《亚洲开发银行:2023年亚太地区主要经济指标报告(第五版)(英文版)(354页).pdf》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《亚洲开发银行:2023年亚太地区主要经济指标报告(第五版)(英文版)(354页).pdf(354页珍藏版)》请在三个皮匠报告上搜索。
1、ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANKKEY INDICATORSFOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC202354TH EDITIONAUGUST 2023ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK202354TH EDITIONKEY INDICATORSFOR ASIA AND THE PACIFICCreative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license(CC BY 3.0 IGO)2023 Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue,Mandaluyong City,1550 Metro Manila,Phi
2、lippinesTel+63 2 8632 4444;Fax+63 2 8636 2444www.adb.orgSome rights reserved.Published in 2023.ISBN 978-92-9270-283-0(print);978-92-9270-284-7(electronic);978-92-9270-285-4(ebook)ISSN 0116-3000Publication Stock No.FLS230311-3DOI:http:/dx.doi.org/10.22617/FLS230311-3The views expressed in this public
3、ation are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies ofthe Asian Development Bank(ADB)or its Board of Governors or the governments they represent.ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequ
4、ence of their use.The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by ADB in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area,or by
5、 using the term“country”inthis publication,ADB does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.This publication is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license(CC BY 3.0 IGO)https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/.By using th
6、e content of this publication,you agree to be bound bytheterms of this license.For attribution,translations,adaptations,and permissions,please read the provisions andterms of use at https:/www.adb.org/terms-use#openaccess.This CC license does not apply to non-ADB copyright materials in this publicat
7、ion.If the material is attributed toanother source,please contact the copyright owner or publisher of that source for permission to reproduce it.ADB cannot be held liable for any claims that arise as a result of your use of the material.Please contact pubsmarketingadb.org if you have questions or co
8、mments with respect to content,or if you wish toobtain copyright permission for your intended use that does not fall within these terms,or for permission to use theADB logo.Corrigenda to ADB publications may be found at http:/www.adb.org/publications/corrigenda.Notes:In this publication,“$”refers to
9、 United States dollars.ADB recognizes“Korea”as the Republic of Korea and“Hanoi”as Ha Noi.Photos:All photos by the Asian Development Bank unless otherwise indicated.Cover design by Mike Cortes.iiiIntroduction.3PART I:Sustainable Development Goals Trends and TablesPursuing Sustainable Development by M
10、anaging the Cost of Living in Poverty.9Why Is Sustainable Development Goal 1 Important and How Is Developing Asia Faring?.11How Expensive Is It to Be Poor?.17Assessing the Impacts of Inflation on Poverty under Varying Scenarios.26Navigating Other Development Challenges Faced by the Poor.31Scaling Up
11、 Solutions to Boost Agricultural Development.32Implementing Urban Development Strategies to Reduce Poverty.38Advancing Innovation to Create New Opportunities for the Poor.43References.48Data Gaps and Other Data-Related Issues.102FiguresFigure 1.1:Improvement in Living Conditions of Asians Over Time.
12、9Figure 1.2:Pre-Pandemic Trends of Prevalence of Poverty and the Poverty Gap in Developing Asia.13Figure 1.3:Evolution of Thresholds for Extreme Poverty Measurement.13Figure 1.4:Prevalence of Extreme Poverty and Comparison of Economy-Level Estimates,2011 and 2017 PPP.14Figure 1.5:Prevalence and Inte
13、nsity of Multidimensional Poverty in Asia and the Pacific.15Figure 1.6:Relative Changes in Household Consumption or Income Per Capita and Proportion of People Living in Poverty Based on National Definitions.15Figure 1.7:Income Groupings in Developing Asia by 2030.17Figure 1.8:Comparison of Prices Pa
14、id by the General Population and the Poor.19Figure 1.9:Share of Expenditure on Food to Total Consumption and Increase in Cost of a Healthy Diet.26Figure 1.10:Simulated Increase in Poverty Gap in Developing Asia under Varying Scenarios of Food Price Increases.27Figure 1.11:Share of Expenditure on Ene
15、rgy to Total Consumption.28Figure 1.12:Inflation Experienced by Low-Income People versus the General Population.29Figure 1.13:Proportion of Population Covered by at Least One Social Protection Benefit,2020.30Figure 1.14:Interconnected Impacts of Development Challenges.32Figure 1.15:Rural Population
16、in Developing Asia and the World,19702020.33ContentsForeword .xiAcknowledgments.xiiStatistical Partners.xivGuide for Users.xxFiscal Year.xxivKey Symbols.xxvUnits of Measurement.xxvAbbreviations.xxviHighlights.xxviiiivKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023Figure 1.16:Proportion of Rural Populat
17、ion with Access to Safely Managed Drinking Water and Sanitation Services .34Figure 1.17:Agriculture Orientation Index in Selected Economies of Developing Asia.35Figure 1.18:Forest Cover by Subregion of Developing Asia.37Figure 1.19:Quality of Roads in Selected Economies of Developing Asia.37Figure 1
18、.20:Urban Population in Asia and the Pacific,19702050.38Figure 1.21:Municipal Solid Waste Collection in Select Areas of Asia and the Pacific,2015.39Figure 1.22:Concentrations of Fine Particulate Matter in Urban Areas of Developing Asia,2019.40Figure 1.23:Comparison of Urban and Rural Populations of
19、Asia and the Pacific,19702050.41Figure 1.24:Urban Population Living in Slums,Informal Settlements,or Inadequate Housing;World and Developing Asia.42Figure 1.25:Proportion of Individuals using the Internet in Developing Asia.45Figure 1.26:Effect of Financial Access on the Incidence of Moderate Povert
20、y and Womens Empowerment.46Figure 1.27:Proportion of Adults(15 Years and Older)with an Account at a Bank or Other Financial Institution or with a Mobile-Money Service Provider by Subregion of Developing Asia.47TableTable 1.1:Simulated Distribution of Income within Economies of Developing Asia in 202
21、2.29BoxBox 1.1:Examples of Poverty Premium and Penalty.19Sustainable Development Goals TablesTable 1.1.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 1No Poverty.57Table 1.1.2:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 1Social Protection and Official Development Assistance.59Table
22、1.2.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 2Zero Hunger.61Table 1.2.2:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 2Improved Agricultural Investment.62Table 1.3.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 3Maternal and Child Health.63Table 1.3.2:Selected Indicators
23、 for Sustainable Development Goal 3Incidence of Communicable Diseases.64Table 1.3.3:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 3Mortality Rates,Reproductive Health.65Table 1.3.4:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 3Health Workforce and National and Global Health Risks.67Ta
24、ble 1.4.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 4Proficiency in Reading and Mathematics.68Table 1.4.2:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 4Education Completion.69Table 1.4.3:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 4Early Childhood Education.72Table 1.4.4:
25、Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 4Teacher Training and Supply.73Table 1.5.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 5Early Marriage and Women in Leadership.74vKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023Table 1.6.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal
26、 6Clean Water and Sanitation.75Table 1.7.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 7Affordable and Clean Energy.78Table 1.8.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 8Decent Work and Economic Growth.79Table 1.8.2:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 8Unemplo
27、yment .80Table 1.8.3:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 8Youth Participation in Education and Work,Child Labor.83Table 1.8.4:Access to Banking,Insurance and Financial Services,and Trade.84Table 1.9.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 9Air Transport,Passenger and
28、Freight Volume.86Table 1.9.2:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 9Growth in Manufacturing.87Table 1.9.3:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 9Carbon Dioxide Emissions.88Table 1.9.4:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 9Research and Development.89Table
29、 1.9.5:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 9Official International Support and Industry Value-Added.90Table 1.9.6:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 9Coverage by Mobile Networks.91Table 1.10.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 10Household Expendi
30、ture or Income Growth.92Table 1.11.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 11Sustainable Cities and Environment.93Table 1.12.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 12Responsible Consumption and Production.94Table 1.13.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development G
31、oal 13Impact of Disasters and Risk Reduction Strategies.95Table 1.14.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 14Life Below Water.96Table 1.15.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 15Protection of Ecosystems and Biodiversity.97Table 1.16.1:Selected Indicators for Sustai
32、nable Development Goal 16Peace,Justice,and Strong Institutions.99Table 1.17.1:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 17Financial Sustainability of Developing Economies.100Table 1.17.2:Selected Indicators for Sustainable Development Goal 17Statistical Capacity Building.101PART II:Region
33、al Trends and Tables Regional Trends and Tables.107 Navigating Inflationary Pressures and Economic Uncertainties.108 References.120Figures Figure 2.1:Global Energy Prices and Inflation Rates for the World and Developing Asia.111 Figure 2.2:Food and Food-related Commodities Imports from the Russian F
34、ederation and Ukraine and Growth Rate of CPI of Food and Nonalcoholic beverages.112 Figure 2.3:Consumer Price Inflation by Group,2022.114viKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023 Figure 2.4:Growth of Money Supply,20202022.115 Figure 2.5:Number of Central Banks That Increased or Decreased Intere
35、st Rates.116 Figure 2.6:Developing Asias Economic Growth.116 Figure 2.7:Percent increase in Local Currency Units per US$and Stock Market Price Index,2021-2022.117 Figure 2.8:External Debt of Asia and the Pacific.118 Figure 2.9:Nonperforming Loans(%of Total Gross Loans),20192022.119Box Box 2.1:COVID-
36、19 Stringency and Economic Recovery:Asia and the Pacific Experience.109People Table 2.1.1:Midyear Population.122 Table 2.1.2:Migration and Urbanization.123 Table 2.1.3:Proportion of Total Population by Age Bracket,and Age Dependency Ratio.124 Table 2.1.4:Labor Force Participation Rates(%).126 Table
37、2.1.5:Employment in Agriculture,Industry,and Services(%of total employment).127 Table 2.1.6:Poverty and Inequality.130 Table 2.1.7:Human Development Index.131 Table 2.1.8:Life Expectancy at Birth(years).132 Table 2.1.9:Births,Deaths,and Fertility Rates.133 Table 2.1.10:Adult(15 Years and Older)Liter
38、acy Rate(%).134 Table 2.1.11:Years of Schooling.135 Table 2.1.12:Education Resources .137 Table 2.1.13:Health Care Resources(per 1,000 population).138 Table 2.1.14:Adults Aged 15 Years and Older Living with HIV(000).139Economy and Output Table 2.2.1:Gross Domestic Product at Purchasing Power Parity(
39、current international dollars,million).141 Table 2.2.2:Gross Domestic Product(current$million).142 Table 2.2.3:Gross Domestic Product per Capita at Purchasing Power Parity (current international dollars).143 Table 2.2.4:Gross National Income per Capita,Atlas Method(current$).144 Table 2.2.5:Gross Do
40、mestic Product per Capita(current$).145 Table 2.2.6:Agriculture,Industry,and Services Value-Added(%of GDP).146 Table 2.2.7:Household and Government Consumption Expenditure(%of GDP).147 Table 2.2.8:Gross Capital Formation and Changes in Inventories(%of GDP).148 Table 2.2.9:Exports and Imports of Good
41、s and Services(%of GDP).149 Table 2.2.10:Gross Domestic Saving(%of GDP).150 Table 2.2.11:Growth Rates of Real Gross Domestic Product(%).151 Table 2.2.12:Growth Rates of Real Gross Domestic Product per Capita(%).152 Table 2.2.13:Growth Rates of Agriculture Real Value-Added(%).153 Table 2.2.14:Growth
42、Rates of Industry Real Value-Added(%).154 Table 2.2.15:Growth Rates of Services Real Value-Added(%).155 Table 2.2.16:Growth Rates of Real Household Final Consumption(%).156viiKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023 Table 2.2.17:Growth Rates of Real Government Consumption Expenditure(%).157 Tabl
43、e 2.2.18:Growth Rates of Real Gross Capital Formation(%).158 Table 2.2.19:Growth Rates of Real Exports of Goods and Services(%).159 Table 2.2.20:Growth Rates of Real Imports of Goods and Services(%).160 Table 2.2.21:Growth Rates of Agriculture Production Index(%).161 Table 2.2.22:Growth Rates of Man
44、ufacturing Production Index(%).162Money,Finance,and Prices Table 2.3.1:Growth Rates of Consumer Price Index(%).164 Table 2.3.2:Growth Rates of Food and Nonalcoholic Beverages Consumer Price Index(%).165 Table 2.3.3:Growth Rates of Wholesale and/or Producer Price Indexes(%).166 Table 2.3.4:Growth Rat
45、es of Gross Domestic Product Deflator(%).167 Table 2.3.5:Growth Rates of Money Supply(%).168 Table 2.3.6:Money Supply(%of GDP).169 Table 2.3.7:Interest Rates on Savings and Time Deposits(%per annum,period averages).170 Table 2.3.8:Yield on Short-Term Treasury Bills and Lending Interest Rates (%per a
46、nnum,period averages).171 Table 2.3.9:Domestic Credit Provided by Banking Sector,and Bank Nonperforming Loans.172 Table 2.3.10:Growth Rates of Stock Market Price Index(%).173 Table 2.3.11:Stock Market Capitalization.174 Table 2.3.12:Official Exchange Rates(local currency units per$,period averages).
