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1、RESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFSEditors:James Fitzsimons,Simon Branigan,Robert D.Brumbaugh,Tein McDonald and Philine S.E.zu ErmgassenThe restoration of habitat has become a priority for many citizens and governments as the ecological and societal benefits of these habitats have been become
2、 more widely recognised.Black pygmy mussels.Photo:Alan Cottingham,Murdoch UniversityACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis work was supported by the China Global Conservation Fund(CGCF),a global initiative primarily financed by The Nature Conservancys China Board of Trustees.We thank authors of the first edition of t
3、hese guidelines Mike Beck and Loren Coen.Jun Cheng and Lynne Hale provide support and encouragement throughout.Thanks to Luke Helmer for assisting with the life cycle infographics,Cherie Wagner for input into chapter 9,Bob Pearce and Catherine McMahon for your review.The following people generously
4、provided photographs:Anne Birch,Simon Branigan,Jarrod Boord,Joy Brown,Lori Cheung,Alan Cottingham,Ben Diggles,Dazheng Dong,Chris Gillies,Paul Hamer,Andrew Jeffs,Shaun Lee,Verena Merk,Kyle Obermann,Qing Liu,D.J.McGlashan,Anita Nedosyko,NOAA Chesapeake Bay Office,Joe Rieger,Johno Rudge,Rick Shucksmith
5、,John Torgan,University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science,Matt Uttley,Stephanie Westby,Shmuel Yozari,Zoological Society of London and Philine zu Ermgassen.Design and layout by Tanya White and Johanna Villani at Johanna Villani Design.Suggested citation for publication:Fitzsimons,J.,Branig
6、an,S.,Brumbaugh,R.D.,McDonald,T.and zu Ermgassen,P.S.E.(eds)(2019).Restoration Guidelines for Shellfish Reefs.The Nature Conservancy,Arlington VA,USA.Suggested citation for chapters(for example):Brumbaugh,R.D.and Hancock B.(2019).Shellfish reef restoration:An introduction.In:Restoration Guidelines f
7、or Shellfish Reefs(eds.J.Fitzsimons,S.Branigan,R.D.Brumbaugh,T.McDonald and P.S.E.zu Ermgassen),pp.2-6.The Nature Conservancy,Arlington VA,USA.ISBN:978-0-6485677-1-4Sovereign Offset is FSC certified and considered to be one of the most environmentally adapted products on the market with carbon neutr
8、al certification to Ball&Doggett warehouses nationally.Containing fibre sourced only from responsible forestry practices,this sheet is ISO 14001 EMS accredited and made with elemental chlorine free pulps.iiCONTRIBUTORSEDITORSJames Fitzsimons,The Nature Conservancy,Suite 2-01,60 Leicester Street,Carl
9、ton VIC 3053,Australia;School of Life and Environmental Sciences,Deakin University,221 Burwood Highway,Burwood VIC 3125,Australia.Email:jfitzsimonstnc.orgSimon Branigan,The Nature Conservancy,Suite 2-01,60 Leicester Street,Carlton VIC 3053,Australia.Email simon.branigantnc.org Robert D.Brumbaugh,The
10、 Nature Conservancy,255 Alhambra Circle,Suite 640,Coral Gables,FL,33134,USA.Email:rbrumbaughtnc.orgTein McDonald,Society for Ecological Restoration Australasia,Australia.Email:Philine S.E.zu Ermgassen,University of Edinburgh,School of Geosciences,Changing Oceans Group,Grant Institute,James Hutton Ro
11、ad,Edinburgh EH9 3FE,UK.Email: CHAPTER AUTHORSSimon Branigan,The Nature Conservancy,Suite 2-01,60 Leicester Street,Carlton VIC 3053,Australia.Email:simon.branigantnc.org Robert D.Brumbaugh,The Nature Conservancy,255 Alhambra Circle,Suite 640,Coral Gables,FL,33134 USA.Email:rbrumbaughtnc.orgBryan M.D
12、eAngelis,The Nature Conservancy,University of Rhode Island Bay Campus,Narragansett,RI 02882,USA.Email:bdeangelistnc.org Laura Geselbracht,The Nature Conservancy,2500 Maitland Center Pkwy#311,Maitland,FL 32751,USA.Email:lgeselbrachttnc.orgChris L.Gillies,The Nature Conservancy,Suite 2-01,60 Leicester
13、 Street,Carlton VIC 3053,Australia.Email:chris.gilliestnc.orgBoze Hancock,The Nature Conservancy,c/o University of Rhode Island Graduate School of Oceanography,215 South Ferry Road,Narragansett,RI,02882,USA.Email:bhancocktnc.org Andrew Jeffs,Institute of Marine Science,University of Auckland,Aucklan
14、d,New Zealand.Email:a.jeffsauckland.ac.nzIan McLeod,TropWATER,Centre for Tropical Water and Aquatic Ecosystem Research,James Cook University,Townsville,Queensland,Australia.Email:ian.mcleodjcu.edu.auBernadette Pogoda,Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research,Am Handelsh
15、afen 12,27570 Bremerhaven,Germany.Email:bernadette.pogodaawi.deStephanie Westby,National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,200 Harry S.Truman Parkway,Annapolis,MD 21401,USA.Email:stephanie.westbynoaa.gov Philine S.E.zu Ermgassen,University of Edinburgh,School of Geosciences,Changing Oceans Grou
16、p,Grant Institute,James Hutton Road,Edinburgh EH9 3FE,UK.Email:OTHER CONTRIBUTORSSeth Theuerkauf,The Nature Conservancy,Worldwide Office,4245 N,Fairfax Dr,Arlington,VA 22203,USA.Email:seth.theuerkauftnc.orgMarine Thomas,The Nature Conservancy,Unit 2107-08 Prosperity Millennia Plaza,663 Kings Road,No
17、rth Point,Hong Kong.Email:marine.thomastnc.orgRESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFSiiiPRACTITIONERS CHECKLISTThis table provides a high-level checklist for practitioners to help guide the establishment and delivery of shellfish restoration projects.Know the system you are working in(Chapters 1
18、and 2)Become familiar with the ecosystem in its local setting(e.g.consider its historical distribution*),causes for decline,current threats(including diseases),bivalve lifecycle and reproduction methods and associated community assemblages.Gather evidence of recruitment strength and timing from prev
19、ious research,observation,aquaculture operators and settlement plates.Develop a restoration concept and socialise with potential project stakeholders and supporters(Chapters 1 and 2)Consider developing a short document that outlines project aspirations and potential approaches.Use this to receive fe
20、edback and support for establishing a more detailed feasibility plan and funding proposals.Include regulators in the outreach.Establish a feasibility plan(Chapter 3)Consider including the following in a feasibility plan:Identification of reference ecosystems or reference models and derived targets C
21、learly defined S.M.A.R.T.objectives Identification of project stakeholders and supporters Likely funding streams Different restoration approaches Availability and disease tolerance of broodstock and source of seed (if larvae limited)Identify funding sources and secure funding(Chapter 2)Consider link
22、ing ecosystem service outcomes to beneficiaries and targeting funding opportunities linked to ecosystem service outcomes.Explore opportunities to leverage and match initial support.Establish project management systems(Chapters 3,4 and 5)Establish detailed project and implementation plans,communicati
23、on plans,volunteer management,legal framework and contracts,detailed risk assessments,site management plans,tenders and quotes,etc.Know biosecurity risks and permitting requirements(Chapter 4)Identify biosecurity and disease risks to wild populations and to aquaculture and fishing industries.Underst
24、and requirements and development times to secure permits.Understand/address the potential threat of the harvest of shellfish from the restored reef.Undertake habitat suitability assessments and pilot studies(Chapters 3 and 5)Identify optimal places for restoration with the system using suitability a
25、ssessments,history of the most recent shellfish reefs,and pilot studies.Confirm technical approach(es)required to support recovery including reef designs(Chapter 5,6,7 and 8)Does the ecosystem require reconstruction(e.g.addition of substrate and shellfish),assisted regeneration(e.g.addition of subst
26、rate or shellfish)or management to limit threats(e.g.sediment,disease or predation).What reef designs will be used to support these technical approaches?Undertake restoration(Chapter 5 and 6)Work with community volunteers,contractors and third parties to mobilise and deploy substrate,shellfish and r
27、educe/remove threats.Undertake monitoring,evaluation and reporting(Chapter 7)Measure progress against predefined restoration targets and reference ecosystems and models.Measure universal indicators.Effectively communicate outcomes of your project to stakeholders,practitioners and the research commun
28、ity(Chapter 9)Plan for communication,do the basics and target visual mediums and social media.*Documenting the historical ecology of shellfish reefs in the area can be important to support the planned restoration.ivThis publication is intended to provide foundational information to serve as a useful
