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1、 2022 United Nations Environment ProgrammeISBN No:978-92-807-3996-1 Job No:DEP/2494/NAThis publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit services without special permission from the copyright holder,provided acknowledgement of the source is made.The
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8、 necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Environment Programme.We regret any errors or omissions that may have been unwittingly made.Maps,photos and illustrations as specifiedSuggested citationUnited Nations Environment Programme(2022).Good Practices on Vulnerable Ecosystem Restoration i
9、n China.Nairobi.ProductionUnited Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)and United Nations Environment Programme-International Ecosystem Management Partnership(UNEP-IEMP)IIIGood practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaThe United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)would like to thank the le
10、ad and contributing authors and the project coordination team for their contribution to the development of this report.Authors and reviewers contributed in their individual capacities and their affiliations are only mentioned for identification purposes.AUTHORS(listed in alphabetic order)Chao Fu,UNE
11、P-International Ecosystem Management PartnershipGuoqin Wang,UNEP-International Ecosystem Management Partnership Haifan Huang,UNEP-International Ecosystem Management PartnershipJiaqiang Lei,Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography,Chinese Academy of Sciences Jingshu Wei,Research Center for Eco-env
12、ironmental Sciences,Chinese Academy of SciencesJunguo Liu,North China University of Water Resources and Electric Power and Southern University of Science and Technology Linxiu Zhang,UNEP-International Ecosystem Management PartnershipLi Li,UNEP-International Ecosystem Management PartnershipMaierdang
13、Keyimu,Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences,Chinese Academy of SciencesXiufang Xu,Wushen Banner Forestry Bureau,Inner MongoliaYongfei Bai,Institute of Botany,Chinese Academy of SciencesYang Wang,Institute of Botany,Chinese Academy of SciencesYuehan Dou,Southern University of Science and Te
14、chnology Zongshan Li,Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences,Chinese Academy of SciencesREVIEWERS(listed in alphabetic order)Andrea Hinwood(UNEP),Arthur Hanson(International Institute for Sustainable Development),Bojie Fu(Beijing Normal University,China),Jian Liu(UNEP),Kirit Avishek(Birla Ins
15、titute of Technology,India),Larry L Bowman(Yale University,USA),Mirey Atallah(UNEP),Stephen Murphy(Missouri Botanical Garden,USA),Susan Mutebi-Richards(UNEP),Xiubo Yu(Chinese Ecosystem Research Network,China),Yu Liu(Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources,Chinese Academy of Sciences,C
16、hina)EDITORSGuoqin Wang(UNEP-International Ecosystem Management Partnership/Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences),Linxiu Zhang(UNEP-International Ecosystem Management Partnership)SECRETARIAT AND PROJECT COORDINATIONKerstin Stendahl(UNEP),Chao Fu
17、(UNEP-International Ecosystem Management Partnership/Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Science)LANGUAGE EDITINGStrategic Agenda DESIGN AND LAYOUTBeijing Unique Business Co.LtdTHANKS ALSO TO:UNEP:Irene Chuma,Sari Sherman and Bakhita Amondi OduorUNEP-IE
18、MP team:Qinghe Qu,Li Li and Jialin HeFINANCIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORTThe case studies highlighted in this report were possible thanks to the partial financial support provided by the Chinese Academy of Science through the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences(Gra
19、nt ID:XDA20010303)and the Ministry of Science and Technology,China through the National Key R&D Program of China(Grant ID:2018YFE0106000).The UNEP would like to thank Dr.Cong Wang for coordinating the information collection and project of the Science and Technology Service Network Initiative under t
20、he Chinese Academy of Sciences(Grant ID:KFJ-STS-ZDTP-036)and International Partnership Programme of the Chinese Academy of Sciences(Grant ID:121311KYSB20170004).Our special appreciation goes to the scientific community of the Chinese Ecosystem Research Network,who contributed decades of ground-level
21、 experience of ecosystem restoration in the harsh environment of vulnerable regions.Without these long-term,site-based experiments,monitoring,research and adaptive management,the cases presented in this report would not have been possible.The UNEP would like to acknowledge the support from the team
22、of UN Decade on Ecosystem Restortation 2021-2030.This report is also expected to contribute to the implementation of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restortation 2021-2030.AcknowledgementsIVGood practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaCASChinese Academy of SciencesCERNChinese Ecosystem Rese
23、arch Network CNYChinese renminbiGPS Global Position SystemIMGERSInner Mongolia Grassland Ecosystem Research StationIPBESIntergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services RCEESResearch Center for Eco-Environmental SciencesRSRemote Sensing STEREStepwise ecological restor
24、ation theory UN DecadeUnited Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration UNEPUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeUNEP-IEMPUnited Nations Environment Programme-International Ecosystem Management PartnershipXIEGXinjiang Institute of Ecology and GeographyAbbreviationsVGood practices on vulnerable ecosystem
25、 restoration in ChinaTable of ContentAbbreviations IVForeword VIIIntroduction VIIICase 1.Establishing perennial artificial grassland in degraded areas 01Case 2.A rotational mowing system for natural grasslands 06Case 3.Restoration of degraded grassland using biophysical methods 10Case 4.Natural rege
26、neration of sandy lands at the ecological transition zone 16Case 5.Coupling agricultural crops and livestock rearing at irrigated farmlands 20Case 6.Ecological restoration in mountain gully areas for soil and water conservation and poverty reduction 25Case 7.Ecological orchards in slope dryland area
27、s of China 30Case 8.Building stone dike terraces in rocky,mountainous areas for agriculture development 35Case 9.Planting desert ginseng as a new livelihood along the desert highway 41Case 10.Ecological restoration of Yongding River in China 47Conclusion 53VIGood practices on vulnerable ecosystem re
28、storation in ChinaVIIGood practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaForewordHealthy ecosystems support all life on Earth.The global call of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration to revive ecosystems worldwide for the benefit of people and nature has been responded to by many nations,int
29、ernational initiatives and civil societies.The goal of this UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration is to build a strong global movement that seeks to promote ecosystem restoration efforts and create thousands of initiatives on the ground.These efforts are particularly important in the Global South,where
30、 better policy planning,enhanced capacity,well-tested technology and science-based and traditional knowledge for ecosystem restoration remain underdeveloped.The ecosystem restoration efforts of China have been widely recognized by the global community.Over the past few decades,it has undertaken rema
31、rkable engineering projects,such as the Grain for Green Programme in 23 provinces and the Three-North Shelterbelt Project in arid and semi-arid regions of China.Chinese scientists,particularly those of the Chinese Ecosystem Research Network(CERN)of the Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS),are devoted to
32、 long-term ecological monitoring,research and demonstration in these regions.They have gained rich experiences in vulnerable ecosystem restoration and management in China.This report was prepared by a team of researchers from the United Nations Environment Programme-International Ecosystem Managemen
33、t Partnership(UNEP-IEMP)and several research institutes of the Professor Bojie FuCo-Chair of UNEP-IEMPs Science Advisory GroupCAS.It includes integrated management approaches,science-based knowledge and socioeconomic aspects of vulnerable ecosystem restoration to share knowledge and practices on res
34、toring and managing vulnerable ecosystems in China.These ecosystems include deserts,degraded grasslands,sandy lands in the agriculture-pasture transition area,drylands,mountain gully areas and urban rivers.The case studies on the restoration of these ecosystems put local livelihoods and community de
35、velopment at the core of integrated ecosystem management approaches.We expect this report will be used as a technical reference for local practitioners,civil societies,policymakers and government officials within a similar context.We recommend developing the capacities of local men and women to ensu
36、re they can be effectively involved to restore vulnerable local ecosystems.VIIIGood practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaEfficient and sustainable ecosystem restoration,complemented by ecosystem conservation,is uniquely able to make major contributions to all 17 Sustainable Developm
37、ent Goals(International Resource Panel 2019).In this context,the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed 20212030 to be the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration(UN Decade).United Nations Member States are committed to supporting the UN Decade by building new momentum for ecosystem resto
38、ration globally,scaling up existing ecosystem restoration efforts,raising awareness of the importance of conservation and restoration,and building synergies.The United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations are the lead agencies implementin
39、g the UN Decade.Their role will be catalytic,facilitating collaboration between diverse stakeholders,leveraging funding and providing information(United Nations 2020).Ecosystem restoration includes restoring converted lands back into healthy ecosystems and restoring degraded ecosystems(Intergovernme
40、ntal Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services IPBES 2018).Restoring ecosystems increases the supply and quality of ecosystem services over time,contributing towards desired outcomes supporting national sustainable development priorities,including ending poverty,conserving biodi
41、versity,combating climate change and improving livelihoods for everyone,everywhere(United Nations 2020).Studies from Asia and Africa indicate that the cost of inaction in the face of land degradation is at least three times higher than the cost of action(IPBES 2018),as less developed countries are m
42、ore dependent on ecosystem services for their daily supply.Of the 10 significant ecological problems associated with ecosystem degradation identified in China by Cui et al.(2021),decreased resource-carrying capacity is one of the most common issues.The 2018 IPBES report also showed that the net prim
43、ary productivity of ecosystem biomass and agriculture is presently lower than it would have been under natural state on 23%of the global terrestrial area,amounting to a 5%reduction in total global net primary productivity.In this context,enhancing the essential ecosystem goods and supply services th
44、rough large-scale restoration remains a high priority for most developing countries.A recent study by Chen(2019)showed that China alone accounted for 25%of the global net increase in leaf area between 2000 and 2017,with only 6.6%of the global vegetated area,and human land-use management is an import
45、ant driver of such greening.This is mainly thanks to key ecological restoration programmes,such as the Three-North Natural Forest and Grain for Green programmes,with significant investment from the Chinese Government.Between 2006 and 2015,214 key ecosystem restoration technologies were recorded in C