47、175 Table 2.3.13:Purchasing Power Parity Conversion Factor(local currency units per$,period averages).176 Table 2.3.14:Price Level Indexes(PPPs to official exchange rates,period averages,United States=100).177Globalization Table 2.4.1:Trade in Goods Balance(%of GDP).179 Table 2.4.2:Trade in Services
48、 Balance(%of GDP).180 Table 2.4.3:Current Account Balance(%of GDP).181 Table 2.4.4:Total Remittances,InflowsDollar Amounts($million).182 Table 2.4.5:Total Remittances,InflowsProportion of Economic Activity(%of GDP).183 Table 2.4.6:Foreign Direct Investment,Net InflowsDollar Amounts($million).184 Tab
49、le 2.4.7:Foreign Direct Investment,Net InflowsProportion of Economic Activity(%of GDP).185 Table 2.4.8:Merchandise Exports($million).186 Table 2.4.9:Growth Rates of Merchandise Exports(%).187 Table 2.4.10:Merchandise Imports($million).188 Table 2.4.11:Growth Rates of Merchandise Imports(%).189 Table
50、 2.4.12:Trade in Goods(%of GDP).190 Table 2.4.13:Direction of Trade:Merchandise Exports(%of total merchandise exports).191 Table 2.4.14:Direction of Trade:Merchandise Imports(%of total merchandise imports).192 Table 2.4.15:International Reserves and Ratio to Imports.193 Table 2.4.16:Net Official Dev
51、elopment Assistance from All Sources to Developing Economies ($million).194 Table 2.4.17:Net Other Official Flows from All Sources to Developing Economies($million).195 Table 2.4.18:Net Private Flows from All Sources to Developing Economies($million).196viiiKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 20
52、23 Table 2.4.19:Aggregate Net Resource Flows from All Sources to Developing Economies($million).197 Table 2.4.20:Total External Debt of Developing EconomiesDollar Amounts($million).198 Table 2.4.21:Total External Debt of Developing ADB Member EconomiesProportion of Income (%of GNI).199 Table 2.4.22:
53、Total External Debt of Developing ADB Member EconomiesProportion of Exports(%of exports of goods,services,and primary income).200 Table 2.4.23:Total Debt Service Paid by Developing ADB Member Economies.201 Table 2.4.24:International Tourist Arrivals(000).202 Table 2.4.25:International Tourism Receip
54、ts($million).203Transport and Communication Table 2.5.1:Road IndicatorsTotal Network,Passenger Kilometers Travel,Freight Kilometers Travel.205 Table 2.5.2:Road IndicatorsRegistered Vehicles.206 Table 2.5.3:Road IndicatorsSafety.207 Table 2.5.4:Rail IndicatorsTotal Route,Length per Land Area.208 Tabl
55、e 2.5.5:RailwaysPassengers Carried and Goods Transported.209 Table 2.5.6:Air Transport.210 Table 2.5.7:Logistics.211 Table 2.5.8:Access to Fixed Telephones,Mobile Phones,and InternetTotal Subscriptions(000).212 Table 2.5.9:Access to Fixed Telephones,Mobile Phones,and InternetSubscriptions per 100 Pe
56、ople.213Energy and Electricity Table 2.6.1:Electricity Production and Sources.215 Table 2.6.2:Electric Power Consumption(kWh per capita).216 Table 2.6.3:Use of Energy.217 Table 2.6.4:Energy Production and Imports.218 Table 2.6.5:Retail Prices of Fuel Energy($/L).219Environment Table 2.7.1:Agricultur
57、e Land Use(%of total land area).221 Table 2.7.2:Deforestation and Pollution.222 Table 2.7.3:Freshwater Resources.224Government and Governance Table 2.8.1:Government Net Lending/Net Borrowing(%of GDP).226 Table 2.8.2:Government Taxes(%of GDP).227 Table 2.8.3:Government Revenue(%of GDP).228 Table 2.8.
58、4:Government Expenditure(%of GDP).229 Table 2.8.5:Government Expenditure by Economic Activity(%of GDP).230 Table 2.8.6:Corruption Perceptions Index.231ixKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023PART III:Dollar Price Wedge between Nominal and Real Global Value Chain Participation Introduction.235
59、Nominal and Real MRIOTs.235 Methodology.238 World and Developing Asias GVC Participation.239 Economy-Specific GVC Participation.242 Conclusion.248 References.249Figures Figure 3.1:Traditional and GVC Trade on World Exports(in Trillions USD),20072022.240 Figure 3.2:World GVC Participation Rate,200720
60、22.241 Figure 3.3:Developing Asia GVC Participation Rate,20072022.242 Figure 3.4:GVC Participation Rate,Trkiye,20072022.243 Figure 3.5:GVC Participation Rate,Singapore,20072022.244 Figure 3.6:GVC Participation Rate,Kazakhstan,20072022.245 Figure 3.7:GVC Participation Rate,Peoples Republic of China,2
61、0072022.246 Figure 3.8:GVC Participation Rate,United States,20072022.247Tables Table 3.1:Simplified Representation of a Real Multiregional Input-Output Table.236 Table 3.2:Value Added Components of an Economys Gross Exports.239PART IV:Stories Behind DataUsing Price Data and Statistics to Track Socio
62、economic Development Overview .253 How are price data used for policymaking?.254 The International Comparison Program(ICP).259 ICP Implementation Experiences and Best Practices from the 2017 ICP in Asia and thePacific.270 References.279Figures Figure 4.1:Difference between CPI and PPI.258 Figure 4.2
63、:Number of Participating Economies in the ICP.260 Figure 4.3:ICP Through the Years.261 Figure 4.4:International Comparison Program Governance Structure.263 Figure 4.5:Contribution to Global GDP,Nominal and Real.266 Figure 4.6:Real Gross Domestic Product:Total,Per Capita,and Price Levels,32 Asia Paci
64、fic Economies,2017.268 Figure 4.7:Spatial Cost of Living by Region in Viet Nam,2018-2022.268 Figure 4.8:Share of CPI Items in the Total ICP Items Priced:2017 ICP Asia Pacific Participating Economies.275xKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023Tables Table 4.1:Policy Uses of Data on Consumer Pric
65、e Movements.255 Table 4.2:Prices Surveys and Number of Items in Product Lists for the 2017 ICP in the Asia and Pacific Region.265 Table 4.3:Summary of Practices that Facilitate CPI-ICP Integration.274Box Box 4.1:How is the Cost of Living Measured?.255Definitions Sustainable Development Goals.283 Reg
66、ional Trends and Tables.302xiForewordAt the halfway stage of implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,Asia and the Pacific is behind the pace for achieving many of the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs).In addition,the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and high inflation have dent
67、ed hopes for a full recovery from the coronavirus disease(COVID-19)pandemic.As a result,millions of people in developing Asia are at risk of falling back into poverty.The Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific series provides comprehensive social,economic,financial,environmental,trade,and SDG indic
68、ators for the 49 regional members of the Asian Development Bank(ADB).The reports are a vital source of socioeconomic data and information used by policymakers,government officials,development professionals,researchers,and students in the region and the rest of the world.This 54th edition of Key Indi
69、cators for Asia and the Pacific offers an in-depth examination of the premium that poor and vulnerable populations pay for goods and services compared to other income groups.It explores the economic consequences of the current price shocks and the importance of quality price data gathering to inform
70、 policymakers.The report identifies actions that can be taken to address long-term development challenges that have grown deeper due to the sharp rise in the cost of living.These include strengthening social protection systems,developing the agriculture sector,expanding infrastructure investments,im
71、proving access to financial services,and helping low-income groups gain better access to new technologies and innovations.These measures can help to create new socioeconomic opportunities,especially for the most vulnerable groups.Better and more timely data on international trade and shipping are ne
72、eded to support government policy in trade-reliant developing economies.This years Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific highlights the importance of compiling statistics on global value chains in nominal and real terms,especially during periods of significant inflation.A special supplement to the
73、 report(to be released in October 2023)examines how information on location and cargo sent by ships every few seconds can provide a near real-time analysis of international shipping.Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific is the result of long-standing partnerships with ADB members.I deeply apprecia
74、te their sharing of data from official sources.I am also grateful to other international agencies for data that is used throughout this report.I am confident that the data and insights collected here will help governments design and implement actions that enable Asia and the Pacific to get back on t
75、rack to meet the SDGs and achieve strong,lasting,and inclusive growth.Masatsugu AsakawaPresident Asian Development BankxiiKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023AcknowledgmentsThis 54th annual edition of Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific was prepared by the Statistics and Data Innovation
76、Unit(EROD-SDI)within the Economic Research and Development Impact Department(ERDI)at the Asian Development Bank(ADB).The publication team was led by Arturo Martinez Jr,under the overall direction of Elaine S.Tan.Joseph Albert Nio Bulan,Rose Anne Dumayas,Karen Firshan,Aileen Oliveros-Guyos,Melissa Pa
77、scua,and Eric Suan provided technical and coordination support in preparing the publication.The statistical tables presenting development indicators for ADBs regional member economies in Parts I and II of the printed publication(also available online via kidb.adb.org),as well as the 49 tables for in
78、dividual economies available exclusively online,were prepared by EROD-SDI staff and consultants,under the supervision of Daniel Boller,Kaushal Joshi,Mahinthan Joseph Mariasingham,Arturo Martinez Jr,and Stefan Schipper.The research team included Mildred Addawe,Raymond Adofina,Maria Concordia Alfonso,
