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1、one visionone identityone communityResearch on Economic Justification ofOccupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorResearch on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorThe ASEAN SecretariatJakartaThe Associ

2、ation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN)was established on 8 August 1967.The Member States are Brunei Darussalam,Cambodia,Indonesia,Lao PDR,Malaysia,Myanmar,Philippines,Singapore,Thailand and Viet Nam.The ASEAN Secretariat is based in Jakarta,Indonesia.For inquiries,contact:The ASEAN SecretariatCommu

3、nity Relations Division(CRD)70A Jalan SisingamangarajaJakarta 12110,IndonesiaPhone:(62 21)724-3372,726-2991Fax:(62 21)739-8234,724-3504E-mail:publicasean.orgCatalogue-in-Publication DataResearch on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector

4、ASEAN:A Community of Opportunities for AllThe text of this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted,provided proper acknowledgement is given and a copy containing the reprinted material is sent to theCommunity Relations Division(CRD)of the ASEAN Secretariat,Jakarta.General information on ASEAN

5、appears online at the ASEAN Website:www.asean.orgCopyright Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN)2023.All rights reserved.iACKNOWLEDGEMENTOccupational safety and health(OSH)has been an important issue in the workplace,but it is even more critical in the construction sector.This industry is on

6、e of the most hazardous places to work,with accidents and fatality statistics substantially exceeding other occupational sectors.Such a phenomenon is a serious concern faced by both industrial and developing nations.A number of contributing factors can be attributed to this phenomenon;however,implem

7、enting an OSH programme has often been viewed to be ineffective and costly,leading to a hesitancy in implementing such in the workplace.To address this issue,the economic rationale can be considered as a viable approach for the justification of safety and health programmes in the workplace.The cost-

8、benefit models have been more used recently as an approach that a company can utilise in ensuring that OSH investments provide good returns on investment.The cost-benefit analysis(CBA)compares the costs of implementing an investment(i.e.,safety and health programmes)to the monetary value of outcomes

9、 that can be expected as shown by rigorous research.By employing this method,the management can identify and propose the most relevant programmes that can provide the greatest returns to the company.Indonesia,started a pilot project aimed at evaluating the utility of this approach by collecting data

10、 from national construction companies in ASEAN Member States.The overall results of the project demonstrated the potential of using economic rationale in justifying an OSH programme.A preliminary workshop was held in Indonesia in 2018,which finalised the title of the project to“Research on Economic

11、Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementations in the Construction Sector”.This project was endorsed by the 19th ASEAN Occupational Safety and Health Network(OSHNET)Coordination Board Meeting(CBM)held on 2-3 April 2018 in Cambodia and received funding support from the ASEAN Deve

12、lopment Fund(ADF).Subsequently,a regional consultant from Indonesia was contracted for the project,with eight national experts recruited to collect national data.The regional report received ad-referendum endorsement by ASEAN-OSHNET on 21 November 2022.This project could not be accomplished without

13、the help and support from the following individuals and organisations:yThe ASEAN-OSHNET focal points from labour ministries of ASEAN Member States,whom there are too many to acknowledge individually,for your invaluable time and efforts to review the draft reports,provide data and information,and sha

14、re insights.yTo the Directorate General of Labour Inspector and OSH Development,led by Mrs.Haiyani Rumondang(Director General),for leadership and guidance during implementation of the Study,and her team members,particularly Mr.M.Idham(Director of OSH Testing),Mrs.Erdiana Muliawaty,Mr.Faried Abdurahm

15、an,Mrs.Anndalussia Firda Farida,Mrs.Yessie Kualasari,Murni Siswati,Nely Jumaliyah,Eka Setiya Nova,Sonya Ermina,Dwi Ferthasari,Fitri Nurani,Umi Muroah Dwi Yugowati.ii yTo the ASEAN Secretariat particularly H.E.Ekkaphab Phanthavong,Deputy Secretary-General for ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community(ASCC),Dire

16、ctor Rodora T.Babaran of the Human Development Directorate;and the Labour and Civil Services Division of the ASEAN Secretariat,led by Ms.Mega Irena(Head and Assistant Director),and her team members:Senior Officer Madyah Rahmi Lukri and Officer Felicia Clarissa for their support on resource mobilisat

17、ion for this project,professional coordination and facilitation of consultations with stakeholders,as well as for their valuable inputs to the draft report.yInternational Labour Organization(ILO)particularly Yuka Ujita MD PhD,Senior Occupational Safety and Health Specialist,ILO Regional Office Asia

18、Pacific;yIndonesian Occupational Health Doctors Association(IDKI);yRegional consultant,Hardianto Iridiastadi,PhD,CPE(Indonesia)yNational experts for their collaboration throughout the project:Dr.Youth Sokpheara(Cambodia)Mr.Viboon Sithimolada(Lao PDR)Dr.Rafael Nanda Raudranisala(Indonesia)Ir.Dr.Mohd

19、Fairuz Ab Rahman(Malaysia)Dr.Rosemary R.Seva(The Philippines)Goh Chin Keong(Singapore)Akarapong Nual-On(Thailand)Nguyen Sy Khanh Linh(Viet Nam)iiiForewordCOVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on nearly every aspect,not just a health crisis,but a social and economic one as well.It has disturbed

20、 the economies and labour markets globally.Construction sector without exception are also affected,and worsen the ASEAN regions economy.Currently,besides attention to economic recovery of construction sector,concern on OSH implementation in construction sector needs to be strengthened.ASEAN OSHNET h

21、as a strong commitment in improving safety and health in the workplace.One of the major challenges in providing a safe and healthy working environment has to do with the costs of implementing occupational safety and health(OSH)programs in the workplace.Based on the ASEAN OSHNET Work Plan 2021-2025,I

22、ndonesia as Program Coordinator of Research has followed up“Research on the Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector”.By saying thanks God,this research project has been completed.I express my gratitude to ASEAN Member States(AMS)and rele

23、vant parties who have contributed on the implementation and finalization of this research project.I appreciate and welcome the publication of the e-book“Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector”under ASEAN OSHNET.From this res

24、earch report it is found that providing much safer and healthier workplaces,could not be seen solely as an economic burden to the company,but most of OSH programs can actually be justified economically.Hopefully this publication will motivate the management of construction companies to carefully eva

25、luate their OSH programs as well as a basis for policy maker to create national or regional policy on implementing OSH at construction sector.Jakarta,December 2022 Director General of Labour Inspection and Occupational Safety and Health Development Ministry of Manpower Republic of IndonesiaDr.Halyan

26、i Rumondang M.A.ivForewordThis Study on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector is a regional initiative in the Work Plan ASEAN Occupational Safety and Health Network(ASEAN-OSHNET)2021-2025.It examined the implementation of OSH programme

27、s in the construction sector and its economic gains across eight ASEAN Member States.The analysis showed that investments in occupational safety and/or health programmes in the construction workplace resulted in benefits that,from the economic perspective,are at least twice greater than the investme

28、nt spent-an affirmation that expenditures for OSH should be seen as an investment and not a cost.I am pleased that this Study gives us a perspective on how an investment in OSH equipment and facilities is a responsible business practice that benefits workers,enterprises,Member States and ASEAN as a

29、whole.As ASEAN economies recover from the COVID-19 pandemic,construction work is also expected to pick up pace.It is therefore important that the workers are well equipped for safety and protected from health risks.Building a safe and healthy workplace is a necessary condition for productivity.It is

30、 also pivotal in sustaining business and raising the company image and consumers trust.I am confident that this Study Report will provide useful insights for enterprises and governments in further raising the profiles of their OSH standards particularly in the construction sector.Appreciation goes t

31、o Indonesia for initiating this Study which contributes to the common agenda of an inclusive,resilient and sustainable ASEAN Community.Ekkaphab PhanthavongDeputy Secretary General of ASEAN for ASEAN Socio-Cultural CommunityvTable of ContentsACKNOWLEDGEMENT iForeword by Director General of Labour Ins

32、pection and Occupational Safety and Health Development Ministry of Manpower Republic of Indonesia iiiForeword by Deputy Secretary General of ASEAN for ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community ivExecutive Summary vii1 Introduction 12 Research Objectives 63 Research Procedure 74 Results 94.1.Overviews of the Sa

33、mples Across AMS.104.2.Analysis Across AMS.144.3.Additional Findings.205 Discussion and Conclusions 225.1.Challenges.225.2.Conclusions.235.3.Recommendations.246 References 26Appendix 1:Questionnaire 29Appendix 2:National Report 39Cambodia.41Indonesia.47Lao PDR.55Malaysia.63Philippines.73Singapore.83

34、Thailand.97Viet Nam.109viList of TablesTable 1.Data collected from each national expert based on company size.10Table 2.BCRs and NPVs associated with each OSH project.11Table 3.BCRs from each participating country.12Table 4.BCRs among company sizes.13List of FiguresFigure 1.An example of how an OSH

35、program translates into quantified effects.8Figure 2.Minimum,maximum,and average BCRs of each country.12Figure 3.Comparison of BCRs across company size.14viiExecutive SummaryDespite its substantial growth,the construction sector remains one of the most hazardous places to work.This sector typically

36、ranks first with regard to the number of occupational incidents and fatality in the workplace.This has been a pressing issue faced by most of the countries within the Southeast Asia region.While a host of contributing factors could be attributed to this phenomenon,one of the major challenges in prov

37、iding a safe and healthy working environment has to do with the costs of implementing occupational safety and health(OSH)programs in the workplace.Many construction companies are hesitant in implementing OSH programs due to the perception that such programs are costly.Such challenge can be overcome

38、by carefully examining benefits of an OSH program that potentially outweigh its costs.The current research project was conducted with the goal of evaluating the benefits of an OSH project in the construction sector from an economic perspective.This objective was achieved by inviting all ASEAN Member

39、 States(AMS)to participate in this research project;each AMS was responsible for collecting data from several construction companies.A national expert was appointed in each AMS,with a main responsibility of collecting survey data using a set of electronic questionnaires and,later,analyzed the result

40、s together with the Indonesian lead consultant.From eight AMS,a total of 48 construction companies agreed to provide their actual cost-and benefit-related data pertaining to their OSH program(it should be noted that Brunei Darussalam and Myanmar did not conduct national studies).By employing a benef

