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1、HANDBOOK OF STATISTICS 2022U N I T E D N AT I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N T R A D E A N D D E V E L O P M E N TGeneva,202220222Handbook of Statistics 2022,United NationsAll rights reserved worldwide Requests to reproduce excerpts or to photocopy should be addressed to the Copyright Clearance Cente
2、r at .All other queries on rights and licences,including subsidiary rights,should be addressed to:United Nations Publications405 East 42nd StreetNew York,New York 10017United States of AmericaEmail:publicationsun.orgWebsite:https:/shop.un.org/The designations employed and the presentation of materia
3、l on any map in this work do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.A dispute exists between the Governm
4、ents of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands(Malvinas).The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined.This publication has not been formally edited.United Nations publication issued b
5、y the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development TD/STAT.47 ISBN:978-92-1-113076-8eISBN:978-92-1-002178-4ISSN:1992-8408eISSN:2225-3270Sales No.E.22.II.D.453Handbook of Statistics12022Handbook of StatisticsNotesThe tables in this handbook represent extractions from or analytical summaries of
6、datasets contained in the UNCTADstat Data Centre,available at:https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/UNCTADstat is continuously updated and enhanced,thus providing users with the latest available statistics.Consequently,the figures from this handbook,which presents statistics at a point in time,may not always
7、 correspond with the latest figures in UNCTADstat.Basic information on concepts,definitions and calculation methods of the presented statistics are provided in the boxes titled“Concepts and definitions”in each section and in annex 6.3 of this handbook.More detailed information on the sources and met
8、hods used for production of data available in UNCTADstat can be found in the documentation attached to the respective UNCTADstat dataset(UNCTAD,2022a).Where the designation“economy”appears,it refers to a country,territory or area.The assignment of economies to specific groups is done for statistical
9、 convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding the political or other affiliation of these economies by the United Nations.Likewise,the designations“developing”and“developed”are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached by a par
10、ticular economy in the development process.Due to the removal of the group of the“transition economies”in the 2021 edition,and due to a reclassification of the development status of the Republic of Korea in 2022,the classification of economies into“developing”and“developed”applied in this handbook i
11、s different from the classification used in earlier editions.Also,a broader definition of small island developing States(SIDS)as defined by the United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries,Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States(UN-OHR
12、LLS)is applied since 2021.The corresponding group aggregates are therefore not comparable with data presented in earlier handbooks.For more details,see annex 6.2 of this handbook.The population data used in this edition have been substantially revised by the United Nations Population Division in sum
13、mer 2022.They reflect for the first time the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.This had an impact on the figures of gross domestic product(GDP)per capita.Unless otherwise specified,the values of groups of economies represent the sums of the values of the individual economies included in the group.Cal
14、culation of these aggregates may take into account data estimated by the UNCTAD secretariat that are not necessarily reported separately.When data coverage is insufficient within a group of economies,no aggregation is undertaken and the symbol(-)is assigned.Due to rounding,values do not necessarily
15、add up exactly to their corresponding totals.United States dollars(US$)are expressed in current United States dollars of the year to which they refer,unless otherwise specified.“Ton”means metric ton(1 000 kg).Due to space constraints,the names of the following countries may appear in abbreviated for
16、m:the Plurinational State of Bolivia,the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea,the Democratic Republic of the Congo,the Islamic Republic of Iran,Lao Peoples Democratic Republic,the Federated States of Micronesia,the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,and the Bolivarian Republic of V
17、enezuela.The UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics 2022 is available in PDF format from the UNCTAD website,at https:/unctad.org/HandbookOfStatistics.The e-handbook is available at https:/hbs.unctad.org.20224Handbook of StatisticsThe world by development statusDeveloping economiesDeveloped economiesLeast dev
18、eloped countries(LDCs)The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.5Handbook of Statistics12022Handbook of StatisticsHandbook of Statistics17TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction 111.International merchandise trade
19、 142.International trade in services 326.Annexes 84Abbreviations and symbols 123.Economic trends 424.Population 605.Maritime transport 70List of tables 10List of maps and figures 82022Abc20228Handbook of StatisticsMaps and FiguresMapsMap 1.1 Merchandise exports as a ratio to gross domestic product,2
20、021 16Map 1.2 Main world import flows,2021 20Map 1.3 Main export products,2021 24Map 1.4 Trade openness index,2021 28Map 2.1 Exports of services as a ratio to gross domestic product,2021 34Map 2.2 Growth in services exports by category,20162021 38Map 3.1 Gross domestic product per capita,2021 44Map
21、3.2 Current account balance as a ratio to gross domestic product,2021 48Map 3.3 Foreign direct investment inflows as a ratio to gross fixed capital formation,2021 52Map 3.4 Annual growth of consumer prices,2021 56Map 4.1 Annual population growth,2021 62Map 4.2 Dependency ratio,2021 66Map 5.1 Tonnage
22、 loaded and discharged,2021 72Map 5.2 Building,ownership,registration and recycling of ships,2021 76Map 5.3 Liner shipping connectivity,2021-2022 80FiguresFigure 1.1.1 World merchandise exports 16Figure 1.1.2 Merchandise trade annual growth rates,2021 17Figure 1.1.3 Merchandise trade balance 17Figur
23、e 1.2.1 Intra-and extra-regional exports,2021 20Figure 1.2.2 Global trade flows,2021 21Figure 1.2.3 Developing economies main export destinations,2021 21Figure 1.3.1 Export structure of developing economies by product group,2021 24Figure 1.3.2 Annual growth rate of exports by product group,2021 25Fi
24、gure 1.3.3 Developing economies extra-trade structure,2021 25Figure 1.4.1 Terms of trade index 28Figure 1.4.2 Market concentration index of exports 29Figure 1.4.3 Product concentration index of exports,2021 29Figure 2.1.1 World services exports 34Figure 2.1.2 Services trade annual growth rates,2021
25、35Figure 2.1.3 Top five services exporters,2021 35Figure 2.2.1 Annual growth rate of services exports,2021 38Figure 2.2.2 Structure of services exports,2021 39Figure 2.2.3 Growth of exports of telecommunications,computer,and information services,by group of economies,20192021 39Figure 3.1.1 World re
26、al gross domestic product,annual growth rate 44Figure 3.1.2 Growth of real gross domestic product by group of economies,2021 45Figure 3.1.3 Distribution of world gross domestic product 459Handbook of Statistics1Handbook of StatisticsFigures2022Figure 3.2.1 Balances in the current account 48Figure 3.
27、2.2 Balances in least developed countries current account 49Figure 3.3.1 World foreign direct investment inflows 52Figure 3.3.2 Foreign direct investment inflows and outflows,2021 53Figure 3.3.3 Selected foreign direct investment flows 53Figure 3.4.1 Exchange rates against the United States dollar 5
28、6Figure 3.4.2 UNCTAD Commodity Price Index 57Figure 3.4.3 Year-on-year growth of prices by commodity group 57Figure 4.1.1 Annual growth rate of world population 62Figure 4.1.2 World population by group of economies 63Figure 4.1.3 Urban population by group of economies 63Figure 4.2.1 World population
29、 by age group 66Figure 4.2.2 Population pyramids,2021 67Figure 4.2.3 Dependency ratio by age structure 67Figure 5.1.1 Goods loaded worldwide 72Figure 5.1.2 Seaborne trade of developing economies 73Figure 5.1.3 Seaborne trade balance 73Figure 5.2.1 World fleet by principal vessel type 76Figure 5.2.2
30、Fleet market by region of beneficial ownership,2022 77Figure 5.2.3 Vessels capacity in top five registries 77Figure 5.3.1 Liner shipping connectivity index,top five economies 80Figure 5.3.2 World container port throughput 81Figure 5.3.3 Containerized port traffic by group of economies,2020 81202210H
31、andbook of StatisticsTablesTable 1.1.1 Merchandise trade by group of economies 18Table 1.1.2 Merchandise trade of least developed countries,main exporters 18Table 1.1.3 Leading exporters and importers in developing economies,by group of economies,2021 19Table 1.2.1 Exports by origin and destination,
32、2021 22Table 1.2.2 Exports by origin and destination,selected years 22Table 1.2.3 Top destinations of developing economies exports 23Table 1.2.4 Top origins of developing economies imports 23Table 1.3 Exports by product group,origin and destination,2021 26Table 1.4.1 Selected trade indices by group
33、of economies 30Table 1.4.2 Selected trade indices,landlocked developing countries 31Table 2.1.1 Trade in services by group of economies 36Table 2.1.2 Leading services exporters and importers by group of economies,2021 36Table 2.2.1 Trade in services by service category and group of economies 40Table
34、 2.2.2 Exports of selected services,by region,2021 41Table 3.1.1 Gross domestic product and gross domestic product per capita 46Table 3.1.2 Nominal gross domestic product by type of expenditure,2020 46Table 3.1.3 Nominal gross value added by economic activity 47Table 3.1.4 Economies with highest gro
35、ss domestic product per capita 47Table 3.2.1 Current account balance by group of economies 50Table 3.2.2 Current account balance in largest surplus and deficit economies 50Table 3.2.3 Current accounts of leading exporters(goods and services)by group of economies,2021 50Table 3.3.1 Foreign direct inv
36、estment flows by group of economies 54Table 3.3.2 Foreign direct investment stock by group of economies 54Table 3.3.3 Foreign direct investment inflows,top 20 host economies,2021 55Table 3.3.4 Foreign direct investment outflows,top 20 home economies,2021 55Table 3.4.1 Consumer prices by group of eco
37、nomies 58Table 3.4.2 Exchange rate and consumer prices among main exporting economies 58Table 3.4.3 Price indices of selected primary commodities 59Table 3.4.4 Monthly price indices of main commodity groups 59Table 4.1.1 Total population by group of economies 64Table 4.1.2 Urban population by group
38、of economies 64Table 4.1.3 Most populated economies 65Table 4.2.1 Age structure and dependency ratio by group of economies 68Table 4.2.2 Age structure by group of economies,2021 69Table 4.2.3 Female population by age class,2021 69Table 5.1.1 Total seaborne trade by group of economies 74Table 5.1.2 S
39、eaborne trade by cargo type and group of economies 74Table 5.1.3 Development of goods loaded worldwide by type of cargo 75Table 5.2.1 Merchant fleet registration by group of economies 78Table 5.2.2 Fleet ownership and registration,main economies,1 January 2022 79Table 5.3.1 Liner shipping connectivi
40、ty index of most connected economies,by region 82Table 5.3.2 Time at port,by market segment,in the top 20 economies by port call,2021 83Table 5.3.3 Liner shipping connectivity of the worlds seven most connected economies 83Table 6.1 Key indicators by economy,2021 86Table 6.2 Grouping of service cate
