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1、GreenTechnologyBookSolutions for climate change mitigationIn cooperation with our partnersGreenTechnologyBookSolutions for climate change mitigationThis work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International.The user is allowed to reproduce,distribute,adapt,translate and publicly perf
2、orm this publication,including for commercial purposes,without explicit permission,provided that the content is accompanied by an acknowledgement that WIPO is the source and that it is clearly indicated if changes were made to the original content.Suggested citation:World Intellectual Property Organ
3、ization(WIPO)(2023).Green Technology Book:Solutions for Climate Change Mitigation.Geneva:WIPO.DOI:10.34667/tind.48717Adaptation/translation/derivatives should not carry any official emblem or logo,unless they have been approved and validated by WIPO.Please contact us via the WIPO website to obtain p
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8、to reflect the views of the Member States or the WIPO Secretariat.The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WIPO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.WIPO,2023First published 2023World Intellec
9、tual Property Organization 34,chemin des Colombettes,P.O.Box 18 CH-1211 Geneva 20,Switzerlandwipo.intISBN:978-92-805-3576-1(print)ISBN:978-92-805-3577-8(online)ISSN:3005-9402(print)ISSN:3005-9410(online)Attribution 4.0 International(CC BY 4.0)Cover:Getty Images and unsplashWIPO Publication No.1080EN
10、-23Contents1/Overview:technology and innovation for climate mitigation 21Climate change mitigation technologies 21International climate finance and cooperation 23The role of innovation and IP for the diffusion of low-emission technologies 262/Cities 31Technological developments and trends 32Patents
11、and finance 34Efficient heating and cooling 37 Technology solutions 42Smart mobility 52 Technology solutions 57Material efficiency and sustainable waste management 67 Technology solutions 743/Agriculture and land use 91Technological developments and trends 92Patents and finance 95Livestock 99 Techno
12、logy solutions 105 Soils,land use change and forestry 114 Technology solutions 121Rice cultivation 131 Technology solutions 136Data and precision farming 144 Technology solutions 1494/Industry 163Technological developments and trends 164Patents and finance 166Iron and steel 170 Technology solutions
13、176Cement 186 Technology solutions 192Industry 4.0 203 Technology solutions 209Bibliography 223Foreword by WIPO 4Foreword by partners 6Acknowledgments 8Acronyms 10Executive summary 11Key messages 16Introduction and methodology 18How we wrote the book 18How we found the technologies 18Disclaimer 204
14、Because of the existential threat of climate change,there has been a tremendous amount of research,technology and innovation deployed to addressing this challenge over recent years.In fact,by some estimates,the world now has access to 80 percent of the technologies needed to halve global greenhouse
15、emissions by 2030,with many more game-changing solutions in the pipeline.The problem is therefore shifting from a scarcity of solutions to a scarcity of deployment.Breakthrough technologies and solutions are not yet getting to where they are most needed.Opportunities to finance and scale existing so
16、lutions are being missed.And adaptation must be stepped up so that local needs all over the world can be better met.A big part of this problem is knowledge there is a disconnect between those who have and want to offer the technology and those who need it.It is this gap between what is available and
17、 what is needed that the Green Technology Book aims to bridge.Building on the theme of climate adaptation technologies in last years inaugural edition,this 2023 report showcases more than 200 climate mitigation technologies in three areas cities,agriculture and land use,and industry where deployment
18、 is crucial.In addition to being a practical guide for policymakers,industry,investors,researchers and many others,we hope that through providing information we inspire action.Action in the form of targeted interventions,as well as a deeper,more systemic change.Almost all the green technologies feat
19、ured in this book are ready for use and available to all.These and many other solutions can also be found on our tech-matching platform WIPO GREEN,which connects providers and seekers of green technologies from around the world.Its database now covers 130,000 technologies from over 140 countries,mak
20、ing it the biggest green-tech platform that the UN offers today.Foreword by WIPO Emmanuel Berrod/WIPODaren Tang,Director General World Intellectual Property Organization(WIPO)Foreword by WIPO 5One of the key messages of this report is that,while we should take hope from the wealth of increasingly ma
21、ture climate technologies at our fingertips,we must all work harder to get these solutions into the hands of those who can use them on the ground.We hope that the Green Technology Book adds momentum to these efforts,and I would like to thank our partners at the Climate Technology Centre and Network(
22、CTCN)and the Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and Technology(ARST),not only for their cooperation,but also for their steadfast commitment to supporting accelerated climate action in each and every part of the world.We should take hope from the wealth of increasingly mature climate technologie
23、s at our fingertips6 Climate Technology Centre and Network(CTCN)COP28 is expected to conclude significant work on several long-awaited deliverables.They include decisions on a global adaptation goal,the specifics of a loss and damage finance facility,the closing of the substantial emissions gap,and
24、expediting the transition to clean energy and a just transition.And technology plays a pivotal role in enabling climate action to address every one of these challenges.Technology and innovation are imperative in addressing a wide range of factors associated with building sustainable cities,improving
25、 agricultural production and transforming food systems,and decarbonizing the steel and cement sectors etc.Like no other organization,the CTCN Secretariat supports all aspects of technology innovation through providing technical assistance,fostering capacity building and facilitating knowledge sharin
26、g.At COP27,the CTCN launched its 3rd Programme of Work,highlighting the transformative potential of national system innovation and digitalization as key drivers of technology development and transfer.The CTCN has maintained a longstanding partnership with the World Intellectual Property Organization
27、(WIPO).It is not surprising that for this 2023 edition of the Green Technology Book,the CTCN has contributed to raising awareness about the diverse range of technologies available today,some of which are truly remarkable and accessible to all.Each year,the Green Technology Book sets out to demonstra
28、te that solutions for climate-friendly technology do exist the next step is a commitment to their implementation.This book is a practical guide for innovators,industry,researchers and agencies,and raises awareness of the technology solutions available for implementation by developing countries.We at
29、 the CTCN express our gratitude and greatly appreciate our ongoing collaboration with WIPO,as together we continue to explore and showcase novel green technology climate solutions from around the world.Rajiv Garg,CTCN Director ad interim Foreword by partnersForeword by partners 7Academy of Scientifi
30、c Research&Technology(ASRT),EgyptThe World Intellectual Property Organizations(WIPO)initiative to publish the Green Technology Book of those green technologies that could offer technological solutions to pressing challenges and accelerate efforts to mitigate climate change and foster sustainable dev
31、elopment in the face of todays multiple global crises is critical.Egypt one of the southern hemisphere countries most adversely affected by climate change and classified as one of the most vulnerable is proud to support this initiative and has been firmly committed to its success since it was first
32、announced jointly by WIPO,CTCN and the Academy of Scientific Research and Technology(ASRT)at COP 27 in Sharm El Sheik.We invite all WIPO Member States to offer their locally available green technology and inventions for inclusion in the WIPO GREEN Database of needs and technologies for the mutual be
33、nefit of humanity.Knowledge sharing and exchange is one of the most powerful drivers in the fight against climate change.This initiative will accelerate technology transfer,and encourage knowledge and experience to be relayed from developed to developing countries and vice versa.Such a transfer can
34、assist developing countries in rapidly transitioning away from traditional,carbon-intensive development paths and toward cleaner,more sustainable technologies.In parallel,it will accelerate green patent technology diffusion and market expansion,allowing businesses to enter new markets and extend the
35、ir client base.This should encourage private-sector investment in green technology research and development,and ultimately spur additional innovation.Last but by no means least,making green technology and patent databases available and accessible to all is a human right and a main goal of the UNESCO
36、 Open Science initiative.Thank you to WIPO and all of the Partners involved in this endeavor.Professor Mahmoud M.Sakr,ASRT President8 This second edition of the WIPO flagship Green Technology Book is a testament to the collective efforts of innovators paving the way for a more climate-friendly futur
37、e.From the research labs to the households,from local communities to global partnerships,the pages that follow celebrate the scope of solutions that form the technological blueprint for reduced greenhouse gas emissions.The book was prepared under the general auspices of WIPO Director General Daren T
38、ang,and the Global Challenges and Partnerships Sector led by Assistant Director General Edward Kwakwa,as well as the Global Challenges Division led by Director Amy Dietterich.Special thanks go to our partners at the Climate Technology Centre and Network(CTCN),represented by Director Rajiv Garg(ad in
39、terim)and the Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and Technology(ASRT)represented by Prof.Mahmoud M.Sakr(President)for their vision,collaboration and continued dedication.The Green Technology Book is an initiative under WIPO GREEN.It was conceived and led by Peter Oksen,Green Technology and Rese
40、arch Manager,who also acted as editor and co-writer.Shanar Tabrizi,Climate Technology Expert,is the main writer and co-editor of the book.Faisal Alenazi,Morven MacEwen,Clara Danbakli and Emma Francis supported the identification and management of technologies in the WIPO GREEN Database and Morven al
41、so contributed to the writing.Antonio Di Giamberardino(Solutions Design and Delivery Section)developed the GTB database collection.Other WIPO GREEN staff contributed important support,namely:Rishab Raturi,Sabrina de Souza Herzog,Dmitry Kalinin,Anja von der Ropp,Tatiana Hartop,Christy Nomura and Minn
42、a Guigon-Sell.We extend our gratitude to Edwin Hassink(Graphic Designer)from WIPO Publications and Design Section for their meticulous work on the layout and design.Vanessa Harwood and Book Now Ltd.ensured the language was refined to a professional standard.We also thank the team that made the digit
43、al iteration of this book come to life,namely:Dan Savu(Head)and Javier Aguilar Lpez,both WIPO Solutions Design and Delivery Section,Virginie Roux and Spencer Cabildo,Web Communications Section and Daniel Pradilla,WIPO IP Portal team.Edward Harris,Senior Media Officer of the News and Media Division,h
44、elped us communicate our message effectively.The Language Division led by Mr.Lijun Fan provided translation expertise,extending our messages to a broader audience.Our gratitude also extends to the invaluable contributions of the WIPO GREEN reference group,hailing from within WIPO and beyond,that hel
45、ped us steer the Green Technology Book in the right direction.This cohort of experts and dedicated colleagues included:Amy Dietterich(Director,Global Challenges Division),Andrew Czajkowski(Director,Technology and Innovation Support Division),Carsten Fink(Chief Economist,Department for Economics and
46、Data Analytics),Kevin Fitzgerald(Director,Information and Digital Outreach Division),Walid Abdelnasser(Director,Division for Arab Countries),Edward Harris(Senior Media Officer,News and Media Division),Charlotte Beauchamp(Head,Publications and Design Section),Victor Owade(Counsellor,WIPO Academy),Dan
47、 Savu(Head,Solutions Design and Delivery Section),Christopher Harrison(Patent Analytics Manager,Technology and Innovation Support Division),AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments 9Rajiv Garg(Director ad interim,CTCN),Cristina Comunian(Communications Specialist,CTCN),and Anastasiia Tiurmenko(Communications S
48、pecialist,CTCN).A distinguished assembly of experts graciously offered their time and expertise to review various segments of this publication,thereby making a profound impact on the publications quality.We extend our heartfelt appreciation to the following individuals:Rajiv Garg,Regional Manager an