46、hina.Afforestation,soil and water conservation,and contour hedgerow systems were the best received technologies on the ground and were most often scaled up.Although there have been many ecological restoration projects in China,an ecological restoration database has not yet been established(Cui et al
47、.2021).Related good practices and lessons learned could be shared further.There are many stakeholders involved in restoration in China.The CERN,founded in 1988 and led by the CAS,is one such stakeholder.It has conducted continuous experiments and monitoring of the hydrological,pedological,atmospheri
48、c and biological elements of typical ecosystems to meet scientific research and societal needs(Li et al.2015).The CERN is committed to exploring the development paths of optimizing ecosystem structure and function while ensuring human well-being.Many ecological field stations located in vulnerable d
49、rylands were established before 1988 to meet socioeconomic needs,for example,protecting the railway from wind and sand,improving the productivity of low-yield agricultural areas and restoring vegetation(Zhao,Yu and Xu 2021).As a founding member of the International Long-Term Ecosystem Research Netwo
50、rk,CERNs experiences of ecosystem restoration and long-term monitoring and research over the past three decades are invaluable to the world.To address global restoration barriers to technical capacity,scientific research and public awareness,both the IPBES(2018)and the UN Decade strategy(United Nati
51、ons 2020)identified pathways to strengthen the IntroductionIXGood practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in Chinarole of science,indigenous knowledge and traditional practices,apply best technical knowledge and practice,and invest in long-term research.In this context,the UNEP-IEMP,together w
52、ith Chinese scientists,complied relevant good-practice case studies on ecosystem restoration in China.The selected case studies present different vulnerable ecosystems,including deserts,degraded grasslands,sandy lands in the agriculture-pasture transition area,drylands,mountain gully areas and urban
53、 rivers.Most of these cases are based on major ecosystem restoration programmes initiated by the Chinese Government in the past three decades,including the Three-North Natural Forest,the Grain for Green programme and the Beijing-Tianjin Sandstorm Control Programme.The cases presented have therefore
54、been thoroughly tested and are regionally representative.Noting that restoration is site-specific and driven by the local ecological and socioeconomic context,the report provides not only specific intervention approaches and techniques and restoration outcomes but also cost-benefit analyses,related
55、policy contexts and their potential application scope and lessons learned.The Science and Technology Service Network Initiative contributed greatly to this report.Sponsored by the CAS,it aims to provide easy access to science-technology services for sustainable socioeconomic development through join
56、t demonstrations and capacity-building with local communities and private sectors.Based on successful upscaling projects under this initiative,41 ecological restoration cases in the key ecologically vulnerable regions were selected and summarized(Wang et al.2019).From those 41,this report selected 1
57、0 good practices based on the representativeness of the vulnerable ecosystem types,technology transferability,scientific bases,local knowledge and buy-in and cost-effectiveness.This report is part of the UNEP Climate,Ecosystems and Livelihoods flagship programme,which is the 10-year strategy of UNEP
58、-IEMP aimed at improving livelihoods through ecosystem restoration and conservation for better ecosystem service delivery in a changing climate.Since this flagship programme is the major South-South cooperation initiative between the UNEP and the Chinese Government,sharing Chinese restoration experi
59、ences is a good way of promoting South-South cooperation under both the UN Decade and the UNEP Strategy for South-South and Triangular Cooperation.This report is expected to complement the Ecosystem Restoration Playbook by providing more technical references for interventions on the ground in differ
60、ent ecosystem types.Since most of the cases selected are cost-effective and thoroughly tested in China,the report will guide readers on the short-and long-term benefits of restoration and stimulate more scaling up.It will also provide input for the Task Force led by the Food and Agriculture Organiza
61、tion of the United Nations,collating best practices on ecosystem restoration.References Chen,C.,Park,T.,Wang,X.,Piao,S.,Xu,B.,Chaturvedi,R.K.et al.(2019).China and India lead in greening of the world through land-use management.Nature Sustainability 2,122-129.https:/doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0220-7
62、.Cui,W.,Liu,J.,Jia,J.and Wang P.(2021).Terrestrial ecological restoration in China:Identifying advances and gaps.Environmental Sciences Europe 33,123.https:/doi.org/10.1186/s12302-021-00563-2.Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services(2018).The IPBES Assessment
63、Report on Land Degradation and Restoration.Bonn,Germany.https:/digitallibrary.un.org/record/3794559.International Resource Panel(2019).Land Restoration for Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.An International Resource Panel Think Piece.Nairobi,Kenya:UNEP.https:/www.resourcepanel.org/reports/
64、land-restoration-achieving-sustainable-development-goals.Li,S.,Yu,G.,Yu,X.,He,H.and Guo,X.(2015).A brief introduction to Chinese Ecosystem Research Network(CERN).Journal of Resources and Ecology 6(3),192-196.https:/doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2015.03.009.Liu,J.,Cui,W.,Tian,Z.,Jia,J.(2020).Theor
65、y of stepwise ecological restoration.(in Chinese).Chinese Science Bulletin 66(9),1014-1025.https:/doi.org/10.1360/TB-2020-1128.United Nations(2020).The United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration Strategy.ERDStrat.pdf(unep.org).Wang,C.,Wu,X.,Fu,B.,Han,X.,Chen,Y.,Wang,K.et al.(2019).Ecological res
66、toration in the key ecologically vulnerable regions:Current situation and development direction.(in Chinese).Acta Ecologica Sinica 39(20),7333-7343.https:/ Xu,C.(2021)Social-ecological system management in drylands:experiences from Chinese Ecosystem Research Network.Current Opinion in Environmental
67、Sustainability 48,93-102.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2020.11.006.01Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaCase 1.Establishing perennial artificial grassland in degraded areasBrief OverviewHere we introduce an ecosystem management approach aimed at revitalizing degraded grassl
68、ands by sowing perennial forage species(Figure 1.1).It was developed based on extensive long-term,site-based research conducted within the Inner Mongolia Grassland Ecosystem Research Station(IMGERS)of the CAS.This approach is applicable to areas with annual precipitation greater than 280 mm or areas
69、 with accessible groundwater,including hilly lowlands with fertile soils and sufficient precipitation suitable for planting artificial grassland and abandoned flat farmlands that can be converted to irrigated artificial grassland.This approach should be useful and of interest to those working in the
70、 grassland management and land resource sectors for further upscaling.02Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in China1.Background In arid and semi-arid areas of China,grassland agriculture is constrained by the low productivity and degradation of natural grasslands and the limited scal
71、e and stability of artificial grassland(Bai,Pan and Xing 2016).Managing artificial grasslands is essential for restoring degraded grasslands,ensuring forage production for livestock and developing a robust local industry within pastoral areas.In this context,the IMGERS has been developing an approac
72、h to establish perennial artificial grasslands since the early 2000s.This approach is based on niche theory,plant compensation and plant community succession theory.The model covers a series of technical solutions,including site selection and preparation,species/variety selection,sowing technique,fi
73、eld management and harvesting.2.The intervention approach and implementation planThe core part of this intervention approach is the selection of perennial forage species and varieties.The four suggested combinations of species,as shown in Figure 1.2,include:1)long-and short-lived forage species;2)de
74、ep-and shallow-rooted forage species;3)leguminous and gramineous forage species;and 4)drought-tolerant and hygrophilous forage species(Bai and Wang 2017).Combining long-and short-lived forage species can make the total forage yield more sustainable.For example,we combined Rhizome graminoid and Caesp
75、itose graminoid at one plantation site.This strategy solves the key issues surrounding low grass yield in the early stages of succession and serious degradation in the later stages.The negative impacts of weeds on perennial forage species during the early planting season can be effectively controlle
76、d,and certain grass yields can be maintained in the year of sowing.As such,this enhances the sustainable utility of artificial grasslands.Combining deep-and shallow-rooted forage species can leverage the complementary roles of different forage varieties in terms of water usage.Likewise,combing nitro
77、gen-fixing and non-nitrogen-fixing species is known to enhance nutrient utilization.Combined,these strategies lead to the highly efficient use of both water and soil-nutrient resources and improves the overall economic benefit.Combining drought-tolerant and hygrophilous varieties can maintain forage
78、 yield during both wet and dry Figure 1.1 High-yield perennial artificial grassland in degraded areas established by IMGERS in 2000Source:IMGERS,CAS03Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaMore forage yield in the 1st year and less degradation laterCombining long-and short-lived
79、forage speciesHigher efficiency of water and nutrient useCombining deep-and shallow-rooted forage speciesControl weeds impact to planted seedlingsCombining leguminous and gramineous forage speciesReduce forage yield differences between dry and wet yearsAdopt native forage varieties with strong resil
80、ienceCombining drought-tolerant and hygrophilous varietiesImprove the nutrient value and quality of forageFigure 1.2 Schematic diagram of developing a perennial artificial grassland by combining diverse speciesyears.This enhances the stability and overall yield of artificial grasslands affected by u
81、npredictable extreme weather.Selecting targeted forage species and varieties makes it possible to tailor grassland species composition to maximize species adaptability to specific eco-environmental conditions.This strategy thus enhances drought resistance and overwintering survival rates and helps t
82、o avoid ecological disasters induced by alien species invasions and extreme weather.Besides species selection,applying different management practices is also crucial to establishing artificial grasslands cost-effectively and for improving forage quality and utilization rate(Figure 1.3).Advisable man
83、agement practices include compaction during the sowing process,precise fertilizer and water application,weeding and pest control during the ploughing stage,mechanized mowing and grass compacting and microbial fermentation during harvesting.The appropriate sowing period should be determined according
84、 to climatic conditions and soil moisture.The sowing period for typical grassland areas in Inner Mongolia is generally from June to July(Li et al.2000).The sowing depth is generally 23 cm,but it can be slightly deeper,reaching about 35 cm for large seeds.In our experiment in 2015 in the Wulagai Mana