41、it-cost analysis through calculation of benefit-cost ratio(BCR),it could be determined if the BCR of an OSH program is greater than 1,the program could be justified from an economic perspective,while a small BCR meant that the positive effects of an OSH program were negligible.Results of this resear

42、ch project demonstrated that,across AMS,the BCRs ranged from 0.01 to 11.15,with the grand mean of 2.3.These results implied that some OSH programs could be difficult to justify(BCR of nearly 0)but,in contrast,the other programs could yield stark benefits(BCR much greater than 1).The average of BCR a

43、mong AMS ranged from0.84(Singapore)to 4.18(Viet Nam).Though it was not statistically significant,large construction companies tended to be represented by larger BCRs when compared to their smaller counterparts.These results showed that,while there were companies having difficulties in justifying the

44、ir OSH programs,most of the OSH programs in this study were in fact beneficial from an economic point of view.There are several implications that can be gained from this research project.First,most OSH programs can generally be justified from an economic point of view.Furthermore,this finding should

45、 be evident to construction companies that a carefully planned and designed OSH program can be implemented and executed.The prerequisite,however,is that all the costs and benefits resulting from a program can be meticulously identified viiiand quantified.Second,the BCR analysis requires that all cos

46、ts and(especially)benefits can be transformed and quantified into monetary values,and it is clear when(within the time horizon)both the benefits are obtained,and the costs are disbursed.This is often challenging,particularly since certain benefits are difficult to quantify in monetary terms.Therefor

47、e,it is imperative that a construction company need to have individuals(or external consultants)with satisfactory knowledge on different concepts and technical aspects of safety,risks,and economic analysis.Third,the characteristics of an OSH program are highly dependent on the type of the structure

48、being built.Companies with projects involving high-rise buildings may have substantially different OSH programs compared to those responsible for maintaining road infrastructures.In addition,some companies are involved with short-term projects(such as building houses),while others deal with long-ter

49、m construction projects(such as high-speed railway infrastructure).All these will result in differences in types of costs and benefits that need to be examined and differences in the project time horizon,which consequently lead to differences in how the economic analysis is performed.Lastly,while th

50、e same methodology can be employed across AMS,the nature of the industry could be different across nations resulting in differences in the focus of the OSH programs.For instance,OSH programs that enforce workers to follow good safety practices may not be a priority in Singapore due to stronger adher

51、ence to national laws and regulations.Moreover,the construction sector in Brunei Darussalam may be characterized by fairly low fatality rate,but the prevalence of migrant workers with different cultural background may characterize workplace safety and health issues.The point is that each AMS may hav

52、e unique national culture and characteristics that can influence how an OSH program in the construction industry can be suitably and effectively designed and implemented.This study was aimed at evaluating the implementation of an economic(benefit-cost)analysis for OSH programs in the construction se

53、ctor.It can be concluded here that,while the implementation of an OSH program in this sector is usually viewed as costly,this study found that most of OSH programs can actually be justified economically.This is true particularly when all costs and benefits have been identified,quantified,and monetiz

54、ed carefully.This collaborative effort has provided evidence that careful economic analysis can actually justify OSH programs,and the corresponding methodologies can be used as a viable approach in justifying expenses associated with expensive OSH investments.Through careful economic evaluation,mana

55、gers and project owners should not be hesitant in designing and providing much safer and healthier workplaces,even though the resulting OSH programs could initially be seen as an economic burden to the company.Safe and healthy workers should be used as a competitive advantage that will lead to more

56、productive and,eventually,more sustained businesses in this competitive world.1Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector1.IntroductionThe economic growth among members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN)has gen

57、erally been strong in the past years,despite differences in economic recovery from COVID-19 pandemic.World Bank data during 2016-2021(data.worldbank.org)show an average growth of roughly 3.2%,with Viet Nam characterized by the largest growth(5.58%)while Brunei Darussalam associated with the smallest

58、 growth(0.38%).Except for Brunei Darussalam and Thailand,all other ASEAN Member States(AMS)have an average growth of greater than 2%.Note,however,that a decreasing trend is observed for Myanmar,with a substantially negative growth(-18%)found in 2021.The construction industry within the Southeast Asi

59、an region has also generally enjoyed substantial growth in the past decade,although the recent trend has been largely influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic.During the period of 2012-2016,data from the six largest economies in ASEAN(PwC,2017)shows a national average growth between 4.3 to 12.6%(a grand

60、mean of 9.3%).While much slower growth has been expected due to the pandemic,the past-pandemic projection of more than 370,000 construction enterprises across ASEAN countries seems to be optimistic.For Indonesia,for example,the growth of this sector was nearly 6%in 2019(Soemardi&Pribadi,2018),largel

61、y due to construction of dams,public roads,toll roads,and bridges.The construction sector is the third-largest contributor to Indonesias GDP,and the investments are among the largest out of all construction investments in Asia.In 2020,there were approximately 159.3 thousand construction establishmen

62、ts active in Indonesia.Indonesias construction industry was experiencing increased growth due to increases in infrastructure construction and there were approximately 8.07 million people working in the construction industry(Soemardi&Pribadi).For the Philippines,report by the World Bank has indicated

63、 an increasing trend in construction due to governments strategy of“Build,Build,Build”infrastructure program.The growth decelerated due to the pandemic but is expected to increase in 2022.The total value of construction contracts in 2020 amounted to PhP 275.81 billion,or USD 5.4 billion(JD Supra,202

64、1).The Philippine government aims to spend at least 7%of its gross domestic product for construction(Feria&Ocampo,2020).Singapores economy has also been driven by construction work,projected to be between S$27 billion and S$32 billion in 2022,with the public sector expected to contribute about 60 pe

65、r cent of the total demand,as reported by the Building and Construction Authority(BCA).The construction demand in the public sector is projected to be between S$16 billion and S$19 billion,supported by the strong pipeline of housing projects including those under the Home Improvement Programme,as we

66、ll as healthcare developments and infrastructure works such as the Cross Island MRT Line(Phase 1).Meanwhile,the private sector construction demand is expected to reach between S$11 billion and S$13 billion this year,comparable with the volume in 2021(BCA,2022).2Research on Economic Justification of

67、Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorThe forecast for Viet Nam is a bit greater than 8.7%,considered to be the best performing nation within the Asia-Pacific region(Research and Markets,2022).As an important pillar of the Viet Nam economy,the construction secto

68、r accounted for an increasing contribution to the gross domestic product while being one of the largest employers in Viet Nam.According to the 2021 Economic Census,in terms of the economic sector,the industry and construction sector accounts for the second largest proportion in terms of the number o

69、f units and employees(after the service sector).Industry and construction enterprises were 211.5 thousand enterprises in 2021,accounting for 30.9%of the total number of enterprises.In Lao PDR,the construction sector is among the largest and fastest growing sectors in the industry.According to the La

70、o Statistics Bureau(LSB),the construction sector contributed about 7.98 percent of the countrys GDP in 2019 and 8.61 percent in 2020.The sectors growth rate was at around 21 percent in 2019 and dropped to about 14.5 percent in 2020,mainly due to COVID-19.In 2020,there were 552 enterprises in the con

71、struction sector,with a combined registered capital of around USD 1.26 billion.While the industry has been hit hard worldwide due to the pandemic,the growth of the industry in Malaysia is predicted to recover by 14.6%by expansion in 2021(Market Research South East Asia,2021).The construction industr

72、y in Brunei Darussalam recorded an annual growth of 3.2 percent in 2020,despite facing supply chain disruptions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.With limited labor force,however,the country depends on migrant workers for construction projects who are willing to work extra hours with relatively lower wag

73、es(Santoso,2009).Migrant workers made up 78 percent of the total workforce in the construction industry,according to DEPSs Labour Force Survey 2019.Myanmars construction industry is expected to shrink by 7.7%in real terms in 2021,down from a marginal decline of 0.5%in 2020.The industrys output in 20

74、20 was affected by the outbreak of the coronavirus disease(COVID-19)pandemic.In 2021,the weakness in the industry is expected to be further exacerbated by the ongoing political crisis and its impact on foreign investment and construction progress.The construction sector employs over 1.2 million peop

75、le,which accounts for 5.5%of the working population.The new Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Law in March 2019 is expected to pave the way for the first legally-established health and safety standards in the country.Meanwhile,most workplaces in Myanmar are still operating below international healt

76、h and safety standards and construction incidents are common and widely reported.However,the countrys health,safety and environment data and workplace accidents statistics are difficult to obtain.In Malaysia,the construction industry is very important to the country,contributing about 4%of the natio

77、ns Gross Domestic Products(GDP).The economic outlook for the construction industry is encouraging and is projected to increase by 11.5%in 2022,given several government-backed engineering construction projects.Meanwhile,in Thailand,construction industry expanded by an estimated 2.7%in real terms in 2

78、021 up from an annual growth of 1.3%in 2020,supported by investments in 3Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sectorrenewable energy,residential,and infrastructure construction projects.According to the National Economic and Soci

79、al Development Council(NESDC),the constructionindustrys value added declined marginally by 0.9%year on year(YoY)in the fourth quarter of 2021,compared with a 4.2%contraction in the previous quarter.The decline in COVID-19 infections and the easing of restrictions is expected to support the industrys

80、 output in the coming quarters.The industrys output over the forecast period will also be supported by investments in transport infrastructure projects.Despite the significant and potential growth,the construction industry in many developing nations is probably a sector that has received only margin

81、al attention with respect to safety and health in the workplace(Buniya,et al.,2021).The construction sector typically ranks first with regard to the number of occupational incidents and fatality.This is true for Indonesia(Ghuzdewan&Damanik,2019)and Singapore(Singapore Ministry of Manpower,2020).Alth

82、ough data with respect to work-related incidents are not available in Lao PDR,this issue has actually been a major concern among government officials and stakeholders(Sengpaseuth,2022).The construction industry in Cambodia has been booming due to foreign investments,but this rapid growth is also ass

83、ociated with poor construction quality and high incidence rate.In 2009,the International Labour Organization(ILO)estimates that more than 1.500 workers are killed each year in Cambodia,with the majority occurs in the construction sector.Based on 2019 data by Philippine Statistics Authority,a total o

