City in the Gaza Str
139、ip(PCBS,2021d).19 Indeed,in the non-agricultural sector,women hold only 17per cent of paid jobs in the West Bank and 16.2per cent in the Gaza Strip according to figures for 2021(PCBS,2022).2021a).Educated women are increasingly confined to public sector employment,which has limited growth prospects.
140、Moreover,women are forced to help in informal economic activities as unpaid family workers to compensate for the decline in household incomes(ILO,2018).19 Employed women are mostly concentrated in services and other branches(more pronouncedly in the Gaza Strip),while men show a more equal distributi
141、on of employment across different sectors of the economy(figure 5).Womens concentration in a narrow range of economic sectors reflects horizontal gender segregation in the labour market.There are several barriers to breaking this horizontal segregation in the OPT,including economic factors(e.g.lack
142、of access to credit,and import competition from Israeli and Chinese products,for example in handicrafts or foodstuffs),political factors(e.g.restrictions on movement and access),and cultural factors(e.g.patriarchy and the resulting weak demand for womens labour)(ILO,2018).There are also institutiona
143、l factors.For example,higher education choices are limited and therefore channel women into a narrow range of jobs.Labour laws do not cover domestic,seasonal,part-time,or other workers in jobs where women hold high shares of employment.Additionally,policymakers focus on boosting womens participation
144、 in traditional sectors wile devoting very little effort to creating cross-sectoral integration or upgrading female employment(ILO,2018).134.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMYWage employment is the dominant form of employment status for both men and women in the OPT.Unpaid family work is more commo
145、n among women,while relatively more men are self-employees and employers(figure 6).Two-thirds of wage employees worked without a written contract in 2021;hence,informal employment is widespread,and is more severe in the Gaza Strip(PCBS,2022).Informal employment is also more prevalent among men(PCBS,
146、2021d).Many women work as unpaid workers in household/family businesses or projects such as cheese and dairy production at home,pastries,and sewing and embroidery(PCBS,2021d).Figure 5.Employment distribution by sex and economic activity,2021(per cent)6.57.76.49.76.91.113.56.615.87.36.64.5220.4280.54
147、.423.910.424.112.423.33.86.51.85.3210127.673.320.468.148.889.600708090100MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleState of PalestineWest BankGaza StripaServices and other branchesTransportation,storage andcommunicationCommerce,hotels and restaurantsConstructionMining,quarrying and manufacturingAgric
148、ulture,hunting and fshingSource:PCBS(2022).a Data for Gaza Strip are for 2020.Figure 6.Employment distribution by sex and employment status,2021(per cent)6.92.18.12.53.30.818.511.619.511.615.311.771.277.668.474.979.586.63.48.74111.90.900708090100MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleState of Pale
149、stineWest BankGaza StripEmployerSelf-employedWage employeeUnpaid family memberSource:PCBS(2022).14TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSIn terms of occupational categories,women are concentrated mostly among professionals,technicians,associates,and clerks(66per cent),l
150、ikely reflecting the role of women in public employment and in services that involve women in reproductive and caring roles.Men have a more balanced distribution across occupation categories(figure 7).In terms of wages,women earn 75per cent of what men earn on average in the total economy.The raw ge
151、nder gap is largest in the industrial sector,and is smaller in the West Bank than in the entire territory(table 5).Overall,28.7per cent of wage employees earned less than the monthly minimum wage(NIS 1,450 approximately US$450)in the private sector in 2021.Earning less than the minimum wage was slig
152、htly more prevalent among women than among men(PCBS,2022).Figure 7.Employment distribution by sex and occupation,2021(per cent)2.94.23.24.62.13.120.76616.961.831.979.41912.616.61425.8834.83.36.120.622.84.226.84.1114.810.61.810.72.310.2216.422.57.1173.800708090100MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFe
153、maleState of PalestineWest BankGaza StripElementary occupationsPlant and machine operators andassemblersCraft and related trade workersSkilled agricultural and fsheryworkersService and sales workersProfessionals,technicians,associates and clerksLegislators,senior offcials andmanagersSource:PCBS(2022
154、).Table 5.Occupied Palestinian Territory:Average daily wage by sex and economic activity,2021(In new Israeli shekels)State of PalestineWest BankGaza StripMaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleaAgriculture,hunting,and fishing96.6102.793.28820.9Mining,quarrying,and manufacturing126.766.3112.268.230.8Construct
155、ion217.6130.6154.739.9Commerce,hotels,and restaurants102.779.2113.384.426.4Transportation,storage,and communication88.5105.8157.7111.231.3Services and other branches123.7110.5141.6119.688.5Total142.1106.1127.2113.256.6Source:PCBS(2022).a The female statistics for the Gaza Strip were not included in
156、the publication because the number of observations were too small at the level of each activity.154.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMYThere is no gender wage gap in the public sector in the OPT.In the private sector,the gender wage gap is not explained by differences in qualifications between men a
157、nd women.Women in fact should be earning more than men based on their qualifications,given their high education levels(Hammoudeh,2020).4.3.2.EMPLOYMENT IN AGRICULTUREThe OPT has a diverse range of climate zones and rich biodiversity despite its small geographic size.Crop cultivation is the main agri
158、cultural activity and is dominated by olives.20 The share of agriculture in employment has fallen more sharply for women than for men in the OPT over time.21 Women are mainly unpaid family workers,while most men are wage employees and self-employed in agriculture(figure 8).22Around a third of Palest
159、inian women work informally in agriculture,and women hold only 6.7per cent of 20 Olives represent 54per cent,fruit trees 10per cent,field crops 24per cent,and vegetables 10per cent of the cultivated area in the OPT(PalTrade,2014,cited in FAO,2021).21 The share fell from 34.7per cent in 2000 to 7.7pe
160、r cent in 2021 for women and from 10.3per cent in 2000 to 6.5per cent in 2021 for men,according to PCBS statistics.22 Based on PCBS statistics.23 Based on PCBS agricultural labour statistics.24 Palestinian women provide most of the labour required for livestock production(87per cent)and crop product
161、ion(54per cent)(FAO,2021).agricultural holdings,according to the latest figures from 2011.23 Despite the declining share of agriculture in womens employment,however,a feminization of agriculture is taking place in the OPT,24 mainly because of the migration of men to Israel for better paid employment
162、.That said,agricultures contribution to womens economic empowerment is limited for several reasons.First,a large share of women in agriculture are unpaid family workers,as indicated above.Second,women are mostly involved in lower-end activities in agricultural value chains(e.g.harvesting,collecting,
