1、A World Bank Group Flagship Report2023WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT2023A World Bank Group Flagship ReportWORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433Telephone:202-473-1000;internet:www.worldbank.orgSome rights reser

2、ved1 2 3 4 26 25 24 23This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions.The findings,interpretations,and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank,its Board of Execu-tive Directors,or the governments they represent.The W

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12、NW,Washington,DC 20433,USA;e-mail:pubrightsworldbank.org.ISSN,ISBN,e-ISBN,and DOI:Softcover HardcoverISSN:0163-5085 ISSN:0163-5085ISBN:978-1-4648-1941-4 ISBN:978-1-4648-1964-3e-ISBN:978-1-4648-1942-1 DOI:10.1596/978-1-4648-1964-3DOI:10.1596/978-1-4648-1941-4 Library of Congress Control Number:202393

13、1895 iiiCover and interior design:Puntoaparte Editores,Bogot,Colombia,with input from the Design team in the Global Corporate Solutions unit of the World Bank.Cover photo credits:First line,left to right:KAMPUS/S;BAZA Production/S;Prostock-studio/S;airdone/S;Comaniciu Dan/S;CREATISTA/S;Aila Images/S

14、;A.D.S.Portrait/S;Prostock-studio/S;LSrockStudio/S;AJR_photo/S;SB Arts Media/S;Jacob Lund/S.All images used with the permission of the photographer and S;further permission required for reuse.Second line,left to right:K Chung Chic/S;binoyphoto folio/S;K Production/S;LightField Studios/S;K Stock/S;Ca

15、st Of Thousands/S;AJP/S;Cast Of Thousands/S;PakistanZindabad/S;15Studio/S;Daxiao Productions/S.All images used with the permission of the photographer and S;further permission required for reuse.Third line,left to right:Prostock-studio/S;K Studio/S;Kamira/S;EJ Nickerson/S;Daxiao Productions/S;Always

16、 Say YESS/S;AJR_photo/S;SB Arts Media/S;Ground Picture/S;Heru Anggara/S;BublikHaus/S;Jenson/S;K shyamal/S.All images used with the permission of the photographer and S;further permission required for reuse.ivThe priestly leaders of the Parsis were brought before the local ruler,Jadhav Rana,who prese

17、nted them with a vessel full of milk to signify that the surrounding lands could not possibly accommodate any more people.The Parsi head priest responded by slipping some sugar into the milk to signify how the strangers would enrich the local community without displacing them.They would dissolve int

18、o life like sugar dissolves in the milk,sweetening the society but not unsettling it.The ruler responded to the eloquent image and granted the exiles land and permission to practice their religion unhindered if they would respect local customs,and learn the local language,Gujarati.Parsi legendAs a g

19、lobal community,we face a choice.Do we want migration to be a source of prosperity and international solidarity,or a byword for inhumanity and social friction?Antnio Guterres,Secretary-General of the United Nations,2018 vContentsxv Forewordxvii Acknowledgmentsxxiii Key takeawaysxxv Glossaryxxvii Abb

20、reviations1 Overview2 Migration is necessary for all countries4 A practical framework for policy makers:The Match and Motive Matrix7 When the match is strong,the gains are large 10 When the match is weak,the costs need to be sharedand reducedmultilaterally14 Making migration work better requires doi

21、ng things differently15 A message of hope17 Notes18 References21 Chapter 1:The Match and Motive Matrix 21 Key messages22 A people-centric approach22 A focus on foreign nationals25 Two perspectives:Labor economics and international law28 The Match and Motive Matrix30 Policy priorities33 Notes33 Refer

22、ences35 Spotlight 1:History41 Part 1:Migration is increasingly necessary for countries at all income levels43 Chapter 2:The numbers:Understanding who moves,where to,and why43 Key messages44 Current trends49 Motives and patterns57 Notes58 References61 Spotlight 2:Datavi|CONTENTS69 Chapter 3:The outlo

23、ok:Changing patterns,needs,and risks69 Key messages70 Demographics:The coming competition for workers78 Climate change:New risks of distressed movements83 Notes84 References89 Spotlight 3:Methodological considerations93 Part 2:When the match is strong,the gains are large95 Chapter 4:Migrants:Prosper

24、ingand even more so with rights 95 Key messages96 Receiving higher wages103 Accessing better services104 Dealing with social costs105 Returning107 Failing,sometimes109 Notes111 References119 Spotlight 4:Gender127 Chapter 5:Origin countries:Managing migration for development127 Key messages128 Reapin

25、g the full development benefits of remittances135 Leveraging knowledge transfers137 Managing labor market impacts141 Taking a strategic approach 143 Notes145 References153 Spotlight 5:Measurement of remittances159 Chapter 6:Destination countries:Maximizing gains through economic and social policies1

26、59 Key messages160 Benefiting from migrants labor168 Maximizing economic gains173 Fostering social inclusion183 Notes186 References197 Spotlight 6:Racism,xenophobia,and discriminationCONTENTS|vii203 Part 3:When the match is weak,the costs need to be sharedand reducedmultilaterally205 Chapter 7:Refug

27、ees:Managing with a medium-term perspective205 Key messages206 Recognizing the development challenge211 Enhancing responsibility-sharing through regional solidarity215 Going beyond emergency responses222 Making progress toward durable solutions by combining legal status and access to opportunities22

28、8 Notes230 References237 Spotlight 7:Internal displacement and statelessness245 Chapter 8:Distressed migrants:Preserving dignity245 Key messages246 Acknowledging policy trade-offs252 Extending international protection256 Shifting migrants incentives through legal pathways 258 Strengthening the match

29、 of migrants skills and attributes through development261 Notes262 References269 Spotlight 8:“Root causes”and development275 Part 4:Making migration work better requires doing things differently277 Chapter 9:Recommendations:Making migration work better277 Key messages279 Introduction279 Strong match

30、:Maximize gains for all289 Weak match and fear motive:Ensure the sustainability of refugee-hosting,including through responsibility-sharing294 Weak match and no fear motive:Respect dignity and reduce the need for distressed movements301 Essentials for reform308 Notes311 Referencesviii|CONTENTSBoxes3

31、O.1Widely different demographic forces are at play in Italy,Mexico,and Nigeria5O.2Two perspectives on cross-border migration6O.3“Match”determines the net gains of receiving migrants;“motive”determines their international protection needs8O.4 When the match is strong,policies in both destination and

32、origin countries can maximize the gains of migration11O.5 When the match is weaker,policy making involves trade-offs for the destination country between economic gains and migrants dignityFigures1O.1How many migrants are there,and where do they live?231.1Foreign nationals or foreign-born?452.1 Migra

33、tion data in this Report763.1Can technology solve labor market mismatches across countries?793.2Compounded drivers of migration in Sub-Saharan Africa1024.1 Migrating to seek more inclusive gender norms:The case of highly educated women1355.1 Migrants can transfer institutional and social norms to th

34、eir origin country 1415.2The Philippines:A case study of how origin countries can benefit from migration 154S5.1 Testing the inflow-outflow gap at the country level1616.1The longer-term economic effects of migration1786.2 Profound cultural changes are under way1816.3Lessons from Germany:The successf

35、ul integration of asylum-seekers and refugees2077.1Ukrainian refugee crisis 2097.2 Among refugees,some have higher protection needs2147.3An example of development financing:IDAs Window for Host Communities and Refugees 2177.4Preparedness is critical when refugee situations are predictable or chronic

36、2247.5Return:Homecoming or new movement?2277.6 Creating better outcomes through integration:Lessons from Colombia238S7.1IDPs versus refugees240S7.2 Internal displacement and assistance targeting2488.1 The externalization of migration policy2538.2 The evolving definition of refugee2558.3 Climate-rela

37、ted mobility in Small Island Developing States 2578.4Smugglers and traffickers3029.1 Priorities for research aheadCONTENTS|ix13O.6Policy actions in both origin and destination countries can reduce distressed migration15O.7Different types of migration require distinct forms of international cooperati

38、on211.1Distinct groups of migrants require distinct policy responses24 B1.1.1In many high-income OECD countries,over half of foreign-born people have been naturalized261.2 When migrants are a strong match,their contributions exceed the costs of their integration271.3When people have a“well-founded f

39、ear”of harm if they return to their country of origin,destination countries are obligated to host them291.4The Match and Motive Matrix combines the perspectives of labor economics and international law to distinguish between four types of movements301.5Destination countries policies partly determine

40、 where migrants fit in the Match and Motive Matrix311.6 The Match and Motive Matrix helps to identify policy priorities for distinct groups of migrants321.7The challenge for countries is to enhance the match of migrants and reduce distressed movements432.1 Patterns of movements reflect distinct matc

41、hes and motives442.2A large share of migrants and refugees live in low-and middle-income countries462.3 Since 1960,the share of emigrants in low-income countries population has almost doubled462.4Since 1960,the share of immigrants and naturalized citizens in high-income countries population has trip

42、led502.5 Cross-border movements vary greatly by region532.6 Where migrants go to largely depends on where they come from542.7 Most refugees come from a limited number of countriesof originand increasingly so562.8 Refugee flows spike after a crisis and then slow over time562.9Refugees are increasingl

43、y originating from middle-income countries62S2.1 Many population censuses do not collect basic and consistent data on migration693.1Demographics and climate change are transforming migration patterns 713.2Widely different demographic forces are at play in Italy,Mexico,and Nigeria723.3 The population

44、 is growing quickly in lower-income countries,whereas it will soon begin to shrink in higher-income countries723.4Higher-income countries are aging rapidly,whereas lower-income countries remain youngx|CONTENTS733.5 In high-income countries,the elderly population is growing,whereas the working-age po

45、pulation is declining733.6By 2050,in the high-income OECD countries there will be fewer than two working-age individuals to support every elderly person 743.7 The number of children born per woman is declining rapidly in middle-income countries743.8 Many upper-middle-income countries are reaching sh

46、ares of elderly usually seen in higher-income countries753.9By 2050,Sub-Saharan Africa will be the only region with population growth76 B3.1.1US employment growth is expected to be higher for occupations having younger and less-educated workers783.10Climate change affects migration through income an