49、d ad interim Director,UN Climate Technology Centre and Network(CTCN)Tim Collins,Secretary-General,World Stainless AssociationAndrew Purvis,Director Sustainable Manufacturing,World Steel Associationsa Ekdahl,Head,Environment and Climate Change,World Steel Association Felipe Sanchez,Analyst,Leadership
50、 Group for Industrial Transition(LeadIT)SecretariatMahdi Shakouri,Industrial Energy Efficiency and Decarbonization Expert,Gen0 Dr.Rosie McDonald,Climate Change Officer,International Telecommunication Union(ITU)Piotr Barczak,Circular Economy Program Manager at the African Circular Economy Network Fou
51、ndation,Council Member at the European Environmental BureauElisabeth Resch,Senior Advisor,United Nations Environment Program(UNEP)Copenhagen Climate CentreYoann Le Petit,Thought Leadership Manager,European Institute of Innovation and Technology(EIT)Urban MobilityDietram Oppelt,Advisor,NDE Germany Dr
52、.Romanas Savickas,Senior Advisor,UNEP Copenhagen Climate Centre Santiago Hughes,Business Developer,Field Intelligence EnergyGregory Kohler,PhD,Agriculture Expert,Climate and Clean Air Coalition(CCAC)Francesco Carnevale Zampaolo,Programme Director,SRI-2030Nikola Trendov,Digital Agriculture and Innova
53、tion Specialist,Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)Mikael Andersen,Product Specialist,Brns Group AB10 AC air conditioner AI artificial intelligence AM additive manufacturingASRT Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and TechnologyAWD alternate wetting and dryingBF-BOF blas
54、t furnace-basic oxygen furnaceBIM building information modeling BRT bus rapid transitCCS carbon capture and storageCCU carbon capture and utilizationCCUS carbon capture,utilization and storageCDR carbon dioxide removal CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchCHF combined heat
55、and powerCO2 carbon dioxideCO2eq CO2 equivalentCO2eq/yr CO2 equivalent per yearCSA climate-smart agricultureCSS carbon capture and storage CTCN Climate Technology Centre&NetworkDRI direct reduced ironEAF electric arc furnaceEO Earth observationERC Emission Reduction CreditEU European UnionGDP gross
56、domestic productGHG greenhouse gas GIS geographical information systemGPS global positioning systemGtCO2eq/yr gigatonne CO2 equivalent per yearGWP global warming potential HFC hydrofluorocarbonHTL hydrothermal liquefactionHVAC heating,ventilation and air conditioningICT information and communication
57、s technologyIGO intergovernmental organizationIoT internet of things IP intellectual propertyIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IT information technologyMBT mechanical biological treatmentMOE molten oxide electrolysisNSI national system of Innovation PV photovoltaics R&D research and dev
58、elopmentRFID radio frequency identificationSRI System of Rice IntensificationTLR Technology Readiness LevelAcronyms 11Photo:GettyImages/StockByMFinding momentumWe are in a state of climate emergency.Limiting its catastrophic impact requires an unprecedented systems transformation.However,there is ho
59、pe.The sources of greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions are many,but so are the technologies to address them.There are sufficient options available across all sectors to at least halve emissions by 2030.1 And technology and innovation are a key part of the solution.Eighty percent of the technologies we need
60、 to achieve the 2030 climate goals are already on the market2 with many more emerging.Technologies for lowering energy consumption,electrifying transport and enabling material efficiency are just some of the many options presented in this years Green Technology Book.National innovation ecosystems ar
61、e the source of all these new opportunities.A well-functioning innovation ecosystem is underpinned by an efficient and fair intellectual property rights system,which in itself stimulates innovation and disseminates technology to global markets.This is the year of the Global Stocktake,where countries
62、 revise their national climate plans with the aim of raising ambitions for the coming years.And beyond nation-state level,a growing body of non-state actors,among them the private sector,academia and civil society,are working tirelessly to realize the vision set out in the Paris Agreement.Knowledge
63、that inspires actionThe first edition of the Green Technology Book addressed climate change adaptation technologies.In this second edition,we make climate change mitigation solutions tangible by showing the wealth of mature and emerging innovation and technologies available.This publication analyses
64、 10 sectors within three major categories:Cities Efficient heating and cooling Smart mobility Material efficiency and sustainable waste management Agriculture and land use Livestock Soils,land use change and forestry Rice cultivation Data and precision farming80 percent of the technologies we need t
65、o achieve the 2030 climate goals are already on the market with many more emergingExecutive summaryGreen Technology Book-Solutions for climate change mitigation12 Industry Iron and steel Cement Industry 4.0Over 600 climate mitigation and adaptation technologies and growing have been identified for t
66、he Green Technology Book collection in the WIPO GREEN Database of needs and technologies.3 This publication showcases a selection of those related to climate mitigation.Solution providers can upload an overview of their technology to the Database,making it a continually expanding source of green inn
67、ovation and technology.By bringing the technologies to the forefront,we aim to inspire action.Now is the time to rapidly develop and deploy solutions that overcome carbon lock-in and drive forward transformational change.Designing circular and smart citiesCities are where the climate battle will be
68、largely won or lost.They are where buildings are erected,energy and food consumed,waste generated and people and goods transported.On a vehicular level,the rapid scaling of electric cars has far exceeded expectations in many cities.Advances in battery technology,vehiclegrid integration and charging
69、stations have been important enablers.However,while the electric vehicles market is growing,so is the trend toward highly fuel-consuming SUVs,which alone accounted for one-third of the total growth in oil demand between 2021 and 2022.4 Furthermore,electric car prices are still out of reach for most
70、people,particularly in emerging and developing countries.While many new electrified options for personal use and goods transport have emerged,including two-wheeled options,the effective reduction of transport sector emissions depends upon innovations that go beyond individual vehicles.For instance,b
71、etter policies for compact cities and public transport can be practically supported by technologies such as intelligent traffic management systems,urban modelling tools and mobility-as-a-service platforms.Energy-efficient heating and cooling technologies and alternative refrigerants are already on t
72、he market.Examples include new types of heat pumps,modern insulation materials and smart technologies able to adjust heating and cooling flow to match a buildings demand.Yet,these are often not the foremost consumer choice,necessitating further innovation to make these solutions both more affordable
73、 and accessible.At the same time,the number of air conditioners installed worldwide is soaring,and heating is the biggest energy end-user.In a growing number of cities,district heating and cooling(district level centralized systems)helps reduce energy usage and enables renewable energy integration.H
74、owever,emissions reduction in these sectors must go beyond improving operational efficiency.Technology can help address heating and cooling demand by enabling climate-smart design of buildings.Passive heating and cooling techniques have been around for centuries.Several countries are now modernizing
75、 these well-tried techniques and promoting their design principles through building codes and energy efficiency standards.This publication further recognizes material efficiency and sustainable waste management in cities as a major lever for emissions reduction.From construction materials and wood t
76、o plastic and glass,the expected doubling of material use by 2050 urgently requires innovative solutions for enhanced circularity.Such solutions are no longer an option,but a necessity for climate action.Advances in sorting technologies,such as robotics and optical scanners,enable higher waste recov
77、ery rates.Innovative recycling technologies can now handle materials otherwise hard to recycle,such as tires and wind turbine blades.Solution providers can upload an overview of their technology to the Database,making it a continually expanding source of green innovation and technologyExecutive summ
78、ary 13Some waste management technologies are themselves a major source of emissions.Countries such as Denmark are moving away from materials incineration,because of its inefficiency and high emissions rate.Several emerging recycling technologies,such as chemical recycling,have been found to be energ
79、y-consuming,necessitating more focused life-cycle thinking directed at technology viability from a climate perspective.This also highlights the need for innovation and technologies that are more upstream.Deposit return and refill stations for anything from bottles and cans to water and detergents ar
80、e growing in popularity in many cities.Meanwhile,digital tools support better building and product design to enable reusability,such as material passports.Furthermore,online platforms for co-ownership and the sharing of anything from cars and tools to office buildings reduce manufacturing demand for
81、 new things.Regenerative agriculture and ag techGlobal food systems and the agricultural sector are under pressure.There is a pronounced need to produce more in order to feed a growing world population,often accompanied by a demand for more processed and high-emitting products.The environmental and
82、climate change footprint of the agricultural sector is large,with methane emissions being particularly important.Agriculture,land use and land management account for around 22 percent of GHG emissions,5 occupy 38 percent of the Earths surface6 and are responsible for 70 percent of global freshwater
83、withdrawals.7 It is therefore a sector where climate change mitigation is critical.Furthermore,the sector is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts and the type of climate change adaptation measures described in last years Green Technology Book are urgently needed.This edition focuses on the ma
84、jor emitting sectors within agriculture,and also considers the merits of the highly sophisticated technology frontier in data and precision farming.Livestock is a major source of emissions,primarily due to the methane produced by ruminant livestock.Emissions can be combatted through supply-and deman
85、d-side measures.On the supply side,there is strong correlation between productivity and emissions per amount of meat or milk produced,meaning meat and dairy product emissions can be reduced through increased productivity.Provided that such productivity increase does not create new environmental impa
86、cts or degrade animal welfare,it may contribute to limiting land and water usage.But innovation is providing new options.One of the more promising is feed additives.Seaweed added to livestock feed can directly affect the enteric fermentation process to dramatically reduce methane production.Much inn
87、ovation is also directed toward addressing meat demand through the quest for meat alternatives acceptable to the general consumer.Several such alternatives are currently being made available to consumers.However,while the benefits to avoided animal cruelty of this approach are obvious,the net enviro
88、nmental gains have yet to be determined.Replacing animal protein with plant and fungi-derived alternatives in the mass production of a broad range of processed food products may have a greater potential impact in this regard.Chapter 3,Agriculture and land use,further touches upon range and land mana
89、gement.Soil stores vast amounts of carbon in a relatively stable form.Intensive agricultural practices and chemical fertilizers which cause soil degradation and erosion,as well as deforestation,lead to the release of this carbon stock.Careful management of land,regenerative agriculture and innovatio
90、ns that increase soil carbon all have a high mitigation potential.However,this is dependent on their becoming integral to the agricultural practice of a vast number of farmers.Agriculture,land use and land management account for around 22 percent of GHG emissions,occupy 38 percent of the Earths surf
91、ace and are responsible for 70 percent of global freshwater withdrawalsGreen Technology Book-Solutions for climate change mitigation14 Rice cultivation is a crop system of particular climate concern,because it involves flooding fields,which releases methane.In a rice producing region such as South E
92、ast Asia,rice cultivation is responsible for between 25 and 33 percent of methane emissions.8,9,10 It also uses a large amount of freshwater,making the practice highly vulnerable to climate change impacts.Productivity enhancements involving reduced water usage on less land can help reduce emissions.