163、and sorting of crops),while men control lucrative activities such as maintaining equipment,transporting,sales,and marketing.On top of that,women carry out unpaid domestic and care work in the household,and often have mobility restrictions in terms of engaging in agricultural activities outside the f
164、amily farm.Figure 8.Occupied Palestinian Territory:Composition of agricultural labour by sex and work status,2019(per cent)Source:Based on agricultural labour statistics from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics.12.446.935.05.776.38.114.80.8007080Unpaid familyworkersWage employeeS
165、elf-employedEmployerMenWomen16TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSThird,women have limited access to land and natural resources,which adversely affects their access to loans due to a lack of collateral,or results in much higher interest rates for them(FAO,2021).Accor
166、ding to a field study in 2020,only 44.4per cent of households own agricultural land,and 76.3per cent of agricultural land is owned by men,7.3 per cent jointly,15 per cent by the wife alone,and 1.3per cent by another female family member.There is also gender inequality in the ownership of agricultura
167、l tools:70per cent of non-mechanized farm equipment and 93.2per cent of mechanized farm equipment is solely owned by men.However,women have a higher degree of access to land and productive resources than what would be commensurate with their levels of land ownership(PWWSD,2020).Women lack financing
168、opportunities and marketing facilities for their products(crops and livestock).The Israeli occupation also limits movement of Palestinian men and women and access to their fertile lands and water resources in Area C.Women often shoulder the burden of transporting water to cultivated lands.Agricultur
169、al extension services are weak and often lack female agents,which limit women farmers participation in them because of cultural barriers(FAO,2021).In terms of paid jobs,small and medium-sized companies in agriculture struggle to survive due to the adverse effects of the occupation and the resulting
170、economic stagnation.This leads to high dependency on daily wage labourers and part-time and seasonal workers,most of whom are informally employed and earn below the minimum wage.Most companies source agricultural raw materials from large suppliers,which are predominantly owned by men and are more ab
171、le to meet the required quantity and quality of needed raw materials(Abumezied and Rahhal,2021).Cooperative and producer associations are popular in the OPT.Womens involvement in such entities improves their bargaining power,enables them to form business and marketing links,helps them share costs of
172、 inputs,transportation,marketing,and other agricultural activities that can be done collectively,and promotes a sense of belonging to a community.All of these contribute towards womens economic empowerment in agriculture.Despite these positive benefits,however,many of these entities have limited 25
173、This volume does not include olive oil that is taken as gifts(to relatives or friends),which is estimated to be significant.26 According to PCBS olive statistics.ability to access financing for their members due to inadequate skills and limited access to technology and information.Furthermore,women
174、have limited participation in mixed-gender agricultural cooperatives due to cultural barriers(FAO,2021).4.3.2.1.The olive and olive oil sectorThe analysis of the olive and the olive oil sector in the context of agriculture is based on primary data collected through the UNCTAD field study.Olives are
175、both economically and culturally important for Palestinian society.Most participants in UNCTADs interviews and focus group discussions emphasized that olive cultivation and the preservation of olive trees continue to be culturally and traditionally important in the Palestinian countryside,as part of
176、 a generational heritage,and as a familial product.Olives are the top horticulture tree in the OPT.Most of the olive harvest is used for olive oil and what is left is used for table olives(e.g.pickled/stuffed olives,olive paste)and soap.Total olive oil production exceeds 35,000 tons annually in a hi
177、gh-yield year(PCBS,2019).The total volume of exported Palestinian olive oil represents about 10per cent of total annual production,with Arabian Gulf countries being a major destination.25 There are several companies that export olive oil sourced from local markets.There is also informal trade in oli
178、ve oil,whereby middlemen transfer small quantities across borders in exchange for a commission.Olives provide employment and income for around 100,000 families that either run their own small family businesses or work for others(Oxfam,2015).In terms of olive oil production,in 2019 there were 285 ope
179、rating presses in the olive oil sector(250 in the West Bank and 35 in the Gaza Strip)and 1,859 individuals employed in olive presses(1,300 in the West Bank and 559 in the Gaza Strip),18.5per cent of whom were unpaid workers,with the rest being wage employees.26 Several factors constrain the developm
180、ent of the olive sector in the OPT(Oxfam,2015).The Palestinian Olive Oil Councilwhich was established by the Ministry of Agriculture in 2009 as a public-private agency to develop the olive sector through policy,advocacy,and technical advice,and to regulate the sectorlacks the financial and human res
181、ources to carry out its functions adequately.Many subsistence and small-174.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMYscale olive oil farmers,including many women,are not members of registered cooperatives,depriving them of the economic benefits of collective action.Low and unstable olive oil productivity
182、is another issue facing the sector.Most olive oil traders are traditional wholesalers who focus on the local market and have limited experience in marketing products to external markets.Several nongovernmental organizations focusing on agriculture lack adequate capacity.All participants in UNCTADs f
183、ield study,both individual and institutional,alluded to the exceptional susceptibility of agriculture in general,and the olive sector in particular,to the measures of the occupation and settlements.Farmers in the West Bank countryside,which falls under the command of the Israeli military,often face
184、harassment or hostility.Such transgressions include illegal land seizures,destruction/burning of produce,disruption of harvest and land maintenance,and settler assaults and harassment.These realities,in addition to the fluctuating economic conditions,constitute the two major threats to olive and oli
185、ve oil production and sale in the OPT.One participant in the Jenin Focus Group discussion emphasized the deterioration of the sector in the face of these threats.He added that there must be a concerted effort by authorities to support farmers in this sector before further deterioration occurs.27Wome
186、ns participation in the olive and olive oil sectorWomen play an active role in olive cultivation and olive oil production especially in weeding,harvesting,grading/sorting of olives,and storing stages.However,it is often men who market and sell olives and olive oil in local markets or to traders and
187、exporters.Women,except for those in female-headed households who have broader responsibilities as the only adult in the household,sell in small quantities through informal networks within their communities.Women are completely absent as exporters in this sector,as stated by the Palestinian Olive and