79、Remedios Baes-Espineda,Nalwino Billones,Joseph Albert Nio Bulan,Criselda De Dios,Dennis Dizon,Madeline Dumaua-Cabauatan,Rose Anne Dumayas,Anna Marie Fernando,Aileen Oliveros-Guyos,Pamela Lapitan,Rica Cynthia Maddawin,Jayzon Mag-Atas,Kristine Faith Maningding,Marymell Martillan,Melissa Pascua,Andrea
80、Felice Quinial,Christian Flora Mae Soco,Eric Suan,and Mar Andriel Umali.Proofreading of statistical tables was done by Ma.Roselia Babalo,Rose Anne Dumayas,and Aileen Gatson.The analyses of Sustainable Development Goal indicators in Part I were prepared by Raymond Adofina,Maria Concordia Alfonso,Nalw
81、ino Billones,Joseph Albert Nio Bulan,Aileen Oliveros-Guyos,Rica Cynthia Maddawin,Kristine Faith Maningding,Arturo Martinez Jr.,Andrea Felice Quinial,and Mar Andriel Umali.Part II was written by Maria Concordia Alfonso,Madeline Dumaua-Cabauatan,Dennis Dizon,Anna Marie Fernando,Kristine Faith Maningdi
82、ng,and Arturo Martinez Jr.Valuable research assistance was also received from Ephraim Cuya,Ron Lester Durante,and James Matthew Miraflor.Abdul Abiad,Cynthia Arceo Ambe,Lawrence Dacuycuy,Gaurav Datt,Rajesh Deol,Sudhir Gota,Carla Ferreira,Rana Hasan,Jules Hugot,Oleksiy Ivaschenko,Matteo Lanzafame,Edit
83、ha Lavina,Hong Soo Lee,Maria Lourdes Lopez,Cholpon Mambetova,Mercedes Martin,Remrick Patagan,Dave Pipon,Iva Sebastian-Samaniego,Kiyoshi Taniguchi,Frank Thomas,Maria Carina Tinio,Natsuko Totsuka,James Villafuerte,Priscille Villanueva,and Mai Lin Villaruel provided insightful feedback.Mahinthan Joseph
84、 Mariasingham led the team that prepared the statistical tables for Part III.The multiregional input-output tables were consolidated by John Arvin Bernabe,Jenny Lou De Las Alas,Lora Kryz Baje,Julieta Magallanes,Grant Rene Mesa,Irene Talam,Janel Asley Raviz,and Ana Francesca Rosales.Valuable contribu
85、tions were made by Gienneen Antonio,Leila Rahnema-Badr,Ridhima Bahl,Faith Hyacinth Balisacan,John Arvin Bernabe,Danileen Parel-Cadag,Miro Frances Capili,Jenny Lou De Las Alas,Janine De Vera,Madeth Gayosa,Arushi Gupta,Xue Han,Christian Regie Jabagat,Sameeksha Jain,Julieta Magallanes,Sarah Mae Manuel,
86、Faulene Mae Manzanilla,Grant Rene Mesa,Elyssa Mariel Mores,Ed Kieran Reyes,Ana Francesca Rosales,Anna Monina Sanchez,Maegan Saroca,Michelle Sianghio,Irene Talam,Dieco Von Velasco,Dean Joseph Villanueva,and Christian Marvin Zamora.Part III was written by Mahinthan Joseph Mariasingham,Christian Regie
87、Jabagat,Angelo Jose Lumba,Elyssa Mariel Mores,Jenny Lou De Las Alas,Janel Asley Raviz,and Ana Francesca Rosales.Neil Foster-McGregor,Eric Suan,and Elaine Tan provided insightful comments and suggestions.Kaushal Joshi and xiiiKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023Criselda De Dios summarized the
88、 key findings presented in Part IV,with assistance and inputs from Raymond Adofina,Paolo Kris Adriano,Rhea-Ann Bautista,Nalwino Billones,Joseph Albert Nio Bulan,Madeline Dumaua-Cabauatan,Virginia Ganac,Aileen Oliveros-Guyos,Mario Ilagan II,Rica Maddawin,Arturo Martinez Jr,and D.S.Prasada Rao.We are
89、grateful for the support and guidance of Joseph E.Zveglich Jr and Chia-Hsin Hu;and feedback from ERDI colleagues throughout the process.The ADB Japanese Representative Office,Pacific Liaison and Coordination Office,Philippines Country Office,and Pacific Subregional Office also provided help with the
90、 data compilation.We are very grateful for the contributions of ERDIs statistical partnersADB regional members and international organizations who generously shared their data for the statistical tables on Sustainable Development Goal indicators(Part I),regional tables(Part II),global value chains(P
91、art III),uses of price data(Part IV),and individual economy tables.ADB resident missions and/or support teams in Afghanistan,Armenia,Azerbaijan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,Cambodia,Georgia,India,Indonesia,Kazakhstan,the Kyrgyz Republic,the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic,Mongolia,Maldives,Myanmar,Nepal,Pakist
92、an,Papua New Guinea,the Peoples Republic of China,the Philippines,Sri Lanka,Tajikistan,Thailand,Timor-Leste,Turkmenistan,Uzbekistan,and Viet Nam provided support in compiling the data for their respective economies.We greatly appreciate the continuing cooperation of the governments of ADB member eco
93、nomies and other international agencies.Paul Dent and Michael Barker edited Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023.The cover design,publication dividers,and infographics were prepared by Mike Cortes,with assistance from Raymond Adofina,Miro Frances Capili,Dennis Dizon,Anna Marie Fernando,Chris
94、tian Regie J.Jabagat,Arturo Martinez Jr,and Andrea Felice Quinial.Mark Ganaban,Joseph Manglicmot,and Rommel Marilla assisted with typesetting,with guidance from Rhommell Rico.Staff from ADBs Information Technology Department provided database management and technology support in coordination with th
95、e Key Indicators Database team,comprising Ephraim Cuya,Karen Firshan,Pamela Lapitan,James Montecillo,Jeffrey Napoles,Le Kim Nguyen,and Lea Rotairo under the leadership of Stefan Schipper.The Logistics Management Unit of the Corporate Services Department facilitated the timely and smooth production o
96、f the publication.Terje Langeland and Lean Alfred Santos,with the assistance of ADBs Department of Communications and Knowledge Management staff,including Robert Alcala,Antonio Chua,Ma.Melissa Dela Torre,Ruel Gatchalian,Mira Catherine Gloria,Kristel Marie Gonzales,Luca Lamorte,Duncan Mcleod,Andrew P
97、errin,and Anna Katharine Sherwood provided general guidance on production issues and organized promotional and awareness activities.Albert ParkChief Economist and Director GeneralEconomic Research and Development Impact DepartmentAsian Development BankxivKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023S
98、tatistical PartnersThe preparation and publication of Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023 would not have been possible without the support,assistance,and cooperation of statistical partners in Asian Development Bank member economies throughout the Asia and Pacific region,along with the inva
99、luable contributions of international,private,and nongovernment organizations.These partnerswho share their data,knowledge,expertise,and other informationhelp provide the Asian Development Bank,policymakers,and other data users with a better understanding of the performance of economies across the r
100、egion,encouraging the design,formulation,and monitoring of better policies to improve the quality of life for people in this part of the world.REGIONAL MEMBERSArmenia Central Bank of Armenia(https:/www.cba.am)Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Armenia(https:/www.minfin.am)Statistical Committee o
101、f the Republic of Armenia(https:/www.armstat.am)Australia Australian Bureau of Statistics(https:/www.abs.gov.au)Department of Climate Change,Energy,the Environment and Water (https:/www.dcceew.gov.au/)Reserve Bank of Australia(https:/www.rba.gov.au)Azerbaijan Central Bank of the Republic of Azerbaij
102、an(https:/www.cbar.az)Ministry of Finance(http:/www.maliyye.gov.az)State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan(https:/www.stat.gov.az)Bangladesh Bangladesh Bank(https:/www.bb.org.bd)Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics(http:/www.bbs.gov.bd)Ministry of Finance(https:/mof.gov.bd)Bhutan Minist
103、ry of Finance(https:/www.mof.gov.bt)Ministry of Industry,Commerce&Employment(https:/www.moice.gov.bt/)National Statistics Bureau(https:/www.nsb.gov.bt)Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan(https:/www.rma.org.bt)Brunei Darussalam Brunei Darussalam Central Bank(https:/www.bdcb.gov.bn)Department of Econom
104、ic Planning and Statistics(https:/deps.mofe.gov.bn)Ministry of Finance and Economy(https:/www.mofe.gov.bn)Cambodia Electricity Authority of Cambodia(https:/eac.gov.kh)Ministry of Economy and Finance(https:/mef.gov.kh)National Bank of Cambodia(https:/www.nbc.org.kh)National Institute of Statistics(ht
105、tps:/nis.gov.kh)xvKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023China,Peoples Republic of National Bureau of Statistics of China(https:/)The Peoples Bank of China(https:/)State Administration of Foreign Exchange(https:/)Cook Islands Cook Islands Statistics Office under Ministry of Finance and Economic
106、 Management(http:/www.mfem.gov.ck)Fiji Bureau of Statistics(http:/www.statsfiji.gov.fj)Reserve Bank of Fiji(http:/www.rbf.gov.fj)Ministry of Economy(http:/www.economy.gov.fj)Georgia Ministry of Finance of Georgia(https:/www.mof.ge)National Bank of Georgia(https:/www.nbg.gov.ge)National Statistics Of
107、fice of Georgia(https:/www.geostat.ge)Hong Kong,China Census and Statistics Department(https:/www.censtatd.gov.hk)Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau(https:/www.fstb.gov.hk)India National Statistical Office under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation(https:/www.mospi.gov.in)
108、Department of Economic Affairs,Ministry of Finance(https:/dea.gov.in/)Reserve Bank of India(http:/www.rbi.org.in)Indonesia Bank Indonesia(https:/www.bi.go.id)Badan Pusat Statistik-Statistics Indonesia(https:/www.bps.go.id)Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources(https:/www.esdm.go.id)Ministry of Fin
109、ance(https:/www.kemenkeu.go.id)Pertamina(https:/)Japan Bank of Japan(https:/www.boj.or.jp)Economic and Social Research Institute(https:/www.esri.cao.go.jp)Japan Customs(https:/www.customs.go.jp)Japan Statistics Bureau(https:/www.e-stat.go.jp)Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry(https:/www.meti.go.