93、New cropping systems in which fields are flooded for a shorter period of time have shown promising results in those places where they can be implemented.As in many other sectors,information technology and data can assist in a transition toward lower-emitting systems.In agriculture,advanced technolog
94、ies are able to limit waste,reduce inputs such as fertilizer,pesticides and water,and optimize plant growth conditions.The drastic step of foregoing soil usage altogether and moving production indoors through hydroponics and vertical farming is already established and continually evolving,with impor
95、tant emissions reduction potential.Various semi-or fully autonomous farm machines are able to fulfill agricultural tasks more effectively,with a high degree of precision.Furthermore,systems and tools that support farmers in their decision-making and help them access funding for a shift to regenerati
96、ve agricultural practices are becoming more widespread and simpler to use.Open access,high-resolution satellite images play an important role in this.Many of the advanced machines and new technologies are not yet a common sight in low-income rural areas.However,new modes of access,ownership and agri
97、cultural service-based business models may facilitate a broader deployment among smallholder farmers.Decarbonizing steel and cementSteel and cement are major GHG emitters.They are often considered to be two hard-to-decarbonize sectors.However,this narrative masks the fact that solutions do exist.One
98、 particularly high-impact way of reducing cement emissions is to reduce clinker usage.Clinker is a common ingredient in cement made by heating raw materials such as limestone in a process requiring high temperatures and emitting greenhouse gases.Partially replacing clinker with alternative materials
99、 has some of the greatest potential for reducing cement emissions.Yet,at the same time the clinker-to-cement ratio is increasing around the world.Many steel furnaces are reaching their end of life.Replacing them with conventional high-emitting blast furnaces will cause a decades-long carbon lock-in
100、until their investment value has depreciated.Decarbonization of steel and cement is challenging,but not impossible.We know which technologies are needed,but are not implementing them at the scale required.Several climate-friendly steel and cement production technologies are already mature and availa
101、ble,including direct reduced iron(DRI),electrification and the use of clinker substitutes.However,simply reducing emissions from steel and cement production will not suffice.To effectively reduce total sector emissions amid booming demand,the management of these two materials,as well as their demand
102、,warrants far greater attention.Construction projects often use excessive amounts of steel and cement.Millions of buildings and offices around the world either stand empty or are demolished before reaching their end of life.Extending a buildings usefulness and lifetime,designing for efficient materi
103、al usage and employing lightweight,low-carbon materials are all central to emissions reduction.Digital-sharing platforms and design tools,advanced recycling technologies and material innovation are key enablers of such a circular supply chain.Technologies that enable more efficient steel and cement
104、usage hold significant promise for achieving climate targets.Yet,more attention is currently directed toward emerging technologies,such as carbon capture and storage(CCS),carbon capture,utilization and storage(CCUS)and green hydrogen.It is likely that the focus on improving production processes and
105、carbon capture rather than on efficient material usage reflects a lack of financial and market incentives for manufacturers.At the same time,the implementation of CCS,CCUS and green hydrogen technologies is still very slow and has made no significant impact,especially in the major steel-and cement-p
106、roducing nations.These two sectors have also been slow in adopting frontier digital technologies to optimize energy usage and processes.Steel and cement are sectors in particular need of further technology research and development if they are to achieve net zero CO2 emissions by 2050.Executive summa
107、ry 15Climate technologies must address both supply and demandGovernments and cities must rapidly develop and scale climate mitigation technologies.However,now more than ever,the choice of technology matters.Simply optimizing current systems will not be enough to realize climate goals.In most countri
108、es,the central role of renewable energy in phasing out fossil fuels has been recognized.Less attention has been given to the role of technology and innovation in managing our growing material and resource demand,and in enhancing circularity.This is despite material usage being the main driver of a t
109、riple planetary crisis composed of climate change,biodiversity loss and health-related pollution impacts.Many reports on climate technologies focus on their role in reducing supply-side emissions,for instance,through fuel switching and energy efficiency.The Green Technology Book is different in that
110、 it also recognizes the huge untapped potential of demand-side management.With resource demand growing exponentially,we need to rethink ways of providing basic human services,including food,shelter and mobility and of doing more with less.Technology is a key part of the puzzle.It can enable develope
111、d,emerging and developing economies to use resources more efficiently.It also allows us to substitute high-carbon materials and systematically integrate climate perspectives into the development of our cities,buildings,products and food systems.As stated recently by the Intergovernmental Panel on Cl
112、imate Change(IPCC),avoiding,shifting and improving demand for services has the potential to reduce GHG emissions by between 40 and 70 percent globally by 2050.11,12This requires changes to our investments,policies and behavior.Technology and innovation have the power to enable systems change rather
113、than ways of simply improving business as usual,with many technologies affording no-regret options for developed and developing economies alike.Digital technologies deserve special mention here,given their potential to better match supply and demand,avoid unnecessary production waste and enable the
114、design and use of circular systems.This publication highlights a broad range of technologies addressing activities across cities,agriculture and land use,and industry.Notes1 IPCC(2022).Climate change 2022:Mitigation of climate change Technical summary,Working Group III contribution to IPCC sixth ass
115、essment report.Cambridge,UK:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC).Available at:https:/www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-3/.2 IEA(2021).Net Zero by 2050:A roadmap for the global energy sector.Paris:International Energy Agency(IEA).Available at:https:/www.iea.org/repor
116、ts/net-zero-by-2050.3 The Introduction provides more information on how we define,identify and select the proven,frontier and horizon technologies showcased in the Green Technology Book.4 Cozzi,L.,et al.(2023).As their sales continue to rise,SUVs global CO2 emissions are nearing 1 billion tonnes.Int
117、ernational Energy Agency(IEA).Available at:https:/www.iea.org/commentaries/as-their-sales-continue-to-rise-suvs-global-co2-emissions-are-nearing-1-billion-tonnes accessed September 2023.5 IPCC(2023).Synthesis report(SYR)of the IPCC sixth assessment report(AR6):Summary for policymakers.Geneva:Intergo
118、vernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC).Available at:https:/www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/.6 FAO(2023).Land use in agriculture by the numbers.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO).Available at:http:/www.fao.org/sustainability/news/detail/en/c/1274219/accessed May 2023.7 World Ba
119、nk(2023).Water in agriculture.World Bank.Available at:https:/www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water-in-agriculture accessed May 2023.8 Umali-Deininger,D.(2022).Greening the rice we eat.Washington,DC:World Bank.Available at:https:/blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/greening-rice-we-eat?cid=SHR_BlogSiteEma
120、il_EN_EXT accessed November 2023.9 Kurnik,J.and K.Devine(2022).Innovation in reducing methane emissions from the food sector:Side of rice,hold the methane.World Wildlife Fund.Available at:https:/www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/sustainability-works/posts/innovation-in-reducing-methane-emissions-from-the-
121、food-sector-side-of-rice-hold-the-methane accessed July 2023.10 WRI(2023).Our world in data:Emissions by sector.World Resources Institute(WRI).Available at:https:/ourworldindata.org/emissions-by-sector accessed June 2023.11 This estimate relates to potential emissions reduction in buildings,overland
122、 transport and food by 2050(high confidence).12 IPCC(2023).Synthesis report(SYR)of the IPCC sixth assessment report(AR6).Summary for policymakers.Geneva:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC).Available at:https:/www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/.16 Photo:Getty Images/Thirawatana PhaisalratanaThe
123、world is confronted by an ever-increasing and wide range of greenhouse gas emissions.But the good news is that there is an even wider range of technologies to mitigate them.By bringing to the forefront not only the technologies themselves but the systems in which they operate,this publication aims t
124、o inspire a broader conversation on technology and innovations role in a low-carbon future.The mapping of more than 400 climate mitigation technologies allows us to make the following observations.Demand-side measures deserve more attention:Climate technologies are often applied as single-level inte
125、rventions.This misses the potential for deeper and longer-term systemic decarbonization.There needs to be a broader assessment of climate technology needs that considers both demand-and supply-side measures essential for total carbon emissions reduction.For instance,technology can support demand-sid
126、e measures by enabling better buildings design and operation to reduce the need for energy-intensive heating and cooling technologies.Technology especially digital technologies further enables the smart planning of a citys infrastructure.This includes mapping waste collection routes and public trans
127、port networks in a manner that lowers dependency on privately-owned vehicles or the need to take long journeys.Technology and innovation also have a major role to play in developing novel types of material,advancing reuse and recycling methods and avoiding waste in the food supply chain.Meanwhile,pl
128、ant and fungi-derived products can replace animal protein in food processing,thereby reducing demand for methane-emitting livestock.The climate mitigation potential of such technologies deserves to be fully recognized for a whole range of applications,from a countrys climate roadmap to city planning
129、 and policymaking.No time to wait for breakthrough technologies:We already have most of the technologies needed to reach our global 2030 climate targets.There is a growing recognition of the risks inherent in relying too heavily on the commercialization and widespread adoption of breakthrough techno
130、logies,such as green hydrogen and carbon capture and storage,for a solution.Mainly,this could result in a missed opportunity to finance and scale existing solutions within the time-critical framework demanded by the climate crisis.That said,innovation is still crucial.Existing climate technologies a
131、re often unaffordable and difficult to access in many parts of the world.Creative adaptation of existing solutions to meet the unique challenges of various regions and sectors is needed in order to facilitate their widespread uptake.Key climate technologies are ineffective without fossil fuel phase-
132、out:Fossil fuel dependence reduces the efficiency of many climate technologies.Electric arc furnaces,electric vehicles,hydrogen and heat pumps are all considered essential for the decarbonization of various sectors.However,the climate mitigation potential of these technologies is subject to renewabl
133、e energy being available to power the electricity grids that feed them.For instance,hydrogen as an alternative steelmaking fuel is receiving attention as a climate technology.Yet,its decarbonization potential is highly dependent on how the hydrogen is produced in the first place.Hydrogen made from n
134、atural gas(a fossil fuel)rather than renewable electricity has limited emission reduction potential.Countries with electric grid systems that rely primarily on fossil fuels face major barriers to a sustainable and cost-effective implementation of hydrogen and other electricity-dependent decarbonizat
135、ion measures.As such,fossil fuel phase-out is not only an enabler but a precondition for the success and efficiency of many climate technologies.Key messagesKey messages 17Rapidly growing cities must be supported to avoid carbon lock-in:Globally,the climate technology landscape is dominated by a few