188、 Olive Oil Council(Al Markaz for Development and Marketing Consultancies,2018).Most individuals or institutions in UNCTADs field study agreed that social and cultural norms mainly determine the possibilities for womens participation,access to resources,and the assumption of decision-making positions
189、 in conducting business and trade.However,they had different perceptions of what womens role 27 Olive Oil Focus Group,Jenin,the West Bank.28 Ibid.should be in the sector.The participants in the Gaza Focus Group discussion stated that womens role in the sector should be limited to non-physically stre
190、nuous activities,mainly harvesting pressing,and marketing.In contrast,participants in the West Bank Focus Group discussion believed that women could perform all the tasks in the production processes comparably with men.Moreover,they emphasized that olive and olive oil production is in large part fam
191、ilial and even communal,whereby all family members contribute to it.As one participant stated:Olive and olive oil production remains a traditional affair.It has not changed in terms of gender roles over the years;women have always made major contributions to olive production.Currently,there are more
192、 possibilities and uses for olive production,such as improved varieties of traditional soap.28However,the participants still disagreed on womens efficiency in performing the olive pressing,marketing,and sale of the end products.In some of the focus group discussions,many men expressed their apprehen
193、sion about the growing role of women in olive farming,and also feared that,with the current move towards greater involvement of women,women may replace men working in the marketing of olives and olive oil who they think are more capable of doing so.Major challenges faced by women in the olive and ol
194、ive oil sectorDespite women significantly contributing to the production cycle of olive and olive oilfrom cultivation to harvesting,processing,and marketingthose contributions still do not assure women ownership,control,or stakes in the returns to these resources,as indicated by a former board membe
195、r of the Palestinian Olive and Olive Oil Council:Womens ownership of olive lands does not surpass 10 per cent of total areas cultivated with olive.The major underlying reason for this phenomenon is the nonformal application of inheritance laws,where it is not uncommon for men to arbitrarily decide o
196、n the inheritance shares.In turn,the share of women-owned agricultural land cultivated with olives remains limited.That is despite the significant contribution of women in the olive harvest and olive oil production cycles.From my experience,it is not uncommon for womens work to be of higher quality
197、in this sectorthis is especially the case after receiving training on the production process.18TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSWomen also typically participate in the decision-making regarding the olive picking dates and tools used,the production schedule,storage
198、,and the monitoring of quality.29According to the UNCTAD field study,women in both the West Bank and the Gaza Strip face the same degree of social scrutiny when it comes to pressing and marketing of olive products.The participants in the Gaza group also pointed out that the social pressures prevent
199、them from dedicating their efforts to developing their businesses and end products.This constitutes,in their view,a major impediment to improving their livelihoods and returns from their businesses.As one participant noted:Among the challenges we face in this sector,the negative social perception of
200、 women who handle the pressing of as well as the marketing of olives is among the most difficult.In this,there are differences between one locality and another in terms of the acceptance of womens participation in all aspects of olive oil production.30A former member of the Palestinian Olive and Oli
201、ve Oil Council also pointed to the differences across localities in terms of perceptions about womens participation in the sector:The olive and olive oil sector is one of the few sectors that is actually more open to womens participation without any social pressures given the traditional nature of t
202、he sector.I agree that some localities/villages may still exert social pressure on women if they participate in the sector,but other localities have total acceptance of womens participation.31 Men dominate cooperatives and producer organizations in the olive sector because women have low levels of l
203、and ownershipa precondition for membershipand cannot afford high membership fees,which is a barrier they face in addition to traditional gender norms and stereotypes.Moreover,women have low levels of participation in training programmes on agricultural practices.In this regard,holding women-only ses
204、sions and/or arranging the time and place of such sessions suited to womens time schedules could help increase their participation(Oxfam,2010).It is also the case that the olive sector is considered as mens trade even though women 29 Interview with Faris Al-Jabi,former member of the Palestinian Oliv
205、e and Olive Oil Council,on 21 April 2022.30 Olive Oil Focus Group,Gaza.31 Interview with Faris Al-Jabi on 21 April 2022.32 Olive Oil Focus Group,Jenin,the West Bank.are highly involved in processing at the household level.Women also have poor communication and coordination with other market actors,i
206、ncluding retailers and providers of extension and training services(Oxfam,2019).With regard to exporting,various participants in focus group discussions in the West Bank pointed to a general deficiency in their capacities to apply the product quality standards required for exporting goods.Most of th
207、e producers asserted that they often struggle to meet the quality standards demanded by foreign importers,and that they address these demands on an ad hoc basis rather than embedding these standards as part of their business processes.This problem is more severe for women producers who face higher b
208、arriers in accessing the resources necessary to stay abreast of the latest developments in the sector,whether relating to the production process,product quality,or marketing.Field survey respondents indicated that women face a more difficult marketplace in the olive sector for two main reasons.First
209、,traders tend to impose unfair pricing on women producers due to multiple factors,most prominently the socially vulnerable position of women traders in the market,and other social restrictions(e.g.limitations on mobility).Second,because of such pressures,women producers often must be overly resolute
210、 in their business dealings such that they are not intimidated by their male counterparts.As one participant in the Jenin Focus Group discussion explained:I have faced the scrutiny of my family since I started marketing my products,where I had to obtain their approval for my activities after long de
211、liberations.I gained more independence as I accumulated experience in the market.However,there are still certain things that remain untenable for women producers,such as acquiring and registering agricultural lands,as well as business trips abroad or even within the West Bank.For all these reasons,I