41、gories on the basis of EBOPS 2010 9911Handbook of Statistics12022Handbook of StatisticsIntroductionThe UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics 2022 provides a wide range of statistics and indicators relevant to the analysis of international trade,economy,investment,maritime transport,and development overall.I
42、t comes at a time of cascading crises that overlap and compound each other.In uncertain times,reliable statistical information becomes even more indispensable for effective policy responses and decisions,aiding countries to recover from the crises and build a more just,inclusive,and sustainable econ
43、omy.The UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics and the UNCTADstat Data Centre make internationally comparable data sets available to policymakers,specialists,researchers,officials of national Governments,representatives of international organizations,journalists,executive managers,and experts of non-governme
44、ntal organizations.In addition,these statistics underpin all UNCTAD activities.Whether for research,policy advice or technical cooperation,UNCTAD needs reliable and internationally comparable trade,financial and macroeconomic data with global coverage,spanning several decades.The 2021 data show a st
45、rong rebound of GDP,international trade,maritime transport,foreign direct investment(FDI)and other spheres of global economic activity.While global merchandise trade exceeded its pre-pandemic level by far,for trade in services the recovery in 2021 was not strong enough to compensate the dramatic fal
46、l in 2020 experienced during the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic,especially in travel.However,UNCTAD nowcasts suggest that the rebound is continuing in 2022,albeit at a slightly moderated speed,leading to new record highs in both goods and services trade values.The 2022 nowcasts on global merchand
47、ise and services trade included in this handbook represent annualized snapshots of UNCTADs quarterly nowcasts,which are updated weekly.New this year is their publication to a dedicated dashboard on UNCTADstat,which allows tracking the development of the nowcast and their drivers in almost real time;
48、see https:/unctadstat.unctad.org/EN/Nowcasts.html.This year again,the online edition of the handbook,the e-handbook,incorporates interactive charts and maps at:https:/hbs.unctad.org/.The e-handbook,including its maps and charts,is an interactive tool and provides readers with direct access to the da
49、ta at the UNCTADstat Data Centre from each table,map and chart.202212Handbook of StatisticsAbbreviationsBPM6Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual,Sixth EditionBRICSBrazil,Russia,India,China and South AfricaCIFcost,insurance and freightCPIconsumer price indexDem.Rep.Democra
50、tic Republicdwtdead-weight tonsEBOPS 20102010 Extended Balance of Payments Services ClassificationFDIforeign direct investmentFOBfree on boardG20Group of TwentyGDPgross domestic productGFCFgross fixed capital formationgtgross tonsHIPCsheavily indebted poor countriesHSHarmonized Commodity Description
51、 and Coding SystemIMFInternational Monetary FundISICInternational Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic ActivitiesLDCsleast developed countriesLLDCslandlocked developing countriesLNGliquefied natural gasLPGliquefied petroleum gasLSBCIliner shipping bilateral connectivity indexLSCIliner
52、shipping connectivity indexRep.RepublicSARSpecial Administrative RegionSIDSsmall island developing StatesSITCStandard International Trade ClassificationTEUtwenty-foot equivalent unitUCPIUNCTAD Commodity Price IndexUN-OHRLLSUnited Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Coun
53、tries,Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing StatesUS$United States dollarsWTOWorld Trade Organization13Handbook of Statistics12022Handbook of StatisticsSymbols0Zero means that the amount is nil or negligible._The symbol underscore indicates that the item is not applicable.Two d
54、ots indicate that the data are not available or are not separately reported.-The use of a hyphen on data area means that data is estimated and included in the aggregations but not published.An en dash between years(e.g.“19851990”)signifies the full period involved,including the initial and final yea
55、rs.(e)Estimate(u)Preliminary estimateINTERNATIONAL MERCHANDISE TRADE1International merchandise trade1115KEY FIGURES 2021NOWCAST 2022LDCs share in global exports1.05%Change of world merchandise exports+26.5%Value ofworld merchandiseexportsUS$22.3 trillionGrowth of global merchandise exports+13.8%1Int
56、ernational merchandise trade16150 and more30 to less than 5020 to less than 3010 to less than 200 to less than 10No dataNote:The dotted line indicates UNCTAD nowcasts.For the weekly update of the nowcast and its methodology,see UNCTAD(2022b).The figures on international merchandise trade in this cha
57、pter measure the value of goods which add or subtract from the stock of material resources of an economy by entering or leaving its territory(United Nations,2011).This definition is slightly different from the definition of trade in goods in the balance-of-payments framework(see section 3.2).The val
58、ue of exports is mostly recorded as the free-on-board(FOB)value,whereas the value of imports includes cost,insurance and freight(CIF).The trade balance is calculated as the difference between the values of exports and imports.Merchandise trade figures from 2014 to 2021,at total product level with pa
59、rtner world,are jointly produced by UNCTAD and the World Trade Organization(WTO).Concepts and definitionsStrong post-pandemic recoveryIn 2021,the value of world merchandise exports increased strongly,by 26.5 per cent,after two consecutive years of decline.Global exports amounted to US$22.3 trillion,
60、US$3.3 trillion higher than the pre-pandemic value recorded two years before,in 2019.In 2022,the exports value is nowcast to continue growing,at a rate of 13.8 per cent from 2021.Higher merchandise exports were recorded in the North than in the South,in 2021.Developing economies contributed US$9.9 t
61、rillion and developed economies US$12.4 trillion to the world total.Asia and Oceania accounted for 45 per cent of global merchandise exports,followed by Europe with 37 per cent and America with 16 per cent.Africa remained underrepresented,capturing only 2 per cent of the global market.1.1 Total merc
62、handise trade200620082000221014182226Figure 1.1.1 World merchandise exports(Trillions of United States dollars)Map 1.1 Merchandise exports as a ratio to gross domestic product,2021(Percentage)1717International trade in services12International merchandise trade11Trade upswing in
63、 all regionsIn 2021,merchandise exports and imports increased considerably in all groups of economies classifi ed by development status:between 23 and 42 per cent.Developing economies in Africa experienced the highest rise in exports(+42.2 per cent),followed by developed economies in Asia and Oceani
64、a(+30.2 per cent).In terms of imports,developing economies in the Americas registered the highest increase(+38.1 per cent).They were followed by developing economies in Asia and Oceania(+30.2 per cent).Development of trade imbalancesDeveloping economies registered a considerable increase in their tr
65、ade surplus in 2021 for the second consecutive year.Their trade balance stood at+US$535 in 2020 and reached+US$650 billion in 2021.By contrast,developed economies witnessed a continuously rising merchandise trade defi cit over recent years.It was recorded at US$909 billion in 2021.During that year,t
66、he developed worlds exports declined more than imports.ExportsImports0554045Developed economiesDeveloping economiesDeveloping economies:AfricaDeveloping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and Oceania2001920202021Developed economiesDeveloping economies-1000-750-500-2500
67、250500750Increase in exports of 13.8%nowcast for 2022In 2021,world merchandise trade increased strongly:by 26.5%Developing economies imports in 2021 followed the global trend.Up by 31%US$909 billion trade defcit recorded by developed economies in 2021Figure 1.1.2 Merchandise trade annual growth rate
68、s,2021(Percentage)Figure 1.1.3 Merchandise trade balance(Billions of United States dollars)Note:Trade balances do not add up to zero at world level due to CIF included in imports and cross-country differences in compilation methods.1International merchandise trade181Table 1.1.1 Merchandise trade by
69、group of economiesEconomyaExportsImportsTrade balanceValueAnnual growth rateValueAnnual growth rateValueRatio to imports(Millions of US$)(Percentage)(Millions of US$)(Percentage)(Millions of US$)(Percentage)2020202221LDCs185 210235 10326.9245 924311 42626.6-76 323-24.5 LDCs:Afr
70、ica and Haiti107 708145 45935.0127 020151 98219.7-6 523-4.3 Angola20 93733 58160.49 54311 79523.621 787184.7 Congo,Dem.Rep.of the14 122(e)23 500(e)66.46 663(e)10 300(e)54.6(e)13 200(e)128.2 Zambia7 82111 14142.45 3237 09633.34 04557.0 Guinea8 931(e)10 433(e)16.83 727(e)4 094(e)9.8(e)6 339(e)154.8 Ta
71、nzania,United Republic of6 0616 3915.48 43910 02418.8-3 634-36.2 LDCs:Asia76 81688 59215.3117 214157 30534.2-68 713-43.7 Bangladesh33 60544 22331.652 804(e)80 448(e)52.4(e)-36 225(e)-45.0 Cambodia17 71617 362-2.019 11428 36948.4-11 007-38.8 Myanmar16 69215 145-9.317 94714 322-20.28235.7 Lao Peoples
72、Dem.Rep.6 1157 69525.85 3706 27516.81 41922.6 Nepal8561 68496.89 85615 89361.3-14 208-89.4 LDCs:Islands6861 05153.21 6892 13926.6-1 087-50.8 Timor-Leste264616133.662587339.5-257-29.5 Solomon Islands379371-2.0(e)479(e)562(e)17.3(e)-191(e)-34.0 Comoros213466.828032817.0-293-89.5 Sao Tome and Principe1
73、42149.213816620.5-145-87.5 Kiribati99-1.613317632.2-167-94.8Table 1.1.2 Merchandise trade of least developed countries,main exportersGroup of economiesExportsImportsTrade balanceValueAnnual growth rateValueAnnual growth rateValueRatio to imports(Millions of US$)(Percentage)(Millions of US$)(Percenta
74、ge)(Millions of US$)(Percentage)2020202221World17 64822 32826.517 87922 58726.3-258-1.1Developed economies10 04512 41023.610 81013 31923.2-909-6.8Developing economies7 6049 91830.47 0699 26731.16507.0 Developing economies:Africa39456142.249162928.1-68-10.8 Developing economies:
75、Americas9511 20827.09171 26738.1-58-4.6 Developing economies:Asia and Oceania6 2588 14930.25 6607 37230.277710.5Selected groupsDeveloping economies excluding China5 0146 55430.75 0036 57931.5-25-0.4Developing economies excluding LDCs7 4199 68330.56 8238 95631.37278.1LDCs18523526.924631126.6-76-24.5L
76、LDCs16821930.320625021.7-31-12.4SIDS(UN-OHRLLS)41953126.741851523.2163.1HIPCs(IMF)13617629.416420423.9-27-13.5BRICS3 4954 65733.32 9293 91433.674319.0G2013 56917 06725.813 79917 36825.9-301-1.7a Ranked by value of exports 2021.International merchandise tradeInternational merchandise trade1911Exporte
77、r(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)South Africa1240.5544.0Nigeria470.2131.7Egypt440.2063.8Algeria(e)37(e)0.16(e)54.2Morocco360.1632.0Developing Africa5612.5142.2Exporter(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Bil
78、lions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)Mexico4952.2218.6Brazil2811.2634.2Chile950.4227.8Argentina780.3542.0Peru590.2750.1Developing Americas1 2085.4127.0Exporter(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)China3 36415.0729.9China,Hong Kong SAR67
79、03.0022.1Singapore4572.0526.2China,Taiwan Province of4482.0128.9United Arab Emirates4251.9026.8Developing Asia and Oceania8 14936.5030.2Importer(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)South Africa(e)114(e)0.50(e)35.6Egypt840.3739.5Morocco5
80、80.2632.4Nigeria520.2345.3Algeria(e)36(e)0.16(e)4.7Developing Africa6292.7828.1Importer(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)Mexico5222.3132.8Brazil2351.0441.1Chile920.4155.7Argentina630.2849.2Colombia610.2740.5Developing Americas1 2675.