84、f 37,513 occupational accidents were reported in all industries in the Philippines in 2019.In Malaysia,the number of occupational accidents were 32,674 cases in 2020,with the number of occupational fatalities being 312 cases(bin Zaini,2022).Occupational safety and health in construction is also a pr

85、essing issue in other ASEAN Member States(AMS).In Malaysia,for instance,recent data demonstrate that just over one-quarter of workplace fatalities are from construction-related incidents.The construction industry in Malaysia has an appreciably higher rate of fatality(6.9 per 100,000 workers).Accordi

86、ng to Viet Nams Ministry of Labour,Invalids and Social Affairs(MOLISA)s annual report on occupational accidents from 2013 to 2021,occupational accidents in the construction sector always rank first in terms of total number of fatal accidents and total number of deaths for 6 consecutive years.Moreove

87、r,report from Indonesias National Social Security Agency for Employment in 2020 indicated more than 177,000 occupational accidents in the construction industry.Note that the actual number could be higher due to the fact that not all workers were registered in the system.All these statistics clearly

88、demonstrate that workplace incidents in the construction industry are a major concern,and appropriate occupational safety and health(OSH)strategy and programs should be sought to ameliorate the problems.It should be noted,however,that implementing OSH program for this sector has been a challenge.It

89、is not uncommon for companies to only implement OSH programs at the minimum level as required by applicable laws and government regulations(Tang&Daniel,2020).Some of the factors that cause hesitancy in implementing much safer and healthier working environment in the construction sector could be attr

90、ibuted to the fact that many companies employ subcontractors.These subcontractors have to 4Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sectorrun their business efficiently,and often seek ways to minimize costs for the perceived non-crit

91、ical expenses.To minimize operating costs,they prefer hiring workers with the minimum levels of education needed,which often results in lower workplace safety and health awareness.In addition,these companies are often rushed in completing the projects due to a number of factors,including the complex

92、ity of a construction project,inadequate budgeting,poor scheduling,missing deadlines,or the scarcity of certain supplies and resources.Another important factor is the fact that there is a perception that many OSH programs are costly,which does not justify their implementation in the workplace.Manage

93、ment often fails to realize that there could be significant benefits resulting from high quality OSH programs.It is generally accepted that implementing an OSH program can be difficult unless the obtained benefits are substantial.The general practice is that safety and health programs in the workpla

94、ce can be implemented only if their benefits(i.e.,savings)outweigh the actual costs of implementing the programs.Costs of implementing safety and health programs by identifying the benefits can be challenging due to the difficulties in correctly classifying and quantifying the benefits.The ILO sugge

95、sts the use of direct and indirect costs.Direct costs associated with an injury(e.g.,medical costs or property damage)can be easily identified.Other costs,however,are more difficult to estimate such as indirect and hidden costs(e.g.,human resource personnel handling the accident).Moreover,benefits g

96、ained from a program can be intangible and qualitative in nature.This should be quantified and,further,considered as additional justifications to a safety and health program.Regardless of the aforementioned phenomena,it is generally accepted that economic rationale has been considered as a viable ap

97、proach for the justification of safety and health programs in the workplace.A frequently used method is called the cost-benefit models(Reniers&Brijs,2014),an approach that a company can utilize in ensuring that investing in health and safety programs can result in a good return on investment(Ikpe et

98、 al.,2008).The Cost Benefit Analysis(CBA)compares the costs of implementing an investment(i.e.,safety and health programs)to the monetary value of outcomes that can be expected as shown by rigorous research(Newnan et al.,2012).Using such method,management can identify and propose the most relevant p

99、rogram that can provide the greatest returns to the company.Similarly,the Net Present Value(NPV)can be used for making investment decisions;a positive NPV,for example,can justify a strategic investment(Newnan et al.,2012).Based on these methods,the management can determine if it is worth conducting

100、the program or not.ASEAN has a strong commitment in improving safety and health in the workplace,by establishing the Occupational Safety and Health Network(OSHNET).This commitment is reflected in the ASEAN-OSHNET Work Plan 2021-2025,objective of the ASEAN Labour Ministers Work Programme 2021-2025 as

101、 the overarching guiding document,as well as the relevant strategic measures in the ASCC Blueprint 2025.Indonesia,with the support of Malaysia and Singapore,is the country coordinator for the Joint Research on Risk and Economic Benefit of Occupational Safety and Health.Accordingly,a pilot project wa

102、s conducted by Indonesia aiming at evaluating OSH programs among a 5Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sectorfew construction companies from an economic perspective.Findings of this study of 10 construction companies in Indones

103、ia demonstrated the benefit-cost ratios(BCRs)ranging from 0.7 to 1.6.It was also revealed that a number of challenges were found in collecting the data and quantifying the effects of an OSH program.Nevertheless,this project demonstrated the potential of using economic rationale in justifying an OSH

104、program.Lastly,a preliminary workshop was held in Indonesia in 2018,which finalized the title of the project to“Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector”.This project was later endorsed in 2019 during the 19th ASEAN-OSHNET CBM

105、 held in Cambodia.Subsequently,it was agreed that the project would be funded by the ASEAN Development Fund.6Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector2.Research ObjectivesThe present research project was aimed at conducting a s

106、ystematic approach in determining the benefit of occupational safety or health program in the construction sector from an economic perspective,with data to be collected from all AMS.Through this project,it was expected that each AMS will gain knowledge and experience on how economic rationale can be

107、 employed to justify the implementation of a safety or health program in the workplace.This understanding can be used further in persuading and motivating the management of national construction companies in carefully evaluating their OSH programs.It is hoped that each AMS can gain valuable insights

108、 on the current state of safety and health in each country and learn success factors as well as challenges faced when implementing safety and health in the workplace.Lastly,findings from this study can shed some light on how to carefully design OSH programs that will reduce safety and health risks,w

109、hile satisfying the economic criteria.Each AMS was expected to participate in this joint research project and,together,collect and analyze data obtained from six(6)construction companies,representing small(0-49 workers),medium(50-200 workers),and large-size(200 workers)companies.7Research on Economi

110、c Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector3.Research ProcedureThis research project specifically addressed the construction industry because the construction sector is developing rapidly in many developing nations(Alaloul,et al.,2021).Each nationa

111、l expert(NE)was responsible for collecting data from construction companies.Eight AMS,notably Cambodia,Indonesia,Lao PDR,Malaysia,the Philippines,Singapore,Thailand and Viet Nam,participated in the national researches which were conducted by the respective NE.The national researches started in Augus

112、t 2021 and were able to obtain data sets from a total of 48 construction companies in those eight AMS.A set of questionnaires(Appendix 1)was given to each company respondent by the NE.Based on preliminary discussions with the NE,each company proposed and selected one major OSH program that had been

113、done in the past.The company was required to provide costs and benefits that were relatively easy to be explicitly stated and quantified.There should be a strong rationale justifying why the program had been implemented.The company management should also ensure that they had all the data pertaining

114、to the actual costs spent(and the time when the money was disbursed)for this particular program.Further discussion with the NE addressed all potential benefits and costs saved resulting from the implementation of the program.Figure 1 provides an example of how an OSH program could be conceptually tr

115、ansformed into quantified effects(HSE,2011).The figure depicts an OSH program that can result in conducive behavior and work environment that,in turn,leads to reduced number of incidents,fatalities,and ill-health problems.All cost and benefit calculations follow those described in Newnan et al.(2012

116、).The calculation of benefit for BCR is calculated with Present Worth of Benefit,we sum the benefits with their value at month-0 of the project.Direct and indirect benefits are calculated under the same classification of benefit.The benefits used in BCR calculation are productivity improvement,savin

117、g on damaged products,saving on material used,saving on maintenance,staff commitment improvement,and companys image improvement.The cost for BCR is calculated with Present Worth of Cost,we sum the costs with their value at month-0 of the project.We then calculate the benefit-cost ratio with Present

118、Worth of Benefit to Present Worth of Cost ratio.We can compare the BCR across companies with additional calculation of BCR by adding dummy timeframe to uniform the project life.As of now,we can only do the classification of BCR and their analysis.8Research on Economic Justification of Occupational S

119、afety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorFigure 1.An example of how an OSH program translates into quantified effects.Safety Training ProgramIncrease awareness and knowledgeOther effectsOther effectsImproved safety behaviourReduced#of incidents,injuries,fatalities,and ill health

120、 problems in the workplaceNeed to quantify these direct and indirect effectsWith the support of the lead consultant from Indonesia,a preliminary cost-benefit analysis was performed and provided to the NE as a basis for developing a national/country report.Whenever necessary,each NE conducted an in-d

121、epth discussion with company representative(s),to ensure that the results were acceptable.Each NE was responsible for developing a national report,which in turn was used by the lead consultant in preparing the final report.The lead consultant performed further statistical analysis(e.g.,analysis of v

122、ariance)as a means to answer several underlying research hypotheses.It should be noted that NE performed a qualitative analysis based on descriptive data(obtain from the six companies),whereas the lead consultant conducted the statistical analysis based on all the data collected.The lead consultant

123、performed a literature review as well to complement the national reports and to fill up the information gap in absence of national reports of Brunei Darussalam and Myanmar.The lead consultant was also responsible for drawing conclusions based on the aggregated data.It is necessary to highlight the c

124、hallenges encountered in conducting this region-wide research.Some NEs faced difficulties in finding and having access to construction companies willing to cooperate and share information.The pandemic was also a factor that affected the research work particularly on the communications of NEs with co

125、nstruction companies to further discuss the analysis.9Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector4.ResultsWorkplace fatality is a major concern around the world,as also an important issue faced by all AMS.In 2005,the average glob

126、al fatality rate was 14.0 per 100,000 workers.The statistics in 2006 was 2.9(per 100,000 workers)in Finland,5.2 in the U.S.,9.8 in Singapore,and 18.3 in Malaysia(Win et al.,2018).Construction,in particular,has been shown to be the most dangerous sector,with hazards including falls from height,struct