29、 starting point for shellfish reef restoration.Margarets Rock,Port Phillip Bay,Australia.Photo:Paul Hamer.RESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFSvGLOSSARY Adaptive management:a structured decision-making process that incorporates learning by doing and a monitoring program that incorporates learni
30、ngs into future decision-making.Assisted regeneration:recovery at sites of intermediate(or even high)degradation.Need both removal of causes of degradation and further active interventions to correct abiotic damage and trigger biotic recovery.Bins:are in a histogram chart and are the entire range of
31、 values divided into a series of intervals.Then,how many values that fall into each interval are counted.The bins are usually specified as consecutive,non-overlapping intervals of a variable.Bivalves:aquatic molluscs which has its body enclosed within two hinged shells,such as oysters,clams,mussels,
32、and scallops.Cultch:any substrate to which a juvenile shellfish is attached or may attach.Cultched seed:juvenile shellfish attached to any type of substrate,natural or artificial.Cultchless seed:juvenile shellfish attached to very small pieces of cultch,such as a grain of sand or tiny shard of shell
33、,so as it grows it appears that it is not attached to any substrate.Implementation monitoring:a straightforward assessment of whether the restoration that was designed and planned was carried-out and accomplished as intended.Monitoring for adaptive management:monitoring to inform subsequent restorat
34、ion management so as to improve the design of future restoration efforts.Natural regeneration:where damage is relatively low(or where sufficient time frames and nearby populations exist to allow recolonization),plants and animals may be able to recover after the cessation of the degrading practicesa
35、lone.Performance criteria:tangible,measurable objectives to be accomplished within a proposed timeframe that indicate progress toward meeting the project goals.The criteria should include metrics,target values,and timeframes.Performance criteria may represent conditions at a reference site,and/or th
36、ey may represent target conditions considering the surrounding land use or other local conditions.Performance monitoring:monitoring to determine whether the restoration activities are having the desired habitat response,such as a change in overall shellfish recruitment,biomass,or other population-le
37、vel parameters.Reconstruction:where damage is high,not only do all causes of degradation need to be removed or reversed and all biotic and abiotic damage corrected to suit the identified local native reference ecosystem,but also all or a major proportion of its desirable biota need to be reintroduce
38、d wherever possible.Recruitment-limited environment:can be due to the lack of sufficient nearby broodstock(mature,reproductively capable shellfish of the target species)to naturally populate existing reef structure.Reference ecosystem:a model adoptedto identify the particular ecosystem that is theta
39、rgetof therestoration project.This involves describing the specific compositional,structural and functional ecosystemattributesrequiring reinstatement before the desired outcome(the restored state)can be said to have been achieved.Restorable bottom:a defined area of the seafloor where restoration is
40、 feasible based on available knowledge and present-day limiting factors.Restoration goal-based metrics:a set of measurable restoration goals that can be monitored to assess the delivery of shellfish reef restoration projects benefits for nature and people.Restoration goals and objectives:restoration
41、 goals describe the desired future condition of a site.These long-term goals are supported with more short-term objectives.Restoration objectives should be explicit about the scale and time-frame for restoration and be measurable so that progress towards the goals can be assessed.Seed:commonly used
42、fishing industry term for juvenile shellfish.SER:Society for Ecological Restoration.Shell budget:balance between shell loss and accretion.Shellfish gardening:program where citizens grow shellfish off docks in floats or cages for planting onto restoration areas.Shellfish reefs:structural features in
43、coastal waters created through the aggregation and accumulation of bivalve molluscs,such as oysters and mussels.Spat:common term for post-larval juvenile oysters or mussels,after they have attached to hard substrate.Spat-on-shell:juvenile oyster attached to empty shells of the same or another shellf
44、ish species.Substrate-limited environment:an area of potential shellfish habitat which lacks reef structure to which shellfish larvae can attach.Universal metrics and universal environmental variables:set of standard metrics and environmental variables that should be measured on all projects,regardl
45、ess of restoration objectives.The universal metrics allows for the basic performance of each reef to be assessed through time,while also allowing for comparisons with other projects.Sampling of universal environmental variables also provides valuable information that can aid in the interpretation of
46、 data collected during reef monitoringactivities.viOstrea angasi oyster reef,Georges Bay,Tasmania,Australia.Photo:Chris Gillies.Restoration is increasingly viewed as an integral part of ocean and coastal management globally.CONTENTS CONTRIBUTORS iiiPRACTITIONERS CHECKLIST ivGLOSSARY viCHAPTER 1 SHEL
47、LFISH REEF RESTORATION:AN INTRODUCTION 2CHAPTER 2 THE CASE FOR SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION AND FINANCE 7CHAPTER 3 GETTING STARTED:PLANNING,GOAL SETTING,AND FEASIBILITY FOR SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION 18CHAPTER 4 BIOSECURITY AND PERMITTING IN SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION 30CHAPTER 5 SHELLFISH REEF RESTOR
48、ATION IN PRACTICE 36CHAPTER 6 SCALING UP SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION 49CHAPTER 7 WHY MONITOR SHELLFISH REEFS?58CHAPTER 8 SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION:BEYOND OYSTER REEFS 64CHAPTER 9 SUCCESSFUL COMMUNICATION FOR SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION PROJECTS 691SOME IMPORTANT CONTEXTShellfish reefs is a term used
49、throughout this publication and refers to structural features in coastal waters created through the aggregation and accumulation of bivalve molluscs,such as oysters and mussels.These structural features can vary in height depending on the species,as well as the depth of water and other physical attr
50、ibutes of the local bay,estuary or inlet in which they occur(Figure 1.1).Where the aggregations form a single layer and do not clump on top of each other they are often called beds(but are considered a shellfish reef for the purposes of this document).In essence,shellfish reefs are analogous to the
51、more familiar reefs formed by tropical corals,and we are attempting to convey an important idea in this terminology:the restorative actions being taken are typically aimed at achieving both a population-level outcome(more bivalves in the system)and a structural outcome(a physical attribute of the ba
52、y,estuary or inlet itself).Although the term shellfish can have a rather broad definition in some countries and contexts,throughout this guide we are using it synonymously with bivalves.Oysters and mussels are both bivalves that like to live in aggregations,resulting in structure-forming populations
53、 or shellfish reefs.Both types of bivalves have suffered similar fates of over-exploitation and habitat degradation,and both are the subject of restoration in various places around the world.Their life histories,habitat requirements and other ecological attributes may differ,and to be successful,res
54、toration projects need to consider the biology of the species.Even within oyster species there are differences that can be important for the design and implementation of restoration projects.For example,cupped oysters in the genus Crassostrea are broadcast-spawners with free-swimming larvae,whereas
55、flat oysters in the genus Ostrea brood their offspring within the mantle cavity(Figure 1.2).This difference in reproductive biology has implications for the siting of restoration projects,among other things.Where possible,we have tried to be explicit about the type of bivalves being discussed in eac
56、h chapter,and whether there are important considerations for a given type of shellfish restorationproject.CHAPTER 1 SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION:AN INTRODUCTIONRobert D.Brumbaugh and Boze HancockThe field of marine habitat restoration has accelerated dramatically in the past decade,partly in response