110、jp)Ministry of Finance(https:/www.mof.go.jp)The Institute of Energy Economics,Japan(https:/oil-info.ieej.or.jp)Kazakhstan Bureau of National Statistics,Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan(https:/stat.gov.kz)Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Kazakhstan (https:
111、/www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/minfin?lang=en)National Bank of Kazakhstan(https:/nationalbank.kz)xviKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023Kiribati Kiribati National Statistics Office(https:/nso.gov.ki/)Korea,Republic of Bank of Korea(https:/bok.or.kr)Statistics Korea(http:/kostat.go.kr)Kyrgyz R
112、epublic National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic(https:/www.nbkr.kg)National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic(http:/www.stat.kg)Lao Peoples Democratic Bank of the Lao PDR(https:/www.bol.gov.la)Republic Lao Statistics Bureau(https:/www.lsb.gov.la)Ministry of Finance(https:/www.mof.gov.la)Mala
113、ysia Bank Negara Malaysia(https:/www.bnm.gov.my)Department of Statistics Malaysia(https:/www.dosm.gov.my)Ministry of Finance Malaysia(https:/www.mof.gov.my)Maldives National Bureau of Statistics(https:/statisticsmaldives.gov.mv)Maldives Monetary Authority(https:/www.mma.gov.mv)Ministry of Finance(ht
114、tps:/www.finance.gov.mv)Marshall Islands Economic Policy,Planning and Statistics Office(https:/www.rmieppso.org)Micronesia,Federated Division of Statistics(http:/www.fsmstatistics.fm)States ofMongolia The Bank of Mongolia(https:/www.mongolbank.mn)The Ministry of Finance Mongolia(https:/mof.gov.mn)Na
115、tional Statistics Office of Mongolia(https:/en.nso.mn/)Nauru Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning(http:/www.naurugov.nr)Nauru Bureau of Statistics(https:/nauru.prism.spc.int)Nepal Central Bureau of Statistics(https:/cbs.gov.np)Office of the Controller General of Accounts,Ministry of Finance(htt
116、ps:/www.fcgo.gov.np)Nepal Rastra Bank(https:/www.nrb.org.np)Water and Energy Commission Secretariat(www.wecs.gov.np)Ministry of Energy,Water Resources and Irrigation(www.moewri.gov.np)Ministry of Industry,Commerce and Supplies(https:/moics.gov.np)Ministry of Industry,Commerce and Supplies,Department
117、 of Mines and Geology(http:/www.dmgnepal.gov.np)xviiKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023New Zealand Ministry of Business,Innovation and Employment(https:/www.mbie.govt.nz)Reserve Bank of New Zealand(https:/www.rbnz.govt.nz)Stats NZ Tatauranga Aotearoa(https:/www.stats.govt.nz)Niue Niue Stati
118、stics Office(https:/niuestatistics.nu/)Pakistan Ministry of Finance and Revenue(http:/www.finance.gov.pk)Pakistan Bureau of Statistics(https:/www.pbs.gov.pk)State Bank of Pakistan(https:/www.sbp.org.pk)Palau Bureau of Budget and Planning,Ministry of Finance(https:/www.palaugov.pw/mof)Papua New Guine
119、a Bank of Papua New Guinea(https:/www.bankpng.gov.pg)Department of Treasury(http:/www.treasury.gov.pg)National Statistical Office(https:/www.nso.gov.pg)Philippines Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas(http:/www.bsp.gov.ph)Bureau of Local Government Finance(https:/blgf.gov.ph)Bureau of the Treasury(http:/www.
120、treasury.gov.ph)Department of Budget and Management(http:/www.dbm.gov.ph)Department of Energy(https:/www.doe.gov.ph)Philippine Statistics Authority(https:/www.psa.gov.ph)Samoa Samoa Bureau of Statistics(https:/www.sbs.gov.ws)Central Bank of Samoa(https:/www.cbs.gov.ws)Singapore Department of Statist
121、ics Singapore(https:/www.tablebuilder.singstat.gov.sg)Enterprise Singapore(https:/www.enterprisesg.gov.sg)Ministry of Finance(https:/www.mof.gov.sg)Ministry of Manpower(https:/www.mom.gov.sg)Ministry of Trade and Industry(https:/www.mti.gov.sg)Monetary Authority of Singapore(https:/www.mas.gov.sg)So
122、lomon Islands Central Bank of Solomon Islands(https:/.sb)Solomon Islands National Statistics Office(https:/www.statistics.gov.sb)Sri Lanka Central Bank of Sri Lanka(https:/www.cbsl.gov.lk)Department of Census and Statistics(http:/www.statistics.gov.lk)Taipei,China Central bank of Taipei,China Direct
123、orate-General of Budget,Accounting and Statistics Ministry of FinancexviiiKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023Tajikistan National Bank of Tajikistan(https:/www.nbt.tj)Agency on Statistics under President of the Republic of Tajikistan(https:/www.stat.tj)Thailand Bank of Thailand(https:/www.bo
124、t.or.th)Ministry of Finance(https:/www2.mof.go.th)National Economic and Social Development Council(https:/www.nesdc.go.th)National Statistical Office(https:/www.nso.go.th)Ministry of Energy,Energy Policy and Planning Office(https:/www.eppo.go.th)Timor-Leste Central Bank of Timor-Leste(https:/www.ban
125、cocentral.tl)Ministry of Finance(https:/www.mof.gov.tl)National Institute of Statistics of Timor-Leste(https:/inetl-ip.gov.tl)Tonga Ministry of Finance(http:/www.finance.gov.to)National Reserve Bank of Tonga(http:/www.reservebank.to)Tonga Statistics Department(https:/tongastats.gov.to)Turkmenistan C
126、entral Bank of Turkmenistan(https:/www.cbt.tm)Ministry of Finance and Economy of Turkmenistan(https:/www.fineconomic.gov.tm)State Committee on Statistics of Turkmenistan(https:/www.stat.gov.tm)Tuvalu Central Statistics Division(https:/tuvalu.prism.spc.int)Uzbekistan Central Bank of the Republic of U
127、zbekistan(https:/www.cbu.uz)Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Uzbekistan(https:/imv.uz)State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Statistics(https:/stat.uz/en)Vanuatu Department of Finance and Treasury(https:/doft.gov.vu)Reserve Bank of Vanuatu(https:/www.rbv.gov.vu)Vanuatu National Stati
128、stics Office(http:/www.vnso.gov.vu)Viet Nam General Statistics Office(https:/www.gso.gov.vn)Ministry of Finance(https:/www.mof.gov.vn)State Bank of Viet Nam(https:/www.sbv.gov.vn)xixKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023INTERNATIONAL,PRIVATE,AND NONGOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONSAssociation of Southe
129、ast Asian NationsFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsInternational Labour OrganizationInternational Monetary FundInternational Telecommunication UnionInterstate Statistical Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent StatesJoint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDSOrganisation fo
130、r Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentSecretariat of the Pacific CommunityTransparency InternationalUnited Nations Childrens Fund(UNICEF)United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUnited Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUnited Nations Econo
131、mic Commission for EuropeUnited Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificUnited Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO)Institute for StatisticsUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeUnited Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUnited Nations Office on Drugs a
132、nd CrimeUnited Nations Population DivisionUnited Nations Statistics DivisionUnited Nations World Tourism OrganizationUnited States Agency for International DevelopmentUnited States Census BureauUnited States Bureau of Economic AnalysisWHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply,Sanitation
133、 and HygieneWorld BankWorld Federation of ExchangesWorld Health OrganizationWorld Trade OrganizationxxKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023Guide for Users Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific2023 begins with a Highlights section that presents key messages from various parts of the publicat
134、ion.Part I comprises data tables anddata stories describingtrends of selected indicators for the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)for which data were available.The indicators are presented according to the United Nations SDG global indicator framework.Part IIpresents specific indicatorsonsocial,ec
135、onomic,and environmental developments in member economies of the Asian Development Bank(ADB)located in Asia and the Pacific.The tables containing theseindicatorsare grouped into eight themes:People;Economy and Output;Money,Finance,and Prices;Globalization;Transport and Communications;Energy and Elec
136、tricity;Environment;and Government and Governance.The SDGs in Part I and the themes in Part II are preceded bydata stories,which are complemented by figures and charts describing the status of economies with respect to key trends of selected targets and indicators.The scales used in some figures and
137、 charts are adjusted to show very small numbers.In addition,figures and charts appearing in this publication are also provided with a digital object identifier to facilitate easier access to data.The SDGs and regional tables presented in Parts I and II cover 49 national economies across Asia and the
138、 Pacific,all of which are members of ADB.The terms“country”and“national”,used interchangeably with“economy”,is not intended to make any judgment as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.The 49 economies have been broadly grouped into developing ADB member economies and developed ADB
139、member economies.The term“developing Asia”refers to the 46 developing member economies of ADB.The developed economies refer to the economies of Australia,Japan,and New Zealand.Based on ADBs geographic operations,the 46 developing ADB member economies are divided into five subregions within the Asia
140、and Pacific region.These subregions are Central and West Asia,East Asia,South Asia,Southeast Asia,and the Pacific.Economies are listed alphabetically within each subregion.The term“regional members”,often used interchangeably with“Asia and the Pacific”,refers to all 49 ADB members,both developing an
141、d developed.Indicators are shown for the most recent year(usually2022)or period for which data were available and,in most tables,for a starting year or period(usually 2010).Depending on available data,the starting point may be a year nearest to 2010,and the most recent year(usually the year nearest
142、to2022).There may,however,be some exceptions to these general principles.In the tables,aggregates for regions include economies with available data and are shown if the indicator is available for more than half of the economies and if more than two-thirds of the reference population is represented.P
143、art III contains selected indicators for depicting participation by economies of Asia and the Pacific in global value chains,and the sector-specific comparative advantage of each economy in terms of exports.Typical indicators of international trade,which mainly refer to the value xxiKey Indicators f
144、or Asia and the Pacific 2023of exports and imports of goods and services,can be traced back to the traditional trading of final goods across borders.Todays globalization has made many economies more open to trade,providing opportunities for firms to scale up production and allocate their resources m
145、ore efficiently by moving production chains across borders where there is comparative advantage.Analysis of global value chains provides detailed cross-border trading transactions of inputs used in different stages of productionfrom raw materials,to intermediate inputs,to the final products purchase
146、d by the end consumers.Part IV provides stories behind the data and focuses on initiatives of the regions national statistics offices to provide data as the basis for actionable insights on development planning and policymaking.This publication is also available on ADBs website at adb.org/ki-2023,al
147、ong with individual statistical tables for each of the49ADB regional members.Thepublications vitally important dataand time seriesare alsoaccessible in digitized format via the Key Indicators Database(kidb.adb.org),which also presentslonger data series(usually starting from 2000)for each indicator.D
148、ata for the SDG indicators,regional tables,and individual member tableswereobtainedmainly from two sources:(i)ADBs statistical partners linked to regional member economies,and(ii)international statistics agencies,particularly from the United NationsSDG GlobalDatabase,a master set of data prepared by
149、 the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat.The term“economies official sources”,cited as a source in some tables,refers to data provided by the statistical partners linked to the ADB regional member economies.The data presented for indicators in Part I were deri
150、ved from either official economy sources,the SDG Global Database,or databases maintained by international agencies that,based on their areas of expertise,prepared one or more of the series of statistical indicators included in the SDG Global Database.The data presented in Part III were drawn mainly
151、from the ADB Multiregional Input-Output Database and Key Indicators Database.The results of a survey conducted by ADBs Statistics and Data Innovation Unitinformed the discussion presented in Part IV.Data produced and disseminated by international agencies aregenerally basedon data produced and disse
152、minated by an individual economy(including data adjusted by the economy to meet international standards).However,it should be noted that national data may be compiled using national standards and practices and,as such,international agencies often adjust the data for international comparability.In su
153、ch cases,data disseminated by the international agencies may differ from data available from national sources.In other cases,when data for a specific year,or set of years,are not available;or they are available from multiple national sources(surveys,administrative data sources,and other sources);or
154、when there are data quality issues;the relevant international agency may estimate the data.Some indicators are regularly produced for the purpose of global monitoring by the designated agency,and there are no corresponding data at the national level(e.g.,population living on less than$2.15 a day at
155、2017 purchasing power parity).In other cases,the differences between xxiiKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023data from national and international agencies may be because the most recent and/or revised data available at the national level are not yet available with the relevant international
156、agency.Some data gaps are filled by supplementing or deriving data collected through sample surveys financed and carried out by international agencies.For example,many of the health indicators are estimated using data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and Demographic and Health Surveys.Dat
157、a on money and interest rates,featured inseveralindividual economy tables,are presentedbased onthe International Monetary Funds 2016 Monetary and Financial Statistics Manual and Compilation Guide,but there are a few economies that continue to present their data usingtheformat applied in Key Indicato