81、6138.1Importer(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)China2 68911.9030.1China,Hong Kong SAR7123.1525.0India5732.5453.5Singapore4061.8023.2China,Taiwan Province of3821.6932.6Developing Asia and Oceania7 37232.6430.2Developing economies:Afr
82、icaDeveloping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaTable 1.1.3 Leading exporters and importers in developing economies,by group of economies,20211International merchandise trade2011.2 Trade structure by partnerUnited States of AmericaCanadaMexicoChinaRepublic of Korea JapanTaiwan P
83、rovince of ChinaHong Kong SARGermany125250500Note:Bilateral imports of US$125 billion or more are shown.IntraExtraAfricaNorthern AmericaLatin America andthe CaribbeanAsiaEuropeOceania0255075100Intra-trade is the trade between economies belonging to the same group.Extra-trade is the trade of economie
84、s of the same group with all economies outside the group.It represents the difference between a groups total trade and intra-trade.The exports from an economy A to an economy B do not always equal the imports of economy B from economy A recorded FOB.The reasons for these trade asymmetries include:a
85、conceptual difference between exporting economy and country of origin;different times of recording for exports and imports;different treatment of transit trade;underreporting;measurement errors;mis-pricing and mis-invoicing.The exports to(imports from)all economies of the world do not always exactly
86、 add up to total exports(imports).The difference is caused by ship stores,bunkers and other exports of minor importance.Concepts and defi nitionsMain global trade patternsThe worlds largest bilateral fl ows of merchandise trade run between China and the United States of America,and between their res
87、pective neighbouring economies.In 2021,goods worth US$542 billion were imported by the United States from China and US$181 billion by China from the United States.Chinas trade exports and imports with Hong Kong Special Administrative Region(SAR),Japan,Taiwan,Province of China,and the Republic of Kor
88、ea totalled US$1.58 trillion.The United States trade with Mexico and Canada was worth US$1.34 trillion.Intra-regional trade was most pronounced in Europe.In 2021,68 per cent of all European exports were to trading partners on the same continent.In Asia,this rate was 59 per cent.By contrast,in Oceani
89、a,Latin America and the Caribbean,Africa,and Northern America,most trade was extra-regional.Map 1.2 Main world import fl ows,2021(Billions of United States dollars)Figure 1.2.1 Intra-and extra-regional exports,2021(Percentage of total exports)International trade in services21121International trade i
90、n services21Note:North refers to developed economies,South to developing economies;trade is measured from the export side;deliveries to ship stores and bunkers as well as minor and special-category exports with unspecifi ed destination are not included.Between North and South:US$8.0 trillionNorth-No
91、rth:US$8.5 trillionSouth-South:US$5.4 trillionDeveloping AfricaChinaIndiaUnited States of AmericaSpainItalyDeveloping AmericasUnited States of AmericaChinaBrazilCanadaJapan0200400600Trade within and between hemispheresIn 2021,goods worth US$8.5 trillion were exchanged between developed economies(Nor
92、th-North trade),whereas merchandise trade among developing economies(South-South trade)amounted to US$5.4 trillion.Exports from developed to developing economies and vice-versa(North-South,and South-North trade)totaled US$8.0 trillion.Thus,for developed economies,trade with developing economies was
93、slightly less important than trade within their own group.With whom do developing economies mainly trade?In 2021,developing economies shipped most of their exports to the United States of America(US$1.6 trillion),followed by China(US$1.3 trillion)and other Asian economies.In terms of imports,China r
94、anked number one(US$1.7 trillion)and was distantly followed by the United States of America(US$893 billion),with barely half of the value for China.Exports from American developing economies were more oriented towards the Americas,especially to the United States of America(US$503 billion).For Africa
95、n developing economies,main export markets were in Asia,with China(US$93.7 billion)and India(US$42.5 billion)as the top destinations.United States of America traded US$1.3 trillionwith Canada and Mexico in 202159%of Asias tradeis intra-regionalThe South still trades less with the South than with the
96、 North:US$5.4 trillionUS$8.0trillionUnited States and China the main marketsfor developing economies exportsFigure 1.2.2 Global trade fl ows,2021Figure 1.2.3 Developing economies main export destinations,2021(Billions of United States dollars)1International merchandise trade211International merchand
97、ise trade221OriginDestinationWorldDeveloped economiesDeveloping economiesTotalAfricaAmericasAsia and OceaniaWorld22 14012 9888 9256721 2087 044(100)(59)(40)(3)(5)(32)Developed economies12 2058 4833 5262586942 575(100)(70)(29)(2)(6)(21)Developing economies9 9354 5065 3984145154 470(100)(45)(54)(4)(5)
98、(45)Developing economies:Africa5592573007112217(100)(46)(54)(13)(2)(39)Developing economies:Americas1 206773(100)(59)(39)(2)(15)(23)Developing economies:Asia and Oceania8 1703 5354 6313243273 979(100)(43)(57)(4)(4)(49)Note:Percentage of exports to the whole world in parentheses.OriginYear
99、DestinationWorldDeveloped economiesDeveloping economiesTotalAfricaAmericasAsia and OceaniaWorld201118 19811 1286 8675791 0795 209201615 8899 5366 2565098984 849202122 14012 9888 9256721 2087 044Developed economies201110 6917 4873 0522776342 14120169 2786 4562 7572245691 964202112 2058 4833 526258694
100、2 575Developing economies20117 5073 6413 8153024453 06820166 6113 0803 4992853292 88620219 9354 5065 3984145154 470 Developing economies:Africa208583007112217 Developing economies:Americas20111 2266430211 206773
101、Developing economies:Asia and Oceania20115 7812 6233 1291981942 73820165 3712 3493 0042011752 62820218 1703 5354 6313243273 979Table 1.2.1 Exports by origin and destination,2021(Billions of United States dollars)Table 1.2.2 Exports by origin and destination,selected years(Billions of United States d
102、ollars)International merchandise tradeInternational merchandise trade2311Destination(Ranked by value of exports)Rank202120212016ValueShare in total exportsCumulative share(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)United States of America111 63416.516.5China221 31413.229.7China,Hong Kong SAR335715.735
103、.4Japan444634.740.1India563944.044.0Korea,Republic of653493.547.6Germany772532.550.1Netherlands892392.452.5Viet Nam9132362.454.9Singapore1082212.257.1China,Taiwan Province of11122122.159.3Malaysia12141982.061.2United Kingdom13101942.063.2United Arab Emirates14111771.865.0Thailand15151771.866.8Rest o
104、f the world3 30233.2100.0World9 935100.0_Origin(Ranked by value of imports)Rank202120212016ValueShare in total importsCumulative share(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)China111 68318.318.3United States of America228939.727.9Japan335245.733.6Korea,Republic of444935.439.0China,Taiwan Province o
105、f564715.144.1Germany653183.547.5Malaysia772692.950.5Australia8112552.853.2India992322.555.7Singapore1082162.358.1Brazil11122132.360.4Russian Federation12172012.262.6Viet Nam13201872.064.6Thailand14101852.066.6United Arab Emirates15161842.068.6Rest of the world2 89531.4100.0World9 220100.0_Table 1.2.
106、3 Top destinations of developing economies exportsTable 1.2.4 Top origins of developing economies imports1International merchandise trade2411.3 Trade structure by product All food items Agricultural raw materials Fuels Manufactured goods Ores,metals,precious stones and non-monetary gold No dataNote:
107、Non-allocated products are not considered.The breakdown of merchandise trade by product group is based on the entries in the customs declarations that are coded in accordance with a globally harmonized classification system,called the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System(HS).The values
108、 of the individual customs declarations have been summed up to the level of product group,error-checked and submitted to the United Nations Statistics Division for integration in the UN Comtrade database(United Nations,2022).The UN Comtrade database contains product breakdowns based on the Standard
109、International Trade Classification(SITC).These have been obtained by conversion of the raw data coded in HS and constitute the main source of the figures presented in this section.For correspondence between SITC codes and the five broad product groups presented in this section,see annex 6.2.Concepts
110、 and definitionsRegional specialization patternsThe supply of goods to the world market has a regional pattern.In 2021,economies in Northern and Central America,Europe and Southern,Eastern and South-Eastern Asia exported mainly manufactured goods.Economies mainly exporting fuels were located along t
111、he northern coast of South America,in Middle and Northern Africa and Western and Central Asia.In Africa,primary goods accounted for 77 per cent of merchandise exports in 2021.Fuels made up 44 per cent.Developing Asia and Oceania relied much less on primary goods exports(24 per cent)than developing e
112、conomies in Africa and the Americas.Among the three developing regions,developing America recorded the largest proportion of food exports(24 per cent),and developing Asia and Oceania the lowest(5 per cent).AfricaAmericasAsia and OceaniaAll food itemsAgricultural raw materialsFuelsManufactured goodsO
113、res,metals,precious stones and non-monetary goldMap 1.3 Main export products,2021Figure 1.3.1 Export structure of developing economies by product group,2021(Percentage)International trade in services2512International trade in services252Note:Non-allocated products are not considered.Trade rebound in
114、 all product groupsThe global rebound of merchandise trade in 2021(see section 1.1)was intensely driven by the surge in fuels trade.Fuels exports increased sharply,by 72 per cent.Exports of ores,metals,precious stones,and non-monetary gold grew by 34 per cent and exports of agricultural raw material
115、s increased by 32 per cent.Exports of food grew by 18 per cent,just behind the 22 per cent growth of manufactured goods.What do developing regions trade with others?In 2021,developing economies in Asia and Oceania recorded a merchandise trade surplus of 10 per cent driven by high exports of manufact
116、ured goods.Africas high imports of manufactured products were only partly offset by surpluses in fuel and in ores,metals,precious stones,and monetary gold.Overall,a nine per cent trade defi cit remained.In developing economies of the Americas,positive trade balances in food,in agricultural raw mater
117、ials,and in ores,metals,precious stones,and monetary gold were not enough to offset a negative trade balance in manufacturing.Five per cent trade defi cit persisted.All food itemsAgricultural raw materialsFuelsManufactured goodsOres,metals,precious stonesand non-monetary gold020406080All food itemsA
118、gricultural raw materialsFuelsManufactured goodsOres,metals,precious stones and non-monetary goldExportsImportsExportsImportsExportsImports020406080100120AfricaAmericasAsia andOceaniaManufactures exporters mostly found in Northernand Central AmericaEuropeSouth and East Asia77%of Africas merchandise
119、exportsare primary goodsWorld fuels tradegrew by 72%in 2021In 2021 Africa imported3 times more manufacturedgoods than it exported 11International merchandise trade25Figure 1.3.3 Developing economies extra-trade structure,2021(Percentage of exports)Figure 1.3.2 Annual growth rate of exports by produc