57、to a growing awareness of the degradation of marine habitats around the world and partly in response to an increased ability to quantify the economic value of habitat benefits.The restoration of habitat has become a priority for many citizens and governments as the ecological and societal benefits o
58、f these habitats have been better characterised.Accompanying this scientific characterisation comes the broad understanding that there is insufficient habitat remaining in many parts of the world to deliver services and benefits at a level necessary to sustain the socio-environmental systems.At this
59、 point,restoration is a necessary management intervention in addition to conservation of remaining habitat.Once the last frontier on earth,there are now massive expectationsthat the ocean will be a critical driver for human well-being.Indeed,nations around the world are counting on the Blue Economy
60、to drive economic growth,and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 bring the oceans importance into sharp focus.The provision of food for a growing population,support for economic growth and prosperity,and adaptation to,and mitigation of,climate change are expectations woven thro
61、ughout the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.Accordingly,restoration is increasingly viewed as an integral part of ocean and coastal management globally.2CHAPTER 1 SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION:AN INTRODUCTIONThe global Shellfish Reefs at Risk assessment(Beck et al.2009,2011),revealed steep
62、and widespread declines in native populations of habitat-forming bivalves.Findings of this loss were presented at the Society for Ecological Restoration International conference in 2011,raising both a local and global challenge.Subsequently in 2012 shellfish reefs were added to the list of wetland t
63、ypes eligible for designation for protection under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.Since 2012,shellfish reef restoration has become a global practice conducted at increasing scales from the Asia-Pacific region,through Europe and the UK to the Americas.The first Practitioners Guide for shellfish re
64、ef restoration(Brumbaugh et al.2006)was primarily focused on supporting community-based restoration efforts in the USA.There was a nascent and growing interest in addressing local loss of oyster reefs,frequently motivated by declines in local oyster fisheries.As potential ecological benefits produce
65、d by intact shellfish reefs such as clearer water and reef habitat for associated fish and crustaceans were revealed by scientific studies,this became a primary motivation for many restoration projects.Regardless of the motivation(s),there was a sufficient base of knowledge and experience to compile
66、 some fundamental guidance around design and monitoring of projects taking shape in the USA.The purpose of this new guide is to provide both guidance in decision-making for establishing shellfish reef restoration projects and examples of different approaches undertaken by experienced practitioners i
67、n a variety of geographic,environmental and social settings.The new guide both updates and expands on the original Practitioners Guide,capitalising on the improvements in knowledge around the ecological function of bivalves in their coastal environments as well as on the depth and breadth of experie
68、nce that now exists globally.Importantly,many of the restoration efforts are reaching scales that vastly eclipse the projects that were reflected in the first iteration.This publication is intended to provide,as the first one did,foundational information to serve as a useful starting point.By capita
69、lising on novel techniques applied in different countries,management frameworks reflecting different social and political settings,and relatively new monitoring guidance,this publication should have application globally.Figure 1.1:Example of intertidal oyster reef in Jiangsu Province,China.Photo:Qin
70、g Liu.RESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFS3Ecological restoration in the marine realm has developed rapidly as a discipline that extends well beyond shellfish reef habitats.In the marine realm,many other critical coastal habitats are now the focus of habitat restoration,including coral reefs,k
71、elp forests,mangroves,salt marsh and seagrass habitats.While terrestrial restoration is arguably more advanced and firmly established as a management intervention than marine restoration,the trajectories are converging rapidly and opportunities for additional collaboration are increasingly apparent.
72、While terrestrial and marine restoration are each responding to some challenges that are unique,the conceptual framework that has been developed to guide the application of ecological restoration can be applied to both.Moreover,adopting a common framework to describe ecological restoration,and the u
73、se of a common language among networks of practitioners focused on the different marine habitat types,as well as the terrestrial and freshwater realms,will strengthen the discipline of ecological restoration and make it easier to compare projects and share lessons learned.That common framework and l
74、anguage is best developed and articulated in the Society for Ecological Restorations International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration(Gann et al.2019)(SER Standards).The process of undertaking restoration and terminology used to describe shellfish reef restoration in
75、 this guide adopts the SER Standards where possible.A useful communication tool from the SER Standards is the Recovery Wheel,used to document progress toward the recovery of an ecosystem toward a reference condition(Figure 1.3).This has been successfully adapted for use in marine habitat restoration
76、 and offers opportunity for further use.The Recovery Wheel identifies six key ecosystem attributes,or broad functional and structural categories of ecosystems which include the more specific and measurable goals and objectives defined for each project.While this reporting structure is nested under c
77、haracteristics such as the scale,the strategic importance of a project and the level of social engagement that are critical higher-level features,considering these ecosystem attributes will help place an individual project within the broader ecological context when reporting on progress.The five lev
78、els represented as concentric rings in the recovery wheel relate to the degree of progress toward matching the conditions of a native reference ecosystem,ranging from level one where ongoing deterioration has been prevented to level five where a characteristic assemblage of biota has been establishe
79、d to a point where structural and trophic complexity is likely to develop without further intervention(Gann et al.2019).REFERENCESBeck,M.W.,Brumbaugh,R.D.,Airoldi,L.,Carranza,A.,Coen,L.D.,Crawford,C.,Defeo,O.,Edgar,G.,Hancock,B.,Kay,M.,Lenihan,H.,Luckenbach,M.,Toropova,C.and Zhang,G.(2009).Shellfish
80、 Reefs at Risk:A Global Analysis of Problems and Solutions.The Nature Conservancy,Arlington,VA,USA.Beck,M.W.,Brumbaugh,R.D.,Airoldi,L.,Carranza,A.,Coen,L.D.,Crawford,C.,Defeo,O.,Edgar,G.,Hancock,B.,Kay,M.,Lenihan,H.,Luckenbach,M.,Toropova,C.,Zhang,G.and Guo,X.(2011).Oyster reefs at risk and recommen
81、dations for conservation,restoration and management.BioScience 61,107-116.Brumbaugh,R.D.,Beck,M.W.,Coen,L.D.,Craig,L.and Hicks,P.(2006).A Practitioners Guide to the Design and Monitoring of Shellfish Restoration Projects:An Ecosystem Services Approach.The Nature Conservancy,Arlington,Virginia,USA.Ga
82、nn,G.D.,McDonald,T.,Walder,B.,Aronson,J.,Nelson,C.R.,Jonson,J.,Hallett,J.G.,Eisenberg,C.,Guariguata,M.R.,Liu,J.,Hua,F.,Echeverra,C.,Gonzales,E.,Shaw,N.,Decleer,K.and Dixon,K.W.(2019).International principles and standards for the practice of ecological restoration.Second edition.Restoration Ecology
83、27(S1),doi:10.1111/rec.13035.Example of intertidal oyster reef in Jiangsu Province,China.Photo:Jun Cheng.4CHAPTER 1 SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION:AN INTRODUCTIONADULT OYSTERSAdult males and females ability to alternate genderFERTILISATION SPAT Attached to shellFREE-SWIMMING LARVAE EggsSperm3 WeeksLarva
84、e settle as spat Fertilised eggLife-span 20 yearsMaturity 1-2 YearsFREE SWIMMING300mFERTILISED EGGS Held within mantlecavity of femaleSPAT Spat,settlement to 10mmADULT FEMALEInternal fertilisation50-200+mmBROADCAST RELEASEVeliger D Larvae 140-190mADULT MALE50-200+mmOSTREAEDULIS0-1 hour2-3 years7-10