136、 countries with a strong national system of innovation,with developing countries having fewer opportunities to develop and access new technologies.All countries should be enabled,economically and technically,to harness climate technology opportunities.Collaborative innovation and technology transfer
137、 can make innovative solutions more accessible to developing nations.Rapidly growing cities are putting in place long-term infrastructure such as buildings,industrial assets and road networks.Slow adoption of climate technologies and their enabling opportunities increases the risk of stranded assets
138、 and carbon lock-in.At the same time,making careful technology choices is crucial if a dependence on suboptimal climate technologies is to be avoided.Examples of poor choices include cooling technologies with suboptimal refrigerants,downstream waste management technologies that impede recycling and
139、extending a blast furnaces lifespan by relining instead of phasing it out for a better alternative.Steel and cement are in particular need of R&D:In certain sectors,rapid technological advancements are vital to achieving long-term climate goals.Key technologies needed to reach net zero goals by 2050
140、 are still emerging.Considered difficult-to-decarbonize,industrial sectors such as steel and cement are in particular need of further R&D of appropriate climate technologies.Innovation is most needed for technologies that enable electrification,fossil fuel phase-out and changes to production process
141、es.However,at present,most patenting activity for low-emitting steel is focused on the processing and transport of iron ore rather than the more carbon-intensive stages of steelmaking and the current planned capacity for low-carbon steel and cement is not aligned with the emission reductions needed.
142、Agriculture and land use have a large mitigation potential:Innovation and technology can help enable the changes necessary.Together they offer a great variety of already available solutions able to make a real difference.However,it is likely that the greatest mitigation effects will come from a chan
143、ge in agricultural practices.A change in the way we cultivate the land and herd animals,in avoided deforestation and in consumer behavior.Such changes can prevent large-scale emissions from soil carbon.They can also reduce emission-intensive inputs and fuel usage,lower livestock methane emissions an
144、d increase productivity something which in itself mitigates against climate change.Technologies are available to support such changes in practice.Satellite images can provide data for monitoring crops and forecasting yields.Feed additives can lower livestock methane emissions.Weeding robots and spra
145、ying drones can aid better soil management and advanced,data-driven ag tech can increase productivity and decrease chemical usage.Some of the more advanced technologies are yet to become mainstreamed.Most farmers are unlikely to make dramatic changes unless they come with limited risk and are econom
146、ically sound.Innovative ways of making new advanced equipment accessible to farmers,such as leasing and through agricultural service companies,could accelerate the uptake of new solutions,which otherwise may seem out of reach to smaller farmers.But consumer demand,policy support,regulations and fina
147、nce are all required for a new agricultural revolution in support of climate change mitigation to become a reality.18 Photo:Getty Images/ellenamaniThe Green Technology Book 2023 is for anyone who has ever wondered about climate mitigation technologies and wanted to know more.It is for those seeking
148、tangible solutions for building homes,providing food and transforming industries,without contributing to the global climate disaster.It is for those curious to know precisely what mitigation technologies are available today and in the near future and,importantly,how to access them.It is also for tho
149、se seeking to invest,and for those who design our cities,transport and agricultural systems,and for those leading our communities and countries along a low-carbon path.By showing examples of solutions,we aim to inspire action.The Green Technology Book is not a comprehensive collection of all mitigat
150、ion technologies available.Nor does it cover all those many areas where mitigation technologies could be relevant.This years Green Technology Book chooses instead to focus on three broad areas where we believe climate change mitigation is and will be particularly critical.They are cities,agriculture
151、 and land use,and industry.Energy as a sector in itself is not included,simply because it is too large a topic to fit into this edition.We welcome greater visibility for local innovation,especially from those countries most affected by climate change.Often the best technology may not be the one on t
152、he market.It may instead be the one available locally but not widely known,maybe reviving ancient skills and insights.The Green Technology Book is more than a catalogue meant for inspiration it is a living project to which everyone can contribute.This publication links to the free publicWIPO GREEN D
153、atabaseof needs and green technologies,where users can create a profile and share their climate solutions and needs.How we wrote the bookFor the purposes of this publication,we considered a broad set of scientific articles,gray literature,together with technology databases developed by private,publi
154、c and civil society entities and organizations.Search strings included broad terms related to climate mitigation paired with key terms for the three thematic areas,and key terms related to specific technologies(“heat pumps,”“soil carbon,”“direct reduced iron”and so on).Translation engines enabled us
155、 to search articles in several languages to ensure a broad geographical spread.Owners of the technologies identified were contacted,and all have been uploaded to theWIPO GREEN Databaseof needs and green technologies,either by the technology owner or by us at WIPO.How we found the technologiesThrough
156、out the publication,we operate with three concepts:innovation,solution,and technology.While sometimes used almost interchangeably,they do have different meanings.We here use the term innovation to cover all intellectual creativity that could result in a solution.Solution is broadly taken to mean the
157、 deployment of an innovation output to solve a specific challenge.The third concept,technology,relates to any physical entity or technique,with or without additional equipment,that is deployed to resolve a specific challenge.We are Introduction and methodologyIntroduction and methodology 19primarily
158、 interested in a technologys potential for responding to climate change,ranging from the very simple to the highly complex.Often the scope of climate technologies is expanded to include enabling mechanisms such as ownership and the institutional arrangements that pertain to that technology(e.g.,buil
159、ding codes or energy management systems).But,while recognizing the importance of such mechanisms,we focus primarily on tangible technologies or actual techniques.It is important to emphasize that the technologies presented here have not been tested or in any way vetted by WIPO,and that we rely on pu
160、blicly available material.Inclusion within theGreen Technology Bookis therefore not a recommendation of a particular technology.Technologies presented here should instead be seen simply as examples of a technology area,and that there may be many other similar offerings which to our knowledge are in
161、no way inferior.Photos illustrating the technologies are reproduced with permission from the technology owners.When such permission could not be obtained,we have used relevant stock-photos,meaning photos of technologies may not always represent the actual technology example described.The appropriate
162、ness of a technology is often highly context-specific and relates to factors other than geographical location.Therefore no recommendations on where,when or how the technologies are suitable have been provided.Such an assessment should always be made with the involvement of local experts and stakehol
163、ders.Technology owners can freely upload their technology to the WIPO GREEN Database and in doing so become part of the project.The following criteria were used when selecting technologies for the Green Technology Book:relevance for climate change mitigation;relevance for the three thematic areas:1)
164、Cities,2)Agriculture and land use,and 3)Industry;pertain to:a product or service available for purchase or licensing;a product or service available for free/open source;a guidebook on application of a method or technique;a research project or similar(for horizon technologies).In addition,the followi
165、ng factors were taken into consideration:anticipated impact from implementation;availability of sufficient quality information or third-party endorsements;market availability(for proven and frontier technologies);cost in relation to impact;geographical balance;business balance(large-and small-scale
166、businesses,start-ups,research teams,non-governmental organizations and so on);no harm principle.We have divided technologies into three broad groups in order to indicate their maturity and availability.Proven technologies are those that have been on the market for some time and therefore rely on a t
167、ried and tested concept.Frontier technologies are those that are available,but still relatively new,and as such possibly less validated within a real-world setting.Horizon technologies are those new concepts currently at research or development stage expected to become available within a few years t
168、ime.Technologies have been classified in order to give an easy guide to relevance for a reader.We have aimed for a broad representation of technologies at various levels of complexity and stages of readiness.Technologies are classified as having either a low,medium or high level of complexity.This i
169、s an indication only and does not adhere to a strict definition of complexity.Rather,it reflects the level of human,material and monetary resources required to implement the solution in question.Meanwhile,technology maturity is broadly assessed according to the quasi-standard Technology Readiness Le
170、vel(TRL)definition.According to this measure,horizon technologies have the lowest readiness level,but are nonetheless close to full development(TRL 67),whereas proven and frontier technologies have been validated and are ready to be scaled-up,if this has not already been done(TLR 89).Green Technolog
171、y Book-Solutions for climate change mitigation20 We hope you will be inspired by the creativity,ingenuity and diversity of the technologies here presented.We welcome any feedback and suggestions,which can be sent to us through the WIPO GREEN website.DisclaimerThis publication,WIPO,and WIPO GREEN are
172、 in no way affiliated with any of the featured companies.Nor does this publication imply that other non-featured companies or technology solutions do not exist.All content in this publication is provided in good faith and based on information provided directly from the providers and/or using publicl
173、y available materials.Photos of technologies may not necessarily depict the actual technology.Therefore WIPO and WIPO GREEN disclaim any warranties,express or implied,as to the accuracy,adequacy,validity,reliability,availability,or completeness of any information provided.WIPO and WIPO GREEN are not
174、 responsible for any negative outcomes as a result of actions taken based on information in this publication.URL LinksThis publication contains weblinks to external websites not provided nor maintained by WIPO or WIPO GREEN.Responsibility for the content of listed external sites lies with their resp
175、ective publishers.Weblinks are provided solely for contact and informational purposes;WIPO and WIPO GREEN do not sponsor or endorse any of the content therein.While every effort has been made to establish the legitimacy of each linked website,WIPO and WIPO GREEN disclaim any warranties,express or im
176、plied,as to the accuracy of the information within the linked content,and also disclaim any responsibility regarding the potential for data breaches as a result of accessing the weblinks.21Photo:GettyImages/Dnai AmponndanaiClimate change mitigation technologiesClimate mitigation requires innovationE
177、very modelled pathway for limiting global warming to 1.5 or even 2 degrees Celsius relies on making rapid and deep GHG reductions this decade.1 Although we may have the solutions needed to halve emissions by 2030,reaching net zero by 2050 continues to require significant and rapid technological inno
178、vation.Almost half of the emission reductions in net-zero scenarios produced by the International Energy Agency(IEA)are projected to come from technologies currently at the demonstration or prototype stage.2 Furthermore,only 26 pathways of the 1,200 scenarios assessed by the IPCC limit warming to 1.