120、t group,2021(Percentage)1International merchandise trade261All food itemsAgricultural raw materialsNote:Percentage of exports to the whole world in parentheses.Table 1.3 Exports by product group,origin and destination,2021(Millions of United States dollars)Note:Percentage of exports to the whole wor
121、ld in parentheses.OriginDestinationWorldDeveloped economiesDeveloping economiesTotalAfricaAmericasAsia and OceaniaWorld1 885 3461 105 648777 492103 195108 712565 585(100)(59)(41)(5)(6)(30)Developed economies1 126 352794 348330 29343 53458 958227 801(100)(71)(29)(4)(5)(20)Developing economies758 9943
122、11 300447 19959 66249 753337 784(100)(41)(59)(8)(7)(45)Developing economies:Africa67 38932 94334 33315 80354717 983(100)(49)(51)(23)(1)(27)Developing economies:Americas274 823130 751143 77311 80842 18489 781(100)(48)(52)(4)(15)(33)Developing economies:Asia and Oceania416 783147 606269 09432 0517 022
123、230 020(100)(35)(65)(8)(2)(55)OriginDestinationWorldDeveloped economiesDeveloping economiesTotalAfricaAmericasAsia and OceaniaWorld305 701162 378142 4847 87411 787122 824(100)(53)(47)(3)(4)(40)Developed economies198 206125 66171 7834 7787 89859 107(100)(63)(36)(2)(4)(30)Developing economies107 49536
124、 71770 7023 0963 88963 717(100)(34)(66)(3)(4)(59)Developing economies:Africa14 1544 3219 8329721038 756(100)(31)(69)(7)(1)(62)Developing economies:Americas25 70311 61214 0161842 07811 754(100)(45)(55)(1)(8)(46)Developing economies:Asia and Oceania67 63820 78346 8541 9401 70743 207(100)(31)(69)(3)(3)
125、(64)International merchandise tradeInternational merchandise trade2711FuelsManufactured goodsOres,metals,precious stones and non-monetary goldNote:Percentage of exports to the whole world in parentheses.Note:Percentage of exports to the whole world in parentheses.Note:Percentage of exports to the wh
126、ole world in parentheses.OriginDestinationWorldDeveloped economiesDeveloping economiesTotalAfricaAmericasAsia and OceaniaWorld2 558 3491 307 0331 158 04391 587140 760925 696(100)(51)(45)(4)(6)(36)Developed economies1 260 976832 455356 17834 293103 236218 649(100)(66)(28)(3)(8)(17)Developing economie
127、s1 297 373474 578801 86557 29437 524707 047(100)(37)(62)(4)(3)(54)Developing economies:Africa191 50993 19197 66613 8364 52479 305(100)(49)(51)(7)(2)(41)Developing economies:Americas113 46931 62164 59396523 61840 010(100)(28)(57)(1)(21)(35)Developing economies:Asia and Oceania992 395349 766639 60542
128、4929 382587 731(100)(35)(64)(4)(1)(59)OriginDestinationWorldDeveloped economiesDeveloping economiesTotalAfricaAmericasAsia and OceaniaWorld15 089 0079 274 1135 804 372427 705862 6574 514 011(100)(61)(38)(3)(6)(30)Developed economies8 244 9785 948 3662 288 374160 676472 1751 655 523(100)(72)(28)(2)(6
129、)(20)Developing economies6 844 0293 325 7473 515 999267 029390 4822 858 488(100)(49)(51)(4)(6)(42)Developing economies:Africa126 86368 11857 84727 5106 13524 202(100)(54)(46)(22)(5)(19)Developing economies:Americas527 791422 955103 7612 69984 73616 327(100)(80)(20)(1)(16)(3)Developing economies:Asia
130、 and Oceania6 189 3752 834 6733 354 390236 819299 6122 817 959(100)(46)(54)(4)(5)(46)OriginDestinationWorldDeveloped economiesDeveloping economiesTotalAfricaAmericasAsia and OceaniaWorld1 725 949824 344888 31832 44333 428822 447(100)(48)(51)(2)(2)(48)Developed economies911 705530 553368 4548 75516 9
131、46342 753(100)(58)(40)(1)(2)(38)Developing economies814 244293 791519 86423 68816 481479 695(100)(36)(64)(3)(2)(59)Developing economies:Africa158 46157 821100 62812 62095487 054(100)(36)(64)(8)(1)(55)Developing economies:Americas201 08283 581116 9338128 726107 396(100)(42)(58)(0)(4)(53)Developing ec
132、onomies:Asia and Oceania454 701152 389302 30310 2576 802285 244(100)(34)(66)(2)(1)(63)1International merchandise trade2811.4 Trade indicators50 and more35 to less than 5025 to less than 3515 to less than 250 to less than 15No dataNote:This index measures the importance of international trade in good
133、s relative to the domestic economic output of an economy.Exports are given equal weight to imports.Note:This index indicates how much the relative price between exports and imports has changed in relation to the base year.This section presents different indices that can be used to analyze trade fl o
134、ws and trade patterns over time from the perspective of,for example,relative competitiveness,structure of global exports and imports markets,or the importance of trade for the economy,both for individual economies and for groups of economies.For information on how the indices in this section are cal
135、culated,see annex 6.3.The presented indices are a subset of the trade indices available at UNCTADstat(UNCTAD,2022a).Concepts and definitionsHow important is trade for economies?In 2021,Hong Kong SAR remained the most open economy to international trade,as indicated by the trade openness index of 182
136、 per cent.Singapore(115 per cent),Viet Nam(115 cent),and Djibouti(100 per cent)ranked second,third and fourth.The index stood at 17 and 16 per cent respectively in China and India.Japan and the United States of America recorded an index score of 15 per cent or below.Iran is identifi ed as the least
137、open economy(5 per cent).How did the relative price of exports to imports develop?In 2021,the terms of trade improved in almost all geographical regions,except Asia,where they declined by 0.6 per cent.The largest increase of 23.3 per cent was recorded in Oceania,followed by Africa(22.3 per cent)and
138、Northern America(7.1 per cent).The terms of trade of European countries was 1.6 per cent higher than in the previous year.2005200052000800800Northern AmericaLatin America and the CaribbeanEuropeAfricaAsiaOceaniaMap 1.4 Trade openness index,2021(
139、Percentage)Figure 1.4.1 Terms of trade index(2015=100)International trade in services29121International trade in services2921Note:This index measures the extent to which a large share of exports is accounted for by a small number of product groups.The index has a value of 1 when an economy exports o
140、nly one group of products and a value of 0 if all product groups are equally represented.Note:This index measures the extent to which a high proportion of exports is delivered by a small number of economies.It has a value of 1 if all exports originate from a single economy.How concentrated is global
141、 product supply?Large differences persist in the degree to which global supply is concentrated among exporting economies.Over the past 17 years,manufactured products have been the product group with the highest concentration of exports supply among economies with the index score averaging 0.19 for t
142、he period.In 2021,it stood at 0.21,as compared to index scores between 0.12 and 0.15 recorded for the other product groups.Fuels(0.15)remained the group with the second highest market concentration of exports.How concentrated was the structure of exports?Export diversifi cation varies signifi cantly
143、 across regions.In 2021,the highest concentration of exports over products was recorded by Western Asia and Northern Africa(0.28),followed by Oceania(0.27)and Sub-Saharan Africa(0.22).Exports of European(0.06)and Northern American(0.08)economies were more diversifi ed.Five African countries with str
144、ong reliance on exports of natural resources had the worlds highest product concentration of exports:the South Sudan(0.93),Botswana(0.89),Mali(0.89),Guinea-Bissau(0.88),and Chad(0.87).Manufactured goodsFuelsAgricultural raw materialsOres,metals,precious stones and non-monetary goldAll food items2005
145、20.100.140.180.22Western Asia and Northern AfricaOceaniaSub-Saharan AfricaEastern and South-Eastern AsiaCentral and Southern AsiaLatin America and the CaribbeanNorthern AmericaEurope00.10.20.3Hong Kong SAR ranks highestin trade-opennessIranis placed at the bottomOceaniasterms of trade imp
146、roved in 2021+23.3%Global supply of manufactured goods more concentrated than other product groups among exporters Exports from Western Asia and Northern Africa highly concentrated on a narrow range of productsInternational merchandise trade129Figure 1.4.3 Product concentration index of exports,2021
147、Figure 1.4.2 Market concentration index of exports1International merchandise trade301Developing economiesDeveloping economies:AfricaDeveloping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaYearVolumeaPurchasing power of exportsbTerms of tradecImportsExports200992020106
148、201Developed economiesa This index indicates the change in exports or imports,adjusted for the movement of prices,relative to the base year.b This index indicates the change in exports,valued in prices of imports,relative to the base year.c See note,figure 1.4.1 above.a This in
149、dex indicates the change in exports or imports,adjusted for the movement of prices,relative to the base year.b This index indicates the change in exports,valued in prices of imports,relative to the base year.c See note,figure 1.4.1 above.a This index indicates the change in exports or imports,adjust
150、ed for the movement of prices,relative to the base year.b This index indicates the change in exports,valued in prices of imports,relative to the base year.c See note,figure 1.4.1 above.Table 1.4.1 Selected trade indices by group of economies(2015=100)YearVolumeaPurchasing power of exportsbTerms of t
151、radecImportsExports202009YearVolumeaPurchasing power of exportsbTerms of tradecImportsExports2059397116124YearVolumeaPurchasing power of exportsbTerms of tradecImportsExports20420
152、2YearVolumeaPurchasing power of exportsbTerms of tradecImportsExports200982020020200International merchandise tradeInternational merchandise trade3111EconomyVolumeaPurchasing power of exportsbTerms of tradecImportsExports20
153、2020220202120202021Afghanistan82557118106Armenia88Azerbaijan811580157Bhutan8093105151Bolivia(Plurinational State of)62757074699798131Botswana90019486Burkina Faso81Burundi7Central
154、African Republic61491639893Chad67649277749280119Eswatini39798106Ethiopia7679299105Kazakhstan9510292133Kyrgyzstan8997131125Lao Peoples Dem.Rep.9089111170Lesotho857897Malawi0819390Mali04Moldov
155、a,Republic of28Mongolia08Nepal27Niger48999105North Macedonia41361359688ParaguayRwanda97981119119Tajikistan88969127136Turkmenistan4450185Uganda1164
156、141104108Uzbekistan4Zambia69131102122Zimbabwe7888810998Table 1.4.2 Selected trade indices,landlocked developing countries(2015=100)a This index indicates the change in exports or imports,adjusted for the movement of prices,relative to the base year.b This
157、index indicates the change in exports,valued in prices of imports,relative to the base year.c See note,figure 1.4.1 above.321International merchandise trade1INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN SERVICES2International merchandise trade1International trade in servicesNOWCAST 2022KEY FIGURES 2021Share of travel in w
158、orld servicesexports10.1%Value of worldservices exportsUS$6.1 trillion332Growth of global services exports+14.6%Change of world services exports+17.2%1International trade in services3422.1 Total trade in servicesNote:The dotted line indicates UNCTAD nowcasts.For the weekly update of the nowcast and
159、its methodology,see UNCTAD(2022b).Recovery in 2021,solid growth in 2022After the pandemic-driven decline of 17.7 per cent in 2020,world services exports entered a recovery path in 2021.Growth in services exports of 14.6 per cent is nowcast for 2022.This would mean a new record high of US$7 trillion.