158、rs for Asia and the Pacific 2020 and prior editions.Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific now also features additionaltransport and communications indicators from ADBs Asian Transportation Outlook Database.ADB exercises due care and caution in collecting data before publication.Nevertheless,data f
159、rom international sources presented in this publication may differ from those available within individual member economies.Thus,for a detailed description of how the indicators are compiled by the international agencies,readers may refer to the metadata available from databases of the individual int
160、ernational agencies,or to the SDG Global Database website for metadata of SDG indicators.Modeledestimates as presented in the SDG Global Database are also identified.Comparable and standardized national data gathered through a robust data-reporting mechanism of the international agenciesserve asthe
161、basis for all data in the global monitoring databases.Data obtained from ADB member economies are comparable to the extent that the ADB members follow standard statistical concepts,definitions,and estimation methods recommended by the United Nations and other applicable international agencies.Nevert
162、heless,member economies invariably develop and use their own concepts,definitions,and estimation methodologies to suit their individual circumstances,and these may not necessarily comply with recommended international standards.Therefore,even though attempts are made to present the data in a compara
163、ble and uniform format,the data are subject to variations in the statistical methods used by individual economies,so full comparability may not be possible.These variations are reflected in the footnotes of the statistical tables or noted in the Data Issues and Comparability sections.Information abo
164、ut changes in compilation methodology is also provided in the footnotes.In addition,some indicators areexpressed as functions of two or more indicators(e.g.,indicators expressed as a proportion of gross domestic product).Hence,a change in the compilation methodology of one component indicatormightaf
165、fect other indicators based upon it.Hence,readers are encouraged to referto the footnotes before making comparisons between economies and/or over time.Moreover,the aggregates shown in some tables for the developing ADB member economies and ADB regional members are treated as approximations of the ac
166、tual total or average,or growth rates,due to missing data from the primary source.For a description of the regional aggregation method,readers may refer to the footnotes presented in the tables and/or the metadata in the Key Indicators Database(kidb.adb.org).Footnotes also xxiiiKey Indicators for As
167、ia and the Pacific 2023provide information for earlier years(earlier than 2000),which are relevant for the longerdataseries presentedin the Key Indicators Database.Aggregates for the World were sourced from international agencies,and readers may refer to the metadata available from databases of the
168、individual international agencies.The data published by ADB do not constitute any form of advice or recommendation.For answers to any questions on the data,users of this publication are requested to seek advice from the relevant data source or organization.xxivKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific
169、 2023Fiscal YearThere are 25 regional members of the Asian Development Bank with fiscal years that do not coincide with the calendar year.Whenever statistical series(for example,national accounts or government finance)are compiled on the basis of a fiscal year,these series are presented in the colum
170、n for the single-year during which most of the fiscal year occurred.The 25 fiscal year definitions for 2022 are outlined below.Regional Member Fiscal Year Year CaptionAfghanistan*(fiscal year since 2021)21 March 2022 to 20 March 2023 2022Brunei Darussalam(fiscal year since 2002)Hong Kong,ChinaIndiaJ
171、apan 1 April 2022 to 31 March 2023 2022 New ZealandSingaporeFiji 1 August 2021 to 31 July 2022 2022AustraliaBangladeshBhutanCook IslandsKiribati 1 July 2021 to 30 June 2022 2022NauruNiuePakistanSamoaTongaNepal 16 July 2021 to 15 July 2022 2022Lao Peoples Democratic RepublicMarshall Islands 1 October
172、 2021 to 30 September 2022 2022Micronesia,Federated States ofMyanmar*PalauThailand*ADB placed its regular assistance to Afghanistan on hold effective 15 August 2021,but in 2022 supported the economic and social development of the Afghan people through a special arrangement with the United Nations to
173、 address basic human needs.ADB did not make any consultations with Afghanistan for the data in this publication.*Effective 1 February 2021,ADB placed a temporary hold on sovereign project disbursements and new contracts in Myanmar.The bank continues to closely monitor the situation in the country an
174、d remains committed to supporting its people.ADB did not make any consultations with Myanmar for the data in this publication.xxvKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023Key Symbols.data not available magnitude equals zero(-/+)0 or 0.0 magnitude is less than half of unit employed*provisional/prel
175、iminary/estimate/budget figure|marks break in series greater than less than%percentageUnits of MeasurementGWh gigawatt-hourkg kilogramkm kilometer km2 square kilometerkWh kilowatt-hourkt kilotonL literm3 cubic metermj megajoulePM particulate matterteu twenty-foot equivalent unitt metric tong/m3 micr
176、ograms per cubic meter xxviKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023AbbreviationsADB Asian Development BankADBI Asian Development Bank InstituteAIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndromeBPM5 Balance of Payments Manual(Fifth Edition)BPM6 Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manua
177、l(Sixth Edition)CIF cost,insurance,and freightCO2 carbon dioxideCOICOP Classification of Individual Consumption by PurposeCOVID-19 coronavirus diseaseCPI consumer price indexCSO Central Statistical OrganizationDHS Demographic and Health SurveyEROD-SDI Economic Research and Development Impact Departm
178、ent,Statistics and Data Innovation UnitFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFDI foreign direct investmentFOB free on boardFVA foreign value-addedGDP gross domestic productGNI gross national incomeGVA gross value-addedGVC global value chainHIV human immunodeficiency virusICP Int
179、ernational Comparison ProgramICT information and communication technologyIEA International Energy AgencyIDA International Development AssociationIHR International Health RegulationsILO International Labour OrganizationIMF International Monetary FundISIC International Standard Industrial Classificati
180、onITU International Telecommunication UnionJRC Joint Research CenterKIDB Key Indicators DatabaseLSCI Liner Shipping Connectivity IndexMICS Multiple Indicator Cluster SurveyMOF Ministry of FinanceMRIOT multiregional input-output table NPL nonperforming loanNSO national statistics office;national stat
181、istical officeODA official development assistanceOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPARIS21 Partnership in Statistics for Development in the 21st CenturyPLI price level indexPPP purchasing power parityxxviiKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023PRC Peoples Republic of Ch
182、inaPSA Philippine Statistics AuthoritySCI statistical capacity indicatorSDG Sustainable Development GoalSNA System of National AccountsUN United NationsUNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDSUNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificUNICEF United Nations
183、 Childrens FundUNSD United Nations Statistics DivisionUNWTO United Nations World Tourism OrganizationUS United StatesWHO World Health OrganizationUnless otherwise indicated,“$”refers to United States dollars.Tackling Cost of Living Challenges to Meet the SDGsPART I:SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALSPoor
184、hurt most by high cost of livingMore resources needed to accelerate economic recovery and address post-pandemic development challenges,including increased cost of livingIncreased cost of living crisis and the pandemic pushed millions of Asians into extreme povertySources:Figure 1.14 and Page 12.Sour
185、ce:Table 1.1.Compared to pre-pandemic estimates for 2022,an extra 67.8 million people were estimated to be extremely poor in developing Asia in 2022.Increased cost of living crisis and Spending needed to eradicate poverty and achieve other related SDGs in Asia and the Pacific estimated at over$669 b
186、illion a year for 2016-2030.In most economies,the bottom 50%spent more than half their budget on food and 10%more on energy than an average household.Sources:Figures 1.9 and 1.11.0.0020030Magnitude of poor(million)Based on actual growth and post-pandemic growth projectionsBased
187、 on pre-pandemic growth projectionsBeing poor is expensivePoverty premium takes many formsSource:Page 17.Source:Box 1.1.Poor people encounter poverty premium where they pay more for several goods and services.Transport and location barriers can raise costs for poor people.Surge of rural-urban migrat
188、ion may worsen urban poverty if not managed properlyIn 2020,less than half of the population in 26 of 40 economies were covered by at least one social protection measureInternet access has doubled in the past decadeSource:Figure 1.13.New technologies can narrow poverty premium by broadening access t
189、o services and opportunitiesSome economies have responded to recent crises with social protection measures but coverage needs to go beyond one-of protection.But over a third of the region will experience moderate poverty and economic vulnerability.The urban population will outstrip the rural populat
190、ion by about 1.5 billion in 2050.Sources:Page 40 and Figure 1.23.Extreme poverty to fall from 3.9%in 2022 to 1%by 2030Source:Figure 1.7.Food and energy prices surged in 2022Policy measures to mitigate COVID-19 may have contributed to inflationFood and nonalcoholic drinks prices rose at least 10%in 1
191、5 regional economies,with fuel prices up at least 8%in 15 economies.One-third of economies still recorded a money supply increase of at least 10%in 2022,following fiscal stimulus packages in previous years.Sources:Pages 112113.Sources:Page 113 and Figure 2.4.High inflation has exacerbated COVID-19 i
192、mpactsIn 2022,inflation in developing Asia reached 4.4%,a level unseen in almost a decade.Source:Figure 2.1.Extremely poor0.9%Middle class28.1%Moderatelypoor8.1%Economicallyvulnerable30.3%Economicallysecure32.6%2030Navigating Inflationary Pressures and Economic UncertaintiesPART II:REGIONAL TABLESTa
193、ckling Cost of Living Challenges to Meet the SDGsPART I:SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALSSources:Figure 1.25 and Page 44.1 5 0042005200620072008200920000022(%)WorldDeveloping AsiaGrowth in developing Asia slowed sharply in 2022 to 4.2%.Source:Figure
194、 2.6.2002120226.05.07.24.30.6Higher interest rates imposed to curb inflationAs inflation accelerated,economic recovery in most economies slowed2022Central banks in 18 of 22 economies hiked interest rates at least once in 2022.Source:Figure 2.5.JanMarMayJulSepNovIncreasedDecreased9 out of
195、12 economies recorded stock price index declines in 2022Currency exchange rates respond to changes in interest rates.High interest rates increase borrowing costs and can cause declines in investments and stock prices.External debt in 15 regional economies in 2022 exceeded 2019 levels by at least 20%
196、.Debt levels in some parts of Asia and the Pacific remained above pre-pandemic levelsNearly a quarter of regional economies had local currency depreciations of at least 10%in 2022Source:Figure 2.7.Source:Figure 2.8.Source:Figure 2.7.Navigating Inflationary Pressures and Economic UncertaintiesPART II
197、:REGIONAL TABLES50510Number of Central BanksGDP growth(%)DEBTDEBTDEBTWorld GVC Participation Rate,20072022National statistical systems are vital for price data collection and disseminationThe International Comparison Program compiles global PPPs and measures of real outputsMonthly CPI data provides
198、timely price change information for policy makers.Asia and the Pacific is critical to ICP,accounting for more than half of the worlds population and two-fifths of global output in purchasing power parity(PPP)terms.Efect of inflationary trend on GVC participation started in 2020 and was more pronounc
199、ed in 2022Source:Figure 3.3.Sources:Pages 259 and 266.Sources:Pages 253255.Source:Figure 3.2.Price Change Impacts on GVC IndicatorsPART III:GLOBAL VALUE CHAINSUsing Price Data to Track Socioeconomic DevelopmentPART IV:STORIES BEHIND DATARealNominalDeveloping Asias GVC Participation Rate,2007202236%3
200、8%40%42%44%46%48%2007200820092000002238%40%42%44%46%48%50%20072008200920000022RealNominalDiferences in nominal and real GVC participation rates reflect changing efective prices faced by Developing AsiaIntroductio
201、nIntroduction Since 2022,the socioeconomic landscape in many parts of the world,including Asia and the Pacific,has been shaped by mixed forces of recovery,the lingering impact of the coronavirus disease(COVID-19)pandemic,and other external factors that have stalled economic growth.Most parts of the
202、world have managed to fully reopen their economies after calibrating strategies to balance containment of COVID-19 infections,while still conducting business activities.This approach helped them cope with the aftermath of impacts from lockdowns and business shutdowns which characterized the first tw
203、o years of the pandemic.However,the optimism for a rapid economic recovery slowed as new variants emerged.Strict COVID-19 policies of key actors in global trade,such as the Peoples Republic of China,affected global supply chains,as it resulted in closed factories and ports.The Russian invasion of Uk
204、raine,which started at the beginning of 2022,further reinforced shocks caused by the pandemic and added to looming uncertainties by causing severe disruptions in food and energy markets.The initial assumption of temporary upward pressure on prices was not well anchored,as inflation surged above the
205、policy targets of many governments for extended periods.These factors,combined with the impact of fiscal stimulus provided at the height of the pandemic,have contributed to inflationary levels unseen since the global financial crisis(ADB 2022c;de Soyres et al.2022;IMF 2022).Compared to other regions
206、,initial economic forecasts indicated that inflationary pressures would have benign effects on Asia and the Pacific(EIU 2021;Shevlin and Lam 2021).However,cost of living pressures also rose across the region as prices of food,energy and housing hit all-time highs as 2022 unfolded.This stalled develo