85、days17-26 daysSperm(Broadcast Release)Juvenile(10-50mm)Trochophore Larvae 140m 60%)and closing down the export of seed oysters from the state,which supported the oyster aquaculture industry in other regions of Australia.Once a pest species is introduced into a new location in the marine environment
86、it is extremely difficult,if not impossible,to eradicate.Therefore,preventing introductions of pest species when transferring shellfish and other material,such as shell cultch,among locations is vitally important.In areas targeted for restoration that may already have shellfish diseases or parasites
87、 present,it is important to identify populations of shellfish for sourcing broodstock or for transfer that are resistant to these pests to help ensure the survival of the shellfish following their transfer,if at all possible.Surviving shellfish in areas that have displayed the highest disease loads,
88、for the longest period,are most likely to have developed the greatest tolerance to the disease.However,it is also important to avoid transporting the pathogens responsible for the disease to new areas.Producing disease-free stock that carry the available genetic tolerance,but are free of pathogens,i
89、s an important consideration for shellfish transfers in areas affected by diseases.Increasingly,shellfish hatcheries are playing a role in developing and producing certified disease-free stock that is particularly effective for reducing the risk of spreading shellfish diseases.Transferring large num
90、bers of the shellfish species targeted for reef restoration into new areas has the potential to alter the genetic diversity and local adaptation of the existing native population in the receiving areas.Subsequent genetic mixing of the two groups may decrease the fitness of the genetically mixedpopul
91、ation.Figure 4.2:Bonamiosis in Bluff Oysters(Ostrea chilensis).The oyster on the left appears healthy with a dark digestive gland and normal sized gonad(black arrow).The oyster on the right is infected with Bonamia exitiosus.It has a gonad and digestive gland which are comparatively small and pale(g
92、reen arrow),and an enlarged heart(red arrow).Photo:Ben Diggles.32CHAPTER 4 BIOSECURITY AND PERMITTING IN SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATIONFor example,strains of the American oyster that have been selectively bred for disease resistance have been found to have the highest growth and survival in their natal
93、region.These benefits tend to decrease with increasing distance from that natal region.Transferring these oysters into more distant locations where they can interbreed with an existing resident population of oysters may ultimately result in the dilution of the local adaptation among the resulting oy
94、sters to the environmental conditions in the area.In some areas,e.g.southern Australia and Europe,the native population of shellfish has been driven to local extinction,so sourcing locally-adapted broodstock is not an option.Where possible,it is always preferable to work with local shellfish populat
95、ions as the basis for restoration because it eliminates the risk of accidental introductions of shellfish pests and genetic interference.High resolution scientific studies of the genetic structure of shellfish populations are the best guide to determining possible differences between the intended so
96、urce and receiving populations for shellfish reef restoration.In the absence of information on population genetics,wild shellfish populations from the same geographic region and connected by an immediately contiguous water body should be used where possible.If the transfer of shellfish between more
97、distant locations is required for restoration,it needs to be carefully assessed before proceeding.In some jurisdictions this careful assessment is a mandated requirement,which may also entail formal permitting considerations by a managing agency or assessment by a regional biosecurity agency.Even if
98、 it is not a mandated requirement,an assessment is advisable to avoid the risk of the shellfish transfers doing more environmental harm than good through accidental introductions of parasites or diseases.Typically,such an assessment will involve an expert appraisal of any potential risks of negative
99、 effects of a transfer of shellfish,usually involving a comparison between the profiles of the presence of parasites and diseases at the source and receiving locations for the planned transfer of shellfish for the restoration.Finding suitable expertise in shellfish diseases and parasites,especially
100、for community-driven shellfish restoration initiatives,may be challenging,however,such people are often found in regulatory agencies,universities,and other aquatic research institutions.If regulatory agencies are unable to provide guidance,then asking around among aquatic researchers will often prov
101、ide direction to appropriate expertise that can be of help.An assessment may result in protocols for shellfish transfers that are aimed at minimising any associated risks due to shellfish transfers(e.g.,ICES 2008;CEFAS 2009).Protocols used in assessment may involve prior testing of shellfish to conf
102、irm pest-free status,treatment of transferred shellfish prior to their release into their destination location(to destroy organisms living on or in the shells of shellfish),or the banning of movements of shellfish from known disease regions to currently disease-free areas.This is currently the situa
103、tion with restrictions on movement of oysters across regions of Europe and parts of Australasia where the flat oyster parasite Bonamia is known to be present.Where translocations of shellfish are allowed,dipping or spraying shellfish with freshwater or weak acetic acid(vinegar solution)has been used
104、 to destroy biofouling pest species,such as invasive sea squirts,seaweeds,and fan worms,to prevent their transfer among locations.The movement and placement of shell-based cultch material bears some similar risks to those associated with the movement of live shellfish.Untreated shell material,collec
105、ted as part of shell recycling initiatives,may contain living pests or spores and should therefore also be subject to biocontrol measures before being deployed.While regulations vary,heat treatment,chlorine treatment,immersing in freshwater for extended periods or weathering outdoors for a period to
106、 ensure all hitch-hiker species and pathogens on shell material have been destroyed or reduced to acceptable levels,greatly reduces the risk of inadvertently transferring pest species.Where large volumes of shell are involved,weathering at an inland site may be the only cost effective approach unles
107、s the shell is a by-product of shellfish processing involving sufficient heat treatment.For shell weathering,six months is a commonly used minimum weathering time.For example,the Rhode Island Biosecurity Board stipulates six months weathering of shell material with turning of the pile every second m
108、onth for a thin layer of shell material(70%)and growth of shellfish and biodiversity targets(The Nature Conservancy 2018).Planning is currently underway for Phase 3,a further 20-hectare plus scale-up of shellfish reef restoration in Port Phillip Bay.BOX 6.1:COMMUNITY SUPPORT Community support and in
109、volvement in the Port Phillip Bay project has been instrumental to the outcomes since inception.This support has been facilitated through establishing the Shuck Dont Chuck shell recycling initiative and the Restore The Bay Network.Both initiatives have created opportunities for business and communit
110、y volunteers to be involved in the project in a practical and meaningful way.With Shuck Dont Chuck,shells are recycled from hospitality venues and seafood wholesales to use in the shellfish reef restoration process (see Chapter 4).Similar to the restoration works,Shuck Dont Chuck was started as a pi
111、lot,then scaled up once all the necessary logistics were in place.This initiative has been embraced by the many partners now involved and been popular in media,helping to lift the profile of shellfish reef restoration in Australia.The Restore The Bay Network is the volunteer arm to the project and p
112、rovides community members(e.g.marine care,dive and recreational fishing groups),government,industry and corporate partners,with opportunities to contribute to restoration activities.These activities include,for example,OysterWatch(i.e.deploying and monitoring settlement plates see Chapter 5),shell c