160、In 2021,global services exports were valued at US$6.1 trillion,representing 6.3 per cent of world GDP and 21.4 per cent of total world trade in both goods and services.After the plunge of travel and transport during the pandemic in 2020,international services flows recovered in 2021 and almost reach
161、ed their 2019 levels.In 2021,the services exports share in GDP exceeded 30 per cent in 22 economies.Those are either small islands where travel exports are important,or other small economies with significant business and financial services exports.Notably,Luxembourg and Malta recorded services expor
162、ts at 165 and 110 per cent of GDP,respectively.2006200820002202468In this chapter,in accordance with the concepts of the balance of payments(IMF,2009)and national accounts(United Nations et al.,2009),services are understood as the result of a production activity that changes th
163、e conditions of the consuming units,or facilitates the exchange of products or financial assets.International trade in services takes place when a service is supplied in any of the following modes:from one economy to another(services cross the border);within an economy to service a consumer of anoth
164、er economy(consumer crosses the border);or through the presence of natural persons of one economy in another economy(supplier crosses the border)(United Nations et al.,2012).Trade-in-services figures are jointly compiled by UNCTAD and WTO.Concepts and definitionsFigure 2.1.1 World services exports(T
165、rillions of United States dollars)Map 2.1 Exports of services as a ratio to gross domestic product,2021(Percentage)20 and more10 to less than 203 to less than 100 to less than 3No data20 and more10 to less than 203 to less than 100 to less than 3No data35International trade in services12All regions
166、recovered in 2021Looking at the trends by development status and region,a solid recovery of services exports was observed in all groups of economies.The highest relative rise was measured in American developing economies,where travel and transport have held a prominent role and had more ground to re
167、cover after the pandemic.Asian developing economies growth was less driven by recovery in travel,but rather by a signifi cant rise in transport exports,as well as in intellectual property,insurance,and business services that those economies supplied abroad.Leading services exportersWith US$795 billi
168、on worth of services sold internationally in 2021,the United States of America remained the worlds leading exporter,capturing a 13 per cent share of the global market.It was followed,at some distance,by the United Kingdom(US$418 billion).China,the leading exporter among developing economies,ranked t
169、hird(US$392 billion).The top fi ve services exporters from the developing world were Asian.In 2021,they captured 17 per cent of the global market.ImportsExports0102030Developed economiesDeveloping economiesDeveloping economies:AfricaDeveloping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaE
170、xports from developing economies20202021ChinaIndiaSingaporeUnited Arab EmiratesChina,Hong Kong SARExports from developed economies20202021United States of AmericaUnited KingdomGermanyIrelandFrance0200400600800Global services exports nowcast to reach US$7 trillion in 2022International services export
171、s accountedfor 6.3%of world GDPin 2021 almost 1 percentage pointless than before COVID-196.3%In 2021,developing economies services exports recovered well by 22%from 2020supplied 17%of internationallytraded services in 2021Top 5 exportersfrom the developingworldFigure 2.1.2 Services trade annual grow
172、th rates,2021(Percentage)Figure 2.1.3 Top fi ve services exporters,2021(Billions of United States dollars)1International trade in services362Table 2.1.1 Trade in services by group of economiesGroup of economiesExportsImportsValueShare in worldBiannual changeaValueShare in worldBiannual changea(Billi
173、ons of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)2000221World6 2916 072100.0-3.56 0335 623100.0-6.8Developed economies4 5054 42172.8-1.93 9713 76867.0-5.1Developing economies1 7861 65127.2-7.62 0621 85533.0-10.0 Developing economies:Africa1
174、261001.7-20.31911602.8-16.4 Developing economies:Americas2011582.6-21.82291983.5-13.6 Developing economies:Asia and Oceania1 4581 39322.9-4.51 6421 49826.6-8.8Selected groupsDeveloping economies excluding China1 5031 25920.7-16.21 5611 41425.1-9.4Developing economies excluding LDCs1 7371 61626.6-6.9
175、1 9901 78431.7-10.3LDCs49350.6-29.771711.3-0.5LLDCs46360.6-22.371641.1-10.5SIDS(UN-OHRLLS)2882874.7-0.62472654.77.0HIPCs(IMF)43360.6-16.067701.23.4BRICS61173212.119.886577713.8-10.2G204 9134 90180.7-0.24 6704 38678.0-6.1Developed economiesDeveloping economiesExporter(Ranked by value)ValueShare in wo
176、rld totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)United States of America79513.19.5United Kingdom4186.98.2Germany(e)377(e)6.2(e)21.4Ireland3385.621.2France3035.019.0Developed economies4 42172.815.5Exporter(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$
177、)(Percentage)(Percentage)China(e)392(e)6.5(e)39.8India2414.018.5Singapore2303.89.6United Arab Emirates1021.730.4China,Hong Kong SAR771.314.7Developing economies1 65127.222.1Importer(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)United States of A
178、merica5509.817.9Germany(e)381(e)6.8(e)22.5Ireland3416.1-2.3France2584.69.5United Kingdom2434.314.7Developed economies3 76867.013.7Importer(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)China(e)441(e)7.8(e)15.8Singapore2244.09.7India(e)196(e)3.5(e
179、)27.5United Arab Emirates761.423.0Saudi Arabia731.330.2Developing economies1 85533.016.4Table 2.1.2 Leading services exporters and importers by group of economies,2021a Year 2021 compared to pre-pandemic year 2019,percentage difference.International trade in servicesInternational trade in services12
180、37Developing economies:Asia and OceaniaExporter(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)China(e)392(e)6.5(e)39.8India2414.018.5Singapore2303.89.6United Arab Emirates1021.730.4China,Hong Kong SAR771.314.7Developing Asia and Oceania1 39322.92
181、1.9Importer(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)China(e)441(e)7.8(e)15.8Singapore2244.09.7India(e)196(e)3.5(e)27.5United Arab Emirates761.423.0Saudi Arabia731.330.2Developing Asia and Oceania1 49826.616.6Exporter(Ranked by value)ValueSh
182、are in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)Egypt(e)22(e)0.4(e)45.5Morocco150.311.5Ghana(e)9(e)0.2(e)20.6South Africa90.15.2Ethiopia(e)6(e)0.1(e)25.0Developing Africa1001.720.6Importer(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Perce
183、ntage)(Percentage)Egypt(e)23(e)0.4(e)26.1Nigeria(e)15(e)0.3(e)-23.5South Africa140.220.1Ghana(e)12(e)0.2(e)1.8Morocco90.219.4Developing Africa1602.88.8Developing economies:AfricaDeveloping economies:AmericasExporter(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percent
184、age)(Percentage)Brazil330.516.1Mexico(e)27(e)0.4(e)60.4Panama110.225.4Argentina90.2-0.4Costa Rica(e)9(e)0.1(e)12.3Developing Americas1582.625.1Importer(Ranked by value)ValueShare in world totalAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)Brazil500.91.5Mexico(e)39(e)0.7(e)37.7Chile(e)16
185、(e)0.3(e)39.3Colombia(e)13(e)0.2(e)30.1Argentina130.210.3Developing Americas1983.522.11International trade in services3822.2 Trade in services by categoryLatin America andthe CaribbeanNorthern AmericaOceaniaEuropeaAfricaAsiaOther categories Transport Travel Insurance,financial,intellectualproperty,a
186、nd other business servicesTelecommunications,computerand information1051*Least squares growth rate(see annex 6.3).a Including the Russian Federation and the French overseas departments.The breakdown by service category in this section has been built from the division of services in the balance of pa
187、yments statistics,known as the 2010 Extended Balance of Payments Services Classification(EBOPS 2010)(United Nations et al.,2012).For the correspondence to the EBOPS 2010 categories and to the main groups presented in UNCTADstat,see annex 6.2.The presented trade-in-services figures are jointly compil
188、ed by UNCTAD and WTO.Regional trends over the last five yearsInternational trade in services was more severely hit by the COVID-19 pandemic than merchandise trade.Among services,travel and transport were most affected.Owing to a renewed demand for goods,transport recovered rapidly and strongly in 20
189、21,especially in Asia and Europe.By contrast,travel,particularly long-distance travel,continued to suffer,pinning the five-year average growth rate of global international travel receipts to-16 per cent.From 2016 to 2019,services trade enjoyed growth across main services categories on all continents
190、.Africas travel exports rose substantially,while other regions registered solid gains in telecommunications and computer services.Financial,insurance,business,and intellectual property services rose globally before and then remained afloat during the pandemic.Expectedly,telecommunications and comput
191、er services exports grew during the pandemic,especially in Europe and Asia.TransportTravelInsurance,financial,intellectual property,andother business servicesTelecommunications,computer and informationOther categories010203040Concepts and definitionsMap 2.2 Growth in services exports by category,201
192、62021(Average annual growth rate*,percentage)Figure 2.2.1 Annual growth rate of services exports,2021(Percentage)391391Transport services exports 35%up in 2021 more than a recovery from the pandemicInternational travel struggled to regain groundin 2021Developingeconomies supplied 27%of global servic
193、es exportsin 202127%Solid growth of IT services exportsin African and American developing economiesGlobal trends by service category in 2021Among main service categories,transport exports recorded the highest annual growth in 2021(+35 per cent).They were followed by exports of telecommunications,com
194、puter,and information services,which rose by 19 per cent.After plummeting by over 60 per cent in 2020,travel recovered just partially during 2021,rising by 11 per cent.This sector remained particularly signifi cant in services trade of Africa and developing America.Transport and travel together acco
195、unted for over half of their services exports.In developed economies,travel and transport represented one quarter of total services sold abroad.Telecommunications,computer,and information servicesIn 2021,73 per cent of global services were supplied from developed economies,whose exports were dominat
196、ed by insurance,fi nancial,intellectual property,telecommunications,computer,and other business services.Telecommunications,computer,and information services continued to build on the strong demand during the pandemic.Globally,they expanded by 19 per cent in 2021,more than double their growth from t
197、he year before.African exports of those services were 14 per cent higher in 2021 than in 2020.With 20 per cent growth,American developing economies caught up with the increasing trend in other regions for this service category.These services often underpin intra-fi rm collaboration,business-to-busin
198、ess and business-to-clients connectivity,and digital trade.Developed economiesDeveloping economiesDeveloping economies:AfricaDeveloping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaTransportTravelInsurance,financial,intellectual property,and other business servicesTelecommunications,comput
199、er and informationOther categories00708090100Developing economies:AfricaDeveloping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaDeveloped economies20192052International trade in servicesFigure 2.2.2 Structure of services exports,2021(Percentage)Figure 2.2.3 Grow
200、th of exports of telecommunications,computer,and information services,by group of economies,20192021(Percentage)391International trade in services402Developing economiesDeveloping economies:AfricaDeveloped economiesWorldTable 2.2.1 Trade in services by service category and group of economiesService
201、categoryExportsImportsBalanceValueAnnual growth rateValueAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)2000162021Total services1 3971 65122.11 7481 85516.4-352-204Transport28243244.745565636.6-173-224Travel47321111.5568265-2.8-95-5
202、4Others6411 00816.672693411.2-8474Service categoryExportsImportsBalanceValueAnnual growth rateValueAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)2000162021Total services3 6944 42115.53 1823 76813.7512653Transport57972630.256371831.