207、ping Asias economic performance which only managed to grow by 4.2%by the end of the year,lower than initial forecasts suggested(ADB 2023d).Across the globe,a number of central banks and monetary authorities raised interest rates to combat surging prices.With inflation of prices of basic commodities
208、and services at record highs,recovery from the pandemic became challenging for low-income groups,and those who just escaped from poverty could be pushed back into it due to reduced purchasing power.Poor people are most likely to be hit hardest due to the higher share of energy and food costs in thei
209、r budget compared to other income groups.High inflation can also exacerbate economic inequalities as the impact of high prices affects the income and savings of poor people more than wealthier counterparts(Gill and Nagle 2022).An economic slowdown may also constrain national capacities to invest in
210、poverty-reducing activities in areas such as health,education,and infrastructure(UN 2023b).Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 20234Even without surging prices,previous studies suggest that living in poverty may be expensive due to the premium,or penalty,paid by the poor(Caplovitz 1963;Corfe and
211、 Keohane 2018;Hirsch 2013;Mendoza 2011).The poverty premium manifests in various ways.For example,poor people may end up paying higher unit prices for select food items because they cannot afford to buy in bulk(Hossain 2020),because they have limited facilities to store food at home(Gauri,Jindal,and
212、 Ma 2021),or they do not have time and resources to look for cheaper and more nutritious food(French et.al.2019).Likewise,poor people may also pay more for commuting to work and other important establishments.For instance,a study suggests that in several cities,a considerable number of poor residing
213、 in informal settlements face long and expensive trips to work,often exceeding 3-4 hours per day(Starkey and Hine 2014).This time spent commuting to work deprives them from taking part in more productive activities(Lorenz 2018).Poor people also face higher costs for accessing financial services.A st
214、udy from(Cavoli and Shreshta 2020)estimated that in 2017,18%of adults did not have access to a bank account because financial services were too expensive,while 13%said they were too far away from a physical bank facility.On the other hand,in developing Asia,access to credit for small firms,which pro
215、vide a major source of employment for people of lower incomes,is constrained due to unfavorable interest rates,complex application procedures,and high collateral requirements(ADB 2015).As the elevated cost of living pushes millions of Asians into economic hardship,there is a need to galvanize effort
216、s to ensure poor people are able to cope with inflationary pressures and looming economic uncertainties.Furthermore,development practitioners and policymakers must also recognize the need of the poor for additional protection,even beyond the increased cost-of-living crisis.Addressing other developme
217、nt challenges and sources of socioeconomic disadvantage should constitute an important policy agenda as Asia and the Pacific moves closer to Sustainable Development Goal(SDG)reckoning in 2030.The first half of Part I of Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023 presents stylized facts on how prev
218、ious and ongoing challenges associated with the poverty premium and penalty,and soaring cost of living,affect the most vulnerable populations in developing Asia.To examine these topics,featured data stories cite different examples of poverty premium and penalty.The discussion on poverty premium and
219、penalty illustrates how its different forms may materialize.Data stories also provide a glimpse into how stronger social protection systems may help poor people navigate the increased cost-of-living crisis.The second half of Part I provides an overview of other development 5Sustainable Development G
220、oals Trends and Tableschallenges confronted by people living in poverty.The section briefly discusses how boosting agricultural development,enhancing financial inclusion,and providing support for innovation and human capital development can potentially level up the playing field for the most vulnera
221、ble segments of society.Part II presents other key indicators compiled by national statistical systems,accompanied by commentaries on the dynamics of inflation,economic growth,stock markets,and monetary policies in the form of interest rates and foreign exchange.These data stories also examine the p
222、otential implications of the current socioeconomic landscape on the sustainability of developing Asias debt levels moving forward.Part III discusses trends on global value chain participation expressed in nominal and real terms,providing relevant policy insights especially during periods of signific
223、ant inflation.Part IV documents how data and statistics on prices serve a wide range of purposes for development practitioners and policymakers,with a specific focus on the International Comparison Program which compiles purchasing power parities.Since the COVID-19 pandemic struck,prices of specific
224、 goods and services have fluctuated significantly,highlighting the need for timely intervention.Given the important role of price data as a key input for policymaking,there is a need to reflect on how national statistical systems currently compile data on prices,and how they can further push frontie
225、rs of price data collection to provide more timely,granular and spatially comparable information.As Asia and the Pacific navigates its way through an uncertain economic environment,marked by an elevated cost of living,it is important to generate data driven-insights on other challenges confronting d
226、eveloping and frontier markets.Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023 aims to support development practitioners by providing high-quality and timely data that can be used as inputs in designing targeted interventions and policies.PART ISustainable Development GoalsTrends and TablesPursuing Sus
227、tainable Development by Managing the Cost of Living in Poverty Over the past 6 decades,developing Asia has undergone a significant transition from widespread poverty to general prosperity.From being a collection of agrarian,low-income economies in the 1960s,Asian Development Bank(ADB)data shows the
228、region has evolved into the worlds manufacturing powerhouse and now boasts diverse exports,expanding innovation,a growing skilled labor force,and a large consumer base(ADB 2020).In 1960,the contribution of the region to total global output was just 4.4%.By 2021,estimates suggest that it exceeded 28.
229、6%,in nominal terms.1 Over these years,gross domestic product(GDP)per capita also grew by 4.7%,far higher than the world average of 1.9%(ADB 2020).The period has also seen a sharp reduction in the incidence of poverty,a rise in life expectancy,a decline in infant mortality,an impressive increase in
230、educational attainment,and substantial improvement in delivery of basic services(Figure 1.1).1 The region accounts for about 40%of global GDP,when converted using purchasing power parities(Joshi et al.2021).Figure 1.1:Improvement in Living Conditions of Asians Over TimeLiving conditions in developin
231、g Asia improved markedly over the 60 years leading into the COVID-19 pandemic.PovertyLife Expectancy(years)Infant Mortality RateBasic Drinking WaterMean Years of SchoolingAccess to Electricity4.8%Notes:Poverty refers to the prevalence of extreme poverty using the$2.15/day international poverty line
232、at 2017purchasing power parity(PPP).Life expectancy refers to life expectancy at birth in years.The infant mortality rate refers to infant deaths per 1,000 live births.Mean years of schooling are for those aged 25 and over.Basic drinking water refers to percentage of population using at least basic
233、drinking water services.Access to electricity is the percentage of population with access to electricity.Sources:Asian Development Bank estimates and visualization using data from the Asian Development Banks Key Indicators Database,the World Bank Groups World Development Indicators Database and Pove
234、rty and Inequality Platform Database,and the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization Institute for Statistics Database(accessed 1 June 2023).Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 202310In spite of these achievements,the COVID-19 pandemic and its after-effects pushed develop
235、ing Asia into its first regional economic recession in 60 years,with millions of Asians driven into severe hardship(ADB 2021c).In 2023,more than 3 years since the pandemic first struck,the region is at a critical juncture.The most vulnerable and poorest populations face multiple dimensions of inequa
236、lity,grappling with a global cost-of-living crisis,high inflation,and the impacts of longer-term challenges such as climate change(ADB 2023b).With already tight household budgets,poor communities are being confronted by higher costs of food,other basic commodities,and essential services,further abso
237、rbing a disproportionate share of their meagre financial resources.Indeed,studies conducted by the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP)and the World Bank in 2022 estimated that millions of people in the worlds poorest economies had been pushed into extreme poverty in the first quarter of 2022
238、due to increased cost of living pressures(UNDP 2022a;Mahler et al.2022).To prevent global poverty targets from slipping out of reach,there is an urgent need for action as we cross the halfway point in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development(UN 2023a).The first half of Part I of Key Indicators fo
239、r Asia and the Pacific 2023 takes stock of how developing Asia is faring with respect to selected targets under Sustainable Development Goal(SDG)1,including reduction of monetary and multidimensional poverty.The section uses updated international poverty lines based on 2017 International Comparison
240、Program(ICP)results.In particular,the income threshold for extreme poverty has been updated from$1.90 a day in 2011 purchasing power parity(PPP)to$2.15 a day in 2017 PPP,while the threshold for moderate poverty has changed from$3.20 a day in 2011 PPP to$3.65 a day in 2017 PPP.It also discusses nowca
241、sting and forecasting of poverty in developing Asia under varying inflation scenarios.The second half of Part I also discusses minimizing the poverty premium in the context of selected indicators of SDG 2(zero hunger),SDG 8(decent work and economic growth),and SDG 11(sustainable cities and communiti
242、es).11Sustainable Development Goals:Trends and TablesWhy Is Sustainable Development Goal 1 Important and How Is Developing Asia Faring?2Given the high cost of addressing multiple dimensions of poverty there is a need to focus resources on addressing some of the persistent sources of socioeconomic di
243、sadvantage among the poor.SDG 1 aims to end poverty in all its forms everywhere by 2030.Its targets include eradication of extreme poverty,reduction of multidimensional poverty,and building better social safety nets(UN n.d.)To achieve SDG 1,there is a need to mobilize resources via governments and t
244、he wider development community.Figure 1.2 presents estimates of prevalence of poverty and the poverty gap(or the average income shortfall from the poverty line expressed as a percentage of the poverty line)in developing Asia from 2015 to 2019.2 Unless stated otherwise,most of the analyses of monetar
245、y poverty for developing Asia presented in this section are based on information from 29 Asian Development Bank regional member economies for which data needed for poverty calculations are available:Armenia,Azerbaijan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,Fiji,Georgia,India,Indonesia,Kazakhstan,the Kyrgyz Republic,the
246、Lao Peoples Democratic Republic,Malaysia,Maldives,Mongolia,Myanmar,Nepal,Pakistan,Papua New Guinea,the Peoples Republic of China,the Philippines,Samoa,Solomon Islands,Sri Lanka,Tajikistan,Thailand,Tonga,Uzbekistan,Vanuatu,and Viet Nam.Urgent action needed.At the halfway point of implementation of th
247、e SDGs,there is a need to mobilize resources and galvanize efforts of development community if we are to eradicate poverty in developing Asia by 2030(photo by Skanda Gautam/ADB).Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 202312In 2019,the poverty gap was 0.9%.Multiplying this number with the regions po
248、pulation size,number of days per year,and poverty line gives us a monetary equivalent of the cost to eradicate extreme poverty in developing Asia.A study by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(UNESCAP 2019)indicates that total spending to achieve poverty eradic
249、ation and other goals such as zero hunger(SDG 2)and building human capabilities(SDGs 3 and 4)exceeds$669 billion(or less than 2%of average GDP of developing economies in the region)per year for 20162030.With this amount well beyond the reach of many developing economies(UNESCAP 2019),there is a need
250、 to focus resources on addressing some of the persistent sources of socioeconomic disadvantage among the poor.For instance,current estimates of total official development assistance grants that focus on poverty reduction as presented in Table 1.1.2,suggest that on average only a small portion of don
251、ors gross national income are channeled into poverty reduction.As the latest special edition of UNs SDG Report notes,there is a need for a fundamental shift in commitment,solidarity,financing,and action,as the world maneuvers its way back to a virtuous path of development(UN 2023a).Although 2017 PPP
252、 estimates confirm developing Asia reduced monetary poverty from 1990 to 2019,the prevalence of extreme poverty was higher in 2019 compared to 2011 PPP estimates.In compiling statistics on monetary poverty,it is important to capture the effects of the cost of living.A typical approach adopted by nat
253、ional statistics offices is to identify a bundle of goods and services deemed essential to meet basic consumption needs then estimate the cost of the bundle(World Bank WBG 2022a).In some instances,the composition and pricing of the bundle may vary across different geographic areas within an economy
254、and over time.This approach aims to capture differences in the minimum cost needed for a person to get by.Likewise,the World Bank updates international poverty lines by drawing results from ICP benchmark years(Figure 1.3).Using the new extreme poverty line of$2.15 a day(2017 PPP),it is estimated tha
255、t 4.8%of developing Asias population fell below this threshold in 2019(up from 4.5%in earlier estimates),meaning 13 million more people are now classified as living in extreme poverty.There are,however,variations across economies as shown in Figure 1.4.When using the moderate poverty threshold of$3.