179、5 degrees Celsius using proven technologies.3It takes time for innovation to mature into market-ready solutions.Technologies such as solar panels,wind turbines,light-emitting diode(LED)bulbs and lithium-ion batteries have played a significant role in reducing emissions.But their path to massive depl
180、oyment took decades to achieve.4 For new clean energy technologies there is a lag-time of up to 10 years between initial funding and their appearance within an academic article,and a further decade or more between the publication of such an article and the filing of a technology patent.5 Furthermore
181、,new technologies often face challenges related to first-of-kind costs,higher operation and investment costs and insufficient or uncertain carbon prices.6Proven technologies must first be scaledThe challenge is that time is short and we cannot wait around for technological breakthroughs to arrive.Ac
182、cording to most projections,carbon-capture and storage(CCS)will not see a significant scale-up this decade.7,8 Only one of the 30 commercial CCS facilities in operation globally has been developed at an iron and steel plant,and none at a cement plant.9 Large-scale green hydrogen production is still
183、a long way off,especially in those countries dominating hard-to-abate sectors.In 2022,low-emission hydrogen production was under 1 percent of total global hydrogen production,the rest predominantly produced from natural gas,a fossil fuel.10We must therefore invest significantly in the vast range of
184、solutions already at hand.Simply relying on emerging and breakthrough technologies to enter the market risks missing the Although we may have the solutions needed to halve emissions by 2030,reaching net zero by 2050 continues to require significant and rapid technological innovation1/Overview:techno
185、logy and innovation for climate mitigation Green Technology Book-Solutions for climate change mitigation22 window of opportunity to act.Moreover,technologies such as CCS must not become an enabler of business as usual.The science is clear there is no room for new fossil fuel developments,if we are t
186、o avoid dramatic climate change impacts.Beyond enabling cleaner energy sources,there are already proven technologies available that can transform how we build,eat,live and travel.Climate technology adoption in most developing countries is slow,especially in the least developed.11 Rapidly growing cit
187、ies and economies have a massive potential for scaling existing solutions,which would bring with them economic development opportunities and green jobs creation.The International Finance Corporation estimates there is a climate investment opportunity in emerging market cities amounting to USD29.4tri
188、llion by 2030.12 This relates to six main sectors,many of which are covered in the Green Technology Book,namely:waste,climate-smart water,renewable energy,electric vehicles,public transport and green buildings.Several studies have chosen to focus on the barriers to scaling climate technologies.These
189、 include cost and risk,as well as institutional,regulatory and human resource constraints.The Green Technology Book chooses instead to highlight the opportunities by showcasing a variety of climate technologies and innovations that could well shape the future of cities,food systems and industry.The
190、most appropriate technology may differ immensely depending upon region,income level and the availability of local resources.The Green Technology Book therefore reflects a broad and inclusive range of technology solutions.Climate mitigation requires circular thinking and good designNot all climate te
191、chnologies are equal.In fact,certain options can create a lock-in effect in suboptimal solutions;for example,market penetration by a refrigerant that does not deplete the ozone layer but nonetheless contributes to climate change.Similarly,an incinerator might address plastic pollution,but emit harmf
192、ul emissions,reduce the incentive to recycle and,in some cases,rely on imported waste from around the world.Yet another example is retrofitting conventional steel furnaces rather than exploring electrified alternatives.The world has a clear mandate to scale ambition.Incremental efficiencies are unli
193、kely to bring about the transformation required.Circular approaches have a massive climate mitigation potential.In the European Union,such approaches could reduce CO2 emissions from material production by 56 percent by 2050.13 Roughly 70 to 80 percent of the municipal solid waste generated in Africa
194、 is recyclable;yet,only 4 percent is currently recycled.14 Placing material efficiency and circular economy at the center Technologies such as CCS must not become an enabler of business as usual.The science is clear there is no room for new fossil fuel developmentsThis means rethinking the design of
195、 our cities,understanding the limits of recycling,valuing soil and acknowledging the important role of technology and innovation in managing humanitys collective demand for Earths resources1/Overview:technology and innovation for climate mitigation 23of decarbonization can reduce the risk of an over
196、-reliance on breakthrough technologies that may or may not come to fruition in time.It also requires significantly lower up-front costs.Yet,this is an often-overlooked mitigation action.15 Countries national climate plans and strategies have largely ignored this perspective.16 And even when material
197、 efficiency is discussed,it is mainly in the context of waste management,not GHG emissions.17The Green Technology Book presents new perspectives on what can be termed climate mitigation technology.This means rethinking the design of our cities,understanding the limits of recycling,valuing soil and a
198、cknowledging the important role of technology and innovation in managing humanitys collective demand for Earths resources.International climate finance and cooperationThe cost of climate change is growingManaging emissions is expensive.However,not managing them will cost us more both in terms of ass
199、ets and lives lost.The cost of averting the most severe consequences of climate change on a global scale is likely to be approximately USD4 trillion a year by 2030.18 We are currently far off-track.The global climate finance flow is estimated to have been between USD850 and USD940billion in 2021,met
200、 equally by the public and private sectors.19Investments into climate mitigation are dominated by renewable energy,followed by low-carbon transport and energy efficiency(figure 1.1).Private finance mobilization is crucial for achieving climate targets.But private finance is growing at a slower annua
201、l rate than public finance.20 At the same time,there is a growing recognition of the financial gains that come from investing in climate technologies.Venture capital investments into climate technologies represented over a quarter of every venture dollar invested in 2022,with the vast majority spent
202、 on mobility followed by energy.21Sometimes overlooked in conversations on climate finance,consumer spending plays an especially important role in the adoption of technologies such as solar panels,water heaters and electric cars.Global spending on electric cars in 2022 was up 50 percent on the previ
203、ous year,exceeding USD425billion.22Figure 1.1Climatemitigationfinancebysolution,20112020(USDbillion)Source:CPI,2022.Given the gravity of climate change and its impacts,there is the question of whether certain climate technologies,such as early warning systems and climate datasets,ought to be conside
204、red a public good.23,24 Viewing climate technologies as a public good whose outcomes benefit everyone means setting aside market principles to some extent,or finding innovative measures to reward innovators,for instance,through an international mechanism.200002005010
205、00350400450500550Energy efficiencyLow-carbon transportRenewable energy integrationGreen Technology Book-Solutions for climate change mitigation24 International collaboration is essential,if developing countries are to have an equal opportunity to adopt climate technologies.Accepting respo
206、nsibility for historical GHG emissions,developed countries have committed to providing USD100billion a year of climate finance to developing countries by 2025.The failure to provide this funding is clearly recognized.Meanwhile,the cost of climate change is rising.The external climate finance needs o
207、f developing countries and emerging markets(excluding China)have been estimated at USD1trillion a year from now until 2030.25Countries are currently negotiating a New Collective Quantified Goal to replace the USD100billion commitment goal expiring in 2025.However,the conversation around internationa
208、l climate finance has expanded beyond discussions about how many billions of dollars are required.The questions now are who should be paying these billions and how new financial mechanisms and systems can be built that are fit for purpose.Climate finance,fossil fuels and public debt:balancing the sc
209、alesThe flow of climate finance must be seen in relation to other relevant finance flows in order to get the bigger picture.Most notably this includes global fossil fuel funding and the annual debt repayments by developing countries(figure 1.2).Such a viewpoint is important in our understanding the
210、full extent of the financial effort required to fund the climate transition,which goes beyond just positive climate finance flows.It also highlights what resources are available to dramatically scale and redirect funds toward global climate action.The COVID-19 pandemic recently demonstrated that a f
211、inancial scaling of equivalent magnitude toward a global challenge is entirely possible.The investments in clean energy currently projected are a mere fraction of the amount committed to COVID-19 recovery.26Figure 1.2 Global climate finance flows in relation to global debt and fossil fuel subsidies*
212、IMF estimate includes negative externalities such as health costs.Source:UNCTAD 2023a;Black et al.,2023;IEA,2023c;CPI,2022.Global public debt has increased more than fivefold since 2000,with developing countries owing almost 30 percent of the total debt.In Africa,more is spent in interest payments t
213、han on either education or health.27 Over 70 percent of global climate finance continues to be paid out as loans rather than grants,28 potentially adding to countries debt burden.Civil society,developing countries,the United Nations and other actors have all called for a reform of international fina
214、ncial institutions,debt cancellations or new repayment policies,possibly as an alternative way of financing climate action.29,30In recent years,major institutions have shown some response to such calls.The World Bank recently announced an offer to developing countries hit by climate disaster to paus
215、e debt repayments on new loans.Furthermore,a new wave of debt-for-climate swaps is making it possible for countries to swap debt repayments for investment into climate projects.For example,the Seychelles is the first country to have shifted its loan repayments toward investment into marine protected
216、 areas.Over 70 percent of global climate finance continues to be paid out as loans rather than grants,potentially adding to countries debt burdenGlobal climate finance flowsExternal debt stock of developing countriesGlobal fossil fuel subsidies(IMF estimate)*Global fossil fuel subsidies(OECD and IEA
217、 estimates)0.911.4711/Overview:technology and innovation for climate mitigation 25Meanwhile,subsidies for global fossil fuel consumption continue to grow.Indeed,2022 marked a record-breaking year for fossil fuel subsidies.31 In 2023,60 percent of global energy investment is expected to go into clean