212、 conduct all aspects of my business from my residence.I do not have to physically move to do so.Overall,the social pressures faced by women producers also afford them meagre market shares in this sector.Lastly,I remained resilient and adamant to continue developing my business even in the face of su
213、ch social pressures.32194.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMYAn expert from the Olive and Olive Oil Council echoed that sentiment,stating that the trade environment,especially in olive oil markets,is more demanding for women producers.He added that women who market their products directly in the oli
214、ve oil markets are often forced to do so as the main breadwinners for their families.33With respect to training and skill development opportunities,most participants in the focus group discussions expressed the view that women across all levels have access to fewer skill development opportunities.As
215、 the sector is male-dominated,such opportunities are thus oriented to men more than women business owners and/or workers.Moreover,the participants noted the added burden for women to attend such programmes or workshops while balancing their available time between family care,business,or work.In addi
216、tion,attending these activities often requires the approval of male family members(e.g.husband,father,etc.).One participant reported some success along these lines:I used to attend seminars and workshops organized by various agricultural institutions such as the Union of Agricultural Committees.This
217、 prompted me to convince my parents and husband to continue farming,and now my son and his children help me with my farming.34One of the trainers in the focus group discussion reflected on his experience in delivering agricultural training:In some villages,women are severely restricted in their work
218、 because of the prevalent culture.In one instance,I had been assigned to deliver training to a group of women farmers in a village.I was surprised to find that male relatives attended the session instead of women.They wanted to go through the training,after which they would parlay it to the women fa
219、rmers.In some villages,they prevent women from undertaking training with male trainers.35Time-use surveys show that Palestinian women spend on average six hours a day on housework and family care(PCBS,2017).For men,this burden is typically absent.Moreover,these added burdens on women 33 Interview wi
220、th Faris Al-Jabi on 21 April 2022.34 Olive Oil Focus Group,Jenin,the West Bank.35 Ibid.36 Ibid.37 Ibid.38 PCBS industry statistics.39 The share fell from 21.3per cent in 1994 to 14.2per cent in 2000 and 13.5per cent in 2021.are often considered invisible labour,rarely accounted for,and often overloo
221、ked.Some of the participants in the focus groups reflected on their household responsibilities:Female farmers work tirelessly inside and outside the home.They take care of all household chores,such as food preparation,childcare,childrens schoolwork,and other chores,and then must work on their crops.
222、These arrangements are deeply rooted in our culture.It seems impossible to change.Women never have the time to rest.36As an unmarried woman,my family prohibits me from moving freely outside the home.My time is devoted to farming and housework.I believe there should be more equitable distribution of
223、responsibilities,including domestic chores.37 Finally,gender roles in the olive and olive oil sector are strongly influenced by seasonality.The olive season runs from October to December.Over a period of 1 to 12 weeks,depending on the area of cultivated groves,olive farmers pick and bag olive fruits
224、 for further processing.As previously mentioned,this is usually familial work,whereby extended family members participate in the process.The working days are usually long,extending up to 12 hours daily.During this season,therefore,women have mounting responsibilities and need to combine extended wor
225、king hours with household duties.4.3.3.EMPLOYMENT IN INDUSTRYIn 2020,109,640 people were employed in industrial activities in the OPT producing gross value-added equivalent to around 14per cent of GDP.38 There has been a decline in the share of industry in total employment over time.39 Womens employ
226、ment share in industry has also declined over the last two decades:while 16.2per cent of employed women were in industry in 1995,this share declined to 11.1per cent in 2000 and to 6.6per cent in 2021.These downward trends reflect greater controls on imported capital goods and raw materials,as well a
227、s constrained revenue resulting from restrictions on access to outside markets(ILO,2018).20TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSManufacturing enterprises are concentrated,in descending order,in non-metallic mineral products,food products,furniture,wearing apparel,and
228、fabricated metal products(except machinery and equipment)(PCBS,2020b).Industrial employment is also concentrated in these subsectors,with a clear gender segregation(table 6).Wearing apparel and food products dominate womens employment in industry.Other mineral products and food products are the top
229、sectors for men in industrial employment.Export activity is still not common among industrial enterprises in the OPT.In 2019,enterprises with at least 2per cent or more of total sales to the rest of the world were in the following sectors(PCBS,2020b):remediation and waste management(50 per cent),was
230、te collection and treatment(15per cent),wood and products of wood and cork(11per cent),basic pharmaceutical products(8.6 per cent),chemicals(4.4per cent),leather(4per cent),other manufacturing(2.7per cent),and beverages(2.1per cent).Similarly,in 2019,industrial enterprises with the highest share of
231、total sales to Israel were in remediation and waste management(50per cent),wearing apparel(48.6per cent),leather(38.5per cent),textiles(37.1per cent),furniture(24.6per cent),basic metals(23.3per cent),rubber and plastics(18.8per cent),tobacco(14per cent),fabricated metal products(13.1 per cent),and
232、machinery and equipment n.e.c.(12.7per cent)(PCBS,2020b).Most owners/managers of industrial enterprises cited the following as obstacles that hinder expanding their productive activity,in descending order:the low income of Palestinians,political difficulties,high costs of electricity and fuel,small
233、size of the Palestinian market,lack of infrastructure,restriction of Palestinian trade with Israel,lack of skilled workers,and unclear tax systems(PCBS,2020b).4.3.3.1 The food products sectorThe analysis of the food products sector in the context of industry is based on primary data collected throug
234、h the UNCTAD field study.Enterprises active in the food products sector in the State of Palestine make up 19.6 per cent of all enterprises operating in the industrial sector(PCBS,2020b).The sector includes food manufacturing and processing at all industrial scales.As explained by survey respondents,
235、womens presence as producers/traders in this sector is largely limited to micro-and small-scale businesses and vendors,whether as owners or workers.The larger enterprises in the sector,including large factories and production facilities,are mostly owned or managed by men.Women-led businesses feature
236、d in UNCTADs Table 6.Share of subsectors in total industrial employment by region and sex,2019(per cent)State of PalestineWest BankGaza StripTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenMining and quarrying3.33.70.24.14.70.20.10.10.0Manufacturing91.390.995.292.191.397.188.289.166.0Food products21.520.132.