85、gement Area of Inner Mongolia,we sowed different varieties of annual and perennial forages using the above-mentioned methods to establish a perennial artificial grassland of both leguminous and gramineous forage species.A precision sowing machine was used with a sowing row spacing of 20 cm and a sow
86、ing depth of 45 cm.Fertilizer(N:P2O5:K2O=12:18:15)was applied at 300 kg/ha.Three planting options were used in this experiment:Option 1 Avena nuda L.and Vicia sativa L.;Option 2 Avena nuda L.,Elymus nutans Griseb.,Bromus inermis Leyss.,Leymus chinensis(Trin.)Tzvel and Medicago sativa Linn.(Aohan);an
87、d Option 3 millet,Elymus nutans Griseb.,Bromus inermis Leyss.,Leymus chinensis(Trin.)Tzvel and Medicago lupulina L.Additional fertilizer was applied during the rainy season,which coincided with rapid plant growth.Grasses were then harvested using mowing and grass-compacting machinery,with stems and
88、leaves dried synchronously.Figure 1.3 Demonstration management practices of perennial artificial grassland in degraded areas in Wulagai Management Area,Inner MongoliaSource:IMGERS,CAS04Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in China3.Restoration outcomes Since 2000,this approach has been
89、 expanded across Xilingol in Inner Mongolia,and both local herders and local governments have fully recognized its beneficial effects(Figure 1.4).Since 2015,this approach has been used in abandoned farmlands in the Wulagai Management Area of Inner Mongolia within a 1,200 mu1(80 ha)grassland.In the f
90、irst year of sowing during the experiment,the yield of Option 1 was highest,while perennial grasses in Options 2 and 3 germinated late in the first year after sowing,and the plants grew more slowly.This affected their overall yield in the first year.The yield of natural grasslands in the Wulagai Man
91、agement Area was about 185 kg/mu(2,775 kg/ha),and the yield of the three artificial grasslands after the second year reached 336800 kg/mu(5,04012,000 kg/ha),which was 1.84.3 times that of the natural grasslands.Together,we found that such artificial grassland can increase grassland production and en
92、hance ecosystem functions.Our results showed that after applying this management approach,forage yield increases by 510 times that of natural grasslands.Furthermore,such approaches can lead to forage yield that is 1020 times greater than that of degraded grasslands and about 50 times that of severel
93、y desertified grasslands(Du 2006).This means that planting one hectare of artificial high-yield grassland with mixed sowing can help restore 10 hectares of degraded grasslands and 50 hectares of severely desertified grassland.Compared with the single sowing of one forage species,the combined sowing
94、of four species can significantly improve ecosystem resilience and,in turn,enhance the yield of artificial grasslands.Where late spring frost occurs,the overwinter survival rate of single-species artificial grassland is very low.Our demonstration sites with mixed species showed much higher survival
95、rates.From a gender perspective,this practice had positive impacts on women.With ecosystem restoration,both men and women received positive health and economic benefits.With established perennial artificial grasslands using standardized machinery,women should be less exposed to unfavourable outdoor
96、working conditions and able to turn more to intensive indoor animal husbandry work.4.Demonstration and upscaling Since 2015,this mixed-planting approach for perennial artificial grassland has been promoted and demonstrated on a large scale in several counties of Xilingol,including the Wulagai Manage
97、ment Area,Xiwu and Zhenglan,with a total area of more than 2,000 mu(133 ha).Figure 1.4 Restored landscape through perennial artificial grassland in Inner MongoliaSource:IMGERS,CAS1 Mu is a traditional unit of land area in China.15 mu=1 hectare.05Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in
98、China5.Estimate of investment and investment payback periodThe initial investment,annual forage yield and net income in the second year for Options 1,2 and 3 are shown in Table 1.1,based on the average market price of hay(1.2 CNY/kg)in recent years.This indicates that the perennial mixed-sowing opti
99、on can generate a better income and provide high-quality forage while ensuring more sustainable grassland management practices.It is expected that the investment for Options 1 and 2 will be paid back in 12 years.Table 1.1 Investment and income in the second year of the three perennial mixed-sowing o
100、ptions(Unit:CNY/mu)Option 1Option 2Option 3Initial investment285250236Forage yield incomes528396240Annual net incomes 2431464References Bai,Y.,Han,X.,Wu,J.,Chen,Z.and Li,L.(2004).Ecosystem stability and compensatory effects in the Inner Mongolia grassland.Nature 431,181-184.https:/doi.org/10.1038/na
101、ture02850.Bai,Y.,Pan,Q.and Xing,Q.(2016).Fundamental theories and technologies for optimizing the production functions and ecological functions in grassland ecosystems.(in Chinese).Science China Press 61(2),201-212.https:/ theories and technologies for optimizing the production functions and ecologi
102、cal functions in grassland ecosystems().Bai,Y.and Wang,Y.(2017).Long-term ecological research and demonstrations support protection and sustainable management of grassland ecosystems.(in Chinese).Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences 32(8),910-916.https:/bulletinofcas.researchcommons.org/cgi/viewc
103、ontent.cgi?article=1696&context=journal.Du,Q.(2006).Sustainable Development Strategy of Chinese Prataculture.(in Chinese).Beijing:China Agriculture Press.Li,L.,Chen,J.,Han,X.,Zhang,W.and Shao,C.(2000).Typical steppe ecosystem.In Grassland Ecosystems of China:A Synthesis and Resume.Germany:Springer S
104、ingapore.Chapter 7.193-248.https:/ information Contact:Professor Yongfei Bai,Institute of Botany,CASEmail:6.Challenges and potential issuesAlthough the yield of artificial grasslands was high,the production sustainability for different annual precipitations remains unclear.In addition,the increased
105、yield is based on a greater nutrient and water uptake.This needs to be studied in more detail from the perspective of water and nutrient cycling.Understanding how to maintain the soil fertility and long-term production of artificial grasslands is thus an important area of future research and debate.
106、There are three main potential technical issues for scaling up such practices.Firstly,we need to determine a reasonable ratio of artificial grassland according to the overall habitat of grassland areas to meet the regional development requirement while conserving the remaining natural grassland.Seco
107、ndly,the science-based design of artificial grassland according to the water and heat supply can ensure its long-term sustainability.Last but not least,the local community must transform their behaviour from a traditional animal husbandry model to a more intensive model(Bai,Pan and Xing 2016).7.Pros
108、pects for commercial transformation and promotion of findingsOur study shows that planting 10%of an area with artificial grassland can ensure the conservation of the remaining 90%of natural grassland(Bai,Pan and Xing 2016).The approach discussed above can be used at a large scale in the northern gra
109、ssland areas of China,where it proved to be cost-effective.Our study,based a 24-year experiment on Inner Mongolia grassland,showed that undisturbed mature steppe ecosystems seem to culminate with high biodiversity,productivity and ecosystem stability concurrently(Bai et al.2004).Establishing perenni
110、al artificial grassland provides an effective means to balance the trade-off between ecological functions and development concerns in northern grassland areas of China.Because these areas are typical of many grassland regions across the globe,these findings have broad implications outside of norther
111、n China.As such,they have already attracted the attention of government bodies and practitioners interested in sustaining such grassland ecosystems.06Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaCase 2.A rotational mowing system for natural grasslandsBrief OverviewThis chapter aims to
112、introduce a more sustainable rotational mowing system for managing regularly mowed natural grassland ecosystems.The sustainable mowing system involves rotationally reserving some grassland areas to conserve nutrients,water and a seed bank.It was developed based on extensive site-based research condu
113、cted by the IMGERS.This management approach specifically applies to mowed natural grasslands in semi-arid,semi-humid and humid areas of Inner Mongolia,China.However,our results are likely applicable to other similar ecosystems with the following conditions 1)generally flat terrain with a slope of le
114、ss than 15;2)land that is free of stones and shrubs,3)experiences with mechanized operations such as mowing;and 4)an average grass height of at least 35 cm and overall coverage of no less than 50%.Ecosystems that do not meet these criteria are likely not suitable for mechanical harvesting,or it woul
115、d not be cost-effective to do so.This approach should be useful and of interest to those working in grassland and land resources management sectors for upscaling.07Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaFigure 2.1.Rotational mowing approach in Wulagai Management Area,Inner Mongol
116、ia,China.Source:IMGERS,CAS1.Background Inner Mongolia has 87 million ha of natural grassland that makes up a large part of the Eurasian Steppe the largest contiguous biome in the world(Wu and Loucks 1992).Significant increases in the numbers of livestock and pastoralist households(11-and 9-fold,resp
117、ectively)over the past 60 years have caused variously degradation in the majority of grasslands in Inner Mongolia(78 million ha),jeopardizing the livelihoods of 24 million human inhabitants(Briske et al.2015).Apart from grazing,clipping is another management practice commonly used by local inhabitan
118、ts for haymaking(Zhong et al.2017).Haymaking areas are in relatively good condition due to grazing exclusion but are facing a continuous loss of nutrients in the harvested biomass(Schnbach et al.2011).In the study region in the Wulagai Management Area in Inner Mongolia,mowing is generally conducted
119、yearly,which removes nutrients without effectively replacing them.This destroys the balance of nutrients and causes grassland degradation.Yearly mowing also affects the density of seeds in the soil seed bank and reduces the number of viable seeds.Leaving certain grasslands free from mowing in a rota
120、tional management system helps preserve water(or snow in winter)and the seed bank.Furthermore,during rotational mowing,fertilization can be applied to supplement soil nutrient loss,which will help promote the long-term sustainability of these systems.2.The intervention approach and implementation pl
121、an This intervention mainly referred to the Technical Regulation For Rotational Mowing On Natural Grassland(GB/T 27515-2011)released by the Chinese Government in 2011.A rotational mowing system was applied in the Wulagai Management Area in Inner Mongolia in 2016.Two natural grasslands were selected
122、for mowing treatments,each with an area of about 33 ha.The suggested width of the unmowed grass area is 1530 m.This allows for convenient mechanized operations and the effective ecological conservation of nutrients,water and viable seeds rotationally.The direction of mowing should be perpendicular t
123、o the prevailing wind direction in winter.This strategy is conducive to spreading the snow and seeds,so the mowed grassland will benefit from the accumulated snow and preserve the seed bank of the unmowed areas.In our theory for designing this intervention,the exact width of the grass belt is determ