218、 technologies,including into renewables,electric vehicles and heat pumps.The rest is expected to be invested into fossil fuel supply and power.32 The World Trade Organization(WTO),led by New Zealand,is exploring fossil fuel subsidy reform.But global calls for fossil fuel subsidies and fossil fuel pr
219、oject loans to be cancelled have had very little impact to date.De-risking climate technology innovation and deploymentGovernments continue to lag behind on international collaboration for climate finance.Meanwhile,they have an equally important role to play in developing and deploying climate techn
220、ologies.Technology-push and demand-pull drivers are both important when it comes to fostering technological innovation.Regarding low-carbon technologies,markets are not always able to provide the right type of incentives.This justifies government intervention and spending.Governments stimulate techn
221、ological innovation by sharing the risks and rewards between public and private actors.33 They are also critical to the creation of new markets and for improving the innovationcost balance.Carbon taxes,in particular,have been shown to positively impact innovation in mitigation technologies.34Once de
222、veloped,climate technologies face a further challenge deployment.Lack of data and risk perception are important barriers to technology transfer,uptake efficiency and financial viability,especially in developing countries.The role of international institutions in providing project transparency and de
223、-risking investments is widely recognized.The importance of de-risking becomes apparent in light of the tremendous variation in the credit required rate of return on investment,which is often linked to a projects location and the countrys credit rating.For instance,the required financial return on a
224、 solar project can range from 7 percent in Germany to a staggering 52 percent in Argentina,regardless of identical solar arrays being deployed(table 1.1).35 Such assessments are linked to a countrys credit rating issued by organizations such as S&P Global.There can therefore be a demand for developi
225、ng mechanisms and support structures which can de-risk such climate technology deployment.Table 1.1 Required return on investment from solar projects in various countries CountryS&P ratingRequiredreturnonsolarproject(%)GermanyAAA7United StatesAA+9United Arab Emirates(UAE)AA10Saudi ArabiaA12ChileA12M
226、oroccoBBB15IndiaBBB17AlgeriaB18OmanBB18PeruBBB20Costa RicaB21NamibiaBB21Required financial return on a solar project can range from 7 percent in Germany to a staggering 52 percent in Argentina,regardless of identical solar arrays being deployedGreen Technology Book-Solutions for climate change mitig
227、ation26 CountryS&P ratingRequiredreturnonsolarproject(%)GhanaB22BrazilBB22NigeriaB+22BoliviaB+24TanzaniaB24EgyptB28ZambiaCCC38ArgentinaCCC+52Source:Adapted from Songwe,Stern and Bhattacharya,2022.The role of innovation and IP for the diffusion of low-emission technologiesStrengthening national syste
228、ms of innovationInnovation often builds on existing inventions.OECD countries usually have the most efficient national systems of innovation(NSIs).A great many factors and drivers determine a healthy NSI.They include education spending,small business and market support,institutional and infrastructu
229、ral stability and well-managed intellectual property(IP)rights.These and more are described in the first edition of the Green Technology Book.Pressing global challenges and climate change make it imperative that innovation and technology address real-world needs on the ground.A better understanding
230、of how various actors and different parts of the innovation ecosystem interact make it possible for innovation systems to be strengthened across sectors and countries.This can in turn lead to insights into the appropriateness and social alignment of new technologies and practices.Partly,this require
231、s going beyond traditional ways of measuring innovation,such as R&D investments and patents,to include the monitoring of systemic indicators,such as resource mobilization,entrepreneurial activity and market formation.36,37Strengthening innovation ecosystems requires a systemic approach enabled by su
232、pportive policies.The IPCC38 highlights how important policies addressing innovation systems are in helping overcome the distributional,environmental and social barriers associated with low-emitting technologies.Increasingly,regulatory frameworks for addressing global challenges must consider the im
233、portant role of scientific and technical knowledge,and the provision of secure IP rights and ownership.39Technological adaptation and endogenous technologiesA majority of climate technology patents are filed at IP offices within developed countries(see next section).And there is a striking mismatch
234、between the technology needed by developing countries and its availability.This has come to mean that a majority of climate technologies are a response to the needs and conditions of developed nations.More locally appropriate climate technologies can be promoted in a variety of ways.They include 1)a
235、daptation of transferred technologies to local contexts,2)innovation co-development and 3)the support and recognition of locally-invented,endogenous or indigenous peoples technologies.Successful technology uptake and adaptation requires effective participation by domestic labor and national skillset
236、s building.The choice of technology is important.Consideration needs to be given to a technologys maturity,its complexity and its potential for scaling to a meaningful level.But perhaps even more importantly,successful uptake depends on understanding user needs.This warrants a broad-based,participat
237、ory approach,with the inclusion of a broad range of stakeholders,including farmers,youth,indigenous peoples,women and other groups,when deploying innovative climate technologies.There is a growing debate around shifting the“technology transfer”paradigm to one of“co-development of technology”to highl
238、ight the importance of collaborative interventions in bringing climate innovations to market.Examples of such initiatives can already be seen,but are 1/Overview:technology and innovation for climate mitigation 27not widespread.Joint ventures,collaborative R&D,and technology collaboration programs ha
239、ve the potential to support localization in favor of imported technologies.Scaling this approach further could mean building on modalities such as IP rights co-ownership,pooled financial resources and shared responsibility for risk,liability and transparency.40 However,while more support is undeniab
240、ly needed for local technology development,climate targets are unlikely to be met without a transfer of technology and the sharing of know-how and skills at a global level.In the process of identifying climate technologies for the Green Technology Book,the challenge of finding solutions from certain
241、 parts of the world has become clear.The reasons for this are manifold.Weaker national systems of innovation lead to fewer patents and a consequential absence from patent databases.Language barriers and a lack of documentation means negligible global online presence and a missed opportunity for attr
242、acting funding for locally appropriate technology dissemination and uptake.There is therefore a pressing need for greater recognition,visibility and support for technology solutions emerging from developing countries which may help increase the diversity of solutions available for a wider range of l
243、ocal conditions and contexts.Climate technology patent trendsPatent trends can with due caution be used as a proxy for innovation activity and technology trends.Inventions in climate change mitigation technologies increased fivefold between 1995 and 2011.41 But there was subsequently a notable slowd
244、own in the total number of patent applications filed between 2014 and 2017(figure 1.3).42,43Figure 1.3 Global patent applications for climate mitigation technologies in various sectors,1990-2015Note:ICT=Information and communication technologiesSource:IEA,2019b.One study shows that the climate mitig
245、ation technologies growth rate fell by 6 percent a year between 2013 and 2017,after having grown by 10 percent a year the decade before.44 The drop in overall patent activity mainly affecting the energy,building,manufacturing and CCS sectors is likely to have been due to declining fossil fuel prices
246、,low carbon prices and the“maturity”of certain climate mitigation technologies.But,while growth is no longer at the level it was in the first decade of this century,the trend appears once again to be upward.Low-carbon energy technologies patenting grew in the three years following 2017,mainly driven
247、 by fuel switching and energy efficiency,as well as by cross-cutting technologies such as hydrogen and batteries for transport.45The transport sector has maintained slow and steady growth over time,but activity has recently accelerated.There is a clear correlation between electric vehicle patent act
248、ivity and the price of fossil fuels.Europe saw a drop in electric vehicle patent applications following the 2014 oil 0200520003004005006007008009001,0001,1001,200All technologiesTransportEnergyBuildingsICTManufacturingCarbon capture and storageGreen Technology Book-Solutions fo
249、r climate change mitigation28 price plunge.Subsequently,20172021 saw a significant increase in electric and hybrid vehicle technologies,while innovations related to conventional fossil-based engines declined markedly during the same period(figure 1.4).46Figure 1.4EuropeanPatentOffice(EPO)application
250、sforelectric,hybridandexhausttreatment technologies,2012 and 2021Source:EPO,2022a.Not all climate mitigation technologies are sensitive to oil price fluctuation.Digital technologies are increasingly considered important climate enablers and their rate of penetration in climate technologies is extrem
251、ely high.In fact,60 percent of climate-related trademarks are information and communication technology(ICT)-related.47 Almost 40 percent of climate mitigation innovation within the energy and building sectors can be considered digital.Indeed,as patent activity within these two sectors slowed down,di
252、gital climate mitigation technologies related to energy and buildings grew markedly.48What has not changed over the past decade is that inventions are concentrated in certain countries and among a few R&D investors.Five countries alone represent nearly 76 percent of high-value climate mitigation inn
253、ovation,namely China,Germany,Japan,the Republic of Korea and the United States,with China dominating a growing number of patent filings.The data refers to inventions developed between 2010 and 2015,49 but the distribution is unlikely to have changed substantially since then.The top 10 countries in t
254、urn accounted for almost 90 percent of high-value climate innovation.These consist exclusively of high-income countries,with the sole exception of China.And the trend is toward increasing concentration of innovation.This underlines the need for greater technology transfer and innovation at the natio
255、nal level.50 What is more,there is data to suggest that it is often inventors and young firms beyond the top few who develop the more radical innovations likely to spearhead much needed breakthrough discoveries.51 20122021Electric vehicles(electric propulsion)Conventional vehicles(exhaust treatment)
256、4803127631521/Overview:technology and innovation for climate mitigation 29Notes1 IPCC(2023).Synthesis report(SYR)of the IPCC sixth assessment report(AR6).Summary for policymakers.Geneva:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC).Available at:https:/www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/.2 IEA(2021).Net Ze