237、621.719.933.720.520.716.1Wearing apparel10.16.636.58.74.436.515.915.136.9Other non-metallic mineral products19.722.02.119.722.42.219.620.31.7Fabricated metal products6.97.61.67.18.01.65.96.11.7Furniture9.410.42.09.110.22.110.811.21.2Electricity,gas,steam and air conditioning supplies4.34.44.32.93.02
238、.310.69.734.0Water supply,sewerage,waste management and remediation activities1.01.10.31.01.10.31.11.10.0Source:PCBS(2020b).214.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMYfield study are thus concentrated in local markets as cooperatives or as small-scale food production,preparation,or catering businesses.W
239、omen-led or women-dominated businesses,therefore,operate both formally and informally.Women-led informal businesses in this sector tend to be micro or small-scale businesses in local areas.Women cooperatives,on the other hand,operate formally given their extended reach in local markets as well as to
240、 foreign markets through contractual agreements with marketing companies.The varieties of products made by these businesses include homemade cooking/food preparation of such products as jams,mulukhiyah(mallow),sauces,and pickled products(including olives),among others.Womens participation in the foo
241、ds products sectorAs indicated in the focus group discussions,the food products sector is a convenient alternative for many women.Working from home,women can both lead their business and carry out care responsibilities.As pointed out by one participant,women often are not allowed to leave their resi
242、dences,and so this sector becomes a viable option,and it enables women to save on such costs as child day care services or certain business costs.40Several participants in the Gaza and West Bank Focus Group discussions pointed out the comparative advantage that women have in the food products sector
243、 in terms of product quality:Women are much better in food preparation given their experience due to social norms.It is also often easy for us to innovate in our products because of this experience.Mens role in this sector should be limited to physical tasks such as transportation of products or inp
244、uts,changing cooking gas,marketing of products,etc.41Despite womens high productivity and their products high quality,field study participants noted that womens participation in this sector does not seem to change prevailing social pressures on womens social and economic inclusion.Men often dominate
245、 decision-making in womens businesses and family lives.40 Focus Groups in Gaza and the West Bank.41 Food Products Focus Group,Gaza.42 Food Products Focus Group,Ramallah,the West Bank.43 Interview with Hala Abdel Fattah,Executive Director of the Palestinian Union for the Marketing of Cooperative Prod
246、ucts,on 19 April 2022.Major challenges faced by women in the food products sectorUNCTAD field study participants reported harsh working conditions for women workers in the food products sector,mainly due to an absence of adequate enforcement of labour laws in the formal sector and a complete absence
247、 of protections in the informal sector.The participants added that access to jobs in this sector is subject to aspects related to gender,age,class,marital status,and socially imposed roles.Despite the numerous examples of women running successful businesses in the sector,for example,women still face
248、 gender stereotypes related to their role as women in business.Even after obtaining approval of their male relatives,womens activity in the sector remains subject to the will and changing conditions and expectations of their male relatives.For instance,one participant in the focus group in Ramallah
249、recounted:I was forced by my sons to abandon a falafel stand that I was running.The stand was an addition to my work in food preparation.My sons objected to the falafel stand given that it requires me to serve food to male customers outside my home.They considered it an embarrassment to them.42Hala
250、Abdel Fattah,Executive Director of the Palestinian Union for the Marketing of Cooperative Products,emphasized that the often-observed male guardians control over womens business activities also extends to access to resources and business development.She cites access to loans as one example,whereby a
251、 male guardian is often needed to guarantee bank loansespecially for Islamic banks.Women can also be restricted to certain working hours and be forced to avoid late hours during the workday.Finally,she alluded to the mental and psychological burden that women shoulder because of their extended respo
252、nsibilities beyond the conduct of their businesses,as mentioned previously.43Gender relations and roles strongly influence economic activities within the sector,including ownership,division of labour,decision-making,marketing,and access to markets.In this regard,Amal Shehadeh,Director of Social Inte
253、gration in the Economy at the MoNE,asserted that:22TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSWomen are often excluded from decision-making processes within their businesses,even if they are the business owners.It is possible for women to be registered as the business owner
254、 and perform various business activities,but for a male relative or spouse to control decision-making related to business development and marketing of their products.44Another participant described the business environment for women in this sector as follows:Women often face harsh working conditions
255、 and constricted access to financial and other resources.In my opinion,this is due to a lack of alternatives for women.Womens work in food products,whether as a small-scale owner or worker,is often the only viable income-generating activity.For this reason,women are forced to accept harsh working co
256、nditions,or meagre profit margins.Moreover,because of this lack of options,women find it extremely difficult to pursue debt financing because they cannot resort to other activities if their incomes do not cover their obligations.In contrast,men have access to wider options to meet their obligations
257、or find more suitable working conditions.45 Men can switch to jobs in other sectors much more easily than women.Moreover,men have wider access to other avenues,for example lending services,and have unhindered physical access to markets and exporters,as noted by one participant:Women are often forced
258、 to resort to such income-generating projects out of necessity.Some examples include widows or divorcees who cannot rely on male counterparts to undertake these responsibilities.46 Indeed,most participants in both Gaza and the West Bank cited necessity as the major reason for women to pursue food pr
259、oduct businesses.Working in the food products sector is one of the most viable traditional options for women,especially in the absence of male breadwinners,or if women live in poverty.In this respect,the rate to which women turn to the food products sector is a general reflection of the state of the
260、 wider economy in the OPT.On the other hand,other participants highlighted that women also pursue their independent businesses in this sector as a vehicle 44 Interview with Amal Shehadeh,Director of Social Integration in the Gender Unit,MoNE,on 25 April 2022.45 Food Products Focus Group,Ramallah,the
261、 West Bank.46 Ibid.47 Ibid.48 Interview with Ayman Al-Mimi,Head of the Leadership Department,the Ramallah Chamber of Commerce and Industry,on 25 April 2022.49 Food Products Focus Group,Gaza.for empowerment by securing the necessary resources to be independent in their decision-making,whether sociall