113、leaning for the Victorian Shellfish Hatchery to produce cultched seed(see Chapter 5)and measuring individual shellfish(see Chapter 7).This network also provides an effective way to communicate about the project through information sessions and eNewsletters(see Chapter 9).52CHAPTER 6 SCALING UP SHELL
114、FISH REEF RESTORATIONThe results from the trials of different restoration techniques in Port Phillip Bay have subsequently informed the approach to the Windara Reef project in Gulf St Vincent,South Australia,which used the lessons learned to install the first project at a scale of 20 hectares(see Bo
115、x 2.2).While the ecosystem service objectives(e.g.fish production)and restoration techniques were analogous between the Victorian and South Australian projects,important considerations for the funding and outcomes of the Windara Reef project were job creation and economic stimulus(Edwards et al.2013
116、).Both are important considerations for larger projects,with the potential to access funding not traditionally associated with conservation.Information derived from the project included a cost benefit analysis of the restoration,a powerful justification for the funding of conservation at larger scal
117、es(Rogers et al.2018).More information on the Windara Reef and Port Phillip Bay projects is available at www.natureaustralia.org.au.Figure 6.2:Shellfish reef construction at Margarets Reef,Port Phillip Bay.Photo:Anita Nedosyko.RESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFS53CASE STUDY:HARRIS CREEK,CHESA
118、PEAKE BAY,USA BACKGROUNDChesapeake Bay,the largest estuary in the USA,is located near the Atlantic coast of Maryland and Virginia.The Chesapeake Bays eastern oyster(Crassostrea virginica)population is estimated to be just one percent of historic levels(Newell 1988).Restoration has been developing in
119、 Chesapeake Bay for several decades,but in recent years two polices have been driving larger-scale,coordinated restoration:the 2009 Presidential Executive Order 13508,and the 2014 Chesapeake Bay Watershed Agreement signed by the governors of Chesapeake Bay watershed states and the US federal governm
120、ent.These call for restoring oysters in ten Chesapeake Bay tributaries by 2025.These aspirational goals have raised the practical question of what constitutes restored,and/or,how much is enough?The implicit goal of oyster reef restoration at the tributary-level is to dramatically increase oyster pop
121、ulations and recover a substantial portion of the ecosystem functions once provided by these reefs within the tributary.To achieve restoration at this scale requires setting objectives against which to measure success.KEY OBJECTIVESA team of scientists and resource managers collaboratively developed
122、 both reef-level and tributary-level oyster restoration success metrics for the Chesapeake Bay.Commonly called Chesapeake Bay Oyster Metrics(Oyster Metrics Working Group 2011),these were written specifically for the policy goal of restoring oyster populations in ten Chesapeake Bay tributaries.The id
123、ea was to answer the questions,What constitutes a successfully restored oyster reef?,and How many successful reefs are needed to consider a tributary successfully restored?.At the reef scale,Chesapeake Bay Oyster Metrics defines a successfully restored reef as one that,six years post-restoration,mee
124、ts the following criteria:oyster density:minimum threshold=15 oysters per m2;target=50 oysters per m2 oyster biomass:minimum threshold=15 grams dry weight per m2;target=50 grams dry weight per m2 multiple age classes:success=two or more shell budget:success=stable or increasing reef height and reef
125、footprint:success=stable or increasing.Once these criteria were established,reefs could be planned,built,and monitored relative to the criteria.At the tributary scale,the Chesapeake Bay Oyster Metrics document recognises that not all of a tributary is suitable for reef construction,and that the enti
126、re tributary bottom was never historically covered in reefs.Tributary-level restoration was therefore defined as having 50%of the restorable bottom(present-day hard bottom)meeting the reef-level criteria.Additionally,the restored reefs should constitute at least 8%of the tributarys estimated histori
127、c reef area.SCALING UPHarris Creek was selected as the first of the ten tributaries for large-scale oyster restoration.Harris Creek is a 1,829-hectare oyster sanctuary(oyster non-harvest area)on Marylands eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay.The Creek was historically known as a good oyster harvest area,
128、but by the early 2000s was characterised by both limited oyster recruitment and reef structure.Partners from state and federal government and local NGOs collaboratively developed a restoration plan for the estuary(Maryland Oyster Inter-agency Working Group 2012).They initially compiled spatial infor
129、mation such as water quality data,sonar-derived benthic habitat characterisations,oyster population surveys,and bathymetric surveys to determine where on the river to construct oyster reefs.Areas with water quality suitable to sustain oyster populations,hard benthic habitat,in water depth 1.2 to 6 m
130、eters,and away from docks,navigational channels and aids to navigation were considered suitable for reef construction.Two treatment types were planned(Figure 6.3):An assisted regeneration approach(see Chapter 5)using seed only,where spat-on-shell was planted directly onto the remnants of an existing
131、 shell reef (62 ha);and,A reconstruction approach(see Chapter 5)using substrate+seed,where a substrate base was constructed prior to planting with spat-on-shell(80 ha).This treatment was used where very little remnant reef remained.Substrate bases were constructed from stone or a mixture of conch,cl
132、am,and whelk shells.54CHAPTER 6 SCALING UP SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATIONBozmanSherwoodNeavittTilghmanHarris CreekTILGHMANISLAND00.512 KilometresSeed-only reefsSubstrate-and-seed reefsFigure 6.3:Map of Harris Creek indicating areas restored using substrate and those using spat-on-shell only.RESTORATION
133、GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFS55Between 2011 and 2015,a network of reefs was constructed totalling 142 hectares.Primary funders were two U.S.government agencies(U.S.Army Corps of Engineers and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)and the state government of Maryland.Reefs were seeded
134、primarily using spat-on-shell produced by the University of Marylands Horn Point Oyster Hatchery.Seed was typically planted at a density of 12.5 million seed per hectare.The in-water reef construction cost was US$28.56 million,with over 200,000 m3 of substrate added to create reefs between 0.15 m an
135、d 0.3 m high and seeded with 2 billion spat-on-shell.For Harris Creek(and two nearby sites the Tred Avon and Little Choptank estuaries)the proximity of the shell cleaning,hatchery and remote setting jetty developed to allow mechanised loading of spat-on-shell directly to a boat re-fitted for shell d
136、eployment,addressed several of the logistical considerations associated with operating at this scale.RESULTSBy the end of the 2017 monitoring,98%of Harris Creek reefs met the minimum threshold success criteria for oyster biomass and density,and 75%met the higher target criteria.The general methodolo
137、gy used in Harris Creek is now being used in the remaining nine tributaries slated for large-scale oyster restoration throughout Chesapeake Bay.Each reef was monitored three years post-restoration and will be monitored again six years post restoration.One surprising result was that reefs constructed
138、 using a stone-substrate base(Figure 6.4)averaged four times more oysters than reefs built using a shell-substrate base(NOAA 2018).Modelling estimates that the restored reefs in Harris Creek can annually remove over 46,650 kg of nitrogen and 2,140 kg of phosphorous,an ecosystem service conservativel
139、y estimated at US$3 million annually(Kellogg et al.2018).Additional modelling results predict that,relative to unrestored conditions,blue crab(Callinectes sapidus)harvest would increase by more than 150%when these reefs and other restored reefs in the nearby Tred Avon River and Little Choptank River
140、 mature;this harvest increase alone would contribute to an additional estimated dockside annual sales value of US$11 million yr-1(Knoche et al.2018).The same study(Knoche et al.2018)predicts a total increase in regional economic impact for commercial fisheries of US$23 million yr-1(direct+indirect+i