47、d habitability79 B3.2.1Some intertwined drivers of mobility954.1 When migrants skills and attributes match the needs of destination societies,the gains are large964.2In Bangladesh,Ghana,and India,income gains from international migration are many times greater than those from internal migration964.3

48、 Decades of economic growth are needed in the country of origin for nonmigrants to achieve the economic gains of migrants who moved to high-income countries974.4For low-skilled migrants,incomes surge at the destination984.5 South Asian workers moving to Gulf Cooperation Council countries face some o

49、f the highest migration costs1004.6 In the United States,migrants wages are close to those of nationalswhen migrants have documented status1014.7 In the United Arab Emirates,workers received higher benefits upon contract renewal after a reform allowing them to change employers102 B4.1.1Emigration ra

50、tes of high-skilled women are highest in countries in the midrange of gender-based discrimination1034.8 Destination countries attract international students from distinct parts of the world1064.9Only a minority of migrants to the United States return to their countries of origin,mainly those from ot

51、her high-income OECD countries1064.10Many migrants to Western Europe return to their country of origin,but less so women from Eastern Europe121S4.1The rate of migration of tertiary-educated female migrants is increasing faster than that of tertiary-educated male migrants and lower-skilled female mig

52、rants1275.1 The policies of origin countries can maximize the impacts of migration on poverty reductionCONTENTS|xi1285.2Remittances represent a large and growing share of external financing flows to low-and middle-income countries1295.3 In some countries,remittances account for over one-fifth of nat

53、ional income1305.4 In Nepal,poverty levels declined between 2001 and 2011 in villages with higher emigration1325.5 Between 1980 and 2015,remittances were less volatile than other capital inflows1335.6From 2007 to 2020,remittance outflows from the Russian Federation were more correlated with oil pric

54、es than those from Saudi Arabia1345.7Money transfers via mobile operators are less expensive than through other channels1365.8 In Bangladesh,returning migrants are more likely than nonmigrants to be self-employed or entrepreneurs1395.9 On average,migrants are more educated than the labor force in th

55、eir origin countries 1405.10 Many high-skilled migrants who migrate to the United States from Latin America and the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa receive their tertiary education in the United States153S5.1 In 2020,the gap between global estimates of remittances received and sent reached 40 perce

56、nt 154 SB5.1.1 Remittance estimation gaps are significant in many economies155S5.2 At the global level,outflow remittance reports are closer than inflow remittance reports to economic fundamentals156S5.3 At the country level,reports of both inflows and outflows can be inconsistent with economic fund

57、amentals1596.1When migrants skills and attributes are a strong match with the needs of their destination countries,the countries benefit and can increase their benefits through policy actions1626.2 In the United States and Western Europe,migrants and naturalized citizens are overrepresented at both

58、ends of the education spectrum1656.3The impacts of immigration on wages vary across countries1666.4On average,the net fiscal contributions of migrants and naturalized citizens in OECD countries are higher than those of native-born citizens1676.5Migrants fiscal contributions are larger when they are

59、working age1706.6 In many destination countries,the share of immigrants and naturalized citizens with a tertiary education exceeds the average for the labor force1716.7Temporary migration has overtaken permanent migration in Canada1766.8Student-teacher ratios in Spain increase with higher shares of

60、migrant students1796.9The determinants of social integration199S6.1Attitudes toward migrants in South Africa are more negative than positive2057.1Refugee situations are best managed with a medium-term perspective,with costs shared across countries2067.2 The number of refugees has more than doubled o

61、ver the last decade2097.3The number of refugees in protracted situations has more than doubled over the last decade2127.4More than half of the worlds refugees are hosted in middle-income countries2137.5Three donors contribute almost two-thirds of all bilateral ODA to refugees2137.6 Four countries re

62、ceive almost three-quarters of resettled refugees2167.7In responding to refugee inflows,host countries should aim for medium-term sustainabilityfinancial and social2207.8Refugees depend more on transfers and work under more precarious conditions than their hosts2237.9The share of refugees who achiev

63、e a durable solution has been very low over the last 15 years2237.10 The number of refugees continues to grow as new entries(recognitions)outpace exits2257.11 The tension between legal status and economic opportunities lies at the root of the difficulties in resolving refugee situations2458.1 The po

64、licy challenge is to reduce distressed movements while treating migrants humanely2498.2 Thousands of migrants die every year in transit2518.3 Coordinated policy action in origin and destination countries can reduce distressed migration2528.4A continuum of needs falls under international protection25

65、3 B8.2.1Recognition rates for Afghan asylum-seekers varied greatly across EU countries in 20212558.5 Complementary protection is a complex maze2608.6 Economic development changes the composition of migration flows:The education level of emigrants improves as countries develop270S8.1The propensity to

66、 emigrate is highest in middle-income countries271S8.2The migration hump is pronounced for smaller countries and more muted for larger countries272S8.3As middle-income countries develop,emigration rises,mainly to high-income destinations273S8.4 As low-income countries develop,the propensity to migra

67、te declines,especially to low-income destinations2779.1 When strategically managed,migration maximizes gains while mitigating costs2809.2 Countries of origin can manage emigration for poverty reduction2839.3 Countries of destination can manage immigration for their benefitxii|CONTENTSCONTENTS|xiii28

68、79.4 Bilateral cooperation can improve the match of migrants skills and attributes with destination country needs2909.5 Refugee-hosting countries should from the outset adopt a medium-term perspective2939.6Multilateral cooperation is key to the sustainability of refugee-hosting efforts2959.7 Develop

69、ment progress reduces the need for distressed cross-border movements2979.8 Human dignity should remain the yardstick of migration policies3009.9 Cooperation between destination and“last border transit countries”is needed3049.10 New financing instruments and expanded use of development resources are

70、needed to better manage migration3069.11 New voices are needed to transform migration debatesMaps472.1 In most countries,only a small share of the population has emigrated to another country482.2Immigrants are spread across the world in countries at all levels of income522.3 Some of the global imbal

71、ances that drive migration movements are reflected in the Human Development Index552.4Most refugees flee to neighboring countries552.5 Ten countries host more than half of all refugees80 B3.2.1Sub-Saharan Africa is exposed to a combination of vulnerabilities823.1The areas where people can work outdo

72、ors are shrinking120S4.1Some countries send more female migrants;others send more male migrants 120S4.2Some countries receive more female migrants;others receive more male migrants1375.1 Emigration from Mexico is uneven across regions1746.1In the United States,immigrant households are largely concen

73、trated along the southern border and in major metropolitan areas1746.2 In the New York City metropolitan area,migrants are concentrated in certain neighborhoods207 B7.1.1 Ukrainian refugees are hosted across the European Union and neighboring countries2187.1By allowing refugees to move within Trkiye

74、,the government reduced the impact on communities in areas of first arrival along the border with Syria237S7.1Internal displacement occurs worldwide2508.1 Main transit migration routesTables16O.1Main policy recommendations2789.1 Main policy recommendationsxvForewordThe World Banks annual World Devel

75、opment Reports,or WDRs,are staples of the global communitys reservoir of knowledge and data about key development issues.This years Report discusses migration,one of the worlds most important and pressing challenges.There are 184 million migrants worldwide.Of them,43 percent live in low-and middle-i

76、ncome countries.Migration issues are becoming even more widespread and urgent due to severe divergences between and within countriesin terms of real wages,labor market opportunities,demographic patterns,and climate costs.Migration makes substantial contributions to economic development and poverty r

77、eduction but also involves difficulties and risks.Migrants often bring skills,dynamism,and resources that strengthen destination economies.In many cases,they also strengthen the country of origin,providing a vital support mechanism for communities by sending remittances as a lifeline for their famil

78、ies,especially during times of turmoil.This World Development Report 2023 proposes policies to better manage migration in destination,transit,and origin countries.These policies can help harness economic opportunities and mitigate the difficulties and risks that migrants face.The WDR discusses the m

79、igration trade-offs using a“Match-Motive Framework.”The“match”aspect is grounded in labor economics and focuses on how well migrants skills and related attributes match the needs of the destination countries.This determines the extent to which migrants,countries of origin,and countries of destinatio

80、n gain from migration:the stronger the match,the larger the gains.The“motive”refers to the circumstances under which a person moves in search of opportunity or due to fear of persecution,armed conflict,or violence.The latter may create international law obligations for the destination country:people

81、 who move because of a“well-founded fear”of harm at home are entitled to international protection.By combining“match”and“motive,”the framework identifies policy priorities for countries of origin,transit,and destination,and the international community.It also discusses how the policy response can be

82、 improved through bilateral,plurilateral,or multilateral initiatives and instruments.The way that policies are designed and implemented can help migrants move toward better opportunities and improved matches so that the benefits of migration for all are increased.Origin countries can maximize the de

83、velopment impacts of labor migration on their own societies by providing ways to facilitate remittance inflows,for example,by lowering the costs of sending and receiving transfers.Origin countries can also improve educational opportunities often in collaboration with destination countries,including

84、language skills.They can also incentivize investment by diasporas,and support returning migrants as they reenter the labor market.xvi|FOREWORDDestination countries can harness the potential of migration to meet their long-term labor market needs,especially to meet labor shortages triggered by aging

85、or a lack of particular skills.They can improve efforts to treat migrants humanely and address social and economic impacts on their own citizens.Transit countries need to coordinate with countries of destination to address distressed migration.International cooperation is critical in sharing the cos

86、ts for hosting refugees.Recognizing the challenges and complexities of migration,this WDR provides data-driven and evidence-based examples and assessment of trade-offs,showing how migration can work for development.The Report will contribute to a better understanding of migration and should provide

87、a useful reference for policy makers and other stakeholders as they make informed choices and formulate effective strategies that contribute to better outcomes for communities and individuals.David MalpassPresidentThe World Bank GroupxviiAcknowledgments World Development Report 2023 was prepared by

88、a World Bank team led by Xavier Devictor,Quy-Toan Do,and alar zden.Joyce Antone Ibrahim served as Task Team Leader.Overall guidance was provided by Carmen Reinhart(through June 2022),former Senior Vice President and Chief Economist;Indermit Gill(as of September 2022),Senior Vice President and Chief