262、y or in their businesses:In my business,I feel a sense of fulfilment from leading my business.Generating income,even if partially sufficient,can gradually improve womens social and economic conditions.47There was a consensus among participants that the marketing of food products is the most severe c
263、hallenge facing women-led businesses in this sector.This aspect relates to the promotion of products to end users or resellers,but also to the fulfilment of product standards in local or foreign markets.This challenge is further aggravated by difficulties in accessing the financial resources require
264、d for product development and marketing,as well as social pressures and inequalities faced by women in the conduct of business and beyond.In this regard,Ayman al-Mimi,Head of the Leadership Department of the Ramallah Chamber of Commerce and Industry,noted:There is a critical deficiency in the market
265、ing skills and avenues available for women business owners in this sector.Most women owners rely on trade exhibitions and online advertising(mainly through Facebook)for marketing their products.48 One of the business owners in Gaza explained some of the problems that small-scale enterprises face in
266、this sector as follows:The informal nature of many of these businesses also poses some challenges for women-led businesses.For instance,in my experience,I often cannot issue invoices that are required by some larger clients to obtain my services.49Hala Abdel Fattah detailed the gaps that typically p
267、revent women-led businesses from establishing a foothold in export markets or large markets:These businesses lack the professional marketing aspects for their products such as branding,packaging standards,barcodes,and serial numbers.Most prohibitively,most of these businesses lack the cash flow nece
268、ssary for exporting,which requires the 234.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMYflexibility to deal with payment delays(up to 6 months or more)and upfront costs.50The Ministry of National Economy(MoNE)offered a comparable analysis of the deficiencies attributed to women-led businesses.In an interview,
269、Amal Shehadeh and Serine Al-Shanti of the MoNE Gender Department expanded on a recent gap assessment commissioned by the ministry to pinpoint the weaknesses facing Palestinian businesses regarding a wide array of small-scale handmade products,including food products:The assessment confirmed the shor
270、tfall in the marketing capabilities of Palestinian businesses at the small to medium scale.Moreover,the study highlighted the overwhelming competition with cheaper imported goods,as well as the obstructed adoption of upgraded technological infrastructure for these businesses.Lastly,the assessment sh
271、eds light on inaccessibility to and unaffordability of financial services for business owners.51Focus group participants highlighted that their male counterparts have more direct opportunities to market their products and reach markets.In general,the participants identified two main reasons underlyi
272、ng this discrepancy.First,men in general have more freedom of movement than women to access markets,sellers,exporters,and other avenues.This affords men more ample opportunities to accrue experience in marketing and business dealings.Second,most institutions are male-dominated in both economic and s
273、ocial terms.Hence,women face overbearing cultural prejudice in the conduct of their businesses,and in their social lives beyond that.One of the business owners in the Gaza group isolated the restrictions on womens physical movement as the main detriment to the marketing and development of their prod
274、ucts,noting that she would benefit if she could deal with sellers directly.However,other business owners expressed their preference to leave some of these tasks to their male counterparts or associates.As one participant stated:I prefer leaving the marketing functions to male relatives precisely due
275、 to their experience in these tasks,and their 50 Interview with Hala Abdel Fattah on 19 April 2022.51 Interview with Amal Shehadeh and Serine Al-Shanti,MoNE Gender Department,on 25 April 2022.52 Food Products Focus Group,Gaza.53 Ibid.54 Ibid.55 Food Products Focus Group,Ramallah,the West Bank.freedo
276、m in dealing with male and female customers and sellers.52 Another participant in the same group lamented the absence of support services for marketing of women-led businesses in this sector,and at the typical scale of these businesses:Business owners such as me do not possess the know-how to use(on
277、line)tech-focused marketing tools.53One business owner asserted that there are unrealized opportunities in promoting womens physical access to the markets:Women can capitalize on skills in the domain of food products to market their products.As an example,marketing products on the bases of the quali
278、ty of ingredients and dietary characteristics such as using low-fat alternatives and the like are good selling points,especially in todays market.54Women active in the food products sector are inexperienced in other critical business skills as well.For example,women face difficulties in feasibility
279、analysis,financial management,and marketing of their products.These skills,and others,are critical for their business to succeed locally,but doubly so if they plan to link to exporters and foreign markets.On the reasons underlying womens difficulties in acquiring such skills,the participants alluded
280、 to their inexperience with these business skills given that they are often performed by men.The participants also reported that available skill development programmes tend to be ineffective,and that women face numerous barriers that prevent them from benefiting from these programmes,including unava
281、ilability of time due to household responsibilities as well as social pressures or male guardians disapproval of their attending such programmes.One participant even noted that these programmes are occasionally opposed in religious sermons in local mosques with the claim that they incite against men
282、.55The interviewees at the MoNE Gender Department agreed that women suffer from deficiencies in business management in the food products sector,including the 24TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENStechnical,financial,and general management of their businesses:56 These
283、 deficiencies are reflected in womens inability to fulfil market entry requirementssuch as lab tests,classification,licensing,etc.whether for local or foreign markets.Just as importantly,this inexperience in all of these aspects also culminates in the adoption of traditional or basic food preparatio
284、n methods.Developing womens businesses in this sector requires the adoption of more technical and systematic production methods that also satisfy certain quality and safety standards.57In this regard,despite the continual emphasis in government strategies on the promotion of womens economic particip
285、ation and empowerment,there does not seem to be any measurable impact in this regard in the food products sector.As mentioned earlier,due to the significant informal market in this sector,especially when it comes to women business owners,many of these businesses lack access to available resources an