256、65 a day(2017 PPP),the average national poverty line of lower-middle income economies,nearly a quarter of developing Asias population were considered poor in 2019.Under the$6.85 a day(2017 PPP)threshold for economic vulnerability,the average national poverty line of upper-middle income economies,mor
257、e than half of all Asians were regarded as poor in 2019.13Sustainable Development Goals:Trends and TablesFigure 1.2:Pre-Pandemic Trends of Prevalence of Poverty and the Poverty Gap in Developing AsiaIn 2019,about 4.8%of developing Asias population were living in extreme poverty while the poverty gap
258、 was 0.9%.20152.01.81.61.41.21.00.80.60.40.20.020001720182019 2.01.81.61.41.21.00.80.60.40.20.0 A.Prevalence of Extreme Poverty(%)B.Poverty Gap(%)Source:Asian Development Bank estimates using data from the World Bank Poverty and Inequality Platform(accessed 1 June 2023).Figure
259、1.3:Evolution of Thresholds for Extreme Poverty MeasurementInternational poverty lines are updated to capture how differences in price levels evolve across the globe.19851.001.081.251.902.0112017$/day at PPPNotes:In general,the determination of the threshold for extreme poverty is based o
260、n the national poverty line from some of the poorest economies in the world,expressed in a common currency using purchasing power parity conversion factors.When the international poverty line was first set in 1990,researchers from the World Bank noted that the value of the national poverty line was
261、about$1 per day per person in six of the poorest economies in the 1980s.On the other hand,$1.25 represents the poverty line in the early 1990s,while$1.90 was derived as the average of the national poverty line of 15 poor economies based on the 2011 ICP benchmark year.The$2.15 is the median of the na
262、tional poverty lines of 28 of the poorest economies across the globe based on the 2017 ICP benchmark year(WBG 2022a).Source:Asian Development Bank visualization.Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 202314It is important to note that poverty goes beyond lack of income or the absence of financial r
263、esources to meet basic needs.There can be multiple complex issues and situations that converge to push people into poverty.An integrated measure of multidimensional poverty,the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index,has therefore been incorporated into the SDGs to complement income poverty metrics.Th
264、is measure takes into account non-monetary poverty indicators that people living in poverty experience simultaneously,such as malnutrition,poor sanitation,lack of employment,insufficient health care,limited access to education and other basic services,and other deprivations.A paper prepared by the U
265、NDP(2022b)notes that about one-third of reporting economies in the Asia and Pacific region had at least 20%of their population considered multidimensionally poor in 20162021(Figure 1.5).The report also assessed the intensity of multidimensional poverty by calculating an average deprivation score bas
266、ed on various poverty dimensions such as the availability of adequate nutrition,cooking fuel,sanitation,and housing.Figure 1.5 also shows that the average intensity of deprivation across selected economies in the region was 41%for 20162021.Figure 1.4:Prevalence of Extreme Poverty and Comparison of E
267、conomy-Level Estimates,2011 and 2017 PPP Developing Asia significantly reduced extreme poverty prior to the COVID-19 pandemic,but new international poverty lines reveal that there are more extremely poor people than initially thought.1990 1999 2005(%)2011$1.90(2011 PPP)7090.080.070.060.050.040.030.0
268、20.010.00.00.010.020.030.040.0$1.90 a day(2011 PPP)poverty rate(%)$2.15 a day(2017 PPP)poverty rate(%)Year50.060.070.06050403020100$2.15(2017 PPP)2012 2013 2015 2017 2018 2019A.Prevalence of Extreme Poverty B.Comparison of Economy-Level Estimates Notes:The estimates are based on 29 developing Asian
269、Development Bank regional member economies with available data required for calculations.Sources:Asian Development Bank estimates using data presented in Table 1.1.1 of Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023 and simulated data derived from the World Banks Poverty and Inequality Platform(access
270、ed 1 June 2023).15Sustainable Development Goals:Trends and TablesFigure 1.5:Prevalence and Intensity of Multidimensional Poverty in Asia and the PacificThe average score for intensity of deprivation exceeded 40%in half of the reporting economies of Asia and the Pacific.ArmeniaTurkmenistanGeorgiaThai
271、landMaldivesTongaViet NamTuvaluSri LankaIndonesiaPhilippinesSamoaMongoliaTajikistanIndiaNepalKiribatiLao PDRPrevalence of multidimensional povertyIntensity of deprivationBangladeshMyanmarPakistanTimor-LesteAfghanistanPNG0102030(%)405060Lao PDR=Lao Peoples Democratic Republic,PNG=Papua New Guinea.Not
272、es:The prevalence of multidimensional poverty refers to the percentage of the population with a deprivation score of at least 33.3%.Meanwhile,the intensity of multidimensional poverty denotes the average deprivation score among multidimensionally poor people.In this case,the intensity of more than 4
273、0%implies that,on average,multidimensionally poor individuals are experiencing deprivation in approximately 40%of the dimensions or indicators used to measure poverty.Sources:Estimates from the Multidimensional Poverty Index of the United Nations Development Programme and Oxford Poverty and Human De
274、velopment Initiative(accessed 14 April 2023).Figure 1.6:Relative Changes in Household Consumption or Income Per Capita and Proportion of People Living in Poverty Based on National DefinitionsHouseholds with low incomes appear to be more impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic,while several economies repor
275、ted a higher incidence of nationally defined poverty from 2020 onward.055Kyrgyz RepublicMongoliaArmeniaPhilippinesGeorgiaVanuatuRepublic of KoreaIndonesiaMalaysiaThailandAzerbaijanKazakhstanViet Nam%Pre COVID-19(before 2020)Post COVID-19(2020 onward)B.Proportion of People Living in Povert
276、y Based on National Definitions A.Relative Changes in HouseholdConsumption or Income Per Capita D=decile.Notes:Cells are highlighted green when the corresponding change is higher than the change in the specific economys overall mean household consumption per capita and yellow if the change is lower.
277、The reference periods for the bar chart are 2019-2021(Armenia,Azerbaijan,Georgia,Kazakhstan,Republic of Korea,Kyrgyz Republic,Thailand and Viet Nam);2019-2022(Indonesia);2018-2021(Philippines);2019-2020(Malaysia);2018-2020(Mongolia);and 2010-2020(Vanuatu).Sources:Asian Development Bank estimates usi
278、ng economy sources,survey reports,and data provided by statistical partners and from the World Banks Poverty and Inequality Platform(accessed 30 June 2023).EconomyYearOverall Mean(in 2017)PPP)D1D2D3D4D5D6D7D8D9D10Armenia201920210.002.031.701.740.880.21 0.01 0.37 0.49 0.194.19Georgia201920212.722.26
279、0.62 0.82 0.72 0.50 0.99 1.92 2.87 3.045.16Indonesia201920211.991.852.002.112.081.941.541.051.101.363.09Kyrgyz Republic201920209.0011.21 11.24 9.60 9.03 7.36 6.435.17 4.56 4.2215.34Philippines201820212.392.82 1.78 1.59 1.68 1.922.15 2.26 2.39 2.612.81Thailand201920211.790.511.201.641.681.631.691.982
280、.051.981.86Vanuatu201020190.281.621.401.421.351.371.401.110.620.081.53Viet Nam201820205.745.984.574.354.064.244.555.085.435.727.72click here for figure dataclick here for figure dataKey Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 202316The COVID-19 crisis has made the eradication of poverty even more challe
281、nging,with updated data suggesting that the pandemics impacts on poverty may have been underestimated.ADB has estimated that an additional 75 to 80 million people in developing Asia were pushed into extreme poverty(based on 2011 PPP)in 2020,compared to the scenario without COVID-19(ADB 2021c).It has
282、 also been estimated that students from the bottom 20%may incur losses in future earnings that are 47%higher than those of their counterparts from the top 20%(ADB 2022b;ADB 2022d).It should,however,be noted that some previous estimates of the pandemics socioeconomic impacts,particularly on poverty,r
283、elied on simulations and simplified assumptions that all households within an economy experienced the same percentage decline in their per capita consumption expenditure and/or income(ADB 2022d).In some economies,where household survey data have been collected from 2020 onward,the data shows that ho
284、useholds with low incomes in fact experienced more severe impacts on consumption than did higher income deciles(Figure 1.6).This is supported by the fact that the prevalence of poverty,based on national definitions,actually increased in several reporting economies(Figure 1.6).While extreme poverty i
285、n developing Asia is forecast to shrink to 1%of the population by 2030,rates of moderate poverty and economic vulnerability will remain disturbingly high.The rates of extreme and moderate poverty(based on 2017 PPP)in developing Asia for 2022 have been estimated at 3.9%and 18.8%,respectively.The late
286、st forecasts suggest that,by 2030,only 1%of the population(or 37.9 million people)in the region will be living in extreme poverty but 8%(or 336 million people)will still be moderately poor.Additionally,30.3%of the regions population(or 1.26 billion people)are forecast to be economically vulnerable i
287、n 2030(Figure 1.7).While developing Asia recovered from the COVID-19 pandemic,other factors such as the Russian invasion of Ukraine,increased trade tensions,and global supply chain disruptions contributed to stalled growth and price pressures in 2022.For many households,sharp increases in prices of
288、food and other essential commodities and services in 2022 significantly devalued real wages.Compared to wealthier households,even a modest increase in the cost of essential goods and services leaves lower-income households with less money for savings,food,energy,rent,health care expenses,and/or chil
289、d education.Persistent inflation,moreover,could generate longer-term poverty traps(Nuguer and Parado 2021).17Sustainable Development Goals:Trends and TablesHow Expensive Is It to Be Poor?It is crucial that governments address the socioeconomic disadvantage of the poor paying more to buy certain good
290、s and services.There is paradoxical evidence suggesting it may cost more to be poor,especially during periods of crisis and uncertainty.Studies on multidimensional poverty have found that people living with multiple deprivations in poorer regions are more likely to face health shocks and are less li
291、kely to be able to afford professional medical services because of their low income and lack of knowledge of the importance of preventive health care(Mohanty et al.2017).During the COVID-19 pandemic,poorer communities exhibited lower compliance with mobility restrictions(Yechezkel et al.2021)largely
292、 because many low-wage individuals,with little to no savings and a lack of access to credit,had no choice but to leave their homes to earn income.This increased the risk of transmission ofthevirus and led to unexpected or additional health-related expenses.Other research indicates that there are ins
293、tances when the poorest households may pay a premium for selected goods and services during“normal”periods(Corfe and Keohane 2018;Hirsch 2013;Mendoza 2011).Figure 1.7:Income Groupings in Developing Asia by 2030Growth projections suggest that developing Asia can reduce the prevalence of extreme and m
294、oderate poverty to 9%by 2030,but almost 30%of its population may still be economically vulnerable.Extremely poor($15)Note:Each income grouping is calculated as the percentage of people in developing Asia.These are based on 29 developing Asian Development Bank member economies with available data req