124、ined according to the intended term of the management plan,as shown in Figure 2.2.The planned term(for example,N years)for one rotational management cycle determines the percentage for conservation(1/N for unmowed areas and(N-1)/N for mowed areas)each year.For example,for a 5-year rotational managem
125、ent cycle experiment covering 100 metres,the mowing belt width should be 80 metres and the unmowed restoration rotation belt width 20 metres.This means that each 1/5 of the grassland would have one year of conservation in the 5-year rotational cycle.The residual stubble height(vegetation height afte
126、r 08Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaYear1Year2Year3Year4Year580m mowed belt 20m unmowed belt75m mowed belt25m unmowed belt67m mowed belt33m unmowed beltYear1Year2Year3Year4Year1Year2Year3Figure 2.2.Schematic of the rotational management strategy in grasslandsclipping)is th
127、e most direct indicator of mowing intensity.Stubble heights during harvesting affect forage yield and quality,regeneration and overwintering survival rate.In hay production,yield is often hindered due to relatively high stubble.However,too short stubble often leads to the root crowns freezing in nor
128、thern areas of China,which results in a decrease in the overwinter survival rate the following year,incurring huge economic losses.In our study,the suggested suitable residual stubble height of warm grasslands,lowland meadows and swamps,and mowed grasslands is suggested to be no less than 12 cm,9 cm
129、 and 7 cm,respectively.The suggested mowing time varies according to the climate characteristics of different regions,as well as the structure of the grassland community.For example,mowed grasslands containing Stipa capillata as the dominant species should be mowed before the formation of awns,while
130、 Artemisia sp.-dominated grasslands should be mowed after the first frost.At the latest,mowing should occur one month before the end of the growing season.3.Restoration outcomesOur experiments in recent years have shown that snow thickness in the unmowed belt reached 19.222.5 cm,which was 22.5 times
131、 that of the mowed belt.In addition,the average soil moisture of the unmowed belt in spring was 23.6%,compared with 15.15%in the mowed belt.A similar long-term study between 2003 and 2011 at the IMGERS showed that,during the growing season,as compared to unmowed plots,mowed grasslands soil moisture
132、was 47.5%lower(Shao et al.2012).The heavily mowed plots soil surface temperature was 7.4 C higher at midday and 2.2 C lower at predawn,with a 4.2 C greater diurnal soil temperature range at 2 cm depth compared to the unmowed plots(Shao et al.2012).The absence of mowing might alleviate the stress of
133、high temperatures and drought during the hot and dry periods,leading to vegetation that is highly resistant to environmental changes.Another six-year(20122018)field experiment examined the responses of soil seed banks and plant communities to an annual mowing system at the Inner Mongolia grassland.I
134、nvestigating seed richness at 010 cm depth soil showed that compared to a no-mow approach,the mowing practice suppressed 0.4 species and forb seed density by 208.0 m2 and plant cover by 11.5%(Miao et al.2020).4.Demonstration and upscaling Between 2016 and 2019,rotational mowing was implemented in th
135、e Wulagai Management Area,in a total area of about 66 ha.This strategy is applicable to many managed natural grasslands in the central and eastern parts of Inner Mongolia and beyond.5.Estimation of investment and investment payback cycleSince this is a management practice adjustment,there is no addi
136、tional investment.Instead,there is a slight decrease in mechanized operations and labour costs.However,this also decreases herder income 09Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaReferences Briske,D.D.,Zhao,M.,Han,G.,Xiu,C.,Kemp,D.R.,Willms,W.et al.(2015).Strategies to alleviate p
137、overty and grassland degradation inInnerMongolia:Intensificationvsproductionefficiencyoflivestocksystems.Journal of Environmental Management 152,177-182.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.036.Miao,R.,Guo,M.,Ma,J.,Gao,B.,Musa,A.,Miao,Y.et al.(2020).Shifts in soil seed bank and plant community u
138、nder nitrogen addition and mowing in an Inner Mongolian steppe.Ecological Engineering 153(15),1-8.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105900.Schnbach,P.,Wan,H.,Gierus,M.,Bai,Y.,Mller,K.,Lin,L.et al.(2011).Grassland responses to grazing:effects of grazing intensity and management system in an Inner
139、 Mongolian steppe ecosystem.Plant and Soil 340,103-115.https:/doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0366-6.Shao,C.,Chen,J.,Li,L.and Zhang,L.(2012).Ecosystem responses to mowing manipulations in an Inner Mongolia steppe:An energy perspective.Journal of Arid Environments 82,1-10.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv
140、.2012.02.019.Wu,J.and Loucks O.(1992).Xilingele.In Grasslands and Grassland Sciences in Northern China.National Research Council(ed.).Washington,DC,USA:National Academy Press.Chapter 4.67-84.https:/nap.nationalacademies.org/read/1942/chapter/8.Zhong,L.,Zhou,X.,Wang,Y.,Li,F.,Zhou,S.,Bai,Y.et al.(2017
141、).Mixedgrazingandclippingisbeneficialtoecosystemrecoverybutmay increase potential N2O emissions in a semi-arid grassland.Soil Biology and Biochemistry 114,42-51.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2017.07.002.and provides less forage production in the short term.When fertilizer is applied during mowing
142、,the additional cost is around 750 CNY/ha.Due to the short-term nature of this study,there is no data for a long-term cost-benefit analysis.It is estimated that herders income will increase after one rotational cycle(3-5 years).6.Challenges and potential issuesOne of the potential issues for upscali
143、ng lies in how herders perceive trade-offs between the short-and long-term benefits of rotational mowing.This approach will increase the total and average per unit forage yield in the long term.However,in the short term,income will likely decrease due to reduced harvesting from unmowed belts.Still,f
144、urther experiments are required to test the effectiveness of rotational mowing operations under a variety of ecological conditions.To do this,the government or local civil societies need to establish a management mechanism(such as an eco-payment and monitoring system)in the early stages of such proj
145、ects to supplement the incomes of local herders,as well as develop awareness and capacity for such implementation.Sharing new knowledge with both women and men and building their capacities in improved management of grasslands are critical ingredients in driving environmental sustainability and live
146、lihood improvements.The entire local community is expected to benefit from this intervention in the longer term.7.Prospects for commercial transformation and promotion of findingsAccording to the official website of the Inner Mongolian Government,the total area of mowed natural grasslands in Xilingo
147、l in 2018 was 2.23 million ha,accounting for 67.1%of the total area of mowed grasslands.The unmowed belts reserved for restoration covered 63,600 ha,an increase of 25,800 ha compared to 2017.This accounts for only 4.25%of the actual mowed grassland area.Despite these improvements,the proportion of r
148、estoration rotation belts in mowed grasslands remains low.Therefore,significant areas of growth remain for promoting this approach throughout Inner Mongolia.Between 2018 and 2021,some counties in Inner Mongolia released government regulations for natural grassland management,requiring 2025%of an are
149、a to be reserved rotationally or at least 7%area reserved for seed banks if grassland habitat does not allow restricted rotational mowing.This regulation is supported by the government monitoring system and payment for the ecosystem service programme,allowing for better up-scaling our intervention w
150、ithin Inner Mongolia.By referring to the Chinese National Technical Regulation For Rotational Mowing On Natural Grassland(GB/T 27515-2011),this approach could also be applied elsewhere.Further information Contact:Yongfei Bai,Institute of Botany,CASEmail:10Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem resto
151、ration in ChinaCase 3.Restoration of degraded grassland using biophysical methodsBrief OverviewThis chapter introduces a grassland restoration practice using biophysical methods in the Hunshandake sandy region in China.It was developed by the IMGERS based on over 20 years of research and experiments
152、.The interventions were based on the different land types(etching pits,steep and gentle slopes,inter-dune flat lands and lowlands).They introduced issue-based comprehensive restoration approaches,such as engineering measures,physical sand barriers,planting and natural restoration(Fig.3.1).This appro
153、ach was upscaled through public and private partnerships by engaging multiple stakeholders.This can be used as a reference by the grassland management sectors.11Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaFigure 3.1 Comparison of changes before the restoration in 2015(a,b,c)and after
154、the restoration in 2016(d,e,f),in 2018(g,h,i)and 2019(j,k,l)Source:IMGERS,CAS1.Background China has a grassland area of nearly 4 million km2,approximately 41.7%of the total terrestrial land mass,3.2 times that of domestic cropland,and 2.5 times that of domestic forest(Du 2006).Ninety per cent of tha
155、t grassland area is showing some form of deterioration,and 60%of that is facing severe deterioration(Akiyama and Kawamura 2007).This potentially affects 400 million people,and the direct economic loss is estimated at 54 billion CNY per annum(Akiyama and Kawamura 2007).For centuries,the rangelands of
156、 northern China have provided forage for livestock,but they are also facing degradation.Anthropogenic activities,particularly those caused by unfit rangeland management policies and outdated management practices,on top of arid climatic conditions,have been the major causes of rangeland deterioration
157、 in arid areas of Northern China.Due to the ecological challenges facing the Chinese pasture industry,the CAS set up the IMGERS in 1979 to explore sustainable rangeland development and management schemes.The IMGERS sits in the Xilin river basin,a representative temperate grassland in China.The IMGER
158、S is a crucial CERN station and has dedicated the last 40 years to studying key issues vital to national and global ecosystem development.Many of its research findings have been successfully adopted in rangeland conservation and have seen both ecological and economic benefits.12Good practices on vul
159、nerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaFigure 3.2 Restoration procedures carried out for various land types in the Hunshandake sandy region2.The intervention approach,implementation plan and restoration outcomesOne such example is a rangeland recovery programme carried out in the Hunshandake sandy re
160、gion.The Hunshandake region is in the central part of Inner Mongolia.Occupying an area of 52,000 km2 with an average elevation of 1,100 m,it is one of the 10 largest sandy lands in China and the nearest to the nations capital.Studies in the Hunshandake region showed that the dunes and etching pits c
161、onstitute approximately one-third of the total area and require active restoration.The remaining two-thirds consist of inter-dune flat lands and lowlands,where some vegetation is still intact,and the soil seed bank has been partly preserved.These land types can be treated with prohibited or intermit
162、tent grazing procedures,utilizing natural succession to recover vegetation.After an extended period of research,a management scheme was implemented in the region in 2015 that can be described as one-third active management,two-thirds sealed-off natural restoration,which was very effective(Fig.3.1).T