89、Economist;and Aart Kraay,Director of Development Policy,Development Economics,and Deputy Chief Economist.The Report was sponsored by the Development Economics Vice Presidency.The core author team comprised Paige Casaly,Viviane Clement,Vikram Raghavan,Kanta Rigaud,Sandra Rozo Villarraga,Zara Sarzin,K

90、irsten Schuettler,Ganesh Seshan,Maheshwor Shrestha,Mauro Testaverde,Solomon Walelign,Christina Wieser,and Soonhwa Yi,together with research analysts Laura Caron,Narcisse Changom,Jessica Dodo Buchler,Sameeksha Khare,Matthew Martin,Elham Shabahat,Samikshya Siwakoti,and Adesola Sunmoni.Selome Missael P

91、aulos provided the team with administrative support,assisted by Aidara Janulaityte.Barthelemy Bonadio,April Frake,Janis Kreuder,and Tony Zurui Su assisted chapter authors at various stages.Bruce Ross-Larson provided developmental guidance in drafting the Report.Members of the extended team were Caro

92、line Sergeant and Thamesha Tennakoon.Erhan Artuc developed the methodology used to construct the Reports bilateral migration matrix.Gero Carletto contributed to spotlight 2 on data,and Lucia Hanmer,Laura Montes,and Laura Rawlings contributed to spotlight 4 on gender.Anne Koch,Nadine Biehler,Nadine K

93、napp,and David Kipp authored box 6.3 on lessons from Germany.Irene Bloemraad,Victoria Esses,Connie Eysenck,William Kymlicka,Rachel McColgan,and Yang-Yang Zhou contributed to sections of chapter 6 on destination countries.Paulo Bastos,Irina Galimova,Rebeca Gravat,Alreem Kamal,and He Wang assisted wit

94、h reviewing translations.The communications and engagement strategy was led by a team comprising Chisako Fukuda,Karolina Ordon,Anugraha Palan,Elizabeth Price,Joe Rebello,Shane Romig,and Mariana Teixeira.Paul Blake led and coordinated the video production.Kristen Milhollin,Mikael Reventar,and Roula Y

95、azigi provided web and online services and related guidance.Special thanks are extended to Stephen D.Pazdan,who coordinated and oversaw formal production of the Report,and to the World Banks Formal Publishing Program,including Cindy Fisher and Patricia Katayama.Mary C.Fisk facilitated the multiple t

96、ranslations of the overview and main messages by the Translations and Interpretation team,coordinated by Bouchra Belfqih.Deb Barker and Yaneisy Martinez managed the printing and electronic conversions of the Report and its many ancillary products.xviii|ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe concept note was edited by A

97、nne Koch.The Report was edited by Sabra Ledent and NancyMorrison and proofread by Gwenda Larsen and Catherine Farley.Robert Zimmermann verified the Reports extensive citations.Reyes Work designed some of the Reports figures and infographics,as did Bill Pragluski at Critical Stages.Puntoaparte Editor

98、es was the principal graphic designer,and BMWW and Datapage supplied typesetting services.Van Thi Hong Do,Dayana Leguizamon,Monique Pelloux Patron,and Ghulam Ahmad Yahyaie provided the team with resource management support.Rolf Parta facilitated the team retreats and other team sessions.The team wou

99、ld also like to thank colleagues from various World Bank country offices who assisted with the logistics and stakeholder engagement of team members missions.Special thanks to Maria Alyanak,Gabriela Calderon Motta,Maria del Camino Hurtado,Grace Soko,and Sebastian Stolorz for their help with coordinat

100、ion and high-level engagement strategies.The team relied on the guidance and inputs of an Internal Advisory Committee:Dina Abu-Ghaida,Loli Arribas-Banos,Caroline Bahnson,Michel Botzung,Gero Carletto,Ximena del Carpio,Stephane Hallegatte,David McKenzie,Pia Peeters,and Dilip Ratha.The team is also gra

101、teful for the guidance,comments,and inputs provided by other World Bank Group colleagues,particularly from the Development Economics Vice Presidency;Economics and Private Sector Development Vice Presidency(International Finance Corporation);Legal Vice Presidency;Environment,Natural Resources,and Blu

102、e Economy Global Practice;Finance,Competitiveness,and Innovation Global Practice;Poverty and Equity Global Practice;Social Protection and Jobs Global Practice;Social Sustainability and Inclusion Global Practice;Climate Change Group;Fragility,Conflict,and Violence Group;as well as the Multilateral In

103、vestment Guarantee Agency and the Balance of Payments Division at the International Monetary Fund.The team would also like to thank the many World Bank colleagues who provided written comments during the formal Bank-wide review process.Those comments provided invaluable guidance at a crucial stage i

104、n the Reports production.The team also gratefully received suggestions and guidance from a High-Level Advisory Panel:Nasser Alkahtani,Executive Director,Arab Gulf Programme for Development,Saudi Arabia;Davinia Esther Anyakun,Minister of State for Relief,Disaster Preparedness and Refugees,Uganda;Alej

105、andra Botero Barco,former Director-General,National Planning Department,Colombia;Karl Chua,former Secretary of Socioeconomic Planning,National Economic and Development Authority,the Philippines;Reha Deneme,former Deputy Minister of National Education,Turkey;Tibil Dram,former Minister of Foreign Affa

106、irs and former Member of Parliament,Mali;Filippo Grandi,High Commissioner,United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR);Carlos Gutierrez,former Secretary of Commerce,United States;Gilbert F.Houngbo,Director-General,International Labour Organization(ILO)(as of October 2022);Mary Kawar,former M

107、inister of Planning and International Cooperation,Jordan;Yuba Raj Khatiwada,former Minister of Finance,former Minister of Planning,and former Central Bank Governor,Nepal;Janez Lenari,Commissioner for Crisis Management,European Commission;David Miliband,President and CEO,International Rescue Committe

108、e;Guy Ryder,former Director-General,ILO(through September 2022);Asif Saleh,Executive Director,BRAC Bangladesh;and Antnio Vitorino,Director-General,International Organization for Migration.Volker Trk also served as a member of the panel in his personal capacity through September 2022.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS|

109、xixThe team also received suggestions and inputs from an Academic Advisory Committee:Ran Abramitzky(Stanford University),Emmanuelle Auriol(Toulouse School of Econ-omics),Alexander Betts(University of Oxford),Michael Clemens(Center for Global Development),Alexander de Sherbinin(Columbia University Cl

110、imate School),Frdric Docquier(Catholic University of Louvain/Luxembourg Institute of Socio-Economic Research),Esther Duflo(Massachusetts Institute of Technology),Filiz Garip(Princeton University),Guy Goodwin-Gill(University of Oxford),Jennifer Hunt(Rutgers University),Ana Mara Ibez(Inter-American De

111、velopment Bank/Universidad de los Andes),Susan Martin(Georgetown University),Anna Maria Mayda(Georgetown University),Edward Miguel(University of California,Berkeley),Mushfiq Mobarak(Yale University),Giovanni Peri(University of California,Davis),Lant Pritchett(University of Oxford),Jaya Ramji-Nogales

112、(Beasley School of Law,Temple University),Hillel Rapoport(University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne/Paris School of Economics),and Jackie Wahba(University of Southampton).The team conducted a series of bilateral consultations and field visits with several governments and development partners,including

113、 Armenia,Azerbaijan,Bangladesh,Cameroon,the Central African Republic,Colombia,Cte dIvoire,Denmark,Estonia,Ethiopia,Finland,France,Georgia,Germany,Guatemala,Indonesia,Italy,Japan,Jordan,Kuwait,Latvia,Lithuania,Mexico,Morocco,the Netherlands,Peru,the Philippines,Portugal,Saudi Arabia,Sweden,Switzerlan

114、d,Tunisia,the United Kingdom,and the United States;as well as the European Commissions Directorate-Generals for Climate Action,International Partnerships,Migration and Home Affairs,and Neighborhood and Enlargement Negotiations;the European External Action Service;the Expert Council on Integration an

115、d Migration(Germany);and the Vatican.The team also consulted several international and regional organizations,including the Asian Development Bank,Caribbean Community(CARICOM),ILO,Inter-American Development Bank(Migration Unit),Intergovernmental Authority on Development,International Committee of th

116、e Red Cross,International Organization for Migration(IOM),Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD),United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs(UN DESA,Population Division),United Nations Economic Commission for Africa,United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,and

117、 the UN Secretary-Generals High-Level Panel on Internal Displacement.The team thanks Columbia University,Cornell University,InterAction,International Council of Voluntary Agencies,Japan International Cooperation Agency(JICA),Overseas Development Institute,Peterson Institute for International Economi

118、cs,and Refugees International for organizing and hosting a series of roundtable discussions and seminars with academics and nongovernmental organizations.The team benefited from the inputs of several think tanks and research institutes,including the Center for Global Development,Chatham House,Freedo

119、m House,German Institute for International and Security Affairs,Institute of International and European Affairs,Japan External Trade Organization(JETRO)Institute of Developing Economies,JICA Ogata Research Institute,Migration Policy Institute,and National Council of Research of Italy.The team also b

120、enefited from inputs from a number of civil society organizations,including ActionAid Bangladesh;Adventist Development and Relief Agency;Agency for Migration and Adaptation;Ain O Salish Kendra;Aligarh Muslim University;All for Integral Development;Alliance for Peacebuilding;American University of Be

121、irut;AMIGA z.s.;Angels Refugee Support Foundation;Arab Renaissance for Democracy and Development;Asia Displacement Solutions Platform;Association of Rehabilitation Nurses;Bangladesh Nari Sramik Kendra;Bangladeshi Ovhibashi Mohila Sramik Association;Basmeh and Zeitooneh;Bill&Melinda Gates Foundation;

122、Bond;Bordeaux-Montaigne University;BRAC;British International Investments;Business Fights Poverty;CARE International;CARE International Jordan;CARE International UK;Catholic Agency for Overseas Development;Catholic Relief Services;Center for Disaster Philanthropy;Center for Global Development;Center

123、 for Intercultural Dialogue;Center for Peace and Advocacy;Centre for Policy Development;Centre for Policy Dialogue;Church World Service;CLEAR Global;Columbia Global Centers;Congolese Banyamulenge community;Cordaid International;Cultuur in Harmonie;Danish Refugee Council;Delegation of the European Un