203、8168Travel76040410.864434521.211659Others2 3553 29013.21 9752 7058.9380585Service categoryExportsImportsValueAnnual growth rateValueAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)2001620212021Total services5 0916 07217.24 9305 62314.6Transport8611 15835.31 018
204、1 37434.0Travel1 23461511.11 2126109.4Others2 9964 29814.02 7013 6399.4Service categoryExportsImportsBalanceValueAnnual growth rateValueAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)2000162021Total services9510020.61421608.8-47-59T
205、ransport262916.0556418.7-28-36Travel352633.9201910.2147Others344617.066761.3-32-31Note:Exports do not equal imports at world level,due to imperfect geographical coverage and cross-country differences in compilation methods.International trade in servicesInternational trade in services4112Developing
206、economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaGroup of economiesInsurance and pension servicesFinancial servicesCharges for the use of intellectual property n.i.e.Telecommunications,computer,and information servicesOther business servicesWorld183 262630 319452 082896 4181 595 661Northern Am
207、erica24 459183 471133 14972 889254 069Latin America and the Caribbean6 5935 8121 26312 86536 019Europe97 582330 189223 462525 374827 053Sub-Saharan Africa1 0283 9852993 66713 048Western Asia and Northern Africa32 1545 5797 55748 51441 608Central and Southern Asia3 3705 81394987 12897 510Eastern and
208、South-Eastern Asia17 41491 69283 028140 385315 900Oceania6633 7782 3755 59510 454Selected groupsDeveloping economies excluding China52 13287 56523 598168 437311 369Developing economies excluding LDCs57 22892 07335 492243 124401 044LDCs210599542 3053 942LLDCs3575971062 8664 107SIDS(UN-OHRLLS)14 84639
209、 66411 70521 74481 334HIPCs(IMF)4001 446922 0919 019BRICS9 91213 82215 094170 336218 262G20132 740523 132396 928765 6201 338 244Table 2.2.2 Exports of selected services,by region,2021(Millions of United States dollars)Service categoryExportsImportsBalanceValueAnnual growth rateValueAnnual growth rat
210、e(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)2000162021Total services17915825.121019822.1-31-40Transport262722.4557358.4-28-45Travel835146.7552223.12929Others697915.11001034.9-31-23Service categoryExportsImportsBalanceValueAnnual growth rateValueA
211、nnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)2000162021Total services1 1231 39321.91 3971 49816.6-274-105Transport22937749.534551936.5-116-143Travel355133-0.9493223-5.8-137-90Others53888316.855975513.2-21128ECONOMIC TRENDS3Economic
212、 trends1343NOWCAST 2022World real GDP growth+3.3%LDCsKEY FIGURES 2021UNCTAD Commodity Price Index+55%FDI inflows to LDCsUS$26 billionChange of world real GDP per capita+4.7%1Economic trends4433.1 Gross domestic productNote:In constant 2015 United States dollars.The dotted line indicates UNCTAD nowca
213、sts.For the weekly update of the nowcast and its methodology,see UNCTAD(2022b).Trends in global economyAfter a sharp contraction of 3.4 per cent in 2020,the worlds real GDP expanded by 5.7 per cent in 2021,the fastest annual growth since 1973.In 2022,GDP growth is nowcast to slow down to 3.3 per cen
214、t.Large differences in GDP per capita persist throughout the world.In 2021,most developed economies produced an output per person greater than US$30 000,with economies in Eastern and Northern Europe as the main exceptions.By contrast,almost half of the developing economies in Africa all of them leas
215、t developed countries(LDCs)recorded a per capita output of less than US$1 300.Most developing economies in the Americas,Asia and Oceania reached an output higher than US$3 000 per person.20062008200022-4-20246 30 000 and more 8 000 to less than 30 000 3 000 to less than 8 000 1
216、 000 to less than 3 000 0 to less than 1 000 No dataGDP is an aggregate measure of production,income and expenditure of an economy.As a production measure,it represents the gross value added,i.e.,the output net of intermediate consumption,achieved by all resident units engaged in production,plus any
217、 taxes less subsidies on products not included in the value of output.As an income measure,it represents the sum of primary incomes(gross wages and entrepreneurial income)distributed by resident producers,plus taxes less subsidies on production and imports.As an expenditure measure,it depicts the su
218、m of expenditure on final consumption,gross capital formation(i.e.,investment,changes in inventories,and acquisitions less disposals of valuables)and exports after deduction of imports(United Nations et al.,2009).The GDP figures presented in this section are usually calculated from the expenditure s
219、ide.Figure 3.1.1 World real gross domestic product,annual growth rate(Percentage)Map 3.1 Gross domestic product per capita,2021(United States dollars)Concepts and definitionsEconomic trends4513Note:Lorenz curves,as in this graph,reveal the structure of inequality.Inequality is greater the further th
220、e curve runs below the diagonal line(see annex 6.3).Inequality within economies is not considered.Note:In constant 2015 United States dollars.Regional trendsGrowth was unevenly distributed across regions in 2021.Developed regions bounced back from the COVID-19 pandemic with a growth rate of 5.0 per
221、cent.After a strong contraction of 2.7 per cent in 2020,developing Africas GDP expanded by 5.0 per cent in 2021.Developing Asias GDP growth rebounded from-0.4 per cent to 7.0 per cent in 2021.Developing Americas GDP increased by 6.2 per cent in 2021,following a 7.4 per cent drop in 2020.LDCs GDP gre
222、w by 2.0 per cent in 2021 remaining below the 7 per cent target set by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.At the same time,their GDP per capita declined by 0.4 per cent.Global economic inequalityOver the last 10 years,the global distribution of nominal GDP across economies has trended towar
223、ds more equal.For example,in 2011,the poorest economies,accounting for 85 per cent of the worlds population,contributed 36 per cent to world GDP.By 2021,their share in GDP was 40 per cent.The last fi ve years,however,did not show any clear reduction in inequality.The highest GDP per capita,in nomina
224、l terms,was recorded for Luxembourg(US$132 918),Bermuda(US$126 972),Cayman Islands(US$99 007),Ireland(US$97 753)and Switzerland,Liechtenstein(US$93 217).012345678Developed economiesDeveloping economiesDeveloping economies:AfricaDeveloping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaPropor
225、tion of the world population,ordered by economy-level GDP per capitaCumulative share in world nominal GDP201120162021Equality00.20.40.60.810.00.20.40.60.81.0Growth of world GDP nowcast to slow down to 3.3%in 2022The richest economies,accounting for 62%of the world GDP in 2021,host only 16%of the wor
226、lds populationGDP growth in LDCs still below2030 Agendatarget of 7%World GDP increased by 5.7%in 2021 +5.7%Figure 3.1.2 Growth of real gross domestic product by group of economies,2021(Percentage)Figure 3.1.3 Distribution of world gross domestic product(Percentage)1Economic trends463a In constant 20
227、15 United States dollars.Table 3.1.1 Gross domestic product and gross domestic product per capitaGroup of economiesFinal consumptionGross capital formationNet exportsof goodsand servicesHouseholdsaGovernmentbWorld55.417.526.40.8Developed economies58.618.822.20.3Developing economies50.215.533.11.5 De
228、veloping economies:Africa69.113.822.7-5.7 Developing economies:Americas64.216.917.20.8 Developing economies:Asia and Oceania46.015.436.82.2Selected groupsDeveloping economies excluding China59.814.724.60.5Developing economies excluding LDCs49.515.733.31.8LDCs71.110.726.4-7.9LLDCs63.913.926.9-5.6SIDS
229、(UN-OHRLLS)48.417.820.712.9HIPCs(IMF)71.211.825.1-7.8BRICS44.216.238.12.3G2054.817.926.70.7a Including non-profit institutions serving households.b General government.Table 3.1.2 Nominal gross domestic product by type of expenditure,2020(Percentage)Group of economiesValueAnnual growth rateNominal GD
230、PNominal GDPper capitaReal GDPaReal GDPa per capita(Billions of US$)(US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)2022120202021World96 24112 170-3.45.7-4.34.7Developed economies57 96443 149-4.45.0-4.64.9Developing economies38 2775 831-1.86.7-2.95.6 Developing economies:Africa2 6661 915-2.75.0-5.02.5 Devel
231、oping economies:Americas5 1407 888-7.46.2-8.15.5 Developing economies:Asia and Oceania30 4716 740-0.57.0-1.36.2Selected groupsDeveloping economies excluding China20 9784 082-4.85.6-6.14.2Developing economies excluding LDCs37 0766 784-1.86.9-2.76.0LDCs1 2011 092-0.02.0-2.4-0.4LLDCs9001 635-1.34.2-3.7
232、1.8SIDS(UN-OHRLLS)81411 732-6.85.2-7.74.3HIPCs(IMF)8271 0180.54.1-2.31.3BRICS24 2217 447-0.07.6-0.67.1G2082 58816 806-3.35.9-3.85.5Economic trendsEconomic trends1347Group of economiesAgricultureIndustryServices2002020102020World4.14.529.127.366.868.2Developed economies1.51.424.622.873.975
233、.7Developing economies9.59.438.834.251.756.4 Developing economies:Africa15.117.534.029.550.953.0 Developing economies:Americas5.36.332.127.462.566.3 Developing economies:Asia and Oceania10.29.241.835.748.055.1Selected groupsDeveloping economies excluding China9.410.635.630.955.158.4Developing econom
234、ies excluding LDCs9.09.039.134.451.856.7LDCs24.121.229.129.846.949.1LLDCs16.917.935.631.447.550.7SIDS(UN-OHRLLS)3.33.427.826.568.970.1HIPCs(IMF)25.324.827.027.647.747.6BRICS9.38.839.435.351.355.9G203.43.728.126.868.669.5EconomyNominal valueReal annual growth rateaStructure by type of expenditureFina
235、l consumptionGross capitalformationNet exportsof goodsand servicesHouseholdbGovernmentc(US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)(Percentage)(Percentage)(Percentage)20202022020202020Luxembourg116 360132 9183.330.718.317.933.1Bermuda120 552126 9723.947.211.813.924.9Cayman Islands92 94499 0073.552.79.61
236、5.721.5Ireland86 10697 75310.125.112.640.922.3Switzerland,Liechtenstein87 48393 6452.751.011.928.48.8Norway67 38588 7922.843.826.530.1-0.4Qatar53 03669 0666.326.223.342.48.1Iceland59 23168 4482.451.327.821.6-0.7United States of America61 88067 9045.467.214.721.1-3.0Denmark61 12467 3483.246.024.722.9
237、6.5Note:Economies are ranked by the nominal value in 2021.a In constant 2015 United States dollars.b Including non-profit institutions serving households.c General government.Table 3.1.3 Nominal gross value added by economic activity(Percentage)Table 3.1.4 Economies with highest gross domestic produ
238、ct per capita1Economic trends4833.2 Current account 5 and more 1 to less than 5 -1 to less than 1 -5 to less than-1 -10 to less than-5 Less than-10 No dataNote:Current account deficits and surpluses do not add up to zero at the world level,due to imperfect geographic coverage and cross-country diffe
239、rences in compilation methods.The current account,within the balance of payments,displays the transactions between residents and non-residents of a reporting economy,involving economic values,namely the cross-national exchange of goods and services as well as cross-national transfers of primary and
240、secondary income.The current account balance shows the difference between the sum of exports and income receivable,and the sum of imports and income payable,where exports and imports refer to both goods and services,while income refers to both primary and secondary income.A surplus in the current ac
241、count is recorded when receipts exceed payments;a deficit is recorded when payments exceed receipts.The current account data in this section correspond to the latest reporting standard,known as BPM6,defined by the International Monetary Fund(IMF,2009).Current account imbalances across the worldRecei
242、pts earned by economies from transactions with other economies often differ significantly from the payments made.In 2021,for most economies in the Americas,Africa,South-Eastern Europe,and Central and Western Asia,payments exceeded receipts,leading to negative current account balances.Higher surpluse
243、s were found mainly in Central and Northern Europe,Eastern Asia,and Oceania.Most economies in Europe and South-Eastern Asia recorded relatively balanced current accounts.Developing economiesDeveloped economiesCurrent accountTrade in goodsTrade in goods and servicesTrade in services2001620
244、00182020-600-6008001000Concepts and definitionsMap 3.2 Current account balance as a ratio to gross domestic product,2021(Percentage)Figure 3.2.1 Balances in the current account(Billions of United States dollars)491491In 2021,Guinea and Papua New Guinea recorded th
245、e highest current account surpluses relative to GDP(above 20 per cent).Singapore,Kiribati,Kuwait,and Azerbaijan enjoyed surpluses of over 15 per cent of their respective GDP.In absolute terms,the United States of America(US$822 billion)and the United Kingdom(US$83 billion)ran the worlds largest curr