127、 by moving objects,and crashes associated with heavy vehicle and machinery operations.While almost all AMS have their own OSH acts and regulations,the Implementation and enforcements are often lacking.Economic rationale(such as benefit-cost analysis)can be used as a viable approach in ensuring effec

128、tive OSH Implementation in the workplace.Cost-benefit approach has been employed in other sectors,such as the road transport(Elvik,2001;2003),petroleum industry(Gonzalez et al,2016;Reniers et al.,2016;Talarico et al.,2016),manufacturing(Guimaraes et al.,2012;Rodezno,2005),and the service sector(Ramo

129、s et al.,2015).The aim of Elviks papers was evaluating the applicability of cost-benefit analysis as an aid in making decisions pertaining to road safety measures.The use of such approach has received criticism,particularly if it is applied toward problems involving basic human rights.It was noted,h

130、owever,that economic justifications are actually a rationale decision that can be logically applied in a variety of cases.Early work(see for example Leonie&Tavenas,1996)demonstrated that such approach could be used as a basis in preventing workplace accidents.Hendrik(2003)discussed a number of facto

131、rs that can lead to successful implementation of cost-benefit analysis.His work further described classifications of costs and benefits based on a number of ergonomic projects in a variety of fields.It was concluded that the cost-benefit analysis was indeed beneficial,as exemplified by successful in

132、terventions.Cost justifications,though difficult,have also been employed in evaluating the utility of public policy(Sartori,2015).This joint research project was motivated by the fact that implementing an OSH program in the construction industry is difficult.Project owners and managers will often on

133、ly implement bare programs required by national and local regulations.They typically view an OSH program as costly and is not necessarily(and directly)effective in improving safety and health in the workplace.This phenomenon is also exacerbated by the use of sub-contractors and low-skilled labors wh

134、o are fairly easy to replace when a workplace injuries and fatalities occur.The present collaborative research generally aimed at investigating how to justify an OSH program in a construction sector,particularly from an economic perspective.The rationale is that implementing an OSH program is genera

135、lly difficult,and getting the proposal accepted and approved by the management is typically challenging.The management(and all relevant stakeholders)usually wants to know if an OSH program is really needed,and if its implementation is cost effective.This means that all proposed OSH programs should b

136、e justified,at least from an economic perspective.The BCR analysis requires that all benefits(and costs)can be transformed into monetary values,and it is exactly clear when(within the time horizon)both the benefits are obtained,and the costs are disbursed.In this research,costs included all expenses

137、 associated with implementing an OSH program.This included procurement,installation,operating the 10Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sectorsystem,and other additional costs pertaining to OSH risk management.These items were r

138、elatively easy to quantify,although the procedure should be done with care.In contrast,determining the advantages of OSH implementation in the workplace can be fairly difficult,such as when determining the costs avoided due to the implementation of an OSH program(e.g.,first aid,hospitalization,accid

139、ent investigation,litigation,loss time,etc.).A relatively complete list of costs and the corresponding calculations can be found in HSE(2011;2020).4.1.Overviews of the Samples Across AMSThe construction companies participating in this research had been involved in different construction projects,inc

140、luding public facility,oil,gas,mining industry,housing,commercial,office building,manufacturing,electric power,institutional,hotel,and others.The projects studied in this research ranged from PPE,safety audit,training,supervision,campaign,and hazard identification&risk control.Table 1 shows data col

141、lection status from each NE,along with the number of respondents and company types from each participating AMS.It was the intention of the project to collect data evenly across company size,but the actual circumstances did not allow for this scenario to happen.Each NE was eventually given some sort

142、of a leeway in determining which companies could participate in the project.This was particularly due to the limited NEs ability in having access to different types of construction companies required in this research.This had been considered acceptable considering the time limitation that each NE ha

143、d.Table 2 shows the BCR and NPV for each project.A BCR greater than one(i.e.,positive NPV)means that the selected OSH program results in overall positive effects(costs avoided+benefits OSH-related expenses).However,according to Newnan,Eschenbach,and Lavelle(2009),a BCR lower than one means that the

144、cost expended by the program is bigger than the benefit received.This implies that the program is not beneficial in economic terms.Table 1.Data collected from each national expert based on company size.No.CountryCompany SizeTotalSmallMediumLarge1Brunei Darussalam00002Cambodia13153Indonesia31264Lao P

145、DR15065Malaysia13486Myanmar*-7Philippines32278Singapore02359Thailand132610VietNam1135Grand Total48*Myanmar did not participate in this research project.11Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorA total of 48 data collected fro

146、m each national expert,with 11 small companies(0-49 workers),20 medium companies(50-200 workers),and 17 large companies(200 workers).Brunei Darussalam participated in this research,but did not manage to collect any data.Originally,it was requested to collect data from six companies,two from each com

147、pany size(small,medium,and large).Unfortunately,national experts found it difficult to collect data as requested,and therefore 5 data from each AMS are accepted.Additionally,Lao PDR could not obtain data from any large company,while Singapore could not obtain data from any small company.Table 2.BCRs

148、 and NPVs associated with each OSH project.CodeCountryBCRNPVID1Indonesia6.086$11,889.17ID2Indonesia4.205$23,663.63ID3Indonesia0.929$(351,130.90)ID4Indonesia0.472$(25,790.07)ID5Indonesia1.312$190,506.39ID6Indonesia1.694$2,375.96KH1Cambodia1.246$8,141.35KH2Cambodia0.134$(1,248,057.10)Kh3Cambodia1.426$

149、42,121.47KH4Cambodia1.796$67,237.82KH5Cambodia5.759$164,423.41LA1Lao PDR0.713$(95,076.96)LA2Lao PDR1.361$29,063.75LA3Lao PDR1.365$47,201.41LA4Lao PDR0.854$(9,373.96)LA5Lao PDR2.007$101,650.58LA6Lao PDR2.442$36,449.49My1Malaysia1.380$22.62MY2Malaysia1.595$1,289,078.30MY3Malaysia5.122$8,287,313.60MY4M

150、alaysia1.624$1,064,396.48MY5Malaysia1.139$356,070.98MY6Malaysia5.327$8,364,694.48MY7Malaysia1.377$2,819,111.12MY8Malaysia4.644$8,080,170.67Ph1Philippines0.012$(2,032,635.26)PH2Philippines0.343$(61,388.53)PH3Philippines1.249$6,410,896.41PH4Philippines1.234$394,441.35PH5Philippines1.218$1,566.41PH6Phi

151、lippines11.145$847,664.01PH7Philippines0.653$(5,871.13)SG1Singapore3.105$2,694,523.84SG2Singapore0.426$(3,507,787.71)SG3Singapore0.649$(496,716.56)SG4Singapore1.370$999,285.28SG5Singapore0.024$(15,052,647.28)TH1Thailand3.966$3,710,061.42TH2Thailand4.285$169,515.7712Research on Economic Justification

152、 of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorTH3Thailand0.548$(349,865.93)TH4Thailand0.069$62,116.95TH5Thailand0.852$(71,842.80)TH6Thailand0.499$(316,265.57)VN1VietNam7.710$243,266.33VN2VietNam3.799$229,559.57VN3VietNam2.732$200,790.69VN4VietNam5.630$229,380.01VN5V

153、ietNam1.044$1,902.52A very small BCR(nearly zero)was shown from PH1 project,meaning that the positive effects of the OSH program were negligible.In contrast,a substantially large BCR(11.1)was obtained from PH6 project,implying that the benefits of the OSH program far outweighed the costs spent for t

154、he program.Table 3 and Figure 2 show the BCRs for each participating country.Malaysia and Viet Nam are the only AMS with all BCR values greater than one.Table 3.BCRs from each participating country.CountryBCRMinMaxAverageCambodia0.135.762.07Indonesia0.476.092.45Lao PDR0.722.451.46Malaysia1.145.332.7

155、8Philippines0.0111.152.27Singapore0.023.111.11Thailand0.504.282.07Viet Nam1.047.714.18Figure 2.Minimum,maximum,and average BCRs of each country.13Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorIt was hypothesized in this study that t

156、here would be significant differences in BCR across company sizes.Large construction companies,in particular,might have ample resources leading to more effective OSH program.In contrast,small-sized company may not have the luxury of selecting a variety of OSH programs due to limited budget,resulting

157、 in relatively smaller BCR.This phenomenon,however,was not the case here.While the large-sized company was associated with the greatest mean BCR(2.95),the second greatest mean BCR(2.34)was obtained from small-sized enterprises(see Fig.3).Middle-sized company was characterized with the smallest mean

158、BCR(1.67).These differences were not significant from a statistical point of view(p=0.221).No explanation can be offered here why such a phenomenon occurred,other than the possibility that large-sized company could formulate a much wider selections of OSH programs and select ones that were more effi

159、cient from an economic perspective.It should be noted that the size of the construction company was not associated with differences in lost time incident frequency rate(LTIFR)(p=0.592).It was also of interest of this study to determine if the investment associated with an OSH program was related wit

160、h BCR.This study found that this was not the case.The larger the investment did not guarantee a greater return(i.e.,sum of all costs avoided and benefits).For instance,the largest investment in OSH program is$5,785,714.29 with BCR of 1.074(one company from Malaysia).Meanwhile,the largest BCR is 10.4

161、75 with$27,000 of investment(one company from the Philippines).It was hypothesized in this study that there would be significant differences in BCR across company sizes.Large construction companies,in particular,might have ample resources leading to more effective OSH program.Figure 3 shows the tend

162、ency that large companies were associated with greater average BCR.However,the result was not significant from a statistical point of view(p=0.176).Note that the size of the construction company was not associated with differences in lost time incident frequency rate(LTIFR)(p=0.64).It was also of in

163、terest of this study to determine if the investment associated with an OSH program was related with BCR.This study found that this was not the case.The larger the investment did not guarantee a greater return(i.e.,sum of all costs avoided and benefits).Table 4.BCRs among company sizesCompany SizeBCR

164、MinMaxAverageSmall0.017.712.34Medium0.135.761.67Large0.5511.152.9514Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorFigure 3.Comparison of BCRs across company size.Across the eight AMS participating in this research project,the grand

165、mean of the BCR is approximately 2.3.This clearly means that any investments in occupational safety and/or health programs in the construction workplace will result in benefits that are double than the costs expended.Note that this average value was true for Cambodia,Indonesia,Malaysia,Thailand,and