286、d interventions.Commenting on this,Sami Sahweil,Director of the Policy and Planning Department for the Ministry of Womens Affairs(MoWA),stated that the policies introduced to promote women businesses remain ineffective.Most of the study participants asserted their belief that women should continue t
287、o bear all household and childcare burdens,and that their work in this sector should adhere to societal expectations,the most important of which are restrictions on the freedom of movement,time control,and household and family care.On the other hand,other participants,such as one in the Gaza Focus G
288、roup,pointed to some changing trends in this regard:Womens roles are slightly changing over time.In modern families,men are starting to contribute more to household responsibilities and family care.In my opinion,this is due to the mounting responsibilities in work and social life for the modern fami
289、ly.58Unequal division of domestic chores between men and women hinders womens opportunities to contribute to decision-making related to the family or business.Some participants reported that women resort to circumventing these difficulties by participating in 56 Interview with Amal Shehadeh and Seri
290、ne Al-Shanti on 25 April 2022.57 Ibid.58 Food Products Focus Group,Gaza.59 Food Products Focus Group,Ramallah,the West Bank.60 Ibid.cooperatives and womens associations related to food processing.Within these organizations,women work collectively to overcome social difficulties and challenges.This a
291、lso extends to economic challengesthat is,cooperatives and local bodies enable women to overcome the challenges and constraints of market access,and may help women overcome obstacles related to transportation,storage,and other financial logistic.As one participant explained:Cooperatives enable women
292、 to work at a larger scale,for example,by working with institutional clients.Because cooperatives are legally registered entities,members can issue the requisite documents such as the invoices required by some institutions to procure their services.Moreover,cooperatives usually do not impose dues or
293、 membership on their members.For all these reasons,I established a new cooperative in the village of Aboud with other working women.59Another participant added:Our cooperative is a member in the Union for the Marketing of Products of Cooperatives in Palestine.The union aids the cooperatives in marke
294、ting their products.The member cooperatives have regular meetings on the internal organization of the union,without imposing any policies on their members.60However,some women in the food products sector do not have the opportunity or capacity to become members of local cooperatives and bodies speci
295、alizing in the manufacture and marketing of food products.Some participants in the focus groups reported that they are not members of any of these bodies.They either do not have the opportunity(i.e.they were not invited to join a cooperative),or they do not have the capacity(i.e.they cannot adhere t
296、o certain production schedules/quotas).These women therefore continue to shoulder the burden of their work,remain subject to market volatility,and face familial and social restrictions.4.3.4.EMPLOYMENT IN SERVICESThe nontradable goods,construction,and services sectors have predictably been the secto
297、rs least vulnerable to physical controls and mobility restrictions resulting from the Israeli occupation(ILO,2018).As a result,along with the declining shares of agriculture 254.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMYand industry,services and construction have expanded their shares in total employment i
298、n the OPT.There were 153,580 people employed in services activities in 2020.61 Over time,services employment has expanded more sharply for women(from 53.9per cent in 2000 to 85.4per cent in 2021)than it has for men(from 52per cent in 2000 to 58per cent in 2021).4.3.4.1.The information and communicat
299、ions technology sectorThe analysis of the ICT sector in the context of services is based on primary data collected through the UNCTAD field study.Among various services,the ICT sector stands out as one of the pillars of the Palestinian economy due to its growth prospects and high employment-generati
300、on potential(especially for women and youth),its flexible hours and workdays,and the secondary jobs it generates.62 In the broadest sense,ICT involves the deployment of digital processing and wired and wireless telecommunications in collecting,creating,analysing,storing,processing,and transmitting i
301、nformation.The State of Palestine ranked 123rd out of 174 countries globally and 14th out of 19 countries regionally on the International Telecommunication Unions ICT Development Index for 2017,far behind Lebanon(64th)and Jordan(70th).According to the PCBS,in 2021 the Palestinian ICT sector register
302、ed 677 companies(an increase from 446 in 2010)with 12,800 employees(18per cent females vs.82per cent males),representing about 1.2per cent of the workforce and 4per cent of GDP.Most of these enterprises were in telecommunica-tions(320 of 677)and computer programming,and in consultancy and related ac
303、tivities(144).In terms of employment generation,55per cent of the total employed were in telecommunications,followed by computer programming,consultancy and related activities(19per cent),and programming and broad-casting activities(12per cent).Telecommunications is also the sector that offers the h
304、ighest wages among various ICT activities.63 George Yerousis,an expert on the Palestinian ICT sector and Director of the Innovation&Entrepreneurship Unit 61 See PCBS,“Main economic activities for services activities in Palestine,”available at https:/www.pcbs.gov.ps/statistic-sIndicatorsTables.aspx?l
305、ang=en&table_id=1056(accessed on 4 October 2022)62 Each new job opening in the ICT sector creates another three jobs in other sectors(PCBS,2021d)63 Based on PCBS information and communications statistics.64 Interview with George Yerousis,Director of the Innovation&Entrepreneurship Unit at Birzeit Un
306、iversity.65 Ibid.at Birzeit University,provided an analytical overview of the sector.According to Yerousis,given the landscape of the ICT sector as explained above,Palestinian companies are forced to adopt the business models of their counterparts in foreign countries and adapt them to the regional
307、and local contexts of the Middle East.In fact,Palestinian companies typically enter working relationships with regional or international companies to facilitate the conduct of their businesses in the face of Israeli restrictions on mobility,exports and imports,and technological infrastructure.64Yero
308、usis pointed to the restrictions confronted by Palestinian companies for the import and export of goods and services.He gave the example of hardware companies that often forgo the option of dealing with foreign providers to circumvent the extended delays and associated costs for Palestinian imports
309、that come through Israeli-controlled ports.Instead,many of these companies resort to dealing with Israeli providers.These dealings require constant communication between the two parties,often location visits,and physical meetings.Aside from the uncertainty of the granting of permits to access Israel
310、i markets,the prospect of traveling to the locations of Israeli companies is relatively more daunting for women business owners and workers than for their male counterparts.65Womens participation in the ICT sectorWith respect ICT usage,men have more access than women to modern technological tools(e.