246、ent account defi cits.China(US$317 billion)recorded the largest absolute surplus,followed by Germany(US$314 billion)and Japan(US$142 billion).In 2021,the current account surplus of developing economies stood at US$480 billion,more than triple the amount recorded for 2019(US$152 billion).Geographical
247、ly,the increase in the current account balance can largely be attributed to a growing surplus in developing economies of Asia and Oceania.This group of economies recorded about US$100 billion rise each year since 2018.This was combined with a shrinking defi cit in developing economies in America.The
248、 current account surplus of developed economies was recorded at US$230 billion in 2021.Least developed countries defi cit up in 2021After fi ve years of almost continuous decline of LDCs current account defi cit since 2015,resulting in its reduction by almost a half,from US$60 billion to US$31 in 20
249、20,in 2021,their current account defi cit rose again to US$55 billion.The trade defi cit also increased,surpassing US$100 billion.Greater relative current account defi cit,accounting for 4.6 per cent of GDP in 2021,distinguishes LDCs from other developing economies,which,as a group,ran a surplus of
250、1.3 per cent of GDP.Higher defi cits relative to GDP were registered for the groups of heavily indebted poor countries(HIPCs)(3.7 per cent)and landlocked developing countries(LLDCs)(2.9 per cent).As a group,SIDS registered a comfortable 9 per cent surplus.Yet,some SIDS faced defi cits close to,or ov
251、er,25 per cent of GDP.Current accountTrade in goods and services2001620182020-120-100-80-60-40-200Developing economies surplus tripledfrom 2019 to 2021 to US$480 billionx3United Statesof America keeps having worlds largest defcit:US$822 billionin 2021Current accountdefcit larger thanin so
252、meSIDSof GDP41LDCs defcitshrank from 2015 to 2020,thenincreased again in 20213Economic trendsFigure 3.2.2 Balances in least developed countries current account(Billions of United States dollars)491Economic trends503Group of economiesValueRatio to GDP(Billions of US$)(Percentage)20172021a202020212017
253、2021a20202021World4814287100.50.50.7Developed economies243642300.50.10.4Developing economies2393644800.71.11.3 Developing economies:Africa-72-88-41-2.9-3.6-1.6 Developing economies:Americas-82-1-77-1.5-0.0-1.5 Developing economies:Asia and Oceania3934525981.51.72.0Selected groupsDeveloping economies
254、 excluding China621151620.30.60.8Developing economies excluding LDCs2833955340.81.21.4LDCs-44-31-55-3.9-2.7-4.6LLDCs-29-28-26-3.5-3.4-2.9SIDS(UN-OHRLLS)5749717.56.89.0HIPCs(IMF)-34-26-30-4.6-3.4-3.7BRICS1843003920.81.51.6G202532513910.30.30.5Developed economiesEconomy(Ranked by export share)Current
255、account balanceTrade balanceaExportsaImportsaValueRatio to GDPValueShare in worldShare in world(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)United States of America-822-3.6-8469.212.6Germany3147.4(e)224(e)7.1(e)6.6France110.4-363.33.6Japan1422.9(e)-24(e)3.3(e)3.5Netherlands9
256、79.6(e)94(e)3.2(e)3.0Developed economies2300.423759.460.6a Goods and services.Table 3.2.1 Current account balance by group of economiesTable 3.2.2 Current account balance in largest surplus and deficit economiesTable 3.2.3 Current accounts of leading exporters(goods and services)by group of economie
257、s,2021Note:Current account deficits and surpluses do not add up to zero at the world level,due to imperfect geographic coverage and cross-country differences in compilation methods.a Annual average.a Annual average.Economy(Ranked by 2021 value)20172021a20202021ValueRatio to GDPValueRatio to GDPValue
258、Ratio to GDP(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)China1761.22491.73171.8Germany2987.62747.13147.4Japan1693.41472.91422.9Russian Federation744.4362.41226.9China,Taiwan Province of8613.09514.211514.6.Chile-9-3.031.3-20-6.4Brazil-38-2.1-24-1.7-28-1.7Ind
259、ia-27-0.9331.2-35-1.1United Kingdom-88-3.1-70-2.5-83-2.6United States of America-542-2.5-616-2.9-822-3.6Economic trendsEconomic trends5113Developing economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaDeveloping economiesEconomy(Ranked by export share)Current account balanceTrade balanceaExportsa
260、ImportsaValueRatio to GDPValueShare in worldShare in world(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)Mexico-5-0.4(e)-22(e)1.9(e)2.0Brazil-28-1.7191.11.1Chile-20-6.4(e)1(e)0.4(e)0.4Argentina71.4150.30.3Peru-5-2.470.20.2Developing Americas-77-1.5-484.95.3Economy(Ranked by ex
261、port share)Current account balanceTrade balanceaExportsaImportsaValueRatio to GDPValueShare in worldShare in world(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)China3171.8(e)514(e)12.9(e)11.5China,Hong Kong SAR4211.3182.72.7Singapore7218.71252.62.3India-35-1.1(e)-1332.3(e)2.9
262、China,Taiwan Province of11514.61031.81.5Developing Asia and Oceania5982.083433.331.4Economy(Ranked by export share)Current account balanceTrade balanceaExportsaImportsaValueRatio to GDPValueShare in worldShare in world(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)China3171.8(
263、e)514(e)12.9(e)11.5China,Hong Kong SAR4211.3182.72.7Singapore7218.71252.62.3India-35-1.1(e)-1332.3(e)2.9Mexico-5-0.4(e)-22(e)1.9(e)2.0Developing economies4801.369940.639.4Economy(Ranked by export share)Current account balanceTrade balanceaExportsaImportsaValueRatio to GDPValueShare in worldShare in
264、world(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)South Africa164.1260.50.4Egypt(e)-18(e)-4.5(e)-36(e)0.2(e)0.3Nigeria(e)-4(e)-0.8(e)-14(e)0.2(e)0.2Morocco-3-2.5-130.20.2Algeria(e)-3(e)-2.1(e)-1(e)0.1(e)0.2Developing Africa-41-1.6-882.32.7Developing economies:Africaa Goods a
265、nd services.a Goods and services.a Goods and services.a Goods and services.1Economic trends5233.3 Foreign direct investment 20 and more 10 to less than 20 5 to less than 10 0 to less than 5 Less than 0 No dataNote:Excluding financial centres in the Caribbean(see note,table 3.3.1).FDI is defined as a
266、n investment reflecting a lasting interest and control by a foreign direct investor,resident in one economy,in an enterprise resident in another economy(foreign affiliate).FDI inflows comprise capital provided by a foreign direct investor to its foreign affiliate resident in the reporting country,or
267、 capital received by a foreign direct investor resident in the reporting country from its foreign affiliate abroad.FDI flows are presented on a net basis,i.e.,as credits less debits.Thus,in cases of reverse investment or disinvestment,FDI may be negative.FDI stock is the value of capital and reserve
268、s attributable to a non-resident parent enterprise,plus the net indebtedness of foreign affiliates to parent enterprises(UNCTAD,2022c).Trends and global patternsGlobal FDI flows in 2021 were US$1.6 trillion,up 64.3 per cent from the exceptionally low level in 2020.The 2021 recovery brought growth in
269、 FDI in all regions.FDI as a ratio to gross fixed capital formation(GFCF)rose from 4.3 per cent in 2020 to 7.1 per cent in 2021.Outflows by group of economiesIn 2021,developed economies more than tripled their investment abroad to US$1.3 trillion,from US$408 billion in 2020.The value of FDI outflows
270、 from developing economies rose by 17.8 per cent to US$438 billion.Developing Asia and Oceania remained a major source of investment flows even during the pandemic.20062008200501 0001 2501 5001 7502 0002 250Concepts and definitionsMap 3.3 Foreign direct investment inflows as a
271、ratio to gross fixed capital formation,2021(Percentage)Figure 3.3.1 World foreign direct investment inflows(Billions of United States dollars)531531Note:Excluding fi nancial centres in the Caribbean(see note,table 3.3.1).Note:Excluding fi nancial centres in the Caribbean(see note,table 3.3.1).Infl o
272、ws by group of economiesFDI fl ows to developing economies grew more slowly than those to developed economies but still increased by 29.9 per cent,to US$837 billion.FDI fl ows to Africa reached US$83 billion a record level from US$39 billion in 2020,more than doubling the 2020 level.In developing As
273、ia and Oceania,FDI infl ows rose to an all-time high for the third consecutive year,reaching US$619 billion,an increase of 19.3 per cent.In developing economies in the Americas,FDI infl ows rose by 56 per cent to US$134 billion,recovering part of the ground lost in 2020.Origins and destinations of f
274、oreign direct investmentIn 2021,the share of global infl ows accounted for by developed economies returned to pre-pandemic levels,at about half of the total,from just one third in 2020.The share of developing economies in global fl ows remained just above 50 per cent.FDI fl ows to Africa accounted f
275、or 5.2 per cent of global FDI and FDI to developing Asia and Oceania,the largest recipient region of FDI,accounted for 39.1 per cent of global infl ows.The share of developed economies in global outward FDI fl ows rose from 52.3 per cent in 2020 to 74.3 per cent in 2021,while the share of developing
276、 economies dropped from 47.7 per cent to 25.7 per cent.Developed Europe was the largest source of global FDI outfl ows(32.3 per cent),followed by the developed economies in the Americas(28.9 per cent).InflowsOutflows050010001500Developed economiesDeveloping economiesDeveloping economies:AfricaDevelo
277、ping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaOutflows from developed economiesInflows to developing economiesAsia and OceaniaEuropeAmericasAfrica20152020Global FDI infows rose by 64%to US$1.6 trillion in 2021FDI infows to developed economiesmore than double
278、d in 2021+133%39%of global FDI infows to developing Asia,in 2021In 2021,FDI outfowsfromdeveloped economiesmore than tripledx33Economic trendsFigure 3.3.2 Foreign direct investment infl ows and outfl ows,2021(Billions of United States dollars)Figure 3.3.3 Selected foreign direct investment fl ows(Per
279、centage of world total)531Economic trends543Group of economiesInflowsOutflowsValueAnnual growth rateValueAnnual growth rate(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)202020220202120202021Worlda9631 582-35.064.37801 708-30.6118.8Developed economies319746-58.2133.64081 269-44
280、.6210.9Developing economies644837-10.129.9372438-3.817.8 Developing economies:Africa3983-14.7113.1-13-112.7-526.2 Developing economies:Americas86134-45.756.0-542-110.0-995.6 Developing economies:Asia and Oceania5196191.419.337839412.64.3Selected groupsDeveloping economies excluding China495656-14.03
281、2.6219293-12.634.1Developing economies excluding LDCs621811-10.430.5371439-4.518.3LDCs23260.613.120-250.1-109.4LLDCs1418-35.930.7-12-271.4-231.6SIDS(UN-OHRLLS)82107-28.930.53148-42.751.3HIPCs(IMF)2432-12.133.612-44.065.3BRICS255355-13.339.2157247-19.357.9G207571 104-34.745.95961 496-38.8150.9Group o
282、f economiesInward stockOutward stockValueShare in world totalValueShare in world total(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Billions of US$)(Percentage)202020220202120202021Worlda41 72845 449100.0100.039 54641 798100.0100.0Developed economies29 96733 11971.872.931 11333 00978.779.0Developing econ
283、omies11 76012 33028.227.18 4338 79021.321.0 Developing economies:Africa9581 0262.32.33313010.80.7 Developing economies:Americas2 0702 1435.04.77087411.81.8 Developing economies:Asia and Oceania8 7329 16020.920.27 3947 74718.718.5Selected groupsDeveloping economies excluding China9 84110 26623.622.65
284、 8526 20814.814.9Developing economies excluding LDCs11 36711 91527.226.28 4108 76721.321.0LDCs3934140.90.923220.10.1LLDCs4214311.00.951520.10.1SIDS(UN-OHRLLS)2 1202 1825.14.81 2921 3733.33.3HIPCs(IMF)3794030.90.925260.10.1BRICS3 5773 8668.68.53 6813 7049.38.9G2032 39435 75677.678.732 88334 91983.283
285、.5Note:Excluding financial centres in the Caribbean,namely:Anguilla,Antigua and Barbuda,Aruba,the Bahamas,Barbados,British Virgin Islands,Cayman Islands,Curaao,Dominica,Grenada,Montserrat,Saint Kitts and Nevis,Saint Lucia,Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,Sint Maarten and Turks and Caicos Islands.a A
286、t world level,recorded FDI inflows may not equal recorded FDI outflows,due to imperfect geographic coverage and cross-country differences in compilation methods.Note:Excluding financial centres in the Caribbean(see note,table 3.3.1).a At world level,recorded inward stocks may not equal recorded outw
287、ard stocks,due to imperfect geographic coverage and cross-country differences in compilation methods.Table 3.3.1 Foreign direct investment flows by group of economiesTable 3.3.2 Foreign direct investment stock by group of economiesEconomic trendsEconomic trends5513Economy(Ranked by inflow value)Infl
288、owsInward stockValueRatio to GDPRatio to GFCFRatio to GDPRatio to GFCF(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)(Percentage)(Percentage)United States of America3671.68.258.9303.3China1811.02.911.932.7China,Hong Kong SAR14138.0226.9546.13261.2Singapore9925.7135.7521.12749.1Canada603.015.872.3380.7Braz