141、nduced effects).Figure 6.4:Restored Crassostrea virginica shellfish reef constructed with stone substrate in Harris Creek,MD,USA.Photo:NOAA Chesapeake Bay Office.56CHAPTER 6 SCALING UP SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATIONREFERENCESBeck,M.W.,Brumbaugh,R.D.,Airoldi,L.,Carranza,A.,Coen,L.D.,Crawford,C.,Defeo,O.,
142、Edgar,G.J.,Hancock,B.,Kay,M.,Lenihan,H.S.,Luckenbach,M.W.,Toropova,C.L.,Zhang,G.and Guo,X.(2011).Oyster reefs at risk and recommendations for conservation,restoration and management.BioScience 61,107-116.Bersoza Hernndez,A.,Brumbaugh,R.D.Frederick,P.Grizzle,R.Luckenbach,M.Peterson,C.and Angelini,C.(
143、2018).Restoring the Eastern oyster:how much progress has been made in 53 years of effort?Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 16,463-471.Edwards,P.E.T.,Sutton-Grier,A.E.and Coyle,G.E.(2013).Investing in nature:Restoring coastal habitat blue infrastructure and green job creation.Marine Policy 38,
144、6571.Ford,J.R.and Hamer,P.(2016).The forgotten shellfish reefs of coastal Victoria:Documenting the loss of a marine ecosystem over 200 years since European settlement.Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 128,87105.Gann,G.D.,McDonald,T.,Walder,B.,Aronson,J.,Nelson,C.R.,Jonson,J.,Hallett,J.G.,
145、Eisenberg,C.,Guariguata,M.R.,Liu,J.,Hua,F.,Echeverra,C.,Gonzales,E.,Shaw,N.,Decleer,K.and Dixon,K.W.(2019).International principles and standards for the practice of ecological restoration.Second edition.Restoration Ecology 27(S1),doi:10.1111/rec.13035.Kellogg,M.L.,Brush,M.J.,and Cornwell,J.C.(2018)
146、.An Updated Model for Estimating TMDL-related Benefits of Oyster Reef Restoration.A final report to The Nature Conservancy and Oyster Recovery Partnership.Virginia Institute of Marine Science,Gloucester Point,VA.Available:https:/www.conservationgateway.org/Documents/Harris_Creek_Model_and_Oyster_Ree
147、f_Restoration_Benefits.pdfKnoche,S.,Ihde,T.,Townsend,H.and Samonte,G.(2018).Estimating Ecological Benefits and Socio-Economic Impacts from Oyster Reef Restoration in the Choptank River Complex,Chesapeake Bay.Final Report to The National Fish and Wildlife Foundation&The NOAA Chesapeake Bay Office.Mor
148、gan State University,PEARL Report#11-05.Available:https:/www.morgan.edu/Documents/ADMINISTRATION/pearl/ORES_Impacts_Knoche_Ihde%20(1).pdfMaryland Oyster Restoration Interagency Workgroup(2012).Harris Creek Oyster Restoration Tributary Plan:A blueprint to restore the oyster population in Harris Creek
149、,a tributary of the Choptank River on Marylands Eastern Shore.Maryland Interagency Oyster Restoration Workgroup of the Sustainable Fisheries Goal Implementation Team.Available:https:/chesapeakebay.noaa.gov/images/stories/habitats/harriscreekblueprint1.13.pdfNewell,R.I.E.(1988).Ecological changes in
150、Chesapeake Bay:Are they the result of overharvesting the American oyster,Crassostrea virginica?In:M.P.Lynch and E.C.Krome(eds.).Understanding the Estuary:Advances in Chesapeake Bay Research,pp.536-546.Chesapeake Research Consortium,Publication 129 CBP/TRS 24/88,Gloucester Point,VA.NOAA(2018).2017 Oy
151、ster Reef Monitoring Report Analysis of Data from Large-Scale Sanctuary Oyster Restoration Projects in Maryland.Report produced in partnership with the Maryland Oyster Restoration Interagency Workgroup under the Chesapeake Bay Programs Sustainable Fisheries Goal Implementation Team.NOAA,Washington D
152、C.Available:https:/chesapeakebay.noaa.gov/images/stories/habitats/2017oystermonitoringreport.pdf Oyster Metrics Workgroup(2011).Restoration Goals,Quantitative Metrics and Assessment Protocols for Evaluating Success on Restored Oyster Reef Sanctuaries.Report to the Sustainable Fisheries Goal Implemen
153、tation Team of the Chesapeake Bay Program.Available:https:/ Burton,M.P.(2018).Benefit-Cost Analysis of the Windara Shellfish Reef Restoration Project.Report to the National Environmental Science Programme,Marine Biodiversity Hub.The University of Western Australia,Perth.https:/www.nespmarine.edu.au/
154、document/benefit-cost-analysis-windara-shellfish-reef-restoration-projectThe Nature Conservancy(2018).Restoring the lost shellfish reefs of Port Phillip Bay,Final Evaluation Report,Stage 2 Extension November 2017 to December 2018.Prepared for the Department of Environment,Land,Water and Planning.The
155、 Nature Conservancy,Melbourne.Available:http:/bit.ly/PPBDELWPzu Ermgassen,P.,Hancock,B.,DeAngelis,B.,Greene,J.,Schuster,E.,Spalding,M.and Brumbaugh,R.(2016).Setting Objectives for Oyster Habitat Restoration Using Ecosystem Services:A Managers Guide.The Nature Conservancy,Arlington VA.RESTORATION GUI
156、DELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFS57CHAPTER 7 WHY MONITOR SHELLFISH REEFS?Bryan M.DeAngelis and Laura Geselbracht KEY POINTS Restoration projects need to be monitored to evaluate outcomes at the project level,as well as monitored in a way that allows for comparison of results across projects.A set of minim
157、um universal metrics and environmental variables have been created for oysters in the USA that are meant to be measured on every project,regardless of restoration objectives.These can serve as guides for other reef-forming shellfish reef restoration projects.Restoration goal-based monitoring,while m
158、ore difficult to implement,can assess the delivery of one or more ecosystem-services provided by the restoration project,can inform monitoring for adaptive management,and inform other predictive ecosystem service models.INTRODUCTIONA primary motivation for restoration is to improve or enhance degrad
159、ed habitat towards some reference condition,defined through a reference ecosystem or model(see Chapter 3).An assumption is that the restored ecosystem will return benefits to people and nature.Shellfish reef restoration is typically undertaken to accomplish one or more of several main objectives(des
160、cribed in Chapter 2;Coen et al.2007;Grabowski and Peterson 2007;and others).To know if the restoration projects are achieving their intended outcomes,projects need to be monitored to evaluate outcomes at the project level,as well as monitored in a way that allows for comparison of results across pro
161、jects(Figure 7.1).Comparison across projects is important to assess programmatic and/or landscape level outcomes and to determine the variability of restoration impacts across multiple restoration sites.Too often,restored reefs have not been monitored to an extent that allows for comparison(Kennedy
162、et al.2011;La Peyre et al.2014).When restoration practitioners implement systematic pre-and post-restoration monitoring,project outcomes can be evaluated against expectations and project objectives.Importantly,project outcomes can be evaluated across multiple locations,enabling improvements to resto
163、ration methods and addressing research questions that apply across broader spatial scales.Recently,The National Academies of Sciences,Engineering and Medicine(2017)provided guidance and identified the best approaches for monitoring and evaluating restoration activities in the Gulf of Mexico,includin
164、g the eastern oyster(Crassostrea virginica).While the ecosystems reviewed in that report are Gulf of Mexico-focused,the overall guidance on monitoring approaches is highly applicable to shellfish reef restoration world-wide.Furthermore,Baggett et al.(2014,2015)published a review and practitioners ha
165、ndbooks(expanding on previous efforts)on oyster restoration monitoring,including specific recommendations for the eastern oyster and Olympia oyster(Ostrea lurida).The fundamental concepts of monitoring shellfish reef restoration are summarised from these two primary publications,and are critical for
166、 practitioners to be aware of.58CHAPTER 7 WHY MONITOR SHELLFISH REEFS?RESTORATION OBJECTIVES AND PERFORMANCE METRICSA critical,but surprisingly often over-looked step of any restoration project is first identifying clear objectives of the restoration project.Clear objectives should be determined bef
167、ore any active restoration happens.As described in Chapter 3,clearly defining the restoration objectives provides several benefits to the restoration project and guides the monitoring of the project.Firstly,it forces project managers to sharpen their thinking about what the active restoration is see
168、king to accomplish,and the desired state of the restored ecosystem.Second,it helps decide on the most effective indicators,or metrics,to monitor the restoration activities,often called performance criteria,derived from reference ecosystems or models.Understanding the metrics and performance criteria