257、ro by 2050.A roadmap for the global energy sector.Paris:International Energy Agency(EIA).Available at:https:/www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050.3 IISD(2022).Lighting the path:What IPCC energy pathways tell us about Paris-aligned policies and investments.Canada:International Institute for Sustainab
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259、tellectual Property Organization(WIPO).Available at:https:/www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4599&plang=EN.6 Richstein,J.C.and K.Neuhoff(2022).Carbon contracts-for-difference:How to de-risk innovative investments for a low-carbon industry?iScience,25(8),104700.7 IEA(2023).CCUS project expl
260、orer.Available at:https:/www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/ccus-projects-explorer.8 Martin-Roberts,E.,et al.(2021).Carbon capture and storage at the end of a lost decade.One Earth,4(11),1569-84.9 Global CCS Institute(2022).2022 Status report:Appendices.Available at:https:/ accessed May 2023
261、.10 IEA(2023).Hydrogen:Tracking clean energy progress 2023.International Energy Agency(IEA).Available at:https:/www.iea.org/energy-system/low-emission-fuels/hydrogen#tracking accessed August 2023.11 IPCC(2023).Synthesis report(SYR)of the IPCC sixth assessment report(AR6).Summary for policymakers.Gen
262、eva:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC).Available at:https:/www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/.12 CCFLA(2021).The state of cities climate finance.The Cities Climate Finance Leadership Alliance(CCFLA).Available at:https:/www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/the-state-of-cities-climate-fin
263、ance/.13 Material Economics(2018).The circular economy A powerful force for climate mitigation.Stockholm,Sweden.Available at:https:/circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/en/knowledge/circular-economy-powerful-force-climate-mitigation.14 UNEP(2023).Harnessing technology in the circular economy for clima
264、te action in Africa,CTCN knowledge brief series.Nairobi:United Nations Environment Programme.Available at:https:/www.ctc-n.org/news/climate-action-africa-harnessing-technology-circular-economy.15 IEA(2019).Material efficiency in clean energy transitions.Paris:International Energy Agency(IEA).Availab
265、le at:https:/www.iea.org/reports/material-efficiency-in-clean-energy-transitions.16 Potochnik,J.and A.Wijkman(2022).From greening the present system to real transformation Transforming resource use for human wellbeing and planetary stability.Earth4all:Deep-dive paper 12.Earth4All.Available at:https:
266、/www.clubofrome.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Earth4All_Deep_Dive_Wijkman-2.pdf.17 International Resource Panel(2020).Resource efficiency and climate change:Material efficiency strategies for a low-carbon future.Nairobi,Kenya:United Nations Environment Programme International Resource Panel.Availab
267、le at:https:/www.resourcepanel.org/reports/resource-efficiency-and-climate-change.18 CPI(2022).Global landscape of climate finance:A decade of data.Climate Policy Initiative(CPI).Available at:https:/www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/global-landscape-of-climate-finance-a-decade-of-data/.19
268、CPI(2022).Global landscape of climate finance:A decade of data.Climate Policy Initiative(CPI).Available at:https:/www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/global-landscape-of-climate-finance-a-decade-of-data/.20 CPI(2022).Global landscape of climate finance:A decade of data.Climate Policy Initiat
269、ive(CPI).Available at:https:/www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/global-landscape-of-climate-finance-a-decade-of-data/.21 PwC(2022).State of climate tech 2022:Overcoming inertia in climate tech investing.Available at:https:/ IEA(2023).Global EV outlook 2023.International Energy Agency(IEA).A
270、vailable at:https:/www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023.23 ITU(2022).Tech transfer and digital public goods needed for climate action.The International Telecommunication Union(ITU).Available at:https:/www.itu.int/hub/2022/03/tech-transfer-digital-public-goods-climate-action-africa/accessed Aug
271、ust 2023.24 United Nations(2020).Roadmap for digital cooperation.Available at:https:/www.un.org/en/content/digital-cooperation-roadmap/assets/pdf/Roadmap_for_Digital_Cooperation_EN.pdf.25 Songwe,V.,N.Stern and A.Bhattacharya(2022).Finance for climate action:Scaling up investment for climate and deve
272、lopment.London:Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment,London School of Economics and Political Science.Available at:https:/www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/IHLEG-Finance-for-Climate-Action.pdf.26 Andrijevic,M.,et al.(2020).COVID-19 recovery funds
273、dwarf clean energy investment needs.Science,370(6514),298300.27 UNCTAD(2023a).A world of debt:A growing burden to global prosperity,United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).Available at:https:/unctad.org/publication/world-of-debt.28 CPI(2022).Global landscape of climate finance:A
274、decade of data.Climate Policy Initiative(CPI).Available at:https:/www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/global-landscape-of-climate-finance-a-decade-of-data/.29 UNCTAD(2023b).A world of debt:A growing burden to global prosperity,United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).Avail
275、able at:https:/unctad.org/publication/world-of-debt.30 United Nations(2023).Finance&justice.Available at:https:/www.un.org/en/climatechange/raising-ambition/climate-finance accessed October 2023.31 IEA(2023).Fossil fuel consumption subsidies 2022.Policy report,International Energy Agency(IEA).Availa
276、ble at:https:/www.iea.org/reports/fossil-fuels-consumption-subsidies-2022.32 IEA(2023).World energy investment 2023,Flagship report.Paris:International Energy Agency(IEA).Available at:https:/www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2023.33 UNEP-CCC(2022).The climate technology progress report 202
277、2.Copenhagen,Denmark:Copenhagen Climate Centre(CCC),UNFCCC Technology Executive Committee(TEC)and United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP).Available at:https:/unepccc.org/publications/the-climate-technology-progress-report-2022/.34 van den Bergh,J.and I.Savin(2021).Impact of carbon pricing on low-
278、carbon innovation and deep decarbonisation:Controversies and path forward.Environmental and Resource Economics,80(4),705-15.35 Songwe,V.,N.Stern,and A.Bhattacharya(2022).Finance for climate action:scaling up investment for climate and Green Technology Book-Solutions for climate change mitigation30 d
279、evelopment.London:Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment,London School of Economics and Political Science.Available at:https:/www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/IHLEG-Finance-for-Climate-Action.pdf.36 IPCC(2022).Climate change 2022:Mitigation of cli
280、mate change Summary for policymakers,Working Group III contribution to IPCC sixth assessment report.Cambridge,UK:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC).Available at:https:/www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-3/.37 WIPO(2023).Global Innovation Index(GII).World Intellectu
281、al Property Organization(WIPO).Available at:https:/www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/index.html.38 IPCC(2022).Climate change 2022:Mitigation of climate change Summary for policymakers,Working Group III contribution to IPCC sixth assessment report.Cambridge,UK:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
282、 Change(IPCC).Available at:https:/www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-3/.39 UNEP-CCC(2022).The climate technology progress report 2022.Copenhagen,Denmark:Copenhagen Climate Centre(CCC),UNFCCC Technology Executive Committee(TEC)and United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP).Avail
283、able at:https:/unepccc.org/publications/the-climate-technology-progress-report-2022/.40 SEI and CEEW(2022).Stockholm+50:Unlocking a better future.Stockholm:Stockholm Environment Institute(SEI).Available at:https:/www.stockholm50.report/unlocking-a-better-future.pdf.41 EPO and UNEP(2015).Climate chan
284、ge mitigation technologies in Europe Evidence from patent and economic data.Nairobi:United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)and European Patent Office(EPO).Available at:https:/www.epo.org/news-events/in-focus/sustainable-technologies/clean-energy/europe.html.42 IEA(2019).Global patent applications
285、 for climate change mitigation technologies a key measure of innovation are trending down.Paris:International Energy Agency(IEA).Available at:https:/www.iea.org/commentaries/global-patent-applications-for-climate-change-mitigation-technologies-a-key-measure-of-innovation-are-trending-down.43 The IEA
286、 data draws upon information from the Patent Statistical Database(PATSTAT)and applies to those mitigation technologies related to buildings,CCS,manufacturing,transport and ICT.44 Probst,B.,et al.(2021).Global trends in the invention and diffusion of climate change mitigation technologies.Nature Ener
287、gy,6,107786.45 EPO and IEA(2021).Patents and the energy transition.European Patent Office(EPO)and International Energy Agency(IEA).Available at:https:/ EPO(2022).Insights into urban mobility.European Patent Office(EPO).Available at:https:/www.epo.org/about-us/annual-reports-statistics/statistics/202
288、1/insight-into-smart-urban-mobility.html accessed August 2023.47 Amoroso S.,et al.(2021).World corporate top R&D investors:Paving the way for climate neutrality A joint JRC and OECD report.Luxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union.Available at:https:/www.oecd.org/sti/world-corporate-top-r
289、d-investors-paving-the-way-for-climate-neutrality.pdf.48 IEA(2019).Global patent applications for climate change mitigation technologies a key measure of innovation are trending down.Paris:International Energy Agency(IEA).Available at:https:/www.iea.org/commentaries/global-patent-applications-for-cl
290、imate-change-mitigation-technologies-a-key-measure-of-innovation-are-trending-down49 Touboul,S.(2021).Technological innovation and adaptation to climate change.Paris:Universit Paris sciences et lettres.Available at:https:/pastel.hal.science/tel-03610832/document.50 Probst,B.,et al.(2021).Global tren
291、ds in the invention and diffusion of climate change mitigation technologies.Nature Energy,6,107786.51 Amoroso S.,et al.(2021).World corporate top R&D investors:Paving the way for climate neutrality A joint JRC and OECD report.Luxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union.Available at:https:/w
292、ww.oecd.org/sti/world-corporate-top-rd-investors-paving-the-way-for-climate-neutrality.pdf.2/Cities Photos:Getty ImagesGreen Technology Book-Solutions for climate change mitigation32 Technological developments and trendsCities cover just a small percentage of our planets surface.Yet they generate 50
293、 to 80percent of the worlds greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions and consume nearly 75percent of global material resources.1 Technology and innovation have vital roles to play in transforming cities from carbon emitters to carbon sinks.This chapter explores proven,frontier and horizon technologies for decar
294、bonizing cities.The topics addressed include low-carbon mobility,heating and cooling and material efficiency.Key trends are presented in the introductory section below,focusing on technology,finance and patents.Alternative fuels and material innovationMany cities are witnessing a massive trend towar