295、uired for calculations.Income thresholds are expressed in 2017 purchasing power parities.The dotted lines represent counterfactual estimates under the scenario that the coronavirus disease(COVID-19)pandemic did not happen.Sources:Asian Development Bank estimates using data presented in Table 1.1.1 o
296、f Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2023 and simulated data derived from the World Banks Poverty and Inequality Platform(accessed 1 June 2023).Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 202318Figure 1.8 illustrates examples of when prices paid by the poor exceed those of the general population.Th
297、e orange bar represents the proportion of items whose prices collected from a poverty-specific survey were lower than the prices collected from the ICPs general survey.The green bar represents the proportion of items whose poverty-specific survey prices were higher by up to 20%.The blue bar represen
298、ts the proportion of items whose poverty-specific survey prices were higher by more than 20%.Although,in most cases,prices from the poverty-specific survey were lower than from the general survey,there were many instances when the poor were paying significantly higher prices for certain items and he
299、nce,poverty premium remains an important concern (ADB 2008).Box 1.1 elaborates on the concept of a poverty premium or penalty,and outlines factors that contribute to its existence,providing some specific examples.3 3 The concept of poverty premium was first introduced by Prahalad and Hammond(2002)wh
300、o postulated that poor people may pay more for the same goods and services than wealthier individuals,which creates an opportunity for companies,particularly large corporations with efficient supply chains,to offer higher quality products at lower prices to this market and increase market share whil
301、e still maintaining profit margins(Prahalad 2004).Uncontrolled inflation could generate poverty traps.The poor are most likely to be hit hardest due to the higher share of energy and food costs in their budget compared to other income groups(photo by Al Benavente/ADB).19Sustainable Development Goals
302、:Trends and TablesFigure 1.8:Comparison of Prices Paid by the General Population and the PoorThere are instances when the poor may be paying more for several types of goods and services.0 20 40(%)60 80 100BangladeshBhutanCambodiaFijiIndiaIndonesiaLao PDRMalaysiaMaldivesMongoliaNepalPakistanPhilippin
303、esSri LankaThailandViet NamPoverty ICP(up to 20%)Poverty ICP(20%)Lao PDR=Lao Peoples Democratic Republic.Poverty=Poverty-specific survey,ICP=general ICP price survey collected for 2005 ICP roundNotes:The chart shown here is simply intended to illustrate that there are instances when poor people pay
304、more for select items.The degree of premium paid by the poor may have already changed since the data presented here were collected.Source:Asian Development Bank estimates using data presented in the Asian Development Bank Research Study on Poverty-Specific Purchasing Power Parities for Selected Coun
305、tries in Asia and the Pacific(ADB 2008).Box 1.1:Examples of Poverty Premium and PenaltyStudies suggest that the premium or penalty imposed on the poor as consumers may take different forms.For example:(i)products sold at similar prices are of poorer quality,(ii)the same or similar products are price
306、d higher,and/or(iii)products are priced so high they are completely unaffordable for the poor.Where the consumption of a specific good or service is a necessity(e.g.,health care)and the poor are unable to afford it,these people could be faced with the difficult choice of forgoing treatment or incurr
307、ing debt to finance such spending(Mendoza 2011).There are also indirect forms of poverty premium or penalty.For instance,the poor may be forced to live in less-expensive informal settlements where they are exposed to greater health hazards,or to choose cheaper commuting options that result in longer
308、 travel times,which could have been used to undertake more economically productive activities.Nevertheless,there are studies suggesting that technological advancements and more competitive markets may allow the poor access to better-quality products at the same price or lower prices(Mendoza 2011).Do
309、 poor people pay higher prices for food?The figure below shows that in a number of developing economies in Asia and the Pacific,at least a quarter of matched food items were being sold to poor populations at prices 20%higher than those offered to the general population.There are several compelling a
310、rguments about how the poor may incur a poverty premium on the purchase of food.Studies show that households in low-income categories spend more money on similar products compared to wealthier households because of liquidity constraints(Rao 2000).Limited financial resources may require that smaller
311、quantities of food are purchased each time,forfeiting the cost-efficiencies of buying in larger quantities or in bulk(Hossain 2020).Another factor in the poverty penalty on food is a lack of access to transportation,which may prevent poor people from shopping around for the best prices and/or more n
312、utritious food.Research by(Boonyabancha et.al.2019.)shows that low-income households in urban areas of Cambodia and Nepal preferred purchasing in small shops located within their communities and settlements.(continued on next page)Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 202320Box 1.1:Examples of Pov
313、erty Premium and Penalty(continued)Poor people may also have limited facilities to safely store or freeze food at home,making them more reliant on prepackaged or convenience foods that are often more expensive and/or less nutritious.As shown in the left figure below,poorer areas have a lower prevale
314、nce of refrigerator ownership(Dhanaraj,Mahambare,and Munjal 2017).Limited access to refrigeration may also contribute to time poverty among women as they generally do unpaid domestic work and have to spend longer on food purchasing and preparation,as shown in the right figure below(ADB 2015).Compari
315、son of Food Prices in Poverty-Specific and General Price Surveys6050403020100(%)Lao PDRBangladeshBhutanCambodiaFijiIndiaIndonesiaMalaysiaMaldivesMongoliaNepalPakistanPhilippinesSri LankaThailandViet NamPS ICP by more than 20%PS ICP by less than 20%PS=poverty-specific survey,ICP=(general)ICP surveyLa
316、o PDR=Lao Peoples Democratic Republic.Notes:This chart is simply intended to illustrate that there are instances when poor people pay more for select food items.The degree of premium paid by the poor on select food items may have already changed since the data presented here were collected.Source:As
317、ian Development Bank estimates based on data presented in Table 16 of the Asian Development Bank Research Study on Poverty-Specific Purchasing Power Parities for Selected Countries in Asia and the Pacific(ADB 2008).A.Proportion of Poorer Households Owning a Refrigerator B.Average Number of Hours Wor
318、ked Per Day by Gender0708090100MongoliaKazakhstanIndiaKyrgyz RepublicPRCJapanAustraliaRepublic of KoreaNew ZealandPakistanArmeniaCambodiaPoverty(International Wealth Index 35)Refrigerator Ownership(%)Central Asia50403020100East AsiaPacificSouth AsiaSoutheast Asia0MenWomen024681
319、012HoursPRC=Peoples Republic of China.Notes:In chart A,the y-axis corresponds to the proportion of households in a given area that own a refrigerator,while the x-axis represents the proportion of households in a given area which are poor,as indicated by a value lower than 35 in their International W
320、ealth Index.In chart B,the height of the bar represents total time spent doing paid and unpaid market and non-market work.Source:Asian Development Bank visualization using data from the Global Data Lab(accessed 1 June 2023)and data from from the Asian Development Bank publication Balancing the Burde
321、n?Desk Review of Womens Time Poverty and Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific(ADB 2015).(continued on next page)click here for figure data21Sustainable Development Goals:Trends and TablesBox 1.1:Examples of Poverty Premium and Penalty(continued)Is transportation less affordable for the poor?Althou
322、gh people with lower incomes tend to prefer cheaper commuting options,they still may end up paying transportation premiums(Helling 1998).According to the United Nations Human Settlements Programme(UN-Habitat)and ODI,a significant proportion of poor individuals live in outer suburban areas,often due
323、to involuntary resettlement,or in informal settlements on the remote fringes of cities(Starkey and Hine 2014).These individuals may have to travel long distances and spend significant amounts of time and money commuting to work.There is also evidence that in economies such as the Philippines,the bot
324、tom 30%of households faced higher price hikes for transport-related goods and services during the COVID-19 pandemic than did the general population.This is evident from the left figure below.Inferior quality of roads in poorer areas,as indicated in the right figure below for the Philippines,may also
325、 contribute to a transportation penalty or premium through longer travel times and increased vehicle maintenance costs(Thegeya et al.2022).In some cases,poor communities may have no access at all to affordable and reliable transportation,and walking or cycling long distances are a substantial povert
326、y penalty in terms of commuting times.Consumer Price Inflation in the Philippine Transport Sector and Road Ratings by Socioeconomic Region in the PhilippinesB.Road Ratings by Geographic Regionin the Philippines A.Consumer Price Inflation in the PhilippinesTransport Sector 19.019.520.020.521.021.522.
327、00.05.010.015.020.025.0Bad rating(%)Regional GDP(ln)Note:Outliers were excluded from the scatter plot.Sources:For table A:Asian Development Bank estimates based on data from the Philippine Statistics Authority(accessed 1 June 2023).For chart B:visualization of data from the A.Thegeya et al.2022 stud
328、y Application of Machine Learning Algorithms on Satellite Imagery for Road Quality Monitoring.Is there an extra cost for the poor to access reliable energy?Energy poverty is a term used to describe when individuals or households lack access to,or are unable to afford,adequate heating or other essent
329、ial energy services within their residences(Pye et al.2015).One factor that can affect energy poverty is geographic location.Some studies found that the supply of electricity in rural Cambodia was at least six times more expensive than in the economys urban areas.This discrepancy can be attributed t
330、o limitations in infrastructure,high distribution costs,and low consumption levels(Phoumin and Kimura 2019).Similarly,an empirical study by Acharya and Sadath(2019)revealed that energy poverty was higher in rural India than in its urban areas.(continued on next page)Transport20022All HHBo
331、ttom 30%All HHBottom 30%All HHBottom 30%All HHBottom 30%All1.11.51.53.99.311.712.910.8Purchase of Vehicles1.71.93.43.13.12.01.41.3Operation of Personal Transport Equipment0.90.59.68.116.817.233.729.5Passenger Transport Services2.21.97.59.67.811.25.54.6Transport Services of Goods4.62.60.00.20.00.10.2
332、0.2Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 202322Box 1.1:Examples of Poverty Premium and Penalty(continued)An alternative source of energy such as kerosene also costs more for the poor as shown in the left figure below,where kerosene was more expensive for poor households in 10 of 15 economies with
333、available data.In some even poorer areas,households are deprived of cooking fuel,meaning they must cook with dung,charcoal,or wood(UNDP 2022b).As shown in the right figure below,12 of 27 economies in Asia and the Pacific had at least 10%of the population deprived of access to cooking fuel in 2022.These alternative sources of energy can have severe negative impacts on the health of household member