169、 provides direction for the appropriate type of monitoring.Lastly,clear restoration objectives allow for a measure of restoration success,as well as informs how to adaptively manage restoration to improve outcomes.THREE TYPES OF MONITORING As described above,monitoring is conducted to achieve multip
170、le purposes.The type of monitoring performed should inform one or more of the following monitoring types.The first type of monitoring is implementation monitoring.Implementation monitoring assesses whether the management actions for restoration were implemented as designed and planned.Implementation
171、 monitoring is a straightforward assessment of whether the restoration that was designed and planned was carried-out and accomplished.The second type of monitoring is performance monitoring.Performance monitoring is used to determine whether the restoration activities are having the desired habitat
172、response,such as a change in overall shellfish recruitment,biomass,or another population-level parameter towards the trajectory of the reference ecosystem or model.Figure 7.1:Monitoring of Palmetto Plantation shellfish reef restoration site in South Carolina,USA.Photo:Joy Brown.RESTORATION GUIDELINE
173、S FOR SHELLFISH REEFS59There may also be ecosystem level responses intended by a project such as localised changes in fish biomass or water quality.Performance monitoring requires development of clearly articulated objectives and identification of informative indicators as outlined in Chapter 3.Last
174、ly,monitoring for adaptive management is meant to inform restoration management and improve the design of future restoration efforts.Systematic monitoring using standardised and comparable methods is critical when accomplishing these last two forms of monitoring to facilitate the comparison of resul
175、ts across projects and programs and eliminates the potential for observed changes across projects to be the result of procedural differences in the monitoring.MINIMUM UNIVERSAL METRICS FOR ALL SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION PROJECTSRegardless of the restoration objectives,every project should sample the
176、 same set of minimum universal metrics to assess the basic performance of the restoration project.While no universal metrics exist that cover all reef-forming shellfish species,Baggett et al.(2014,2015)published minimum universal metrics for eastern and Olympia oysters,which can serve as a guide for
177、 other reef-forming shellfish species(see Table 7.1).Sampling of such universal metrics allows for the basic performance of each reef to be assessed through time,while also allowing for comparisons with other projects.Sampling of universal environmental variables(water temperature,salinity and disso
178、lved oxygen,tidal emersion)also provides valuable information that can aid in the interpretation of data collected during reef monitoring activities(Baggett et al.2014,2015;Walles et al.2016).To ensure a systematic approach to monitoring of the universal metrics,shellfish reef restoration practition
179、ers should incorporate similar methods for assessing impact,sampling methods,sampling frequency and sampling duration(as described in Baggett et al.2014,2015;Table 7.1).RESTORATION GOAL-BASED METRICS As described earlier,shellfish reef restoration projects are implemented with the intent of deliveri
180、ng specific benefits for nature(e.g.,increased biodiversity,habitat enhancement for fish and crabs,or removal of excess nitrogen)and/or for people(e.g.,enhanced fishing opportunities).The restoration project can assess the delivery of these benefits by developing one or more goal-based metrics to mo
181、nitor(see examples in Baggett et al.2014,2015 and The National Academies of Sciences,Engineering and Medicine 2017).Monitoring for goal-based metrics is typically more complicated and requires additional capacity and expertise to ensure that useful,scientifically rigorous information is gathered tha
182、t enables evaluation of these services being delivered by the project,as well as improvements to design and implementation of future restoration projects.Following restoration activities,the expected benefits may take a very long time to develop(decades in some instances)and depend on environmental
183、drivers operating at scales well beyond the project boundaries and duration.Support for long-term monitoring can be difficult to secure given the priorities and budget constraints of funders and restoration programs.It may be unrealistic to expect every project to monitor an extensive number of perf
184、ormance metrics that require extensive field ecology experience and expertise,or performance metrics that are likely to require several years to show observable results.However,in some cases,particularly when the restoration response cannot be predicted ahead of time,restoration goal-based monitorin
185、g can inform monitoring for adaptive management.If the practitioner identifies a structured adaptive management process(e.g.a predictive ecosystem service model,management decision or restoration question)by which to incorporate their monitoring data into,that restoration project can substantially c
186、ontribute to improving the effectiveness of restoration,by helping reduce uncertainties and enhance ongoing or future restoration decision making.Palmetto Plantation Annual Monitoring.Photo:The Nature Conservancy.60CHAPTER 7 WHY MONITOR SHELLFISH REEFS?CITIZEN SCIENCEWell-managed citizen science pro
187、grams can alleviate some of the financial and staffing burdens of monitoring and can provide valuable public engagement.When citizen scientists have been trained and involved in conducting monitoring using the minimum universal metrics outlined in Baggett et al.2014,2015(such as measuring reef dimen
188、sions and height,number and size of shellfish,and enumerating live versus dead shellfish)citizen scientists help with elucidating performance of projects(Figure 7.2).They can also serve as effective project ambassadors in their communities and help to build support for restoration projects(DeAngelis
189、 et al.2018).Several examples of citizen science programs exist in the USA(for example,see the Charlotte Harbor National Estuary Programs Volunteer Oyster Habitat Monitoring Manual for additional information:http:/www.chnep.org/publications).Figure 7.2:Citizen scientists assisting in measuring shell
190、fish at Warmies Boat Ramp,Port Phillip Bay,Australia.Photo:The Nature Conservancy.RESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFS61Table 7.1:Universal metrics for measuring restoration of shellfish reefs(adapted from Baggett et al.2014,2015).The specific target or performance criteria should be developed
191、 from the reference ecosystem or model.dGPS=differential Global Positioning System METRIC METHODS UNITS FREQUENCY PERFORMANCE CRITERIAReef areal dimension Project footprintMeasure maximal aerial extent of reef using dGPS,surveyors measuring wheel or transect tape,or aerial imagery;subtidal,use sonar
192、 or SCUBA.m2Preconstruction,within 3 months postconstruction,minimum 1-2 years postconstruction;preferably 4-6 years.After events that could alter reef area.NoneReef area Measure area of each patch reef using dGPS,surveyors measuring wheel or transect tape,or aerial imagery;subtidal,use sonar or dep
193、th finder with ground truthing.Sum all patches to get total reef area.m2Preconstruction,within 3 months postconstruction,minimum 1-2 years postconstruction;preferably 4-6 years.After events that could alter reef area.None Reef height Measure using graduated rod and transit,or survey equipment;subtid
194、al,use sonar or depth finder.m Preconstruction,within 3 months postconstruction,minimum 1-2 years postconstruction;preferably 4-6 years.After events that could alter reef area.Positive or neutral change Oyster density Utlise quadrats.Collect substrate to depth necessary to obtain all live oysters wi
195、thin quadrat,and enumerate live oysters,including recruits.If project involved the use of see oysters,enumerate all seed oysters present in quadrat.individuals/m2Immediately after deployment if using seed oysters.Otherwise,annually at the end of oyster growing season(will vary by region),1-2 years a
196、t minimum;preferably 4-6 years.Based on short-and long-term goals developed using available regional and project-type data,as well as current and/or historical local/regional densities.Size-frequency distribution Measure shell height of at least 50 live oysters per oyster density sample.mm(size),num