163、he overall intervention approach based on the different land types is shown in Figure 3.2.Firstly,the active management of etching pits involves flattening them using engineering measures(Fig.3.3)and then creating physical sand barriers combined with revegetation.The physical barriers were made usin
164、g Phragmites communis reed straws buried in the ground in diamond formations.Mixed annual and perennial,deep-and shallow-rooted seeds were used for revegetation.The annual/perennial combination matches fast revegetation with subsequent long-term colonization,while the deep/shallow-root combination m
165、atches varied water requirement levels to minimize risk from drought.Restoration procedures have proven useful just one year after implementation(Fig.3.1,Fig.3.3).Figure 3.3 Flattening of etching pits using engineering measures(Source:IMGERS,CAS)Source:IMGERS,CASLand typeApproachGoalMechanical flatt
166、eningAlleviate wind erosion,promote germinationEtching pitGrid(biological+physical)Form sand barrier,promote germinationSlopeArtificial reseedingQuick revegetationFlat landSealed-offPromote natural restoration13Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaSecondly,for steep slopes,phys
167、ical sand barriers were fixed to the ground,in which mixed vegetation was planted(Fig.3.4).Additional fixture was needed in extremely windy seasons to prevent erosion.For gentle slopes,biological sand barriers were created using shrubs such as desert willow(Salix psammophila),Hedysarum laeve and san
168、d sagebrush(Artemisia desertorum).Mixed vegetation was planted inside the barriers with reed straws fixed on top to block the excessive wind.Restoration of these land types also proved useful after one year(Fig.3.1,Fig.3.4,and Fig 3.5).Thirdly,sealed-off or fenced natural restoration was applied to
169、the inter-dune flat lands and lowlands,which emphasizes the self-colonizing abilities of the surviving seed and vegetation.Additional re-seeding was done in areas with suboptimal vegetation.Visible changes in vegetation coverage could be seen in 4 years (Fig.3.1).Results indicate that within three y
170、ears of the restoration practices,terrains with etching pits and movable sand dunes were noticeably improved.Adding subsequent self-sustaining vegetation after the initial treatment successfully maintained ground cover.After two years of restoration,the vegetation recovery was highly successful in t
171、he project areas.Even during the 2016 drought,these areas still demonstrated abundant vegetation.Aside from the ecological benefits,these restoration trials provide empirical evidence and data for the nations restoration projects in other rangelands and sandy-regions.Prominent government officials a
172、t various levels have visited on many occasions to see the restoration results and have spoken highly of the project.3.Demonstration and upscaling In 2015,the dedicated research team in the IMGERS initiated the experimental“1/3 restoration and 2/3 recovery”programme.The initial trial area covered 15
173、,000 ha in the Hunshandake sandy region where the IMGERS was located.Following this successful demonstration,the IMGERS continued cooperating with the Inner Mongolia M-Grass Ecology and Environment Company and the Wulagai regional government the Xilingol League of Inner Mongolia to restore degenerat
174、ed grassland in Xilingol,adapting the restoration programme to more than 2,000 ha of sandy land.The restoration programme was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China(under the Comprehensive Restoration of Desertification Area project,2012BAD16B00).The IMGERS supervised the execu
175、tion of the subproject rangeland recovery programme in the Hunshandake sandy region.Based on the programme,the IMGERS has been able to duplicate the recovery practice in multiple counties in Xilingol.The local government/league and the herders were the most important stakeholders in the restoration
176、programme.Throughout the restoration project,the project management team leased rangeland from the local herders to ensure their basic interests.Meanwhile,the project team offered labour contracts,management opportunities and technology training Figure 3.4 Conditions of steep slopes before(left)and
177、after(right)restorationSource:IMGERS,CAS14Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in Chinato the local community,building up local capacities and ensuring their continuous participation in the restoration process.The IMGERS cooperated closely with the Inner Mongolia M-Grass Ecology and En
178、vironment Company in research and technology transfer,and was further enabled by the companys human resources and rangeland management experiences.The local government also has a strong interest in ecological restoration and the development of a green economy.The combined effort of these relevant pa
179、rties made the deteriorated grassland restoration project in Xilingol possible.4.Challenges and potential issues The most prominent obstacle the restoration project faced was the technological adjustment of the revegetation practices to accommodate different conditions in different areas.For example
180、,desert willow branches initially had very low survival rates and caused problems when constructing sand barriers.The IMGERS conducted extensive greenhouse rooting and winter-storage experiments to improve its field-survival rate.A continuous and large-scale restoration effort would require large qu
181、antities of desert willow branches,but the current mass harvest based on cutting and subsequent transplantation may have unfavourable effects on the ecosystem.The IMGERS has started experimenting with tissue culture techniques to achieve large-scale desert willow production and alleviate detrimental
182、 impacts on the ecosystem.Another lesson learned from the restoration practices is that subsequent protection and management are just as important as the initial construction,especially in cases of desertification where continuous deterioration is of concern.Figure 3.5 Conditions of gentle slopes be
183、fore(near)and after(far)restoration(Source:IMGERS,CAS)Source:IMGERS,CAS15Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in China5.Prospects for commercial transformation and promotion of findings The sandy-area restoration project demonstrated in the Hunshandake region is not only successful in
184、controlling desertification processes but also highly economically efficient as it relies heavily on natural succession and less on human input.The idea of utilizing ecological niche theory and biological complementation to generate ground vegetation that relies on semi-natural succession considerab
185、ly benefits on-site ecological restoration and enhances the vegetative communitys stability and resilience to negative disturbances.The core principle behind the restoration process can be turned into site-specific restoration practices suitable for regional requirements.Further information Contact:
186、Yongfei Bai and Yang Wang,Institute of Botany,CAS;IMGERSLi Li,Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research,CASEmail:,li.liunep-iemp.orgReferences Akiyama,T.and Kawamura,K.(2007).Grassland degradation in China:Methods of monitoring,management and restoration.Grassland Science 53(1)
187、,1-17.https:/doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-697X.2007.00073.x.Du,Q.(2006).Sustainable Development Strategy of Chinese Prataculture.(in Chinese).Beijing:China Agricultural PressAlthough the initial restoration and construction in the Hunshandake region are dependent on national and regional funds,the continu
188、ed management of the sites requires little input.The on-site restoration practices are mostly performed by the local communities and industries with guidance from technological advisers.Successful restoration and prevention of desertification considerably benefits local communities,especially the li
189、velihoods of those who rely on rangeland productivity,such as herders and livestock industries.The continuous participation of local stakeholders is thus guaranteed.Ensuring that economic benefits reach both local women and men is crucial.Empowering women through related restoration activities ensur
190、es that they are included in productive work,further reducing the gender gap and leading to progress towards environmental sustainability.16Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaCase 4.Natural regeneration of sandy lands at the ecological transition zoneBrief OverviewIn this cha
191、pter,we introduce an ecosystem management approach to develop human-assisted natural regeneration in degraded sandy lands while enhancing local alternative livelihoods with livestock farms in the semi-arid and arid areas of an ecological transition zone.The local Forestry Bureau in Inner Mongolia,Ch
192、ina,developed this approach based on long-term local traditional practices and long-term research in the Mu Us Desert,China.The approach is applicable to both degraded arid and semi-arid ecozones that utilize irrigation for agricultural and livestock development.This ecosystem management approach sh
193、ould be useful and of interest to those working in the agriculture,forestry and livestock sectors.17Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaFigure 4.1.Before-after comparison of natural regeneration with fencing in the Mu Us DesertSource:Forestry Bureau in Inner Mongolia,China1.Ba
194、ckground Located in the transitional zone between agricultural farming and animal grazing in the southern Ordos Plateau,the Maowusu Sandy Land(Mu Us Desert)is bordered by the Kubuqi(Hobq)Desert to the north and the Yellow River to the east and west.It is one of 12 major dune fields in northern China
195、 and belongs to the sandy lands,with an area of 32,100 km2(Yang,Li and Conacher 2012).Research shows that a total of 1,680 km2 of sandy lands affected by desertification were managed during 19902017 in the Mu Us Desert.This can be divided into three stages of desertification:development(19902000),ra
196、pid reversal(20002010),and stable reversal(20102017)(Han et al.2020).The environmental protection policies and human efforts designed to prevent and control desertification,together with the warmer and dryer climate,played an important role in reversing desertification(Han et al.2020).Our study area
197、 Wushen is part of the hinterlands of the Mu Us Desert,with climate shifts across an arid/semi-arid/humid region.The natural vegetation is dominated by sand-tolerant plants,such as Artemisia ordosica.Due to the combined impacts of climate change and overgrazing,the natural vegetation is significantl
198、y degraded.Our approach is part of the restoration efforts in the Mu Us Desert aimed at addressing grassland degradation.The approach used primarily involves hillside(i.e.sandy land)fencing and grazing prohibition,supplemented by some grassland restoration measures,with the aim of restoring the over
199、all grassland vegetation.Meanwhile,livestock rearing is enhanced through vegetation restoration.2.The intervention approach and implementation planThis approach is composed of four steps:(1)site selection for natural restoration by fencing;(2)fencing methods;(3)measures for natural regeneration and
200、afforestation;and(4)developing alternative livelihoods.Step 1.Selection of plots for fencing:To ensure effective nature restoration,the site must have a certain capacity for natural regeneration.Plots with more than 7,500 evenly distributed shrubs/ha were selected as natural restoration sites.Site c
201、onditions varied considerably,especially in terms of human disturbance,existing plant community,vegetation succession stage and soil seed bank.These factors impact natural restoration speed and results.The two major types of vegetation selected for our study were shrubs and grass with sparse shrubs.