124、ion to Bangladesh;Dilla University;Durrat AlManal for Development and Training;Economic,Social and Environmental Council;Embassy of Denmark;Encuentros SJM;European External Action Service;Films 4 Peace Foundation;Fondazione Compagnia di San Paolo;Food for the Hungry;Foreign,Commonwealth and Developm

125、ent Office,UK;German Centre for Integration and Migration Research;Global Campaign for Equal Nationality Rights;Global Recordings Network USA;Global Research Forum on Diaspora and Transnationalism;Good Neighbors;GRACE;Grassroot Leadership Organizations;Grupo Equilibrium;Guilford College;HasNa;Hebrew

126、 Immigrant Aid Society;Helvetas International;Hope of Children and Women Victims of Violence;Hungarian Migrant Womens Association(she4she);IHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation;ILO;Independent Living Institute;Institute for Government;Institute of International and European Affairs;InterAction;Internal

127、 Displacement Monitoring Centre;International Centre for Migration Policy Development;International Committee of the Red Cross;International Council of Voluntary Agencies;International Independent Hockey League;International Institute for Strategic Studies;INTERSOS;IOM;Islamic Relief USA;Islamic Rel

128、ief Worldwide;ITASTRA;Jeronimo Martins;Jesuit Refugee Service;Jordanian Hashemite Fund for Human Development;Justus Liebig University Giessen;Kakuma Vocational Center;Kids in Need of Defense;Kivu Kwetu Dveloppement;Living Water Community;Lutheran World Federation;Manusher Jonno Foundation;McGill Uni

129、versity;Medecins du Monde Japon;MedGlobal;Me For You Organization;Mercy Corps;Mercy Corps Jordan;Middle East and North Africa Civil Society Network for Displacement;MiGreat;MISEREOR;Moltivolti;National Agency for the Promotion of Employment and Competencies;National Human Rights Council of Morocco;N

130、etherlands Refugee Foundation;Newcomers with Disabilities in Sweden;New School for Social Research;New Sorbonne University;New York University;Norwegian Refugee Council;Norwegian Refugee Council Jordan;Norwegian Refugee Council USA;Norwegian University of Science and Technology;Ocasiven;OECD;Osun Ri

131、se Regenerative Experiences;Overseas Development Institute;Ovibashi Karmi Unnayan Program;Oxfam IBIS;Oxfam International;Oxfam Jordan;Oxfam Novib;Oxfam UK;Pan American Development Foundation;Pasos Firmes;Permanent Mission of the Republic of Kenya to the United Nations;Permanent Representation of the

132、 Kingdom of the Netherlands to the European Union;Plan International;Plan International Jordan;Policy Center for the New South;RA Studio;Refugee and Migratory Movements Research Unit;Refugee Company;Refugee Consortium of Kenya;Refugee Council;Refugee Integration via Internet-Based Revitalization of

133、Rural Europe;Refugee xx|ACKNOWLEDGMENTSACKNOWLEDGMENTS|xxiInvestment Fund;Refugee Investment Network;Refugee Self-Reliance Initiative;Refugees International;Regional Durable Solutions Secretariat;Relief International;RW Welfare Society;Samuel Hall;Save the Children;Sawiyan;SEEK Feminist Research Net

134、work;SEP Jordan;17 Ventures;Soccer Without Borders Uganda;Society for Human Rights and Prisoners Aid-Pakistan;Solidarity Center;Souq Fann;Stand for the Refugee Africa SRA;Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation;Syria Justice and Accountability Centre;Tamkeen;Tent Partnership for Refugees;UMI;UN

135、HCR;UNHCR Global Youth Advisory Council;UNHCR Representation in the Netherlands;United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime;United Nations Resident Coordinator Office;United Nations Women;United States Refugee Advisory Board;University of Oxford;University of Virginia;WARBE Development Foundation;War C

136、hild Canada;Wilton Park;Winrock International;Womens Refugee Commission;World Bank Group Geneva;World Refugee and Migration Council;World Vision;World Vision International;Youth Cooperation for Ideas;and Youth Up Foundation.The team extends special thanks to the many migrant-and refugee-led organiza

137、tions it consulted,allowing the team to ensure that the voices of migrants and refugees were heard.They included the Afghan Refugees Solidarity Association,Africa Refugee-Led Network RELON,ARCI Porco Rosso,Asylum Access,ChangeMakers Resettlement Forum,Darfur Refugees Association in Uganda,European C

138、oalition of Migrants and Refugees,Global Refugee-Led Network,Hope for Refugees in Action,International Rescue Committee,Irish Refugee Advisory Board,Mediterranean Hope,Migrants Rights Network,Mosaico,New Women Connectors,Organization for Childrens Harmony,People for Peace and Defense of Rights,PLACE

139、 Network,Plethora Social Initiative,PPDR Uganda,Refugee Advisory Group,Refugee Advisory Network of Canada,Refugee-Led Organization Network(RELON)Uganda,SITTI Soap,Umoja Refugee,and Youth Social Advocacy Team.In addition,the team consulted academics,including Tendayi Achiume(University of California,

140、Los Angeles),T.Alexander Aleinikoff(The New School),Mustapha Azaitraoui(University of Sultan Moulay Slimane,Beni Mellal,Faculty of Khouribga),Massimo Livi Bacci(University of Florence),Kaushik Basu(Cornell University),Bernd Beber(WZB),Irene Bloemraad(University of California,Berkeley),Chad Bown(Pete

141、rson Institute for International Economics),Nancy Chau(Cornell University),Huiyi Chen(Cornell University),Vincent Chetail(Geneva Graduate Institute),Cathryn Costello(Hertie School),Jishnu Das(Georgetown University),Glen Denning(Columbia University),Shanta Devarajan(Georgetown University),Jasmin Diab

142、(Lebanese American University),Mamadou Diouf(Columbia University),Angel A.Escamilla Garca(Cornell University),Victoria Esses(University of Western Ontario),Ama R.Francis(Columbia University),Feline Freier(Universidad del Pacfico,Peru),Filiz Garip(Princeton University),Shannon Gleeson(Cornell Univers

143、ity),Guy Grossman(University of Pennsylvania),Yuki Higuchi(Sophia University),Walter Klin(member,Expert Advisory Group for the United Nations Secretary-Generals High-Level Panel on Internal Displacement and University of Bern),Ravi Kanbur(Cornell University),Neeraj Kaushal(Columbia University),Will

144、Kymlicka(Queens University),Jane McAdam(University of New South Wales,Sydney),Gustavo Meireles(Kanda University of International Studies),Pierluigi Montalbano(La Sapienza University),Yuko Nakano(University of Tsukuba),Daniel Naujoks(Columbia University),Izumi Ohno(National Graduate Institute for Pol

145、icy Studies),Obiora Chinedu Okafor(Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies),Brian Park(Cornell University),Eleanor Paynter(Cornell University),Paolo Pinotti(Bocconi University),Adam Posen(Peterson Institute for International Economics),Furio Rosati(University of Tor Vergata

146、),Yasuyuki Sawada(University of Tokyo),Alexandra Scacco(WZB),Mai Seki(Ritsumeikan University),Akira Shibanuma(University of Tokyo),Dana Smith(Cornell University),Aya Suzuki(University of Tokyo),Jan Svejnar(Columbia University),Saburo Takizawa(Touyo Eiwa University),Joel Trachtman(Tufts University,Fl

147、etcher School of Law and Diplomacy),Carlos Vargas-Silva(University of Oxford),Nicolas Veron(Peterson Institute for International Economics),Tatsufumi Yamagata(Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University),Keiichi Yamazaki(Yokohama National University),and Yang-Yang Zhou(University of British Columbia).The ba

148、ckground papers,along with stakeholder engagement and dissemination activi-ties,were generously supported by the Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Forced Displacement.Finally,the team apologizes to any individuals or organizations inadvertently omitted from this list.It is grateful for the help received fr

149、om all who contributed to this Report,including those whose names may not appear here.Team members would also like to thank their families for their support throughout the preparation of this Report.xxii|ACKNOWLEDGMENTSxxiiiKey takeaways This Report provides a comprehensive analysis of international

150、 migration and its potential to serve as a force for growth and shared prosperity in all countries.It focuses on people who lack citizenship in the country in which they live:about 184 million people across the world,including 37 million refugees.About 43 percent of them live in low-and middle-incom

151、e countries.Migrants are sometimes defined as“foreign-born.”This Report takes a different view because people who have been naturalized enjoy the same rights as all other citizens.Rapid demographic change is making migration increasingly necessary for countries at all income levels.High-income count

152、ries are aging fast.So are middle-income countries,which are growing older before they become rich.The population of low-income countries is booming,but young people are entering the workforce without the skills needed in the global labor market.These trends will spark a global competition for worke

153、rs.This Report presents a powerful framework to guide policy making based on how well migrants skills and related attributes match the needs of destination countries and on the motive for their movement.The match determines the extent to which migrants,countries of origin,and countries of destinatio

154、n gain from migration.The motive may create international law obligations for the destination country:people who move because of a“well-founded fear”of harm or persecution at homerefugees,by definitionare entitled to international protection.The match and motive framework enables policy makers to re

155、spond appropriately,and the Report identifies the policies needed.When the match of migrants is strong,the gains are large for themselves and for countries of origin and destination.This is the case for the vast majority of migrants,whether high-or low-skilled,regular or irregular.The policy objecti

156、ve should be to maximize gains for all.For refugees,when the match is weak,the costs need to be sharedand reducedmultilaterally.Refugee situations can last for years.The policy objective should be to lower the hosting costs while maintaining adequate standards of international protection.When the ma

157、tch is weak and people are not refugees,difficult policy challenges arise,especially when migrants are in irregular and distressed circumstances.It is the prerogative of destination countries to regulate entry of these migrants,but deportation and refusal of entry can lead to inhumane treatment.The

158、restrictive policies adopted by destination countries can also impose costs on some transit countries.The policy goal should be to reduce the need for distressed migrationand development can play a critical role.Origin countries should actively manage migration for development.They should make labor