166、the Philippines.Relatively lower average BCR was found for Lao PDR(average BCR=1.46)and a mean BCR of less than 1 was found for Singapore(average BCR=0.84).Malaysia and Viet Nam are the only AMS with positive NPV across all the projects being studied.The Philippines had a construction company with t

167、he least favorable condition(a BCR of nearly zero),but at the same time also had a company with a safety/health program that was associated with the greatest return(BCR=11.1).The lack of samples and different data quality provided by each National Expert may lower the aggregate data quality.However,

168、that situation did not cancel the findings in this report.4.2.Analysis Across AMSBrunei Darussalam.Brunei Darussalam is characterized by a growth in the construction sector which is labor-intensive.The population is about 380,000 people,most of whom are of ethnic Malay.The country produces largely o

169、il and gas as the major contributor of the GDP.With limited labor force,however,the country depends on migrant workers for construction projects who are willing to work extra hours with relatively lower wages(Santoso,2009).Successful OSH projects will also depend on the multi-ethnic groups of worker

170、s,each having its own cultural background.A study by Win et al.(2021)showed that the 56.4%of non-fatal accident occur in the construction industry,which mostly involved migrant workers.Additional study also concluded this sector with the highest(60%of all industries)number of fatalities(Win et al.,2

171、018),with a large number of victims are Indonesians.The fatality rate is roughly 4 6 per 100,000 workers,comparatively lower than most other AMS.More than half of the workplace fatalities are related to factors such as falls and structs by object.It is not known if 15Research on Economic Justificati

172、on of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorOSH programs are developed with BCR in mind;however,the methodology and findings from this study can be employed in evaluating which(and types of)OSH programs can be successfully implemented.Cambodia.All construction c

173、ompanies recruited for this research project have completely implemented the OSH program.Based on the BCR value obtained from all five construction companies,there was one company with an extreme BCR value of 5.75 which indicated that this company has performed OSH program comprehensively,cost effec

174、tiveness and has produced higher benefit compared to the costs spent.This extreme BCR value might be due to the higher value of the investment cost on the OSH program.Investment in the OSH program will raise awareness and improve workplace safety.Another three companies,Exchange square,Tribe Hotel,a

175、nd MUD-PPCC have obtained the BCR value of 1.24,1.79,1.42,respectively.These 3 companies with the BCR value greater than 1 were considered that the OSH program is acceptable with the positive signal.However,there was one construction company that obtained the lowest BCR value of 0.13.This result mig

176、ht be due to the lower investment to the OSH program(2%from the project value)compared to the duration of the project and project size.Based on the type of OSH program,there were 3 companies that held OSH campaigns and 2 companies that held OSH training.Interestingly,the training program resulted in

177、 a better BCR(average:3.59)and lower average%OSH investment than campaign(average BCR=1.06).This shows that training can be viewed as an effective strategy in creating a better safety culture in the companies.Indonesia.In general,the construction companies being studied have implemented OSH program

178、with varying quality and quantity.This can be seen from the difference of investment value of implementing OSH compared to contract value(0.1%-5%).However,this difference does not significantly affect the results of their benefit-cost ratio.From the BCR that has been obtained from 6 companies,there

179、were four companies with a score greater than 1 which show that the OSH program is acceptable and has higher benefit from the perspective of economical compared to the cost.There is one company that has a BCR close to 1(0.93)and it is considered that the program is acceptable even if the BCR is less

180、 than 1.This might happen due to lack of duration on implementing the OSH program(less than 1 year),and the BCR might increase after a long period of implementation.Among 6 companies,there is one company whose BCR is less than 1(0.47)which indicates that the program is less effective and needs furth

181、er improvement.There are several possibilities that can cause the low BCR on this companys OSH program,such as low investment value on OSH program(0.1%from the project value)or missed estimation on the benefit value.There is also another company that has extreme BCR(6.09),this showed that the OSH pr

182、ogram is highly cost effective.This high BCR may be due to excellent innovation on reducing the cost of the implementation.16Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorInterestingly,the highest BCR occurred at a small company(ID1

183、)with a supervision OSH program.This shows that a supervision program can be highly effective in increasing the safety awareness and culture within the company.However,it is worth noting that ID1 has a relatively small number of manpowers.Supervising a large number of manpowers can be challenging.Th

184、us,we suggest that supervision program is implemented by small companies.Lao PDR.The construction industry is an important sector that grows rapidly in Lao PDR.Globally,the sector typically ranks first with regard to the number of occupational incidents and deaths it is safe to say that the construc

185、tion sector in Lao PDR is no exception.A construction project often has numerous workplace hazards,some of which are of high risk that could lead to serious injuries,illnesses or even fatal incidents.Therefore,it should receive more attention with respect to improvement of workplace safety and healt

186、h.Implementing OSH for this sector has been challenging,typically due to the perception that there are additional costs to project rather than viewing it as an investment that would give a return in terms of benefits obtained.It is indeed not easy to quantify some of the benefits of OSH programs in

187、financial terms,especially those that are indirect or intangible,such as all the avoided troubles associated with an incident,potential improvement in productivity and personnels morale,or companys improved reputation,etc.This study plays an important part in demonstrating that the OSH program is in

188、 fact economically and socially beneficial for the construction sector with a data-driven approach.Lao PDR has submitted 1 small company and 5 medium companies.Unfortunately,large companies could not be represented in this project.The BCR from these 6 companies range from 0.7 to 2.4,with four compan

189、ies scored greater than 1 which show that the OSH program is acceptable and has higher benefit from the perspective of economical compared to the cost.On the other hand,there are two companies whose BCR is less than 1(0.71 and 0.85)which indicates that the program is less effective and needs further

190、 improvement.Based on the industry classification,the mining construction industry has the lowest BCR among the others(0.71),with the largest%OSH investment.Surprisingly,the OSH program held by this company was an OSH campaign.In other AMS,campaign programs have resulted in better BCR.The best type

191、of OSH program with the criteria of the best BCR score in Lao PDR was the training program(average:1.77).Malaysia.This study is very important to ensure that every OSH program is value for money.It is also an important tool to measure if the OSH program has achieved its objectives.This study also hi

192、ghlighted the ratio of costs spent for OSH to the overall cost of the project.The OSH programs included in this analysis are selected because the contractors have data on cost spent for the OSH programs and their perceived benefits.There are other OSH programs carried 17Research on Economic Justific

193、ation of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sectorout by contractors in their construction sites but not included in this study,which may also contribute to the overall effective safety and health management.Different categories of contractors invested different co

194、sts for OSH.Large projects(MY3,MY6,MY7 and MY8)spend more than medium(MY2,MY4 and MY5)and small projects(MY1).However,the ratio analysis(as in Table 5)shows that,in proportion to the project contract value,medium and small projects are spending more on OSH programs than large projects.One of the rat

195、ios for medium project(MY4)is lower than the small project(MY1).The result of this study is not consistent with Ikpe et al.(2012),who reported the ratio for small projects is higher than both the medium and large projects.The benefit-cost ratio(BCR)reveals that the benefit is greater than the cost f

196、or all OSH programs.Large projects(MY3,MY6 and MY8,with exception for MY7)recorded the highest ratio,then medium(MY2,MY4 and MY5)and small(MY1)projects.This makes a good business case for encouraging projects to carry out preventive OSH programs because these initiatives would result in benefits tha

197、t are measurable.The average ratio for all projects is 2.43:1,which can be used to estimate the accident prevention cost.This is slightly lower than Ikpe et al.(2012)who reported a ratio of 3:1 in the United Kingdom.Malaysia has submitted 7 data from oil and gas construction companies(both medium an

198、d large),and 1 data from a small public facility construction company.Among the 7 data,although each one of them have generated satisfactory results,large oil and gas companies have the highest average of BCR(4.12)with the lowest average%OSH investments.The type of OSH programs that had resulted in

199、the highest average of BCR were supervision and campaigns.Myanmar.Unlike its ASEAN counterparts,Myanmar has not experienced substantial growth in it construction sector,particularly due to recent economic and political crisis(ILO,2021).Occupational safety is still a pressing issue;only a few compani

200、es have already started to implementing ISO 9001 Standards.The new Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Law in March 2019 is expected to pave the way for the first legally established health and safety standards in the country(Chau,2019).Meanwhile,most workplaces in Myanmar are still operating below i

201、nternational health and safety standards and construction incidents are common and widely reported.Statistics on workplace health and safety problems are not readily accessible,although occupational health and safety problems have been acknowledged by the various government stake holders(such as the

202、 Ministry of Labor or Ministry of Construction).Construction projects can be typically divided into building or infrastructure.The Ministry of Construction often becomes a single entity that conduct planning,execute the construction activities,while being a customer at the same time.Budgeting with r

203、espect to OSH program is often lacking(ILO,2021).Most of the construction companies employ about less than 100 to more than 7,000 workers,with managers often recruited having international experiences.OSH training could be of interest,but it is not supported by the current laws regulating occupation

204、al safety.Contracts are often not explicitly stated,resulting in sub-contractors not following OSH practices.18Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorSuch unique condition may necessitate the“productivity and efficiency”crite

205、rion in introducing economic justifications of their OSH programs.Projects that are funded by bilateral or multilateral agencies generallyrequire pre-feasibility check,which could cover close monitoring of safety and environmental aspects of the projects.Such requirements can also be a driving facto

206、r in justifying OSH programs in the workplace.The Philippines.Data gathering for this project was facilitated by the Occupational Safety and Health Center through its connection with Philippine Contractors Accreditation Board(PCAB).The requirement for financial and safety data made it difficult for

207、many companies to participate readily without the express approval of top management.The companies had to be assured that they will remain anonymous because the data they share may be used against them in the end.Most of the benefit-cost ratio computed are a little higher than 1.This is especially t

208、rue for large construction companies that have higher investment in OSH.It is also possible that these companies were not able to put a reasonable estimate to potential for new business and a good corporate image.Large companies have a lot of goodwill,and they might think that the brand image is hel

209、ping them to win clients and not their safety record.These companies will only know the benefit of safety if they lose clients because of it.The findings of the study can be used as benchmarks by other construction companies in the Philippines in allocating budget for OSH and gathering and monitorin

210、g safety data.Construction companies will get a realistic estimate on the percentage of cost associated to OSH and can put it in the budget.Data on accidents and incidents can also be used as standard key performance indicators in the construction industry.The Philippines has an average BCR of 2.26

211、where two out of six companies from the Philippines have the value of BCR lower than one.This implies that two companies from the Philippines suffer losses from implementing OSH program,meanwhile the other four gain benefit.However,we cannot see the data as is because of the lack of information abou

212、t benefits gain by the company from implementing the program.The incapability of company noticing the benefit and quantify it can result in understatement of calculated BCR.With the data we have,we can conclude that majority of companies in the Philippines gain benefit from implementing OSH program.