202、Step 2.Fencing methods:Full fencing within the first 35 years of restoration is recommended,followed by semi-fencing and rotational fencing afterwards,varying according to the site conditions and natural regeneration capacity.Step 3.Human-assisted natural regeneration and afforestation measures:Sinc
203、e most of the plots used for fencing hillsides are characterized by poor habitat and vegetation coverage,natural restoration will take time to make an impact.Therefore,we also introduced human-assisted measures to promote natural regeneration.Afforestation,fencing,aerial sowing,branch burying and sh
204、rub and grass planting were 18Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in Chinaimplemented to support the overall goal of degraded land restoration.Step 4.Developing alternative livelihoods:Great efforts were made to promote livestock farming.Forage processing sites were commonly establish
205、ed in high-quality grasslands and forested areas.Livestock farming,rotational grazing and seasonal grazing by ecozone are also commonly implemented in this region.In addition,the livestock structure was adjusted and optimized to increase the proportion of female livestock.3.Restoration outcomesAfter
206、 fencing the hillsides to prohibit grazing,natural regeneration soon followed,with scattered plant species spreading rapidly.This shows that fencing clearly plays a positive role in restoring vegetation and sand fixation.In the three years following the introduction of the grazing prohibition,the ve
207、getation coverage continued to increase from 15%to 25.2%,29.23%and 31.04%,respectively.In areas left open for grazing,vegetation coverage decreased to 13.04%,9.62%and 6.89%over the same period.After two years of grazing prohibition,the biomass and seedling regeneration of Salix cheilophila increased
208、 significantly.Likewise,the average plant height and canopy width of this species increased by 135%and 143%,respectively.The number of one-year-old Salix cheilophila seedlings was nine times greater than that observed in the controlled area.Similarly,the average plant height and canopy width of Cara
209、gana korshinskii increased by 296%and 143%,respectively,and the number of one-year-old seedlings was 4.41 times greater than in the controlled area.The average plant height and canopy width of Artemisia desertorum increased by 81%and 100%,respectively.The number of one-year-old Artemisia desertorum
210、seedlings was 4.5 times greater than in the control area.The number of Artemisia desertorum and Agriophyllum squarrosum increased significantly after fencing.Similarly,Psammochloa villosa and Sophora alopecuroides grew rapidly and expanded in clusters.The density of Agriophyllum squarrosum individua
211、ls grew from 18 plants/m2 to 44 plants/m2.Likewise,the density of Psammochloa villosa increased from 0.29 plants/m2 to 5.07 plants/m2,and the density of Artemisia desertorum increased from 4 plants/m2 to 18 plants/m2.This intervention had a positive impact on women in the region by developing altern
212、ative livelihoods and Figure 4.2.Demonstration of livestock farming as an alternative livelihood in the Mu Us Desert Source:Forestry Bureau in Inner Mongolia,China19Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in Chinaindoor livestock farms and reducing exposure to land degradation and deserti
213、fication.4.Demonstration and upscaling This approach was tested primarily in Wushen and was later expanded to another 3,000 ha surrounding the Mu Us Desert.In the areas where Sabina vulgaris and Salix cheilophila dominated,branches were buried to promote natural regeneration.This method was used to
214、restore 4 ha of Sabina vulgaris and 45 ha of Salix cheilophila.Replanting of forest and artificial grasslands was carried out within good habitats(with a good water and energy supply and fertile soil).Afforestation and grass sowing were implemented in moving sandy lands at a large scale.In the past
215、five years,133.33 ha of afforestation,100 ha of aerial seeding,33.33 ha of human-assisted seeding and 120 ha of sand barriers have been undertaken.5.Estimation of investment and investment payback periodIt is estimated that the annual profit from raising one small-tailed sheep as an alternative live
216、lihood is about 1,200 CNY($180)for the local community for an expected initial infrastructure investment of about 400 CNY($60)plus an annual investment for grass forage of 300 CNY($45).This 500 CNY($75)net profit from each small-tailed sheep can provide some incentive for local communities to adopt
217、natural regeneration practices.Meanwhile,for the first year,around 170,000 CNY of initial investment is required to build a medium-sized livestock farm with 100 sheep and a natural ecosystem regeneration system.To break this down,it would require 1,000 mu of grassland to support 100 small-tailed she
218、ep.It would then cost around 100 CNY/m to construct fences in the grasslands,resulting in a total investment of 100,000 CNY.Replanting and grassland management costs 30 CNY per mu,with a total annual investment of 30,000 CNY.Additionally,about 40,000 CNY is needed to construct medium-sized livestock
219、 farms and other necessary infrastructure to support 100 sheep.It is expected that in 23 years,the aforementioned investment will be paid back through the alternative livelihood of raising small-tailed sheep.In addition,by planting Salix cheilophila,local farmers got government subsidies of 100 CNY/
220、mu,and Salix cheilophila biomass can be sold at 160-180 CNY/t.6.Prospects for commercial transformation and promotion of findingsThe Mu Us,Kubuqi and Ulan Buh Deserts and the Yellow River Irrigation Areas are typical ecozones used for agriculture and livestock grazing.However,these ecosystems have b
221、ecome highly fragile due to increased human activities.Animal husbandry in the region is one of the primary income sources for farmers and herders.Fencing,grazing prohibition,assisted planting,livestock farm and livestock structural adjustment are recommended key actions.Meanwhile,some government fi
222、nancial support for initial investment is required.This approach is a promising prospect for sand fixation and natural restoration while improving the livelihoods of local inhabitants.References Han,X.,Jia,G.,Yang,G.,Wang,N.,Liu,F.,Chen,H.,et al.(2020).Spatiotemporal dynamic evolution and driving fa
223、ctors of desertificationintheMuUsSandyLandin30years.Scientific Reports 10.https:/doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78665-9.Yang,X.,Li,H.and Conacher,A.(2012).Large-scale controls on the development of sand seas in northern China.Quaternary International 250,74-83.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.03.052
224、.Further information Contact:Xiufang Xu,Wushen Forestry Bureau,Inner MongoliaPhone:+86-Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaCase 5.Coupling agricultural crops and livestock rearing at irrigated farmlandsBrief OverviewCoupling agricultural crops and livestock was de
225、veloped as an alternative approach for irrigated croplands,introducing livestock rearing to promote better resource efficiency and income.The intervention approach included two components:1)introduce a dual-crop system of grain and grass,instead of the traditional one-crop system,together with impro
226、ved grass-planting methods;2)introduce livestock rearing to couple with the planting system and enhance one another.This approach is applicable to semi-arid,semi-humid and humid plain areas.This should be useful and of interest to those working in eco-agricultural economies,the livestock industry an
227、d a broad spectrum of land resource sectors.21Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaFigure 5.1.Landscape in the Loess Plateau with animal husbandry surrounded by plantationPhoto source:Cong Ou1.BackgroundIn the dryland agricultural areas of northern China,the current cropping sy
228、stem consists primarily of planting systems that use a single crop per year.In the winter-crop planting area,there are 90120 days in summer when the land has no crops growing,yet it consumes 25%of the total annual precipitation.In the spring-crop planting area,there are approximately 200 days in the
229、 winter when the land has no crops growing,yet it consumes 27%of the total annual precipitation.This is a waste of land and water resources.Conservational tilling or soil covering practices can reduce some soil water loss,but water waste remains high.In the context of climate warming,the northern cl
230、imate-based boundaries of the double cropping system have moved significantly northward and westward in the Liaoning,Hebei,Gansu,Shaanxi and Shanxi Provinces of China(Gao et al.2019).This provides more opportunities for areas of northern China to make more effective use of natural resources by adjus
231、ting their cropping systems.Livestock production is unevenly distributed in China(Zhang et al.2019).It is concentrated in a few regions,and consequently,manure-nutrient excretion exceeds the nutrient uptake capacity of local cropland in these regions.Uneven distribution of livestock production,in pa
232、rticular high livestock density near urban areas,may lead to a high proportion of the population being exposed to multiple pollutants in the air and watercourses(Bai 2022).To address these issues,coupling crops and livestock management can be a practical alternative approach for the dryland agricult
233、ural areas of northern China.For example,grass can be sowed in the non-crop season for more livestock rearing,and livestock manure can be used as a crop fertilizer and feedstock for other livestock and poultry.Nutrients thus cycle between animals and plants so that they can be more adequately absorb
234、ed and utilized by the entire ecosystem.This can solve the problem of manure pollution from the livestock industry,reduce production costs and improve quality,hence increasing overall sustainability.22Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in China2.The intervention approach,implementati
235、on plan and restoration outcomesFigure 5.2 shows the intervention approach used in our case study and how crop planting and livestock rearing enhance one another.The intervention approach includes two main components:1)introducing a dual-crop system of grain and grass,instead of the traditional one-
236、crop system,together with improved grass-planting methods;2)introducing livestock rearing to couple with the planting system to enhance one another.2.1 Promoting and experimenting with a dual-cropping system,and their restoration outcomes We sought to determine the feasibility of a dual-cropping sys
237、tem in semi-arid areas.To do this,we examined two cropping system designs:1)a winter wheat with a summer crop and 2)an overwintering forage with a spring sowing crop.The first design was carried out using multiple sowings of corn,soybeans,millet and Amaranthus spp.in summer,following the winter-whea
238、t harvesting.Our experiments showed that additional summer crops can significantly improve land productivity and water utilization.In particular,summer crops such as soybeans and maize can even induce an increased yield of winter wheat.Meanwhile,the dual-crop system used 28.7 mm more water than the
239、one-crop system.In the second design,we sowed winter-rye grass during the crop-free winter period,followed by the usual autumn-harvest crops like maize.The land productivity was up to 49.7%higher than the maize monoculture system,while it consumed 101.5 mm more water.2.2 Improving grass-planting met
240、hodsAfter three years of experiments,a set of approaches to improve grass planting was developed,consisting of the following four aspects:selecting suitable grass species,improving grass-planting methods,sowing a mix of different forage and crop species,and sowing drought-resistant species.In our st
241、udies,all these aspects resulted in higher ecosystem productivity,efficient water use,effective land resources use and more drought resilience.Regarding suitable grass species selection,54 herb varieties were introduced and tested.Among them,11 species with good drought resistance,fast growth and hi
242、gh yield were selected after two years.Among the best-performing species,Cichorium intybus had the highest fresh grass yield of 77,983 kg/ha,followed by the legumes Astragalus honghenensis and Onobrychis viciifolia,which yielded 61,552 kg/ha and 30,297 kg/ha,respectively.The production of Medicago s
243、ativa L.ranged from 29,697 kg/ha to 21,622 kg/ha,while that of the Gramineae forage Bromus Dukang and Bromus inermis L.ranged from 25,567 kg/ha to 20,232 kg/ha.Grass-planting methods were optimized for different topographies.For areas containing a gentle slope(10)and abandoned farmland,it is recomme
244、nded to complete ploughing in autumn,followed by planting Medicago on shady(north-east)slopes and Onobrychis viciifolia on sunny(south)slopes in spring.In the second year,the coverage of this sowed grassland can reach 100%and a height of 6080 cm.Fresh grass yield in this scenario can reach 37,500 kg
245、/ha.For grasslands on slopes steeper than 15,it is recommended that grasses are planted according to the contour interval.We recommend digging to make a 0.81.0 m-wide flat area along the contour Figure 5.2.Coupled cycle by combining crop planting and livestock rearingManureAgriculture residual and f