159、 migration an explicit part of their development strategy.They should lower remittance costs,facilitate knowledge transfers from their diaspora,build skills in high demand globally,mitigate the adverse effects of“brain drain,”protect their nationals while abroad,and support them upon return.Destinat

160、ion countries can also manage migration more strategically.They should use“strong match”migration to meet their labor needs,facilitating migrants inclusion while addressing social impacts that raise concerns among their citizens.They should let refugees move,get jobs,and access national services whe

161、rever they are available.And they should also reduce distressed,high-risk movements in a humane manner.International cooperation is essential to turn migration into a strong force for development.Bilateral cooperation can strengthen migrants match with destination countries needs.Multilateral effort

162、s are needed to share the costs of refugee-hosting and to address distressed migration.New financing instruments should be developed to help countries care for noncitizens in a predictable manner.Voices that are underrepresented in the migration debate must be heard,including developing countries,th

163、e private sector and other stakeholders,and migrants and refugees themselves.xxiv|KEY TAKEAWAYSxxvGlossaryThis list provides general descriptions,not precise legal definitions,of the terms commonly used in this Report.However,the descriptions include legal and policy elements relevant to how these t

164、erms are understood and applied in practice.asylum or refugee status A legal status arising from judicial or administrative proceedings that a country grants to a refugee in its territory.This status confers on refugees international refugee protection by preventing their return(in line with the pri

165、nciple of non-refoulement),regularizing their stay in the territory,and providing them with certain rights while there.asylum-seeker A person outside of their home country who is seeking asylum.For statistical purposes,it is a person who has submitted their application forasylum but has not yet rece

166、ived a final plementary(international)protection Forms of international protection provided by countries or regions to people who are not refugees,but who still may need international protection.Countries use various legal and policy mechanisms to regularize the entry or stay of such individuals or

167、prevent their return(in line with the principle of non-refoulement).co-national A person who holds the same citizenship as another person.destination country/society The country or society to which a migrant moves.diaspora The population of a given country that is scattered across countries or regio

168、ns that are separate from its geographic place of origin.distressed migrant A migrant who moves to another country under distressed circumstances but who does not meet the applicable criteria for refugee status.Their movements are often irregular and unsafe.economic migrant A migrant who crosses an

169、international border motivated not by persecution or possible serious harm or death,but for other reasons,such as to improve living conditions by working or reuniting with family abroad.This term encompasses labor migrants or migrant workers,who move primarily to work in another country.emigrant A p

170、erson who leaves their country of habitual residence to reside in another country.This term is used from the perspective of the persons country of origin.host country/society The country or society to which a refugee moves,either temporarily or permanently.immigrant A person who moves to a country t

171、o establish habitual residence.This term is used from the perspective of the persons destination country.internally displaced persons(IDPs)People who have been displaced within a states borders to avoid persecution,serious harm,or death,including through armed conflict,situations of generalized viol

172、ence,violations of human rights,or natural or humanmade disasters.international protection Legal protection granted by countries to refugees or other displaced people in their territory who cannot return to their home countries because they would be at risk there and because their home countries are

173、 unable or unwilling to protect them.International protection takes the form of a legal status that,at a minimum,prevents their return(in line with the principle of non-refoulement)and regularizes their stay in the territory.irregular migrant A migrant who is not legally authorized to enter or stay

174、in a given country(also called an undocumented migrant).migrant In this Report,those who change their country of habitual residence and who are not citizens of their country of residence.Such changes of country exclude short-term movement for purposes such as recreation,business,medical treatment,or

175、 religious pilgrimage.naturalized citizen A migrant who has obtained citizenship in their country of destination.nonnational A person who does not hold the citizenship of the country in which that person resides.non-refoulement The legal principle prohibiting countries from returning people to place

176、s where they may be at risk of persecution,torture,or other serious harm.origin country/society The country or society from which a migrant or refugee moves.refugee A person who has been granted international protection by a country of asylum because of feared persecution,armed conflict,violence,or

177、serious public disorder in their origin country.The international protection granted by countries to refugees takes the form of a distinct legal status(see asylum or refugee status)preventing their return(in line with the principle of non-refoulement),regularizing their stay in the territory,and pro

178、viding them with certain rights while there,under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol or other international,regional,or national legal instruments.regular migrant A migrant who is legally authorized to enter or stay in a given country.stateless person A pers

179、on who is not a citizen of any country.transit country A country that a migrant transits through to reach their destination country.xxvi|GLOSSARYxxviiAbbreviationsAPTC Australia Pacific Training CoalitionASEAN Association of Southeast Asian NationsBAMF Bundesamt fr Migration und Flchtlinge(Federal O

180、ffice for Migration and Refugees,Germany)BLA bilateral labor agreementBoP balance of paymentsCARICOM Caribbean Community COVID-19 coronavirus disease 2019CSME Caribbean Community(CARICOM)Single Market and EconomyDAC Development Assistance Committee(OECD)ECOWAS Economic Community of West African Stat

181、esEGRISS Expert Group on Refugee,IDP and Statelessness Statistics(formerly EGRIS,Expert Group on Refugee and Internally Displaced Persons Statistics)ETPV Estatuto Temporal de Proteccin para Migrantes Venezolanos(Temporary Protection Status for Venezuelan Migrants,Colombia)EU European UnionFDI foreig

182、n direct investmentGBV gender-based violenceGCC Gulf Cooperation CouncilGCR Global Compact on Refugees GDP gross domestic productGSP Global Skills PartnershipG20 Group of TwentyIASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee IDA International Development AssociationIDMC Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre

183、IDP internally displaced personIGAD Intergovernmental Authority on DevelopmentILO International Labour Organization IMF International Monetary FundJDC Joint Data Center on Forced DisplacementKNOMAD Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Developmentxxviii|ABBREVIATIONSLGBTQ+lesbian,gay,bisexua

184、l,transgender,queer/questioning,plus(others)MTO money transfer operatorNGO nongovernmental organizationODA official development assistanceOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPPP purchasing power parityRPRF Refugee Policy Review FrameworkRPW Remittance Prices WorldwideSAR speci

185、al administrative regionSDG Sustainable Development Goal STEM science,technology,engineering,and mathematicsTMF Tarjeta de Movilidad Fronteriza(Border Mobility Card,Colombia)UN United NationsUN DESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for R

186、efugees UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East WAEMU West African Economic and Monetary UnionWDI World Development IndicatorsWDR World Development ReportWHR Window for Host Communities and Refugees(IDA)1OverviewMigration has been part of the human experi

187、ence since the earliest days of civilization.Homo sapiens left Africas Omo Valley some 200,000 years ago,and since then humans have never ceased to move,producing distinct cultures,languages,and ethnicities.1 Migration has proved to be a powerful force for development,improving the lives of hundreds

188、 of millions of migrants,their families,and the societies in which they live across the world.But there are challenges as wellfor migrants,their countries of origin,and their countries of destination.This Report defi nes migrants as people who live outside their country of nationality(box O.1)whethe

189、r they moved in search of better economic opportunities or were displaced by confl ict or persecution(ref-ugees).It does not consider as migrants people who have been naturalized in their country of residence.It is the lack of citizenshipand of the associated civil,political,and economic rightsthat

190、creates dis-tinct challenges for migrants and policy makers,not the fact that people moved at some point in their life.The Report proposes a framework to best manage the economic,societal,and human impacts of migration.Combining insights from labor economics and international law,it looks at the deg

191、ree to which migrants skills and attributes are in demand at their destination(match)and whether they seek opportunities or fear for their lives in their country of origin(motive).It distinguishes between four diff erent types of movements and identifi es priority policies and interventions to fully

192、 realize the devel-opment benefi ts in all situations.To make change happen,international cooperation is criticaland so is empowering new voices that can change the nature and tone of the current debates.Box O.1How many migrants are there,and where do they live?Todays cross-border movements are char

193、acterized by their diversity:there is no typical migrant or typical origin or destination country.Migrants diff er by their reasons to move,their skills and demographic char-acteristics,their legal statuses,and their circumstances and prospects.There are countries of origin and countries of destinat

194、ion at all levels of income,and,in fact,many countries are simultaneously both origin and destination,such as Mexico,Nigeria,and the United Kingdom.As defi ned in this Report,there are globally about 184 million migrants(about 2.3 percent of the worlds population)37 million of them refugees:About 40

195、 percent(64 million economic migrants and 10 million refugees)live in high-income countries that belong to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD).a These are high-and low-skilled workers and their families,people with an intent to settle,temporary migrants,students,as well

196、as undocumented migrants and people seeking international protection.This number includes 11 million European Union(EU)citizens living in other EU countries with extensive residency rights.(Box continues next page)2|WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023Migration is necessary for all countriesMigration is a

197、response to shocks and global imbalances,such as the massive gaps in income and well-being across countries.Economic migration is driven by prospects of higher wages and access to better services.2 In 2020,about 84 percent of migrants lived in a country that was wealthier than their own.Yet moving h

198、as costs that most poor people cannot afford.Largely from middle-income countries,most migrants are not among the poorest or the wealthiest in their country of origin.Demographic changes have sparked an intensifying global competition for workers and talent.Consider three countries.Italy,with a popu

199、lation of 59 million,is projected to shrink by almost half,to 32 million,by 2100,with those above age 65 increasing from 24 to 38 percent of the population.Mexico,traditionally an emigration country,has seen its fertility rate drop to barely replacement level.Nigeria,by contrast,is expected to expan

200、d its population from 213 million to 791 million,becoming the second-most populous country in the world,after India,by the end of the century(figure O.1).Such trends are already having profound impacts,changing where workers are needed and where they can be found.3 Regardless of politics,wealthy cou

201、ntries will need foreign workers to sustain their economies and honor their social commitments to older citizens.Many middle-income countries,tra-ditionally the main sources of migration,will soon need to compete for foreign workersand many are not ready to do so.Low-income countries have large numb

202、ers of unemployed and underemployed young people,but many of them do not yet have skills in demand in the global labor market.4 Climate change is compounding the economic drivers of migration.5 About 40 percent of the worlds population3.5 billion peoplelive in places highly exposed to the impacts of