213、These findings could lead other companies seeing the benefits of implementing OSH program,thus could result in better safety awareness and culture in project.Singapore.Numerous studies have been conducted around the world to investigate the importance of occupational health and safety,their related

214、costs as well as the financial consequences of accidents in the workplace.Accidents in the construction industry have been found to impose substantial costs not just to workers but to employers and society too(Haslam et al.,2004).A study by the Singapore Workplace Safety and Health Institute,publish

215、ed in 2013,estimated the economic cost of work-related injuries and ill-health in Singapore to be S$10.45B for the year 2011,equivalent to 3.2%GDP.This amount can be further 19Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sectorbroken dow

216、n as cost borne by workers(S$5.28B),by employers(S$2.31B)and by community(S$2.87B).For this study,the average BCR was 0.84,while the lowest BCR was 0.48.The latter figure corresponded to 1.19%OSH investment(relative to the contract value).There was a tendency that a greater BCR was associated with a

217、 greater OSH investment.For example,the greatest BCR(1.38)was obtained from an OSH investment of 3.1%.However,this analysis was only applicable to large-and medium-sized companies.No data were available pertaining to the benefit and cost of OSH program that were obtained from small-sized companies;t

218、hus,further study was needed from small-sized companies in order to get more solid information.Thailand.Cost-benefit analysis is an important tool that the enterprises will be able to use to help them make the right decision in order to invest the OSH program in the construction site.The advantages

219、of cost-benefit analysis make the enterprises not only understand implementation cost including procurement,installation,training,operation,maintenance,program promotion and other expense but also predict the costs saved and potential benefit resulting from the OSH program.Which leads them to clearl

220、y see the correlation between cost and benefit and then make decisions in a structured manner.This research collected the cost-benefit of safety and health programs from 6 enterprises consisting of 2 small-size,2 medium-size and 2 large-size enterprises.It can be seen that a total of benefits are hi

221、gher than a total of costs in Small Enterprise 1(S1),Small Enterprise 2(S2)and Large Enterprise 2(L2).However,a total of benefits are less than a total of costs in Medium Enterprise 1(M1),Medium Enterprise 2(M2)and Large Enterprise 1(L1).Thailand has an average BCR of 2.07.This number implies that t

222、he overall implementation of OSH program in companies across Thailand gave more benefits than the costincurred.The average of BCR in variety of company sizes also gives BCR greater than one and could strengthen the previous argument.Thailand could get average BCR greater than one because Thailand ha

223、s the capability to identify and quantify the benefit received from implementing OSH program.Viet Nam.This study was the first of its kind conducted,perhaps in Viet Nam.This study is very important to ensure that every OSH program is“value for money”.It is also important tool to measure the OSH prog

224、ram has achieved its objectives.This study also highlighted the ratio of costs spend for OSH to the overall cost of the project.The OSH programs included in this analysis are selected few that the contractors have data on cost spent for the OSH programs and their perceived benefits.There are other O

225、SH programs carried out by contractors in their construction sites but not included in this study,which may also contribute to the overall effective safety and health management.These findings on economic justification on implementing OSH program is very useful and hopefully it can 20Research on Eco

226、nomic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sectoreliminate the stigma on implementing OSH that will certainly very useful for construction enterprises around the world,especially for Viet Nam.Findings from this study suggest that keeping a safe workp

227、lace has significant financial benefits.On the bigger scope,the result can also be used not only as a basis for an extensive study,but also as a basis for creating national or regional policy on implementing OSH at construction sector.Viet Nam has an average BCR of 4.18.The average of BCR across var

228、ious company sizes also gives BCR greater than one.This may happen because small and medium-sized companies in Viet Nam have an average%amount invested on OSH relative to project contract value at more than 1%.The average%amount invested on OSH in Viet Nam is bigger than some of any other companies

229、across AMS.This implies that Viet Nam has bigger commitments in safety than any other AMS in economic terms.However,we cannot overlook the fact that safety commitments are beyond benefit and cost.4.3.Additional FindingsFindings from this collaborative research effort demonstrated that the average of

230、 BCR across AMS was roughly 2.3,implying that the benefits obtained from an OSH program clearly outweighed the costs of the program.This ratio means that any OSH program implemented in the workplace will result in benefits that are at least twice greater(from the economic perspective)than the invest

231、ment spent.It should be noted however,that the BCR values ranged from about 0 to greater than 11.0(both were respondents from the Philippines).The former basically means that nearly no benefits can be obtained from an OSH program,whereas the latter implies that the benefits(tangible and intangible)a

232、re much greater than the money invested in the program.There was a tendency that larger enterprises were associated with markedly greater BCRs.However,no significant BCR difference was found between small and medium size companies.Comparisons among small vs.medium vs.larger contractors have been dis

233、cussed by Ikpe et al.(2011).In contrast to findings in this study,their work demonstrates that small and medium contractors tend to gain greater benefits in proportion to their turnovers compared to larger companies.While a BCR of close to zero is not uncommon,it is possible in this study that the c

234、ompany and the national expert were not able to investigate the actual benefit resulting from their OSH program.Had they been able to investigate the positive effects more carefully,they would have obtained more quantifiable benefits.A carefully designed OSH program should yield a BCR substantially

235、greater than zero,preferably greater than one.Note that all aspects of the costs and benefits should be quantified in monetary terms,and this should be done with great care.Otherwise,some of the costs will be hidden and the actual expense cannot be calculated correctly.21Research on Economic Justifi

236、cation of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorSimilarly,all positive effects resulting from an OSH program should be quantified adequately.The effects should include all costs avoided(e.g.,hospitalization,litigation,etc.)and benefits gained(e.g.,improved produ

237、ctivity or quality).These effects,while sometimes difficult to monetize,should be quantified appropriately.In addition,some benefits can be intangible(such as company image).This kind of benefit could be very difficult to monetize,but previous experience and research from the literature can be used

238、as a basis in determining the correct economic values.Findings from this research clearly demonstrated that a carefully designed OSH program,followed by cautious analysis of its costs and all potential positive effects,will likely result in positive net present values(i.e.BCR greater than one).Resul

239、ts from this study can be used as a motivating case or evidence that an OSH program can actually provide valuable impact for the construction industry.Of course,a company cannot deliberately design any OSH program without careful analysis to its costs.What the findings here demonstrate is that an OS

240、H program does not necessarily imply an economic burden to a company.If done correctly and analyzed adequately,a variety of OSH programs can actually be designed and provide long-term competitive advantages.22Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in

241、the Construction Sector5.Discussion and Conclusions5.1.ChallengesThis study found that there are a number of challenges that needed to be addressed in order to successfully implement the economic analysis of an OSH program in the construction sector.At the ASEAN-OSHNET regional level,the common issu

242、es are the ability:1)to completely identify and to collect the actual expenses and benefits data resulting from the program(this also means having the required access to the data),2)to convert the benefits gained into the exact monetary values,and 3)to carefully employ benefit-cost analysis in justi

243、fying the implementation of an OSH program.It should be noted,however,that data availability could differ among AMS.Data availability could also be influenced by the company size and whether the company is private or government owned.Larger companies in more developed AMS may have better database an

244、d workplace safety and health(reporting)system,that makes the economic analysis easier to conduct.Further analysis of benefits that can be reaped is probably much more difficult since some of the benefits can be probabilistic or intangible in nature(e.g.,company image or costumer trust).Many other t

245、angible benefits are also difficult to monetize,since it involves data that the company does not have(such as reduced likelihood of slip,trip,and fall).Therefore,it is suggested here that a construction company set up a data base consisting of previous OSH programs(and the respective investments).Th

246、e data base should also track the resulting injury/ill health effects data,as well as other data pertaining to project/business performance indicator.Currently there is no standardized sets of best practices for the construction sector,but a number of recommendations could be followed among AMS.Thes

247、e include posting incident data along with the costs for the employees to see.Such data can improve learning experience and awareness among workers and,when managed in a record keeping system,will also help companies perform more detailed benefit-cost analysis in the future.Train managements,supervi

248、sors,and employees on occupational hazards and ways to control them.Education is believed to be the first approach to be taken to significantly improve workplace safety and health in the workplace(Goetsch,2014).Substantial improvement of working conditions can also be obtained via understanding over

249、all company strategy.A classic approach of balanced scorecard(see for example Kaplan&Norton,2006)could be one of the best approaches in aligning safety and health performance with the goals of the organization.Lastly,get buy-in from employees buy adopting behavior-based safety(Velmosky,2019)or simil

250、ar approach.This can work well in construction companies with employees having different cultural,social,or economical backgrounds.Lastly,the benefit-cost evaluation has been shown to be a compelling technique in ensuring management on the importance and justification of implementing an OSH program.