246、orageImproved livestock varietyLivestock fast-growing methodsLivestock rearing basedagriculture productionDual crop system of grainand grassImproved grass plantingmethods23Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in Chinaline for planting grass species in the first year,while a distance of
247、 1.01.5 m should be kept in between two planting belts.For broken terrain,fish-scale pits can be dug,where seeds should be sown in the following spring.On south-facing slopes,Astragalus adsurgens is most commonly cultivated,while Medicago sativa is more common on shady slopes.This species can also b
248、e mixed with Lespedeza bicolor and Caragana korshinskii,especially if grazing is restricted for half a year after sowing.In the second year,the coverage of these grasslands was 85.2%,with a fresh grass yield of 18,450 kg/ha.In areas with heavy rainfall or mountainous areas with thick soil layers,gra
249、sses like Astragalus adsurgens can be sown during the rainy season.In the second year after sowing,the vegetation coverage rate reached 79.8%,and 11,550 kg/ha of fresh grass was produced.Mixed sowing of leguminous and gramineous species is recommended.Our results show that this can significantly imp
250、rove the overall yield and quality of forage.The best ratio of leguminous and gramineous forages is 2:1.This strategy resulted in production 7.3%higher than that of single sowing with one leguminous species and 74.5%higher than that of single sowing with one gramineous species.With regards to drough
251、t-resistant sowing,our results indicated that in dry years,mulching with straw can overcome drought-associated problems on barren slope land.For example,covering drylands dominated by Coronilla varia with straw can help the grass sprout three days earlier than in non-mulched barren fields and can in
252、crease the germination rate by 38%.This approach has been used in an area of 200 ha.Planted grasslands on original cropland can produce yields of over 37,500 kg/ha,while the yield of sowed grasslands on these original grasslands can reach 12,000-18,000 kg/ha.The crude protein content,crude fat conte
253、nt and crude ash contents of improved grasslands were estimated to be 13.4%,2.4%and 8.3%,respectively,which were 8.3%,0.2%and 2.1%higher than those from original grasslands.The crude fibre content was reduced by 9.1%,and the surface run-off and land erosion were reduced by up to 21.6%and 26.3%,respe
254、ctively.2.3 Introducing livestock rearing to couple with the planting system In this case-study area with a semi-arid climate,forage production is abundant in summer and falls in winter.In this context,we introduced fast-growing lambs to match with the forage production time.The main aims were to cr
255、ossbreed and improve livestock varieties to increase meat productivity and shorten the livestock rearing period.This included introducing non-native sheep such as Dorset and Suffolk sheep and crossbreeding them with native sheep.According to the physiological and nutritional needs of the livestock,t
256、wo kinds of sheep-feed additives and three kinds of rabbit-feed additives were applied for experimental observation.This ensured the productivity of the livestock sector,and that the forage was consumed in a more efficient way.It also created more job opportunities for women working at home.3.Demons
257、tration and upscaling This approach has been experimented with in an area of 200 ha in China,mainly within the Loess Plateau.Making full use of land resources by coupling agriculture and livestock sectors allows for integrated economic,Figure 5.3.a)chipped crop residues as forage,b)sheep fed by crop
258、 residues and planted grass Photo source:Yurui Liab24Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in Chinaecological and social sustainability and promotes sustainable and stable rural development.Meanwhile,combining crops and livestock can help promote the development of community-based enter
259、prises.Such enterprises are engaged in processing agricultural and poultry products,establishing an integrated eco-farm system and creating organic fertilizers,thus boosting the rural economy.4.Estimate of investment and investment payback periodThe following is an estimate based on a mixed crop and
260、 livestock project.The total cost of the small-scale project was 100,000 CNY,including 33,000 CNY for purchasing calves,lambs and young medicinal earthworms;27,000 CNY for transporting raw materials such as crop straw,fertilizers and forage;35,000 CNY for the salaries of people engaged in agricultur
261、al production and management of forage processing etc.;and 5,000 CNY for technical training.It is expected that in three years,such small investments at the household level will be paid back by livestock-based benefits.5.Prospects for commercial transformation and promotion of findingsThis kind of d
262、ual-cropping system can be expanded due to climate warming.The yield of the dual-cropping system is projected to increase by 11.686.2%with different irrigations in northern China(Gao et al.2019).With the water shortage in northern China,multiple-cropping practices that include innovative water-savin
263、g techniques and breeding technologies will need to be developed.Recent research indicates that relocating livestock closer to croplands could increase opportunities for manure recycling and reduce the need for synthetic fertilizer,facilitating nitrogen pollution abatement and reducing the impacts o
264、f nitrogen pollution on human health(Gu 2022).Bai et al.(2022)demonstrated that relocating one-third of livestock in China to match the distribution of croplands would reduce manure nitrogen pollution by two-thirds and halve the number of people exposed to high NH3 emissions from manure.Relocating t
265、wo-thirds of livestock could further reduce NH3 exposure for 90%of the population of China(Bai et al.2022).This kind of coupled livestock-cropland system has great potential to support the implementation of the United Nations Environment Assembly Resolution on Sustainable Nitrogen Management(UNEP./E
266、A.5/Res.2).For effective implementation,a new coupled livestock-cropland system must increase agricultural productivity and farmer income by increasing the size of farm and cropping systems(Gu 2022).From a community perspective,this approach can help guide local farmers to meet market demand and adj
267、ust their agricultural production system while increasing their income.Compared with traditional models that separate crops and livestock,this alternative approach can help improve the environment by saving fertilizer and water and optimizing overall resource allocation.In addition,the approach prom
268、otes upscaling of new technologies and products,increases local residents incomes,nourishes community-based enterprises and establishes a favourable socioeconomic development practice.Therefore,it is an important approach for promoting the sustainable growth of the rural economy.As such,this approac
269、h provides many opportunities for both commercialization and environmental sustainability.Further information Contact:Zongshan Li,Maierdang Keyimu,RCEES,CASEmail:zsli_References Bai,Z.,Fan,X.,Jin,X.,Zhao,Z.,Wu,Y.,Oenema,O.,et al.(2022).Relocate 10 billion livestock to reduce harmful nitrogen polluti
270、on exposure for 90%of Chinas population.Nature Food 3,152-160.https:/doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00453-z.Gao,J.,Yang,X.,Zheng,B.,Liu,Z.,Zhao,J.,Sun,et al.(2019).Effects of climate change on the extension of the potential double cropping region and crop water requirements in Northern China.Agricultura
271、l and Forest Meteorology 268:146-155.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2019.01.009.Gu,B.(2022).Recoupling livestock and crops.Nature Food 3,102-103.https:/doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00466-2.Zhang,C.,Liu,S.,Wu,S.,Jin,S.,Reis,S.,Liu,H.and Gu,B.(2019).Rebuilding the linkage between livestock and cropl
272、and to mitigate agricultural pollution in China.Resources,Conservation and Recycling 144,65-73.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.01.011.25Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaCase 6.Ecological restoration in mountain gully areas for soil and water conservation and poverty
273、 reductionBrief OverviewThis case study serves to introduce an effective multi-objective tree-planting approach,mainly to improve local livelihoods and ecological function.This work is part of the Grain for Green Programme in the Loess Plateau of China,one of the largest ecological construction prog
274、rammes in the world.It has been successfully applied in river valleys,plains,hilly and gully areas and soil and water conservation areas.It is recommended for similar landscape areas requiring restoration and for the agriculture,forestry,and land resources sector.26Good practices on vulnerable ecosy
275、stem restoration in ChinaFigure 6.1.Comparison before(1990s)and after(2010s)afforestation through the Grain for Green Programme in the Loess Plateau of China Photo source:IGSNRR,CAS1.Background The Loess Plateau of China,located in central China,is the largest and deepest loess deposit in the world,
276、covering an area of 640,000 km2(Fu et al.2017).It is characterized by a continental monsoon climate with an average annual precipitation of 400 mm,which mainly falls in July and August at relatively high intensity.Most of the plateau is located in a semi-arid zone,based on the aridity index.Its pred
277、ominant sediment is loose loess.As a result of thousands of years of anthropic impact,the Loess Plateau suffers from soil erosion,land degradation,natural disasters and extreme poverty(Fu et al.2017).In addition,river erosion(or flowing water erosion)makes the terrain fragmented,forming numerous gul
278、lies.Carried by flowing water,a large amount of soil has accumulated in a relatively flat area to form river valleys and plains,severely damaging the surface vegetation and ecosystems.Given these adverse conditions and the local socioeconomic development context,we suggested this tree-planting pract
279、ice to increase local greenery,improve livelihoods and reduce poverty.This tree planting is adapted to local conditions and designed to alleviate soil loss,improve ecosystem function,boost forestry development and support income increases for farmers and foresters.This endeavour is expected to achie
280、ve the goal of“identifying the land use rights related to mountains,restoring land with trees,and settling people in peace and contentment.”2.Intervention approach and implementation planOur interventions are based on the Grain for Green Programme in the Loess Plateau of China,which is backed strong
281、ly by government policies on afforestation and poverty reduction.Meanwhile,different research institutions,local governments and their partners work together with communities to develop and implement technical approaches and methods.2.1 Afforestation policy for poverty reduction In 2018,the Chinese
282、Government issued the Work Plan of Eco-poverty Alleviation aimed at reducing rural poverty by implementing a new round of ecological construction programmes.The Grain for Green Programme,one of the largest ecological construction programmes in the world,is reconsidered 27Good practices on vulnerable
283、 ecosystem restoration in Chinaand included in the workplans tasks(Wu et al.2021).This strategy is implemented through four key means used in ecological programmes for poverty reduction,including 1)payment for ecosystem restoration project participation;2)stable wage through ecological public welfar
284、e posts;3)income through ecological industries;and 4)income through policies such as eco-compensation,making it a more powerful policy instrument to support such practices.Local governments implemented this kind of afforestation policy through the procurement of tree-planting services.In particular,
285、governments formulated plans and standards,while afforestation cooperatives,80%of which consisted of low-income households,signed contracts for tree planting on assigned lands.Once afforestation results pass review,the Government will also procure forest management tasks in the form of social servic
286、es.This promotes multi-level participatory tree planting and afforestation by low-income households and increases their income stability.The demonstration zone adopted an eco-poverty alleviation approach with five measures:returning farmland to forests,ecosystem management,ecosystem conservation,eco
287、nomic forest quality and productivity improvement,and forestry industry-based poverty alleviation.This enabled the forestry development to be transformed from a simple ecological endeavour to a close integration of ecological conservation and poverty alleviation.2.2 Afforestation methods for multipl
288、e objectives 2.2.1 Multi-species selection and nursery To meet the multiple goals of ecosystem services stability,poverty reduction and local industry development,our afforestation approach integrated these objectives through science-based species selection.The key species selected for afforestation
289、 included Pinus sylvestris and Hippophae rhamnoides Linn.2.2.2 Prepare land for afforestation and soil and water conservationPreparing land in advance is an important process for increasing the survival rate of vegetation and improving the habitat for young trees.In our context,combining afforestati