289、il503.121.236.9249.7India451.46.216.271.2South Africa4110.985.946.0363.5Russian Federation382.211.829.5161.7Mexico322.515.645.3286.4Germany310.73.726.9134.7Israel306.335.550.3282.6United Kingdom280.95.882.4555.6Sweden274.320.162.2288.0Belgium264.320.5102.4483.7Australia251.57.944.9243.0Poland253.725
290、.040.3271.0Japan250.51.95.220.1United Arab Emirates214.929.341.0243.0Indonesia201.76.021.977.2Economy(Ranked by outflow value)OutflowsOutward stockValueRatio to GDPRatio to GFCFRatio to GDPRatio to GFCF(Billions of US$)(Percentage)(Percentage)(Percentage)(Percentage)United States of America4031.79.0
291、42.5218.5Germany1523.617.950.6253.3Japan1473.011.540.1155.1China1450.82.314.940.9United Kingdom1083.422.767.8457.0Canada904.523.8114.9605.0China,Hong Kong SAR8723.6141.0562.33358.2Russian Federation643.619.722.6123.7Ireland6212.736.7261.3754.8Korea,Republic of613.411.930.7108.2Singapore4712.364.9349
292、.51844.0Belgium467.736.5117.1553.0Netherlands292.914.8333.51724.6Luxembourg2529.9205.31497.810290.4Saudi Arabia242.915.018.295.2Brazil231.49.718.5124.8United Arab Emirates235.431.951.4304.5Denmark225.728.068.7338.3Sweden203.315.272.0333.4Thailand173.415.035.1153.0Table 3.3.3 Foreign direct investmen
293、t inflows,top 20 host economies,2021Table 3.3.4 Foreign direct investment outflows,top 20 home economies,2021Note:Excluding financial centres in the Caribbean(see note,table 3.3.1).Note:Excluding financial centres in the Caribbean(see note,table 3.3.1).1Economic trends5633.4 Prices 12 and more 5 to
294、less than 12 2 to less than 5 0 to less than 2-1 to less than 0 Less than-1 No data Changes in consumer prices are measured by the consumer price index(CPI),which depicts the price of a basket of consumer goods and services representing average consumption by private households during a year,relativ
295、e to the base year 2010.The UNCTAD Commodity Price Index(UCPI)measures the average price,in United States dollars,of main primary commodities exported by developing economies relative to the base year 2015.The weights used in the calculation of the average price represent the shares of commodity gro
296、ups in developing economies total commodity exports observed over three years from 2014 to 2016.The overall index is decomposed into sub-indices displaying the price movements of individual commodity groups.The basket of the UCPI was entirely overhauled in 2018.For details,see annex 6.3 and UNCTAD(2
297、018).Growth of consumer prices worldwideInflation rates were above the five-year average in developing as well as developed economies in 2021.Inflation was especially high in Venezuela(+1590 per cent),Sudan(+360 per cent)and Cuba(+260 per cent).Another seven economies recorded consumer price increas
298、es of over 40 per cent and another eight over 12 per cent.The median inflation rate was 3.8 per cent among developing and 2.8 per cent among developed economies.Only seven economies experienced deflation in 2021,and only one(Samoa,-3.0 per cent)recorded a consumer price decrease of more than 1 per c
299、ent.Trends in exchange ratesFrom 2020 to 2021,the yuan and the pound sterling appreciated by around 7 per cent against the United States dollar.Over the same period,appreciation of the euro was about half of that while the yen depreciated by nearly 3 per cent against the dollar.1 euro1 poundsterling
300、10 yuan100 yen1 UnitedStates dollar200.81.01.21.41.61.8Concepts and definitionsMap 3.4 Annual growth of consumer prices,2021(Percentage)Figure 3.4.1 Exchange rates against the United States dollar(Annual average)571571Note:Percentage change of UCPI sub-indices,compared to the s
301、ame month in the previous year.Commodity price index rose sharply,led by fuel pricesThe UCPI increased by 55 per cent on an annual basis in 2021,more than any other year over the last two decades.An increase in fuel prices,increasing by 86 per cent,accounted for most of this sharp increase in the ov
302、erall index.However,even excluding fuels the index rose by 23 per cent and approached its previous 2011 peak.The commodity group with the highest prices compared to the base year of 2015 was minerals,ores and non-precious metals.These have doubled in price over the last six years.Commodity price inc
303、rease continued into 2022Since March 2021 and through the fi rst half of 2022,fuels were over 80 per cent more expensive than twelve months earlier.Other commodity groups also recorded positive year-on-year growth in prices through most of the same period.The net effect was the UCPI in August 2022 r
304、eaching its highest levels since the UCPI was fi rst compiled and published in 1995.Notably,food commodity prices have consistently had a positive year-on-year growth rate throughout 2021 and into 2022.These price increases abated in the second quarter of 2022 but in August 2022 food commodities wer
305、e 42 per cent dearer than in the same month two years earlier.In comparison to other commodity groups,prices of agricultural raw materials have remained relatively stable.All groupsAll groups excl.fuels2005200100150200All foodAgricultural raw materialsMinerals,ores and metalsFuelsJan21Apr
306、21Jul21Oct21Jan22Apr22Jul22-50050100150Higher infation all over the world in 2021 compared to the 2016 2020 averageYuan and pound sterling appreciated by 7%against the United States dollar in 2021$Fuel prices were 83%higher in 2021 than in 2020+83%?UCPI at a record high in August 2022Economic trends
307、3Figure 3.4.2 UNCTAD Commodity Price Index(2015=100)Figure 3.4.3 Year-on-year growth of prices by commodity group(Percentage)571Economic trends583Group of economiesConsumer price indexAnnual growth ratea(2010=100)(Percentage)200212021World1191401.04.8Developed economies1111221.03.4Develop
308、ing economies1351751.16.9 Developing economies:Africa1653341.122.7 Developing economies:Americas1502321.115.0 Developing economies:Asia and Oceania1281521.03.7Selected groupsDeveloping economies excluding China1462151.111.7Developing economies excluding LDCs1331691.05.7LDCs1804401.239.3LLDCs1552711.
309、111.4SIDS(UN-OHRLLS)1201751.132.9HIPCs(IMF)1462031.18.3BRICS1291481.02.5G201161321.03.7Economy(Ranked by share inworld exports)Exchange rate toUnited States dollarConsumer price indexShare inworld exportsa(2010=100)(Percentage)200021China0.144750.144910.129(e)12.9Uni
310、ted States of America1.000001.000001.000001171191249.2Germany1.119471.142201.118(e)7.1France1.119471.142201.18274(e)112(e)112(e)1143.3Japan0.009170.009370.009(e)3.3Netherlands1.119471.142201.119(e)3.2United Kingdom1.276411.282051.375391211221253.1Korea,Republic of0.0
311、00860.000850.00087115116119(e)2.8China,Hong Kong SAR0.127620.128910.1372.7Singapore0.733050.724770.744331141141172.6Italy1.119471.142201.1132.5Ireland1.119471.142201.1082.4India0.014200.013500.0922.3Canada0.753700.745630.79753117118122(e)2.2Switzerland,Lie
312、chtenstein1.006331.065001.0942810099992.0Russian Federation0.015450.013870.099(e)2.0Mexico0.051910.046540.04933142146155(e)1.9Belgium1.119471.142201.1211.8China,Taiwan Province of0.032330.033800.035681091091111.8Spain1.119471.142201.1141.8a Exports of goods and servi
313、ces.Table 3.4.1 Consumer prices by group of economiesTable 3.4.2 Exchange rate and consumer prices among main exporting economiesa Least squares growth rate(see annex 6.3)Note:Venezuela is not considered.Economic trendsEconomic trends5913Commodity group20000202021All
314、 groups711496149 All food 994100130 Food 898102121 Tropical beverages85109 Vegetable oilseeds and oils 3093106157 Agricultural raw materials539997110 Minerals,ores and
315、metals Minerals,ores and non-precious metals 31135140201 Precious metals 08117148153 Fuels 011679146Selected groups Tropical beverages and food 79498118 All groups excl.fuels15814
316、544153 All groups excl.precious metals311489148 All groups excl.precious metals and fuels 39109114153Table 3.4.3 Price indices of selected primary commodities(2015=100)PeriodAll groupsAll foodAgriculturalraw materialsMinerals,ores and
317、 metalsFuels2021January1105February1122March9119April5119May9128June8139July6147August4146September6166October0193November6186December81862022January5189Febr
318、uary1204March2256April2234May2249June2266July2254August2359Table 3.4.4 Monthly price indices of main commodity groups(2015=100)POPULATION4Population1461KEY FIGURES 2021Child dependency ratio in LDCs68%Share of urbanpopulati
319、on indeveloping economies52%Annual population growth+0.9%World population7.9 billion1Population6244.1 Total and urban populationNote:Annual exponential rate of growth of the population(see annex 6.3).Slowdown of world population growthThe world population is estimated to have grown by 0.9 per cent i
320、n 2021 and is projected to surpass 8 billion in 2022.The growth rate has slowed down faster since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 than during the gradual slowdown taking place from the late 1980s.It is expected to rebound in 2023 before continuing its decent towards a forecast 0.5 per
321、cent growth in 2050.A population decrease was seen in 52 economies in 2021.The population of 22 of those was growing five years earlier.Of these economies with newly negative population growth,11 were expected to still have decreasing populations in 2026.The last group includes Montserrat,San Marino
322、,Belarus,Cuba,North Macedonia and Russian Federation.The population of Africa is growing much faster than that of any other continent.Of the 30 economies with the fastest growing population,only Afghanistan,the Syrian Arab Republic and Solomon Islands are outside Africa.Forecasts019801990
323、20002004020500.00.51.01.52.02.5The population estimates and projections reported in this chapter were made in 2022 and represent the population present in an economy(including residents,migrants and refugees)as of 1 July of a given year(UN DESA,2022a,2022b).The figures for the years from
324、2022 to 2050 are based on the medium fertility variant projection.The assumptions for these projections imply that the average fertility rate of the world will decline from 2.3 births per woman in 2021 to 2.1 in 2050.The United Nations also produce other projection variants.Their outcome is highly d
325、ependent on the path that future fertility takes(UN DESA,2022b).Urban population is defined as the population living in areas classified as urban according to the criteria used by each country or territory.The latest estimates and projections for urban population were made in 2018(UN DESA,2018,2019)
326、.Figure 4.1.1 Annual growth rate of world population(Percentage)Map 4.1 Annual population growth,2021(Percentage)3 and more2 to less than 31 to less than 20 to less than 1Less than 0No dataConcepts and definitionsPopulation6314Developing economies drive population growthOver the last 25 years,the wo
327、rld population has increased by 2.1 billion people.Almost all this growth has occurred in developing economies,mainly in Asia and Oceania(+1.2 billion)and Africa(+0.7 billion).In 2021,fi ve in six people in the world lived in a developing economy.In the coming 25 years,global population is projected
328、 to grow by 1.6 billion people.The population of the economies that are today considered developing will continue to grow.Africa is expected to lead this growth(+0.9 billion)followed by developing economies in Asia and Oceania(+0.6 billion).Urbanization continuesAll over the world,a growing proporti
329、on of the population lives in cities.In 2011,52.0 per cent lived in urban areas.The share of urban population was projected to have increased to 56.5 per cent in 2021.It is generally higher in the developed(79.5 per cent in 2021)than in the developing world(51.8 per cent).In LDCs,the people living i
330、n urban areas are in the minority(35.3 per cent).Over the last ten years,urbanization has been most pronounced in developing economies,especially in Asia and Oceania,which saw the urban rate increase from 43.3 in 2011 to 50.0 per cent in 2021.Africa has seen a 4.6 percentage point increase in the sa
331、me period.By contrast,further urbanization in the developing economies of the Americas has been relatively modest.Urbanization levels in this region are already comparable to developed economies.ProjectionDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaDeveloping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:AfricaDe
332、veloped economies00200402050024680708090Developed economiesDeveloping economiesDeveloping economies:AfricaDeveloping economies:AmericasDeveloping economies:Asia and OceaniaWorld population projected to surpass 8 billion in 2022Five in six people
333、 live in a developing economyWorld population growth rate dipped down to in 20210.9%57%of the worlds population live in urban areasFigure 4.1.2 World population by group of economies(Billions)Figure 4.1.3 Urban population by group of economies(Percentage of total population)1Population644a Annual exponential rate of growth(see annex 6.3).Table 4.1.1 Total population by group of economiesGroup of e