203、 climate change:water shortages,drought,heat stresses,sea level rise,and extreme events such as floods and tropical cyclones.6 Economic opportunities are dwindling in affected regions,amplifying vulnerabilities and fueling pressures for migration.7 Climate impacts are threatening the habitability of

204、 entire regions in places as diverse as the Sahel,low-lying Bangladesh,and the Mekong Delta.8 In some Small Island Developing States,these impacts are forcing leaders to contemplate planned relocations.9 Most of the movements attributed to climate change have so far been over short distances,mainly

205、within a Box O.1How many migrants are there,and where do they live?(continued)About 17 percent(31 million economic migrants)live in Gulf Cooperation Council(GCC)countries.Nearly all of them are temporary workers with renewable work visas.They represent,on average,about half of the population across

206、GCC countries.About 43 percent(52 million economic migrants and 27 million refugees)live in low-and middle-income countries.b They moved primarily for jobs or family reunification or to seek international protection.The share of migrants in the global population has remained relatively stable since

207、1960.However,this apparent stability is misleading because demographic growth has been uneven across the world.Global migration increased more than three times faster than population growth in high-income countries and only half as fast as population growth in low-income countries.Source:WDR2023 Mig

208、ration Database,World Bank,Washington,DC,https:/www.worldbank.org/wdr2023/data.a.This estimate does not include approximately 61 million foreign-born naturalized citizens.b.This estimate does not include approximately 31 million foreign-born naturalized citizens.OVERVIEW|3country.10 But this may cha

209、nge.Whether and how much climate change will amplify international movements in the coming decades depend on the global and national policies for mitigation and adap-tation adopted and implemented now.Meanwhile,conflict,violence,and persecution continue to drive large numbers of people out of their

210、home countries.The number of refugees has more than doubled over the last decade.11 Figure O.1Widely different demographic forces are at play in Italy,Mexico,and NigeriaSource:2022 data(medium scenario):World Population Prospects(dashboard),Population Division,Department of Economic and Social Affai

211、rs,United Nations,New York,https:/population.un.org/wpp/.044404450546064707480849094100+Age(years)06Population(millions)202206Population(millions)123456Population(millions)2050044404450546064707480849094100+Age(years)0123123Population(millions)1

212、9500123123Population(millions)2022a.Italys population is aging,inverting its demographic pyramidb.In Mexico,aging and fertility have already begun to declinea decline expected to accelerate over the next three decadesc.Nigeria will remain young well through the middle of the century0123123Population

213、(millions)2050044404450546064707480849094100+Age(years)2020Population(millions)05101520Population(millions)20222020Population(millions)2050MalesFemalesb.In Mexico,the demographic transition is well under way and is expected to accelerate4|WORLD DEVELOPMENT

214、 REPORT 2023Forced displacement and economic migration patterns are largely distinct.Refugee movements are often sudden and rapid.12 Because refugees aim for the closest safe destination,they are concentrated in a small number of neighboring host countries.Refugees also include large numbers of vuln

215、erable peoplechildren account for 41 percent of the total.13 In the face of such forces,migration needs to be managed so that its development benefits can fully materialize.Current approaches often fail both migrants and nationals.They create large inefficien-cies and missed opportunities in both de

216、stination and origin countries.14 At times,they lead to human suffering.In many countries at all income levels,broad segments of society are challenging migration as part of a broader discourse against globalization.15 A practical framework for policy makers:The Match and Motive MatrixMigration enta

217、ils both benefits and costsfor the migrants,the origin countries,and the destination countries.For all,favorable outcomes depend on migrants individual characteristics,the circumstances of their move,and the policies they face.Yet countries have unequal roles in setting such policies.Most ori-gin co

218、untries have little sway in regulating movements.By contrast,destination countries define and reg-ulate who crosses their borders,who is legally allowed to stay,and with what rights.They encourage some movements and discourage others.Their policies largely shape the impacts of cross-border movements

219、.16Labor economics and international law provide the two main lenses to understand migration patterns and to design the appropriate migration policies.These two perspectives arise from distinct intellectual and scholarly traditions,and they focus on different aspects of cross-border movements.As a r

220、esult,each provides important insights,and yet until now there has been no simple framework to integrate them into a coherent whole.Labor economics focuses on the“match”between migrants skills and related attributes and desti-nation countries needs(figure O.2,panel a).The starting point for migratio

221、n policies in many destina-tion countries is a simple question:Does migration yield benefits that exceed the costs?Migrants bring skills for which there are different levels of demand.The more migrants skills match the needs of the destination labor market,the larger are the gains for the destinatio

222、n economies and the migrants them-selvesand often for the origin countries as well(through remittances and knowledge transfers).17 This applies regardless of skills level and legal status.But migrants also use public services,and they must be integrated into a society that can be unfamiliar.Both inv

223、olve costs,at least in the short term.The net gains can thus be either positive or negative.Under international law,migrants motives determine destination countries obligations.Countries decide which migrants to let in and under what status as a matter of state sovereignty(figure O.2,panel b).Yet wh

224、en people flee their country because of a“well-founded fear”of persecution,conflict,or violenceand when they cannot return without risking harmthey are entitled to international protection under the 1951 Refugee Convention,and the cost-benefit calculations by destination countries no longer apply.Un

225、der international law,these people are refugees,and they are not to be returned to their country of origin regardless of the cost of hosting them.18 There are other migrants who require special support because they face daunting challenges,such as some women and children(especially girls),LGBTQ+peop

226、le,and victims of racism,xenophobia,and other forms of discrimination.In fact,some people move for a combination of reasons,blurring the strict distinction between refugees and economic migrants.The need for international protection provides a second lens through which migration policies should be v

227、iewed as they are designed.OVERVIEW|5This Report offers an analytical framework that incorporates both dimensionsmatch as well as motive.It distinguishes between four types of movements,and it identifies policy priorities for each situation(figure O.3):19 Economic migrants with a strong match(upper-

228、left quadrant).Most migrants move in search of better opportunities and choose destinations where they are likely to be a strong match.20 Their movement generates substantial development benefits for the migrants,the destination coun-try,as well as the country of origin,regardless of their legal sta

229、tus.There are costs as well,but they are typically smaller.For such movements,the interests of all parties are generally aligned.The policy goal should be to further increase the benefits and to reduce the costs.Figure O.2Two perspectives on cross-border migrationSource:WDR 2023 team.Note:Panel a:Ma

230、tch refers to the degree to which a migrants skills and related attributes meet the demand in the destina-tion country.Benefits include greater economic output,a larger tax base,and a greater availability and affordability of some goods and services.Costs include greater demand for public services,e

231、ffects on competing workers,as well as the costs of economic and social integration.Panel b:Motive refers to the circumstances under which a person moveswhether in search of opportunity or because of a“well-founded fear”of persecution,armed conflict,or violence in their origin country.Under the 1951

232、 Refugee Convention,those who have such fear are entitled to a refugee status and shall be provided with international protection.They cannot be returned to their country of origin or to a country where they would face inhuman or degrading treatment or other irreparable harm(non-refoulement principl

233、e).Benefits exceed costsCosts exceed benefitsStrongermatchMATCHWeakermatcha.Labor economics:When migrants skills and attributes are a strong match,laborcontributions exceed integration costsLabor contributionis larger than integration costsLabor contributionis smaller than integration costsb.Interna

234、tional law:If migrants fear harmin their country of origin,destinationcountries are obligated to host themDestination countries:Choose whetherto accept migrantsDestination countries:Obligatedto host refugeesOpportunityat destinationFear at originMOTIVEMigrants:Low need forinternationalprotectionRefu

235、gees:High need for international protection6|WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023 Refugees with a strong match(upper-right quadrant).Some refugees have skills and attributes that match the destination countrys needs,even though they are moving out of fear and not to seek opportunities.Their movement brings

236、 to the destination society the same development benefits as those brought by voluntary migrants.The policy goal should be to further increase net gains.Refugees with a weak match(lower-right quadrant).Many refugees bring skills and attributes that are a weak match with the needs of the destination

237、society.They choose their destination based on their immediate need for safety,not labor market considerations.Yet under international law they must be accommodated,regardless of the costs.The policy goal for the destination country should be to reduce these costs and to share them internationally.D

238、istressed migrants(lower-left quadrant).Other migrants neither qualify as refugees nor are a strong match at their destination.Their aggregate numbers are not large,but their movements are often irregular and unsafe,raising significant challenges for destination countries.The term distressed migrant

239、s,as they are called in this Report,is an acknowledgment of the circumstances Figure O.3“Match”determines the net gains of receiving migrants;“motive”determines their international protection needsSource:WDR 2023 team.Note:Match refers to the degree to which a migrants skills and related attributes

240、meet the demand in the destination country.Motive refers to the circumstances under which a person moveswhether in search of opportunity or because of a“well-founded fear”of persecution,armed conflict,or violence in their origin country.Many economicmigrantsRefugees withskills in demandat destinatio

241、nDistressed migrants,mainly irregularMany refugeesStrongermatchMATCHWeakermatchOpportunityat destinationFear at originMOTIVEBenefits exceed costsCosts exceed benefitsChoice whetherto acceptObligation to hostSyrianentrepreneurrefugees inTrkiyeBangladeshiworkers in theUnited ArabEmiratesUndocumentedAl

242、banian migrantcaring for an elderly Italian person Indian engineersin Silicon ValleySome poorly skilled migrants at the USsouthern borderRohingya(Forcibly Displaced Myanmar Nationals),who are not allowed to work in BangladeshUnaccompaniedrefugee minors inEthiopiaOVERVIEW|7under which they move,not a

243、 normative category.Some of these distressed migrants,while not refugees,may still have protection needs on humanitarian grounds or other wise.Others may be returned to the country of originbut they must be treated humanely.Where migrants stand in the Match and Motive Matrix is determined in part by

244、 destination countries policies.For example,the match of a migrants skills and attributes with the needs of the destination country depends on whether that migrant has the right to work at the level of his or her qualifications.The match can evolve over time,based on changing labor needs,economic re

245、gulations,and social norms in the destination country.Similarly,the determination of who should receive international protection varies significantly across countries within the broader parameters of international law.Ultimately,government policies should aim to both maximize the development gains o