311、g.cellular lines,computers,PC tablets,and the most advanced TV screens)and better access to the Internet.Similarly,a higher share of men than women uses text messages,emails,WhatsApp,Facebook,Twitter,etc.On a positive note,there has been a relative increase in the share of female students specializi
312、ng in fields traditionally considered mens domain,including ICT(PCBS,2021d).The participants in the Focus Group discussions agreed that despite womens participation in the ICT sector,their roles remain concentrated on administrative support,and to a limited extent on technical support.The existence
313、of this“digital”gap between men and 26TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE STATE OF PALESTINE THROUGH A GENDER LENSwomen can be considered partially a result of,and a contributor to,societal prejudices pertaining to gender roles and stereotypes.A participant in the ICT Focus Group in Gaza pointed to a gende
314、r division of labour in the ICT sector:Women are more suited for tasks involving visual designs and aids,as well as networking between local and international companies through online platforms.Men,on the other hand,are more suited for more technical or hands-on tasks such as software development,co
315、ntent writing,and networking due to mens unrestricted movement out of the household.66This is further exemplified in the absence of women in leadership positions in the Palestinian ICT sector.According to the Palestinian Information Technology Association of Companies(PITA)which enlists the biggest
316、ICT companies in the State of Palestineonly 2 of its 190 member companies are headed by women.Furthermore,not only are none of the companies owned by women,none of the board members at PITA are women either.67 This gender segregation in ICT employment prevents women from accruing the necessary exper
317、tise and financial leverage that would constitute catalysts for progressively wider inclusion of women in the ICT sector.One participant pointed out that the real hindrance to womens participation in this sector is womens exclusion from decision-making positions in companies or associations and orga
318、nizations in the sector,even though there is equal representation between women and men as employees.68 Another participant noted that while women represent most employees in software companies,as well as in telecommunications companies in administrative,sales,and support positions,hardware companie
319、s hire mainly men.69This dynamic is further exacerbated by social restrictions on womens mobility,womens limited participation in decision-making positions,womens modest enrolment in trade and specialized associations and organizations,and an absence of supportive policies.Additionally,one participa
320、nt in Ramallah pointed out that one of the major considerations driving employers in this sector away from women workers 66 IT Focus Group,Gaza.67 Interview with Megan Tanous,Programs Manager,PITA,on 16 May 2022.68 IT Focus Group,Ramallah,the West Bank.69 Ibid.70 Ibid.71 Ibid.is the additional off-t
321、ime women require,such as for maternity leave,family care,etc.She added that online work can limit the effect of this given that women can fulfil their responsibilities from home.70 In contrast,the Focus Group in Gaza noted that women hold a comparative advantage over men as employees because women
322、demonstrate higher commitment and reliability in adhering to deadlines.Women also face relatively less burdensome occupation-imposed travel restrictions than their male counterparts,and therefore they are better able to conduct business with fewer interruptions and uncertainties.There are also diffe
323、rences between urban and rural areas.Women from rural areas generally face more social pressure not to pursue careers in ICT or continual questioning about it from their families or male guardians.This is because women from rural areas have to commute to their work,since most ICT companies are in ci
324、ties,and the alternative of women moving to the city to work would be totally unacceptable to womens families or male guardians,except in a few cases.While remote work remains a viable option,and indeed has been on the rise in recent years,it has not completely replaced in-office work.One of the bus
325、iness owners in Ramallah recounted that they had tried to recruit several talented female graduates,but their families denied them the prospect of moving to and working in the city of Ramallah.71Major challenges faced by women in the ICT sectorAs in other sectors,social pressures and families author
326、ity exert significant influence on womens participation in the ICT sector as employees,but especially so as business owners participating in trade and market exchange.The drawn-out process of getting women into the ICT sector forgoes the accumulated experience that could invigorate womens participat
327、ion in the sector.That is,successive inclusion in the sector could follow an incremental trajectory,building on an increasing number of success stories and accrued experience for women.274.WOMEN IN SOCIETY AND IN THE ECONOMYOne participant in the Ramallah Focus Group lamented the familial pressure i
328、n pursuing her own project:Women working in the ICT sector face familial pressure not to leave stable positions.Because of my current good pay of US$2,000 to US$3,000 per month,my family is preventing me from pursuing risky endeavours.72Another indicative case highlighted more positive attitudes tow
329、ards ICT as a career path for women.One of the participants in the Gaza group explained:I received strong support from my family and husband in pursuing an ICT career.Throughout my working experience,I even sensed noticeable progress in the social perception of my work.However,I still receive modest
330、 support from organizations active in the promotion of this sector for women.73 One business owner in the ICT Focus Group elaborated on her trajectory as a business owner in ICT.Currently,her company provides online technical and soft skills training for students and young graduates.The company aims
331、 to provide the needed skills for young graduates to jumpstart their careers or their own enterprises.Aside from this focus,the company also offers online marketing services.On her success in establishing a foothold in this market,she stated:I relied on my determination in the initial phases of the
332、project as the main factor behind my later success.After trying to offer various services,I believe I found an unmet need with real potential in what my company currently provides.74 The discussion indicated that the ICT sector has huge potential for wider participation of women given the possibilit
333、y of them working from home,though this potential can only be viewed in conjunction with the added burdens on women that accompany in this context,since women typically bear the household and family care responsibilities.Online work might also expand womens access to skill development programmes and modalities.There are several cases of women providing online services ranging from e-commerce to e-