295、d electrification of vehicle fleets,from cars and buses to rickshaws and scooters.Numerous startups are developing electric vehicle batteries that charge faster and run for longer with reduced reliance on critical minerals.Others are tackling barriers to electric vehicle use through battery-swapping
296、 stations and vehicle-grid integration enabled by charging apps,delayed charging technologies and real-time grid data.Advances in waste valorization and non-food biomass could encourage biofuel use beyond its role as a transition fuel.The global micromobility market such as electric bicycles and sco
297、oters is bucking the trend toward larger and more energy-consuming cars and is currently estimated at around USD180billion.2 Innovations in composite materials,carbon fiber technology and high-strength steels to reduce vehicle weight,and therefore fuel consumption,have an important mitigating effect
298、 if applied at scale.Compact cities and smart mobilityHowever,with the growth in transport demand offsetting efficiency gains,vehicle-level interventions alone may not be sufficient to decarbonize the mobility sector.Compact cities offer better opportunities for walking,cycling,public transport and
299、pooled mobility options.There is also growing momentum in favor of performing certain tasks without the need to travel altogether.As the world has recently witnessed,a rapid and large-scale modal shift is possible.The COVID-19 pandemic prompted unprecedented growth in non-motorized transport and tel
300、ecommunication technologies.The need to socially distance drove a massive increase in bicycle sales,while car use reduced drastically as people worked from home.Some cities seized this opportunity to redesign streets,reclaiming parking space for new pedestrian and cycle lanes.3Digital technologies a
301、re increasingly allowing cities to plan and create sustainable urban environments for low-carbon mobility.For instance,mobility-as-a-service digital platforms enable bus/train intermodality and smart traffic management systems reduce traffic congestion.Shared mobility platforms were conceived to red
302、uce car ownership but they can end up competing with public transport in cities where these services are dominant.Addressing the cooling dilemmaCooling is increasingly necessary for survival in a growing number of cities.But the energy use required for cooling contributes significantly to global war
303、ming.The most commonly available technologies are energy consuming,but significant advances to address this challenge are being made.With the growth in transport demand offsetting efficiency gains,vehicle-level interventions alone may not be sufficient to decarbonize the mobility sector2/Cities 33Al
304、though some regions are seeing a decrease in heating demand as a result of global warming,4 it still makes up around half the worlds energy consumption.Development and dissemination of highly efficient heat pumps that can both heat and cool features on many cities decarbonization agendas.Innovations
305、 range from improvements in energy efficiency and solar integration to the use of refrigerants with lower climate impact.Research on refrigerant-free heat pumps is underway.Heating and cooling demand is currently met by individual devices but district heating and cooling solutions that offer efficie
306、ncy and climate mitigation benefits are expected to grow.Next-generation district technologies can enable simultaneous heating and cooling,and integration with smart energy systems.Heating or cooling solutions depend on the local climate,economy and culture.Embracing vernacular techniques and materi
307、als within modern applications can enable passive heating and cooling.Nature-based solutions,such as green zones and waterways,reduce the urban heat island effect.In certain settings,energy-consuming heating and cooling technologies can be avoided altogether.Countries ranging from India to Switzerla
308、nd are limiting the use and operating temperature of air conditioners.This energy-saving measure is enabled through legislation and minimum energy performance standards.Smart technologies and return schemes enhance recyclingMaterial efficiency has a massive impact on GHG reduction by reducing energy
309、 consumption from production.An important aspect is how discarded products are handled and reintroduced into production and use cycles.At present,globally,waste is still generally dumped in open landfill sites that pollute soil and groundwater,spread disease and generate GHG emissions as organic mat
310、erials decompose.Recycling is currently failing to keep pace with the waste generated by the ever-growing production of products such as packaging and construction material.Technology and innovation play vital roles in sustainable waste management,with policy and local institutional capacities as ke
311、y enablers.Smart cities in high-income countries are increasingly harnessing the power of data and automation.Sensors and digital technologies optimize waste collection and separation while optical scanners and robotics divert materials away from landfill.Deposit return schemes and technologies that
312、 recirculate bottles and cans are growing in popularity.Alternative recycling technologies,such as chemical recycling,have reemerged rapidly as a means of converting plastic waste into oils and fuel.However,their high costs and energy demands will likely limit their usefulness from a climate perspec
313、tive.Material efficiency beyond waste managementIn lower-income countries advancing from open dumping and burning,the organic fraction of the waste is often high.Locally appropriate technological solutions include composting,anaerobic digesters and recycling processes that often rely on the importan
314、t work of informal waste pickers.Transitioning from open dumping to semi-aerobic landfill solutions has the potential to reduce emissions by 40percent.5 While incineration technologies are gaining prominence in regions such as Southeast Asia,some countries in the European Union(EU)are phasing out su
315、ch practices in favor of preserving materials for better uses.Downstream waste management practices cannot adequately address the climate impact of our material consumption.Technologies and solutions that enable circular cities and upstream material efficiency are therefore taking precedence as clim
316、ate mitigation measures.Innovations Downstream waste management practices cannot adequately address the climate impact of our material consumptionGreen Technology Book-Solutions for climate change mitigation34 in lighter products and green manufacturing methods are ushering in a new era for material
317、 use in cities.Engineered wood and new applications for natural and sustainable construction materials offer both strength and sustainability.The substitution of timber for steel and concrete has significant potential to reduce embedded emissions in buildings if forests are managed sustainably and t
318、imber elements are reused or recycled at end of life.6 Self-healing concrete,high-strength steel and deconstruction-ready design principles further extend the lifespan of materials and products,reducing the need for primary production.Patents and financeElectric vehicle patents dominatingThe section
319、 on Mobility in this years Green Technology Book focuses on road transport the primary source of GHG emissions compared to rail,air and maritime transport.Road transport also dominates low-carbon innovation in the transport sector,with growth in electric vehicle technologies accelerating after 2005.
320、7 Electric vehicle uptake has been boosted by government subsidies,regulatory targets and technological advances.These have led to a price drop of nearly 90percent since 2010 for lithium-ion batteries the most commonly used battery for electric vehicles.8Most low-carbon transport inventions relate t
321、o battery technology,with 9 of the top 10 filing companies based in Asia.Lithium-ion batteries still dominate research,with the greatest focus on extending battery life,increasing charging speed and facilitating recyclability.At the frontier,lithium-based solid-state batteries could offer longer lif
322、espans and higher energy density.While these are not yet commercialized,they have seen an average 25percent increase in patents since 2010.A number of companies have announced their intention to use this technology as an alternative to lithium-ion batteries in their vehicles in the next few years.9M
323、icromobility,fuel cells and smart mobilityMicromobility systems have expanded significantly in recent years,with e-bikes and step scooters seeing the most intense level of innovation among European patent applications.10,11 Research and development(R&D)activity in the field of hydrogen fuel cells ha
324、s also accelerated with nearly 4,000 fuel cell patents filed in 2018 by applicants in China,which has overtaken Japan to become the leading patent country.12Patent trend reports on climate change mitigation in the mobility sector mainly focus on vehicle-level interventions.But technologies that enab
325、le a more transformative shift in travel patterns have become increasingly important in the last decade,driven by the rise in artificial intelligence(AI)and the internet of things(IoT).Such technologies range from smart traffic management systems and smart parking and charging solutions to technolog
326、ies for vehicle-grid integration and urban planning.Heat pump innovation on the riseThe global patent landscape for efficient heating and cooling technologies has evolved in the last decade.Reflecting their growing importance,heat pump patents have increased substantially since 2015.While China is t
327、he country with most patents,Austria and Germany are more specialized in this field.13 Meanwhile,conventional air-conditioner technology based on vapor-compression has witnessed slower growth.14 Comprehensive patent trend assessments are not available for passive cooling technologies,such as insulat
328、ion and radiative coatings.15Advances in sustainable material alternativesThis chapter offers an overview of various technologies that reduce climate impact through material efficiency,ranging from lightweight and low-carbon materials to reuse and recycling.As this brief commentary on patent trends
329、cannot address all these categories,examples of innovation activity are presented along the value chain of one specific material:plastic.After all,the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)estimates that the GHG emissions from 2/Cities 35plastic production,use and disposal could account for 19pe
330、rcent of the global carbon budget by 2040.16The production and conversion stage generates 90percent of plastic-related emissions.Recycled,biodegradable or bio-based plastics are considered important mitigating measures,but their share of total plastic will remain limited under current policies.17 Th
331、e health-care sector is leading the way in bioplastic innovation with more than 19,000 international patent families in the period 20102019.The sector uses plastics for single-use or medical surgery tools and packaging.18Recent studies have cautioned that with the current level of technology,increas
332、ed consumption of bioplastics is likely to generate GHG emissions from cropland expansion,warranting further innovation in this space.19 Plastic production also results in significant pre-consumer waste(i.e.,waste generated during the manufacturing process that never reaches end-consumers).Material
333、efficiency measures and innovation in this space are neither well understood nor discussed.Plastic recycling innovationsIn terms of plastic recycling,there is a discrepancy between patenting activity and technology needs from a climate perspective.Most activity relates to chemical or biological recycling where microbes and bacteria break down the plastics.These methods saw twice the number of pate