246、f migra-tionfor the migrants,origin societies,and destination societiesand provide refugees with ade-quate international protection.Over time,policies should aim to strengthen the match of all migrants skills and attributes with the needs of the destination societies so that the benefits can be furt

247、her increased.They should also aim to reduce the need for distressed movements,which often entail considerable suffering.When the match is strong,the gains are large When migrants bring skills and attributes in demand in the destination country,the benefits typi-cally outweigh the costs,regardless o

248、f motives,skill levels,or legal status.These migrants fill gaps in the destination labor market,with benefits for the destination economy,as well as for themselves and their origin country.There are costs as well,both social and economic,but they typically are much smaller than the benefits.Both des

249、tination and origin countries can design and implement policies that further increase the gains and address the downsides(figure O.4).Destination countries should not let social and cultural controversies overshadow the economic gains of migrationMigrants can contribute much to the destination econo

250、mys efficiency and growth,especially over the long term.Low-skilled migrants perform many jobs that locals are unwilling to take,or for which they would ask wages above what consumers are willing to pay.21 High-skilled migrantsnurses,engineers,scientistsimprove productivity across many sectors of an

251、 economy,although only four countriesAustralia,Canada,the United Kingdom,and the United Statesaccount for over half of all tertiary-educated immigrants.22 About 17 percent of health care workers in the United States,12 percent in the United Kingdom,and 79 percent in the Gulf Cooperation Council(GCC)

252、countries are foreign-born.23 Consumers benefit from lower production costs and the lower prices of some goods and services.24 The long-term benefits of immigration include increased entrepreneurship and innovation,stronger links for international trade and investment,and better provision of service

253、s such as education and health care.25 Migrants contributions are larger when they are allowed and able to work formally at the level of their qualifications and experience.In many countries,however,the controversy is not about economics;it is about the social and cul-tural impacts of migration.When

254、 migrants stay for an extended period of timeor permanentlythe question of their integration becomes central.Sociocultural impacts are a function of the size of the migrant group,its origin,its socioeconomic standing,as well as the perceptions of citizens toward migrantsand sometimes their racial pr

255、ejudices.26 Sociocultural impacts are also a function of each 8|WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023countrys sense of identity and social contract.27 Some countries,such as Canada,define themselves as societies shaped by migrants and their descendants,28 while others,such as Japan,emphasize their ancient r

256、oots.29 This debate plays out in a context in which societies and cultures are neither homogeneous nor static.There is no“pre-migration”harmony to return to.In every society,tensions,competition,and cooperation have always existed across a variety of groups that are partly overlapping and constantly

257、 changing.Some of these tensions reflect socioeconomic divides:they are not about migration but about poverty and economic opportunityand large numbers of migrants happen to be poor.Because many of those who moved or their descendants have been naturalized,some of the cultural issues attributed to m

258、igration are,in fact,about the inclusion of national minorities.Migration is also just one of many forces transforming societies in an age of rapid change,alongside modernization,secularization,tech-nological progress,shifts in gender roles and family structures,and the emergence of new norms and va

259、lues,among other trends.Integration happens eventually,and it is facilitated by economic inclusion and nondiscrimination policies.Figure O.4When the match is strong,policies in both destination and origin countries can maximize the gains of migrationSource:WDR 2023 team.Note:Match refers to the degr

260、ee to which a migrants skills and related attributes meet the demand in the destination country.Motive refers to the circumstances under which a person moveswhether in search of opportunity or because of a“well-founded fear”of persecution,armed conflict,or violence in their origin country.Many econo

261、mic migrants Maximize gains for allRefugees with skills in demand at destinationMaximize gains for all Distressed migrants,mainly irregularReduce need for movements,absorb,or return humanelyMany refugeesEnsure sustainability,share costsStrongermatchMATCHWeakermatchOpportunityat destinationFear at or

262、iginMOTIVEAT ORIGIN:Facilitate remittances and knowledge transfers,build skills and mitigate brain drain,protect nationals while abroadAT DESTINATION:Provide rights and access to labormarket for migrants,facilitateinclusion,attract skills in demand,support affected nationals OVERVIEW|9Destination co

263、untries should actively address the actual downsides of migration.The more closely migrants skills and attributes match the needs of the destination labor market,the smaller are their effects on nationals wages.Yet even if the average effects are limited,some workersthose whose skills are similar to

264、 migrantsmay lose wages or even jobs,and they need support.30 When a destination country must accommodate large numbers of foreign children,especially if they are not fluent in the local language,additional resources are needed to maintain the quality of education.31 Public invest-ment should be inc

265、reased in neighborhoods where migrants live to reduce poverty and discrimination that otherwise can lead to residential segregation and a range of social ills as experienced in France or Sweden.32 In most countries,migration increases fiscal revenue by expanding the tax-paying workforce,thereby crea

266、ting space for the necessary spending.33 Most migrants benefit greatlyeven more so when they have rights in their destination countryMost economic migrantsboth low-and high-skilledfare much better in destination countries than if they had stayed in their origin country.Because migrants aim to maximi

267、ze the benefits of their move-ment,they deliberately choose destinations where their skills are in demand.They find opportunities they would not have had in their country of origin,earn higher wages,and often access better services.These gains increase substantially over time,especially if the desti

268、nation economy is growing and its labor market functions well.Those who return to their country of originabout 2050 percent of the total in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD)high-income countriesare better off than before their departure.34Migrants face challenges as well.T

269、he financial costs of moving are very high in some situations,and migrants have to work years to repay them.35 Tens of millions of migrants are separated from their families,and many are at risk of social isolation in unfamiliar settings.36 The absence of parents raises challenges at homesuch as for

270、 childrens educationwith potential long-term consequences.37The benefits of migration are larger when migrants have a legal status and formal employment rights in line with international labor standards.Examples are the right to decent work,to fair recruitment,38 and to an ability to change employer

271、s when new opportunities arise.39 Once they have such rights,migrants wages and the quality of their jobs converge with those of nationals much faster than if they are undocumented,and they face less pressure to take on lower-skilled and lower-paying jobs than their skills warrant.40 They can travel

272、 more easily,and,as a result,they can better maintain connections with family members in their country of origin.They are also less vulnerable to abuse and discrimination.By contrast,in destinations where legal protection is inadequate,or where migrants cannot access it because of information and la

273、nguage barriers,they are at increased risk of exploitation.41 Origin countries should actively manage migration for its development benefitsIn origin countries,emigration can support poverty reduction and developmentespecially if it is well managed.42 Remittances are a stable source of income for mi

274、grants families,supporting invest-ments in childrens education,health care,housing,and entrepreneurial activities.These benefits could be amplified by lowering the costs of sending remittances.43 In many cases,migrants,return-ees,and diaspora communities transfer ideas,knowledge,and technology,spurr

275、ing job creation and modernizationjust as US Silicon Valley expatriates did when they helped nurture Indias informa-tion technology sector.44 This process is easier when the origin country has sound economic policies 10|WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023that foster a favorable business climate,efficient

276、labor market policies,solid institutions,and business ecosystems into which entrepreneurs can tap.High-skilled emigration from low-income countriesthe so-called brain draincan inflict losses and create development challenges.In Sub-Saharan Africa,the Caribbean,and the Pacific,people with a tertiary

277、education are 30 times more likely to emigrate than those who are less educated.45 This emi-gration can aggravate a shortage of skilled workers to provide essential services,such as health care.Because governments cannot prevent people from leaving,they need to expand the training capacity for such

278、skills.This effort could be supported through coordination with destination countries,including to finance higher education and training programs.46 In essential sectors such as health care,additional measures may be necessary,such as minimum service requirements enforced through bilateral labor agr

279、eements with destination countries.47 Parallel economic and social reforms are needed to ensure that skilled workers have attractive prospects and can be employed at their full capacity in their origin countries.Origin countries benefit most from labor migration when they make it an explicit part of

280、 their pov-erty reduction strategy.Governments can facilitate orderly movements through labor agreements with destination countries,improved labor market information systems,fair recruitment processes,and con-sular support to citizens abroad.They can also work to reduce remittance and migration cost

281、s and sup-port returning migrants as they reenter the labor market and society.They can adjust education systems to build the low and high skills in demand globally so that their citizens can obtain better jobs if they migrate and thus contribute more through remittances and knowledge transfers.Such

282、 initiatives have proved fruitful in several countries such as Bangladesh and the Philippines,although much remains to be done.48When the match is weak,the costs need to be shared and reducedmultilaterallyWhen migrants do not bring skills and attributes in demand at their destination,the costs to de

283、stination countries exceed the benefits.If there are gains for migrants and origin countries,these gains are not sustainable unless destination countries take action to reduce and manage their own costs(figure O.5).The policy challenges are different for refugees,who under international law must be

284、hosted by the destination countries,and for other migrants who move under distressed circumstances.Refugee situations should be managed as medium-term development challenges and not just as humanitarian emergenciesSupporting refugee-hosting countries through a succession of emergency responses is bo

285、th costly and ineffective.On average,the international community spends US$585 a year for each refugee hosted in a low-or lower-middle-income country,in addition to the expenditure incurred by host govern-ments.49 The way in which international support is delivered often creates incentives for short

286、-term approaches.50 Yet current refugees have been in exile for an average of 13 years,51 and millions live in limbo for decades.52 For example,many Afghans who left their country after the 1979 Soviet invasion are still in exile today,and so are their children and grandchildren.Humanitarian aid is

287、critical to meeting immediate needs,but policy making,from the outset of a crisis,should aim for responses that can be sustained over time,both financially and socially.OVERVIEW|11Taking a medium-term approach can both reduce hosting costs and allow refugees to rebuild their lives.The 1951 Refugee C

288、onvention obligates states to provide refugees with safety,but also with access to jobs and essential services.Those who flee conflict and persecution often have severe vulnerabilities,including loss of assets and a traumatic experience,which can be compounded by an uncertain status.53 Many cannot w

289、ork,such as children or people with disabilities or undergoing trauma.But,if given a chance,most refugees look for ways to improve their lives and contribute to their hosting economies,much in the way other migrants do.54 This effort can be best supported by giving refugees the right to work,support