251、This technique can also be used in designing,formulating,and 23Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sectorselecting the most optimal OSH programs.Such a technique is beneficial in predicting if an OSH program will indeed provide

252、benefits.It should be noted here that safety and health programs should not be evaluated from merely cost perspectives.A safe working environment is indeed the right that should be provided to the workers(Elvik,2003).When carefully designed,OSH initiatives can actually foster productivity and profit

253、(Oxenburgh et al.,2004).Instead of relying solely on safety technologies and procedures,improving safety and health through active worker involvements should be viewed as a management strategy in improving companys business bottom line.This is not to mention that occupational injury and ill health c

254、an detrimentally affect the society and government priorities.5.2.ConclusionsWorkplace incidents/fatalities and ill-health problems have generally plagued the construction sector,a serious issue faced by both developing and industrialized nations.Despite the potential advantages,OSH programs in the

255、construction industry have often been viewed as an economic burden.Large companies usually comply to national and government regulations.However,this may not apply to much smaller construction enterprises.Thus,an OSH program is usually implemented only at the minimum level as required by national la

256、ws and regulations.A different mindset is offered here in this study,in that a carefully designed OSH program can in fact provide positive effects(in terms of costs avoided and business benefits)that outweighs the investments spent for the program.NPV calculations that translate into BCR can be empl

257、oyed as a methodology in determining if an OSH program is worth investing.It is concluded from this study that economic rationale(BCR and NPV analysis)can actually be employed to justify an OSH program in the construction industry.An average BCR of 2.3 was determined across the eight AMS participati

258、ng in this collaborative project.Note that greater OSH investment does not necessarily result in greater BCR values;a greater BCR merely means that the program has much more benefits than the expenses.A careful analysis should meticulously identify literally all costs spent for an OSH program.Likewi

259、se,the analysis should consider all advantages resulting from the implementation of the program.The analysis should recognize all costs that can be avoided due to the the existence of the program and should also identify all potential(tangible and intangible)benefits associated with the program.Alth

260、ough converting these benefits into monetary values can be somewhat difficult and challenging,such analysis should still be conducted.A methodological framework has been offered in this study that allows for monetizing all potential benefits.In summary,this collaborative study provided evidence that

261、 careful economic analysis indeed resulted in justified OSH programs,and the corresponding methodologies could be used as a viable 24Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sectorapproach in justifying expenses associated with expen

262、sive OSH investments.Through careful economic evaluation,managers and project owners should not be hesitant in designing and providing much safer and healthier workplaces,even though the resulting OSH programs could initially be seen as an economic burden to the company.Safe and healthy workers shou

263、ld be used as a competitive advantage that will lead to more productive work and,eventually,more sustained businesses in this competitive era.5.3.RecommendationsWhile the same methodology can be employed across AMS,the nature of the industry could be different across nations leading to differences i

264、n the focus of the OSH programs.For instance,OSH programs that merely enforce workers to follow good safety practices may not be a priority in Singapore due to companys stronger adherence to national laws and regulations.Construction companies in Singapore may not necessarily evaluate their OSH prog

265、rams aimed at meeting national regulations from an economic point of view.Rather,they may probably use the economic analysis when selecting different technologies in improving workplace safety and health.In contrast,focus of OSH programs for Indonesia and Malaysia could be directed more toward the e

266、ducational and engineering(work design)aspects of the 3 Es in improving workplace safety.The construction sector in Brunei Darussalam may be characterized by fairly low fatality rate,but the prevalence of migrant workers with different cultural background may characterize workplace safety and health

267、 issues.Due to relatively slower growth in construction in Viet Nam,the interest of construction companies there is probably more toward obtaining more projects and contracts.Efficient operations with the least amount of resources(expenses)are probably the way to remain competitive.Safe and healthy

268、workplaces,therefore,may not rank first in this context.This study showed that all AMS can utilize benefit-cost analysis in evaluating an OSH program in the construction industry.This analysis can also be used in determining which types of OSH programs to implement,considering the unique characteris

269、tics of the construction sector of each AMS.Note that a study by Meswani(2008)demonstrated challenges in implementing an OSH program,which include cultural issue,leadership mindset,and corporate commitment.Construction companies in different AMS could also be characterized with different safety mana

270、gement system,levels of worker education,training,and safety awareness,as well as different types of technology used in the industry.The point is that each AMS may have unique national culture and characteristics that can influence how an OSH program in the construction industry can be suitably and

271、effectively designed and implemented.Thus,construction companies in each AMS could have slightly different approaches from one another in utilizing the methodology.25Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorThis study finally h

272、ighlights the importance of having a satisfactory database consisting of all expenses associated with an OSH program.These expenses have to be calculated,prorated,and discounted carefully according to the time horizon being evaluated.The database should also consist of all costs saved and benefits p

273、otentially gained from implementing an OSH program.Such a program may also result in intangible benefits(company image,customer trust,etc.)or benefits that are difficult to quantify(such as improved product quality).Despite this difficulty,all potential tangible as well as intangible benefits should

274、 still be identified,quantified,and monetized.Company historical data and those from the literature could be used as a basis for this procedure.Only by carefully examining all these costs and benefits can a company make a decision with regard to the feasibility of implementing an OSH program.Finding

275、s of this study,however,clearly demonstrated that a carefully designed OSH program will usually yield results that are acceptable from an economic point of view.It is noteworthy that,although OSH programs can be designed in a variety of ways,certain programs can actually result in greater effectiven

276、ess.Ikpe et al.(2011)suggests that construction companies focus more on accident prevention than to design programs that minimizes the severity of a workplace accident.Furthermore,investments on knowledge,awareness,and monitoring are more preferable than spending on after-the-fact measures(such as f

277、irst aid).The benefits can be long-lasting and tends to be ultimately more efficient.This should convince and persuade managers and project owners in providing their workers a safe,healthy,and productive workplace.26Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementat

278、ion in the Construction Sector6.ReferencesAlaloul,W.S.,Musarat,M.A.,Ali Rabbani,M.B.,Iqbal,Q.,Maqsoom,A.,&Farooq,W.(2021).Construction sector contribution to economic stability:Malaysian GDP distribution.Sustainability,13,5012.bin Zaini,M.F.(2022).Analysis of Occupational Accidents in The Malaysian

279、Construction Sector.Department of Statistics Malaysia.Buniya,M.K.,Othman,I.,Durdyev,S.,Sunindijo,R.Y.,Ismail,S.,&Kineber,A.F.(2021).Safety program elements in the construction industry:the case of Iraq.International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,18,411.Chau,T.(2019).New labour

280、law paves way for worker safety standards.Retrieved from Myanmar Times:https:/ analysis of road safety measures:applicability and controversies.Accident Analysis and Prevention,33,9-17.Elvik,R.(2003).How would setting policy priorities according to costbenefit analyses affect the provision of road s

281、afety?Accident Analysis and Prevention,35,557-570.Ghuzdewan,T.,&Damanik,P.(2019).Analysis of accident in Indonesian construction projects.Matec Web of Conferences,258,1-6.Goetsch,D.L(2014).Occupational Safety and Health for Technologists,Engineers,and Managers,8th Ed.,PearsonGonzales,D.,Gulden,T.R.,

282、Strong,A.,&Hoyle,W.(2016).Cost-benefit analysis of proposed California oil and gas refinery regulations.Santa Monica:RAND Corporation.Guimares,L.B.M,Ribeiro,J.L.D.,&Renner,J.S.(2012).Cost-benefit analysis of a socio-technical intervention in a Brazilian footwear company.Applied Ergonomics,43,948-957

283、.doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2012.01.003Haslam,R.A.Hide,S.A.,Gibb,A.G.F,Gyi,D.E.,Pavitt,T,Atkinson,S.&Duff,R.A(2005).Contributing factors in construction accidents.Applied Ergonomics,36(4),401-415.Hendrick,H.W.(2003).Determining the cost-benefits of ergonomics projects and factors that lead to their succes

284、s.Applied Ergonomics,34,419,427.HSE(2011)The costs to Britain of workplace injuries and work-related ill health in 2006-07HSE(2020)Costs to Britain of workplace fatalities and self-reported injuries and ill health,2018/19Ikpe,E.,Hammond,F.,&Proverbs,D.(2008).A Cost Benefit Analysis of Construction H

285、ealth and Safety Management:A Theoretical Discussion.27Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorIkpe,E.,Hammon,F.,&Oloke,D.(2011).Cost-Benefit analysis for accident prevention in construction projects.Journal of Construction En

286、gineering and Management,138(8),991-998.International Labour Organization.(2012).Estimating the Economic Costs of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses in Developing Countries:Essential Information for Decision-Makers.Leonie,P.,&Tavenas,S.(1996).Cost and benefits of preventing workplace accidents:the

287、case of participatory ergonomics.Safety Science,24,181-196.MarketR.(2021,June).Construction in Myanmar-Key Trends and Opportunities to 2025(H1 2021).Retrieved from https:/ and Occupational Health:Challenges and Opportunities in Emerging Economies.Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medi

288、cine,12,3-9.doi:https:/doi.org/10.4103%2F0019-5278.40808Mohamadian,M.,Noori,S.,&Hosseini,S.M.S.(2011).An integrated framework for cost-benefit analysis in road safety projects using AHP method.Management Science Letter,551-558.doi:10.5267/j.msl.2011.05.001Newnan,D.G.,Eschenbach,T.G.,&Lavelle,J.P.(20

289、12).Engineering Economics Analysis.New York:Oxford University Press.Organization,I.L.(2020).Safety+Health for All Workers in Myanmar.Retrieved from https:/www.ilo.org/PwC.(2017).Understanding Infrastructure Opportunities in ASEAN Infrastructure Series Report 1.Ramos,D.G.,Arezes,P.,&Afonso,P.(2015).A

290、nalysis of the return on preventive measures in musculoskeletal disorders through the benefit-cost ratio:A case study in a hospital.International Journal Industrial Ergonomics,60,1-12.Reniers,G.L.L.,&Brijs,T.(2014).An overview of cost-benefit models/tools for investigating occupational accidents.Che

291、mical Engineering Transaction,36,4347.Reniers,G.,Talarico,L.,&Paltrinieri.N.(2016).Cost-benefit analysis of safety measures.Dynamic Risk Analysis in the Chemical and Petroleum Industry,16,105-205.Rodezno,R.A.(2005).An overview to CERSSOs self evaluation of the cost-benefit on the investmentin occupa

292、tional safety and health in the textile factories:“A step by step methodology”.Journal of Safety Research,36,215-229.Santoso,D.S.(2009)The construction site as a multicultural workplace:a perspective of minority migrant workers in Brunei.Construction Management and Economics,27(6),529-537,DOI:10.108

293、0/060482Sartori,D.(2015).Guide to Cost-Benefit Analysis of Investment Projects:Economic appraisal tool for Cohesion Policy 2014-2020.Luxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union.Singapore Ministry of Manpower.(2020).Workplace Safety and Health Report 2020.28Research on Economic Ju