290、on with water and soil conservation engineering is the most synergistic approach.Specifically,we prepared land one or two quarters ahead of afforestation using two approaches,namely horizontal trenches and fish-scale pits.Practices have shown that such land preparation can accumulate water resources
291、,increase soil moisture content and fertility,kill insect pests,reduce soil-borne diseases and improve the light and ventilation conditions of forest land.A horizontal trench should be constructed along the contour line with the following dimensions:0.81.2 m wide at the top,0.5 m wide at the bottom,
292、0.60.7 m deep and 23 m long with 35 m spacing between the upper and lower trenches and 0.30.5 m spacing between the left and right trenches.Backfilling the topsoil is essential,and a soil ridge should be built around the ditch.The ridge should be 0.4 m high,0.9 m wide at the top,and 0.81 m wide at t
293、he bottom before the soil is tamped.The fish-scale pit should be 0.8 m long and 0.50.6 m deep,with a half-moon-shaped soil ridge built under the pits.Pits should be 23 m apart.2.2.3 Seedling plantingWhen seedlings are planted,their young root systems are vulnerable.In order to mitigate seedling mort
294、ality,robust seedlings must be selected.High-quality seedlings that have well-developed root systems and strong drought resistance will increase the survival rate of afforestation.Seedlings should be planted shortly after lifting to reduce evaporation of water from the root system.Seedlings that hav
295、e undergone temporary planting and long-distance transportation should be immersed in water for 24 hours prior to afforestation.If water loss is substantial,soaking time can be extended to 23 days.When seedlings are planted,the following three methods have been tested and are recommended according t
296、o the local environmental conditions.-Planting method 1:Soil and water conservation planting Seedlings are generally planted in spring and the rainy seasons.It is recommended to choose 3-or 4-year-old seedlings with a robust container or mycorrhizal seedlings.For example,2-year-old seedlings are pre
297、pared with nutrient mycorrhizal soil in bags,and they may be kept for 1 to 2 growing seasons in a container before planting.When planting,ensure 28Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in Chinathat seedlings are lifted,transported and planted in a coordinated way that ensures they get e
298、nough moisture.Take off the container bag immediately before planting the seedlings and ensure that the seedlings are in close contact with the nutrient soil when taken out.Planting steps include 1)digging holes in the horizontal ditch;2)planting seedlings against the ditch wall;3)maintaining the ro
299、ot system naturally;and 4)refilling the soil and treading down the earth around the root.Instead of planting a pure Pinus sylvestris forest,Pinus sylvestris and Hippophae rhamnoides Linn can be mixed when planting.-Planting method 2:film mulchingFilm mulching is also an effective afforestation techn
300、ique to improve the survival rates of seedlings.The implementation steps are as follows:1)cut a slit along one side of the film towards the centre;2)make the planting hole(tree pit)into a shallow pot-bottom shape with the edge of the hole slightly lower than the ground;3)mulch the seedlings with the
301、 film after planting to make the seedling stems pass through the centre of the film;and 4)use soil to compact the surroundings of the film and the slit.The covering soil should be about 4 cm wide and thick.The soil between the seedling stems and the mulching film should be slightly thicker(6 cm)so t
302、hat the film has no voids and vents,forming an inverted umbrella shape,which allows rainwater to flow into the seedling soil as quickly as possible.This mulching technique increases soil temperature,prevents evaporation and reduces weeds.-Planting method 3:stem-cuttingDue to the windy,dry spring,low
303、 temperature and low lignification of the branch tips of most planted seedlings,the survival rate of newly planted seedlings is very low with high evapotranspiration and weak root functioning.Hence,we suggest stem-cutting to reduce the transpiration of the aboveground part of the trees,promote the g
304、rowth of underground lateral roots and effectively improve the survival rate of plantations.The height for cutting is generally not more than 1015 cm,and 2030 cm is suitable for mountain apricots and mountain peaches,which is good for tree shape and early fruiting.However,this is not advised for cas
305、h tree species.For coniferous trees,especially Chinese pine,cutting stems may destroy the seedling growth tips and cause them to stop growing.Precautions for stem-cutting afforestation are:1)do not break the stems by pulling the bark when cutting,so as not to affect germination and growth;2)leave th
306、e soil pile around the stem and ensure stems are 23 cm above the ground to avoid air drying.The soil pile is removed only after new leaves break out from the soil.Alternatively,soil piles can be retained year-round,which can delay budding time and prevent herbivores from gnawing on the young trees.2
307、.2.4 Young forest managementTo conserve all newly planted young trees,strict enclosures should be used to prevent destruction by humans and animals.While trees are young,legume pastures can be planted between the upper and lower horizontal trenches to achieve short-term benefits while improving soil
308、 fertility and promoting forest growth.3.Restoration outcomes These restoration practices have been continuously promoted and applied widely in the soil conservation and water storage area in Linfens hilly and gully region of the Loess Plateau(Fig.6.1).Soil erosion intensity in the river valleys and
309、 plains is much less intense after these integrated interventions.Since the implementation of this approach,forests have developed in the gully areas.Forest coverage,annual precipitation and the relative humidity of the air have increased.Low-income households were employed to implement ecological c
310、onservation measures,including 2,727 forest rangers,2,558 ecological forest rangers and 559 young seedling guardians.To improve ecosystem management,515 professional afforestation cooperatives have completed 307,300 mu of afforestation tasks through bidding.4.Demonstration and upscaling Thanks to th
311、e Grain for Green conservation programmes efforts,46,000 mu of land was returned from farmland to forests in one year.Thus far,365,800 mu has been afforested.Through the implementation of an economic forest quality and productivity improvement project,103,000 mu of cash forest was realized for 2017,
312、in addition to 198,000 mu of 29Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaHippophae rhamnoides Linn forest transformation.The forestry industry-based poverty alleviation project focused on 210,000 mu of Hippophae rhamnoides Linn forest in shallow,hilly areas in 11 counties.5.Estimate
313、 of investment and payback periodTo implement tree-planting projects,the cost of labour is about 800 CNY/mu/day.Except for looking after the seedlings at the early stage,there is basically no need for further labour.Meanwhile,afforestation will help create jobs,forest coverage and economic output.It
314、 is expected that in 56 years,these initial investments will be paid back by income from new livelihoods.6.Prospects for commercial transformation and promotion of findingsThis integrated approach has greatly improved the ecosystem function in the demonstration area,reduced soil erosion,increased lo
315、cal residents income and established a proven approach for social and economic development.Thus,this initiative has positive prospects for commercial transformation and promotion.In 2020,the Chinese Government released the Master Plan for National Key Ecosystem Protection and Restoration Major Proje
316、cts(20212035),which indicated that forest coverage will increase to 26%of the terrestrial area of China,and 56.4 million hectares of degraded land will be newly treated in the next 15 years(Sino-German Environmental Partnership II,2020).This Master Plan provides new opportunities for government-supp
317、orted restoration,as its key projects cover the main ecological regions of the Yellow River,including the ecological barrier of the Loess Plateau.Sharing knowledge and building the capacities of local men and women is considered crucial for progress towards environmental sustainability.Including wom
318、en in financial initiatives will enable more empowerment for women who are heads of households.With the national Work Plan of Eco-poverty Alleviation policy,this approach can be further upscaled in China.Scholars also suggested that eco-poverty alleviation must activate farmers utilization of land r
319、esources in ways that are both economically effective and ecologically friendly.The following four principles were suggested to safeguard the environment and foster sustainable livelihoods;1)reform the rural collective property rights system and ensure farmers accessibility to land resources;2)capit
320、alize rural land resources by establishing national geographic signs and providing branded ecological products;3)improve farmers ability and skill,especially the young generation;and 4)establish a multiparty governance and benefit sharing system for the subsequent management of ecological programmes
321、(Wu et al.2021).Further information Contact:LI Zongshan,RCEES,CASEmail:zsli_References Fu,B.,Wang,S.,Liu,Y.,Liu,J.,Liang,W.and Miao,C.(2017).Hydrogeomorphic ecosystem responses to natural and anthropogenic changes in the Loess Plateau of China.Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 45,223-243
322、.https:/doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-.Sino-German Environmental Partnership II(2020).Policy summary on the“Master Plan for National Key Ecosystem Protection and Restoration Major Projects(2021-2035)”,11 June.https:/environmental-partnership.org/news/policy-summary-on-the-master-plan-fo
323、r-national-key-ecosystem-protection-and-restoration-major-projects-2021-2035/.Accessed on 20 September 2022.Wu,Z.,Dai,X.,Li,B.,Hou,Y.(2021).Livelihood consequences of the Grain for Green Programme across regional and household scales:A case study in the Loess Plateau.Land Use Policy 111.https:/doi.o
324、rg/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105746.30Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaCase 7.Ecological orchards in slope dryland areas of ChinaBrief OverviewThe Loess Plateau of China is the worlds largest apple-producing region,and over 80%of the orchards are in rain-fed dryland areas(P
325、eng et al.2017).This case study was performed to introduce an ecologically sound,highly cost-effective orchard management approach in the drylands of China to overcome issues like water shortage,low yield,poor fruit quality and low cost-effectiveness.This approach has been developed and tested throu
326、gh the extensive practices of orchard management in China.Its application has been successful in areas with an average precipitation of 450550 mm,and we recommend it for afforestation and for consideration by poverty alleviation sectors.31Good practices on vulnerable ecosystem restoration in ChinaFi
327、gure 7.1.Demonstration of apple orchard with under canopy Vulpia myuros plantation in the Loess Plateau regionPhoto sources:RCEES,CAS1.BackgroundIn the semi-humid regions of northern China,excessive and widespread application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers in apple orchards improved apple yi
328、eld and quality but intensified deep soil desiccation and restricted the stable and healthy development of the apple industry(Gong,Yan and Wang 2011).Desiccation of the deep soil layer under dryland apple orchards is the main restricting factor for apple production in such regions(Peng et al.2017).T
329、herefore,fruit production in semi-arid areas of northern China generally suffers from low yield,poor quality and low cost-effectiveness.In the Loess Plateau of China,we developed and tested an ecological orchard management approach for drylands.Our key objectives were to increase the yield per unit
330、area and improve the quality and cost-effectiveness.We used the following key techniques:(1)enhance herbaceous vegetation in the orchard and control evaporation by covering the soil surface and(2)adopt medium-density fruit trees and restrained pruning technology to control the quantity of fruits and
331、 branches and reduce ineffective evaporation.Ecological orchards are defined as any sustainable development production system based on ecology and system sciences.This concept was derived from an orchard industry-driven concept but also benefits from ecological soundness,high cost-effectiveness and
332、energy and material flow efficiency.This technique is established through the scientific allocation of plant,animal and microorganism communities through the strategic use of light,heat,water,soil,nutrients and atmospheric resources in the orchard.2.Intervention approach and implementation plan Buil
333、ding an ecological orchard begins with selecting excellent varieties and good habitats with fertile soil.To achieve this goal,we developed an integrated management approach for orchards,livestock and grassland.This strategy included improving soil fertility by expanding planting,increasing surface soil cover of grass and mulch,avoiding over-reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides,and usin