290、ing them in accessing jobs,and including them in national education and health systemswith adequate external support.This approach has been adopted in countries as diverse as Colombia,55 Niger,56 Poland,57 Trkiye,58 and Uganda,59 among others.Internal mobilityletting refugees move within destination

291、 countries to places where there are jobs and servicescan further transform the response to refugee situations.Many refugees are hosted in lagging borderland areas,where opportunities are scarce and where they form a large share of the pop-ulation.Their presence can impose significant burdens on hos

292、t communities.But other approaches are possible,as demonstrated by the support some countries have provided to displaced Venezuelans and Ukrainians,for example.In these situations,refugees are allowed,and even encouraged,to move across the entire host country and even within regional blocs.This free

293、dom strengthens their match Figure O.5When the match is weaker,policy making involves trade-offs for the destination country between economic gains and migrants dignitySource:WDR 2023 team.Note:Match refers to the degree to which a migrants skills and related attributes meet the demand in the destin

294、ation country.Motive refers to the circumstances under which a person moveswhether in search of opportunity or because of a“well-founded fear”of persecution,armed conflict,or violence in their origin country.Distressed migrants,mainly irregularReduce need for movements,absorb,or return humanelyMany

295、refugeesEnsure sustainability,share costsMany economic migrants Maximize gains for allRefugees with skills in demand at destinationMaximize gainsfor allStrongermatchMATCHWeakermatchOpportunityat destinationFear at originMOTIVEAT DESTINATION:Facilitate internal mobility,allow refugees to work,include

296、 them in national systemsAT ORIGIN:Use development to reduce the need for distressed movementsAT DESTINATION:Treat migrants with dignity,offer comple-mentary modes of protection12|WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023with the needs of the destination societies because they can access more opportunities.It a

297、lso lessens pressures on host communities because refugees are more evenly spread across the entire population.Such an approach requires a shift in the way assistance is provided,moving toward adopting predictable medium-term financing,formulating policy support,and strengthening national institutio

298、ns to provide international protection.60Hosting refugees contributes to a global public good.All nations should therefore help absorb the costs of hosting,but many do not.The vast majority of refugees live in only a dozen countries,typi-cally low-and middle-income countries bordering the countries

299、of origin.61 For example,in Jordan and Lebanon refugees make up a large share of the total population.Three donors provide almost two-thirds of bilateral financing for assistance to refugees globally,62 and four countries account for almost three-quarters of all resettlements.63 This narrow base of

300、support should be broadened by engaging new constituencies,including development organizations,local authorities,the private sector,and civil soci-ety.Responsibility-sharing can also be part of broader bilateral negotiations,such as on trade access under the Jordan Compact64 or investment under the

301、Ethiopia Job Compact.65 It could be complemented by regional initiatives,including in low-income contexts.For example,in the Horn of Africa the Inter-governmental Authority on Development(IGAD)has helped develop a regional peer-to-peer process to gradually improve the management of refugee situation

302、s.66Distressed migration needs to be reduced while respecting peoples dignityThe most difficult policy challenges arise when migrants are neither refugees nor a strong match for the destination society.Many of these migrants turn to irregular channels and to the growing smuggling industry and the ex

303、ploitative labor market it feeds in destination countries.67 These move-ments often entail suffering.Since 2014,nearly 50,000 people have died while attempting to migrate.68 Many have perished while trying to cross the Mediterranean Sea,and deaths on other routes are also increasing.These movements

304、have also created a sense of loss of control over borders,and they undermine the fragile consensus on the treatment of regular migrants and refugees.To deter such movements,some governments have implemented harsh policies,such as family separation at the US southern border in 2018 or externalization

305、 of border controls to third countries with dubious human rights records.69 All of these responses come at a significant cost to the dignity and human rights of migrants and would-be migrants.Some distressed migrants have protection needs,even though they are not refugees.They take life-threatening

306、risks that suggest they have no viable alternatives in their country of origin,or they fall prey to human trafficking while moving.For example,undocumented migrants on their way to the US southern border face kidnapping,extortion,and sexual and other forms of violence from criminal gangs.70 In the f

307、ace of what has become a series of human and political crises,several countries have developed ad hoc legal instruments to provide a form of protection for people who are not recognized as refugees but cannot be safely returned to their country.71 This approach is sometimes referred to as complement

308、ary or subsidiary protection.Such schemes should be extended in a coherent manner,and safe,legal routes should be established to access protection.Destination countries may choose to return other distressed migrants to their countries of origin.Still,human dignity must remain the yardstick of migrat

309、ion policies.Deportations are a tragedy for the individuals involved,yet they may be necessary to ensure the sustainability of the migration system because they demonstrate to citizens and would-be migrants alike that rules will be enforced.Involun-tary returns should be executed in conformity with

310、human rights conventions and in a humane manner.OVERVIEW|13They should be accompanied by parallel efforts to crack down on both smugglers and those who employ irregular migrants at the destination.When destination countries adopt restrictive policies,their neighbors can also be affected,especially t

311、hose through which migrants are transiting.Transit countries become substitute destinations when barriers prevent migrants from moving onward.Distressed migrants stay for months,and at times years,in countries where they did not wish to end up and where they are often vulnerable.This situation raise

312、s difficult policy issues for transit countries such as Mexico or Morocco that they cannot address alone.Both the destination and transit countries should work together to absorb distressed migrants or return them humanely(however,return should not apply to refugees for whom the 1951 Refugee Convent

313、ion applies).This cooperation includes designing mechanisms to determine who should be absorbed in which countrydestination or transitand who should be returned,as well as agreeing on the corresponding processes and financial arrangements to do so effectively.Such arrangements may be complemented by

314、 efforts to scale up services and safety in countries in which migrants are merely passing through.Overall,the main challenge is to reduce the need for such movements(figure O.6).Development plays a critical role in that respect by changing who migrates and under what circumstances.72 As countries F

315、igure O.6Policy actions in both origin and destination countries can reduce distressed migrationSource:WDR 2023 team.Note:Match refers to the degree to which a migrants skills and related attributes meet the demand in the destination country.Motive refers to the circumstances under which a person mo

316、veswhether in search of opportunity or because of a“well-founded fear”of persecution,armed conflict,or violence in their origin country.The dashed vertical line in the lower-left quadrant highlights the distinction between distressed migrants who have some needs for international protection and thos

317、e who do not.Many economicmigrantsRefugees withskills in demandat destination Distressed migrants,mainly irregularMany refugeesStrongermatchMATCHWeakermatchOpportunityat destinationFear at originMOTIVEAT ORIGIN:Strengthen skillsand resilience toshocks throughdevelopmentAT DESTINATION:Extend compleme

318、ntary modes of protectionAT DESTINATION:Shift incentivesthrough legal pathwaysfor people with skillsin demand 14|WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023develop,people become better educated,and their skills better match the needs of domestic and global labor markets.They also become more resilient to shocks,a

319、nd the availability of decent work and domestic migration alternatives reduce the need for distressed cross-border movements.But develop-ment takes time,and shorter-term responses are also needed.Destination countries can cooperate with origin countries and expand legal pathways for entry to enable

320、or even incentivize movements by peo-ple whose skills and attributes match their needs,including lower-skilled workers.In the process,they shape the incentives of would-be migrants and the communities that support them,such as for acquir-ing specific skills.Making migration work better requires doin

321、g things differentlyNow is a difficult time for migration reform.Political debates have become polarized in many coun-tries,at all levels of income.Tensions within the international community increased following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.The global economic outlook remains uncertain.Yet r

322、eforms are needed urgently.Difficult debates lie ahead,but they cannot be avoided or delayed if the gains from migration are to be realized.Stronger international cooperation is essential:Bilateral to enhance migrants match and multilateral to respond to movements driven by fearBoth origin and desti

323、nation countries need to manage migration strategically.For origin countries,the challenge is to maximize the development impacts of labor migration on their own societies.For destination countries,the challenge is to recognize and harness the potential of migration to meet their long-term labor nee

324、ds,while treating all migrants humanely and addressing social impacts that raise concerns among their citizens.To increase the benefits they derive from migration,origin and destination countries need to work together(figure O.7).Cooperation can be formalized through bilateral labor agreements that

325、facilitate bet-ter matching of skills and provide those who move with legal status,73 such as between some Pacific Island states and Australia.74 Bilateral cooperation can help build globally transferable skills in origin countries such as through Global Skills Partnerships.75 Bilateral cooperation

326、is also critical to process involuntary returns humanely.76 It can be complemented by regional initiativesfor example,to discuss labor needs across a group of countries of origin and destination or to create regional schemes for recognizing qualifica-tions,such as the Single Market and Economy(CSME)

327、initiative of the Caribbean Community(CARICOM).Multilateral efforts are also needed to address movements motivated by fear,both to strengthen global norms and to share the costs of hosting refugees.The international legal architecture for migra-tion and forced displacementand for defining who should

328、 receive international protectionhas been evolving over the last decades to reflect changes in the patterns of movements.Likely to continue,it should include a strong development perspective.But at a time of renewed tensions in the international community,progress may be slow.Global action should be

329、 complemented by regional effortsin partic-ular,to share responsibility for hosting refugees and other forcibly displaced peopleas Latin American countries did by allowing Venezuelan nationals to move across the region.To make change happen,underrepresented voices must be heardMigration reform is a

330、political process.Data and evidence are essential for successful reforms,but they are not sufficient.New stakeholder groups need to make their voices heard.This is especially important OVERVIEW|15when debates are highly polarized and when there are multiple competing prioritiesamong them,cli-mate ch

331、ange,food security,and an ongoing global economic slowdown.In both origin and destination countries,the debates should engage broad segments of society beyond elite circles.This effort can be pursued by taking a whole-of-government approach beyond security agencies,by inviting the private sector and

332、 labor unions to assess medium-term labor needs and how to meet them,and by engaging with local authorities,which are often at the forefront of the response and integration challenges.Migrants and refugees voices should be heard as well,which requires developing systems to channel them in ways that

333、ensure representation and accountability.Low-and middle-income countriesincluding origin countries for economic migrants and refugee-hosting countriescan also form constructive coalitions to get their perspectives better heard and defend their interests.A message of hopeThis Report conveys a message of hope.Amid a debate dominated by ideological arguments about whether migration is good or bad,it