294、stification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorSoemardi,B.W.,&Pribadi,K.S.(2018).The Construction Sector of Indonesia.Jakarta,Indonesia:Construction Service Development Board,Dorrance Pub Co.Southeast Asia Construction.(2022,January 22).Singapores construc

295、tion demand to reach S$27-32 bil,supported by public sector.Retrieved from Southeast Asia Construction:https:/seac.tradelinkmedia.biz/publications/7/news/3497SteelOrbis.(2021).SEAISI:Construction sector in ASEAN expected to recover in 2021.Retrieved from https:/ analysis for low-probability,high-imp

296、act risk:Tutorial and examples.Dynamic Risk Analysis in the Chemical and Petroleum Industry,17,207-220.Tang,&Daniel,K.H.(2020).A comparative overview of the primary Southeast Asian safety and health laws.International Journal of Workplace Health Management,601-632.Taw,N.P.(2020,November).Discussing

297、opportunities to improve occupational safety and health in Myanmars construction sector.Retrieved from International Labour Organization:https:/www.ilo.org/yangon/Velmosky,D.(2019).Culturally Tailored Behavioral Based Safety.Win,K.N.,Trivedi,A.,Lai,A.,Hasylin,H.,&Abdul-Mumin,K.(2021).Non-fatal occup

298、ational accidents in Brunei Darussalam.Industrial Health,59(3),193-200.doi:10.2486/indhealth.2020-0174.Epub 2021 Jan 23.PMID:33487625;PMCID:PMC8365869.Win,K.N.,Trivedi,A.,T.,&Lai,A.(2018).Workplace fatalities in Brunei Darussalam.Industrial Health,56,1-22.10.2486/indhealth.2018-0053.WSH Institute Re

299、port.(2013).Economic Cost of Work-related Injuries and Ill-health in Singapore.Appendix 1:Questionnaire30Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector31Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implem

300、entation in the Construction SectorResearch tool on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorOccupational Safety and Health Program Questionnaire for the Construction IndustryDear Sir or Madam:The purpose of this questionnaire is to gain i

301、nformation on economic justifications for OSH implementation in the construction sector.This questionnaire is used to identify all costs/investments associated with implementing OSH programs and to identify all potential benefits(e.g.,costs saved/avoided)resulting from such programs.This instrument

302、consists of three(3)parts.To assist you in filling this questionnaire,please read the Questionnaire Guide attached with this document.Please respond to all the questions in this survey.Your identity(and your companys name)will be kept confidential and your cooperation is highly appreciated.Thank you

303、.For inquiries about this survey,please contact:GlossaryAn accident is regarded as a particular incident in which an injury,illness,or fatality occurs.An incident is a work-related event(s)in which an injury,ill-health(regardless of severity),or fatality occurred,or could have occurred.A near miss i

304、s an incident that did not result in a fatality,injury,illness,or damage but had the potential to do so.First Aid is the help given to a sick or injured person until full medical treatment is available.Man-hour is an hour regarded in terms of the amount of work that can be done by one average person

305、 within this period.Project working days is the number of calendar days of work for the project regardless of the number of workers.LTIFR(Lost Time Injury Frequency Rate)is the number of lost-time injuries/LTI occurring in a workplace per 1 million man-hours.32Research on Economic Justification of O

306、ccupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorLTIFR(Lost Time Injury Frequency Rate)is the number of lost-time injuries/LTI occurring in a workplace per 1 million man-hours.Part I.Project DataChoose one project in your company and answer all of the following questions ac

307、cording to that project.Project name:Which industry is this project classified in?:(Example:Manufacturing,commercial,institutional,recreation,retail,housing,public facility project)Project contract value($):Project duration(years,months):Project assignor:Source of funds:NoQuestionResponse1What is th

308、e number of working days in this project?2What is the typical number of the workforce(including contractors)?3What is the total amount invested by the company for OSH programs for this project(US$)?4What is the number of near-miss per 1 million man-hours?5What is the number of first aid per 1 millio

309、n man-hours?6What is the number of incidents resulting in damaged equipment/property(more thanUS$100)per 1 million man-hours?7What is the number of incidents per 1 million man-hours?8What is the number of injured workers per 1 million man-hours?9What is the number of fatalities per 1 million man-hou

310、rs?10What is the LTIFR(Lost Time Injury Frequency Rate)?33Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction Sector11How many working days were lost due to incidents?12How much has been spent on compensation due to accidents(US$)?13What is the

311、 number of safety audits for theproject?14What is the number of safety training for theproject?15Investment in safety and health personnel:15.1 On-site:PositionAmountMonthly Wage(US$)Safety officerSafety supervisorSecretary/administrationOthers:15.2 Main OfficePositionAmountMonthly wage(US$)Safety m

312、anagerChief safety officerSenior safety officerSecretary/administrationOthers:State the name of occupational safety and health programs that has been implemented in the project:1.2.3.34Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Construction SectorP

313、art II Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)ProgramState the name of one OSH program that has been implemented in the project:OSH program description(location,stakeholder,and others):Write down all the effects of the implementation of the OSH program:Example:If the program did not exist,it is estimate

314、d that the number of workers in an accident is people.1.2.3.4.5.List the relevant OSH program implementation costs using the table below.NoProgram implementation costs descriptionDescription and calculationCosts(US$)Payment Period(example:monthly,semesterly,beginning of the project,the end of the pr

315、oject)1Procurement(purchased tools,machines)2Installation3Training4Operation5Maintenance6Program promotion7Project Health and Safety Management Plan preparation8OSH promotion9Insurance10OSH personnel35Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Cons

316、truction SectorNoProgram implementation costs descriptionDescription and calculationCosts(US$)Payment Period(example:monthly,semesterly,beginning of the project,the end of the project)11Health facility12Safety signs13Other costs regarding OSH risk management14Other costs:36Research on Economic Justi

317、fication of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementations in the Construction SectorList of costs avoided/saved resulting from the OSH program(please add more costs to the list and write the actual amount in US$)Costs avoided descriptionDescription and calculationThe estimated total cost saved(

318、US$)Paid by:MedicalFirst aid Company Insurance Workers/FamilyAdministration Company Insurance Workers/FamilyHospitalization Company Insurance Workers/FamilyMedical personnel Company Insurance Workers/FamilyMedical costs Company Insurance Workers/FamilyRehabilitation Company Insurance Workers/FamilyC

319、ompensation Company Insurance Workers/FamilyInsurance costs Company Insurance Workers/FamilyAccident investigation Company Insurance Workers/Family37Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementations in the Construction SectorCosts avoided descriptionDescription

320、 and calculationThe estimated total cost saved(US$)Paid by:Equipment and propertyEquipment damaged/replacement cost Company Insurance Workers/FamilyRepairing cost Company Insurance Workers/FamilyTimeLoss time of theinjured worker Company Insurance Workers/FamilyLoss time of coworker to take care of

321、the injured worker Company Insurance Workers/FamilyLoss of time because of project stopped temporarily Company Insurance Workers/FamilyOvertime costs Company Insurance Workers/FamilyTemporary StaffRecruitment Company Insurance Workers/FamilyTraining Company Insurance Workers/Family38Research on Econ

322、omic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementations in the Construction SectorCosts avoided descriptionDescription and calculationThe estimated total cost saved(US$)Paid by:Others Company Insurance Workers/Family Company Insurance Workers/Family Company Insurance Workers/Family

323、Company Insurance Workers/FamilyAppendix 2:National Report National ReportRESEARCH ON ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH(OSH)IMPLEMENTATION IN THE CONSTRUCTION SECTORCAMBODIA42Research on Economic Justification of Occupational Safety and Health(OSH)Implementation in the Constru

324、ction SectorI.IntroductionThe construction industry in Cambodia is dramatically increasing in these last decades.Based on the Ministry of Land Management,Urban Planning,and Construction report in December 2021,from 2000 until December 2021;there were 2392 buildings of 5 floors up building constructi

325、on,1324 buildings of 5-9 floors building construction,675 buildings of 10-19 floors building construction,220 buildings of 20-29 floors building construction,123 buildings of 30-39 floors building construction,50 buildings of 40 floors up building construction,and 474 projects of housing borey const

326、ruction.The growth rate of construction is rapidly increasing,the construction standards and site safety have become the most concern.Currently,The Ministry of Land Management and Urban Planning and Construction has been enacted and promulgated the new construction law to regulate the construction i

327、ndustry in Cambodia.According to the Ministry of Land Management,Urban Planning,and Construction report,the ministry has issued a certificate of license for 3172 companies for the construction sector.The occupational accident is also significantly increasing with the growth of construction in the co

328、untry.In 2009,the International Labour Organization(ILO)estimates that more than 1,500 workers are killed each year by occupational accidents in Cambodia.Most of these accidents occur in construction sites,brick kilns and small enterprises that have neither the knowledge nor system in place to prote

329、ct workers.Common causes of injuries,illnesses,and death include falls from heights,being struck by falling objects,the collapse of buildings or structures,electrocution,suffocation,and exposure to hazardous chemicals such as asbestos.Due to the enormous growth in the construction industry in Cambod

330、ia,the country has faced many challenges,as we struggle to ensure the safety and health of the sectors workforce and workplace.There are several causes,including,the absence of OSH law and regulation for labour inspection in construction sites,weak labour inspection,lack of supply of equipment neede

331、d to enforce the standards,scant or no supply of worker insurance,unsatisfactory statistic and reporting system of relevant data on work-related accidents,injuries,and deaths of workers,lack of OSH training and awareness amongst workers and employers,condoned safety standards from employers and sub-

332、contractors,adherence to traditional working methods,lack of technical skills in regards to operating machinery,as well as the absence of any system of skills certification,and general weakness in the formulation and enforcement of the rules within a multi-layer,multi-player construction sector aggr

333、avate the situation.However,currently,the Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training is preparing to establish the OSH law,to respond to the issues of safety and health at the workplace in Cambodia.This research aims aimed at conducting a systematic approach in determining the benefit of occupational safety or health program in the construction sector from 43Research on Economic Justification of O