197、ber or%per bin(size dist.)Annually at the end of oyster growing season(will vary by region)in conjunction with oyster density sampling,at a minimum.None 62CHAPTER 7 WHY MONITOR SHELLFISH REEFS?REFERENCES Baggett,L.P.,Powers,S.P.,Brumbaugh,R.,Coen,L.D.,DeAngelis,B.,Greene,J.Hancock,B.and Morlock,S.(2
198、014).Oyster Habitat Restoration Monitoring and Assessment Handbook.The Nature Conservancy,Arlington,VA,USA.Baggett,L.P.,Powers,S.P.,Brumbaugh,R.D.,Coen,L.D.,DeAngelis,B.M.,Greene,J.K.,Hancock,B.T.,Morlock,S.M.,Allen,B.L.,Breitburg,D.L.,Bushek,D.,Grabowski,J.H.,Grizzle,R.E.,Grosholz,E.D.,La Peyre,M.K
199、.,Luckenbach,M.W.,McGraw,K.A.,Piehler,M.F.,Westby,S.R.and zu Ermgassen,P.S.E.(2015).Guidelines for evaluating performance of oyster habitat restoration.Restoration Ecology 23,737745.Coen,L.D.,Brumbaugh,R.D.,Bushek,D.,Grizzle,R.,Luckenbach,M.W.,Posey,M.H.,Powers,S.P.and Tolley,S.G.(2007).Ecosystem se
200、rvices related to oyster restoration.Marine Ecology Progress Series 341,303307.DeAngelis,B.,Birch,A.,Malinowski,P.,Abel,S.,DeQuattro,J.,Peabody,B.and Dinnel,P.(2019).A variety of approaches for incorporating community outreach and education in oyster reef restoration projects:examples from the Unite
201、d States.In:Smaal,A.,Ferreira,J.G.,Grant,J.,Petersen,J.K.and Strand,O.(Eds).Goods and Services of Marine Bivalves,pp.335354.Springer,Cham.Grabowski,J.H.and Peterson,C.H.(2007).Restoring oyster reefs to recover ecosystem services.In:Cuddington,K.,Byers,J.,Wilson,W.and Hastings,A.(Eds).Ecosystem Engin
202、eers:Plants to Protists,pp.281298.Elsevier-Academic Press,Amsterdam.Kennedy,V.S.,Breitburg,D.L.,Christman,M.C.,Luckenbach,M.W.,Paynter,K.,Kramer,J.,Sellner,K.G.,Dew-Baxter,J.,Keller,C.and Mann,R.(2011).Lessons learned from efforts to restore oyster populations in Maryland and Virginia,1990 to 2007.J
203、ournal of Shellfish Research 30,719-731.La Peyre,M.K.,Furlong,J.N.,Brown,L.A.,Piazza,B.P.and Brown,K.(2014).Oyster reef restoration in the northern Gulf of Mexico:Extent,methods and outcomes.Ocean and Coastal Management 89,20-28.The National Academies of Sciences,Engineering,and Medicine(2017).Effec
204、tive Monitoring to Evaluate Ecological Restoration in the Gulf of Mexico.The National Academies Press,Washington,DC.Walles,B.,Fodrie,F.J.,Nieuwhof,S.,Jewell,O.J.W.,Herman,P.M.J.and Ysebaert,T.(2016).Guidelines for evaluating performance of oyster habitat restoration should include tidal emersion:Rep
205、ly to Baggett et al.Restoration Ecology 24,47.RESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFS63CHAPTER 8 SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION:BEYOND OYSTER REEFSAndrew Jeffs and Philine zu ErmgassenKEY POINTS Restoration of mussels and other reef building shellfish species offer similar benefits to those of oyster
206、 reef restoration.Juvenile and adult mussels are more mobile than oysters,which often alters the manner in which restoration is best undertaken.Juvenile mussels may have different habitat requirements from the adults,and needs to be considered in mussel reef restoration efforts.Monitoring should be
207、long term in order to account for interannual variability in recruitment andsurvival.INTRODUCTION Much of the shellfish reef restoration activity to date has been focussed on oysters.However,there is rapidly growing activity around restoring mussels and other habitat-building shellfish.These species
208、 deliver many of the same ecosystem services as restored oyster reefs,but they often differ from oysters with regards to their life history(Figure 8.1),especially in terms of varying habitat requirements throughout their development.Consequently,these habitat-building shellfish species often require
209、 different approaches to those used for oysters to achieve successful restoration.Restored mussel reef,East of Waheke Island,New Zealand.Photo:Shaun Lee.64CHAPTER 8 SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION:BEYOND OYSTER REEFSFigure 8.1:Mussel life cycleLike oysters,many populations of these shellfish have been gr
210、eatly diminished,most often as a result of a combination of over-harvesting and various types of environmental degradation including pollution,sedimentation,destructive fishing practices(such as seafloor dredging),and the loss of natural larval settlement habitats.Therefore,the potential for the suc
211、cessful restoration of populations of these shellfish species often relies primarily on identifying and managing the threats and environmental degradation that limit the establishment or recovery of shellfish reefs.IDENTIFYING AND MANAGING THREATSAs with oyster reef restoration,it follows then that
212、the initial critical step for restoring mussel reefs is to identify the cause of decline.The subsequent removal or reduction of the threat(s)will allow for successful restoration to proceed;and,on occasion,this will be sufficient in itself for successfully restoring mussel reefs.In the case of inter
213、tidal reefs of blue mussels(Mytilus edulis)in the Dutch Wadden Sea,numerous active restoration projects involving the placement of seed or adult mussels without firstly dealing with the threats to the mussels,had limited and often low success (de Paoli et al.2015).In contrast,the identification and
214、subsequent protection of cockle beds from harvesting,restored an important settlement and nursery habitat for juvenile mussels which ultimately resulted in the large-scale,and far less costly,recovery of mussel reefs(Dankers et al.2001).BROADCAST SPAWNINGAdult musselsSWIMMING LARVALStages typically
215、lasting around 20 days or more,and capable of dispersing many kilometresFERTILISATION High density of adult mussels in reef important for ensuring fertilisationJUVENILE MUSSELSCapable of recruiting into adult mussel reefs by crawling along the seafloor or drifting in water currentsJUVENILE OR SPAT o
216、ften living on erect structures such as seaweeds and sea grassesMUSSELLIFE CYCLEEggsSpermLarval settlementand metamorphosisSecondary settlement Fertilised eggFurther growthRESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFS65ASSEMBLING APPROPRIATE KNOWLEDGEWhere removing the threat is insufficient by itself
217、to stimulate ecosystem recovery,other interventions may be necessary.Mussels,like oysters,may become substrate or recruitment limited following population-level declines and require addition of settlement habitat,or enhancement of spawning stock,or both.However,relative to oysters,there are some key
218、 knowledge gaps surrounding the re-establishment of mussel reefs in the wild.Knowledge of the lifecycle can be particularly important for developing effective mussel restoration measures because many mussel species have larval settlement and juvenile phases with different habitat requirements to the
219、 adult phase(Figure 8.1).Mussel larvae frequently have a strong preference to settle on filamentous organisms,such as seaweeds,hydroids and seagrasses,which initially keeps the early juvenile mussels off the seafloor whilst they become established.In contrast,adult mussels frequently prefer to aggre
220、gate on the seafloor to form reef structures.The need for a nursery habitat that is distinct from that of the adults is in marked contrast to larval oysters which seek out hard substrate,particularly adult oyster shells,on which to settle and attach permanently,remaining in the same position as they
221、 grow to adults.Knowledge of critical habitats for supporting the completion of the lifecycle is also often important to successful restoration of mussel reefs.For example,the loss of settlement and nursery habitats may be a common cause for the decline or disappearance of mussel reefs due to the la
222、ck of a ready supply of recruits.In such situations,successful mussel reef restoration may rely on the rehabilitation of the mussel settlement and nursery habitat,such as beds of seaweeds and seagrasses,which are also frequently impacted by human activities in coastal waters.Knowledge of the spatial
223、 arrangement of critical habitats and the corresponding movement abilities of various stages of the lifecycle of mussels are also important in achieving successful restoration of mussel reef habitat.While determining the suitability of settlement substrates is a vital prerequisite for establishing o
224、ngoing recruitment into a restored mussel reef,the location of the settlement substrate relative to the adults is critical to ensure the juveniles are able to migrate and recruit into the adult mussel reef.The juveniles of many mussel species are highly mobile,capable of migrating from their initial
225、 larval settlement site by crawling across the seafloor or by passive drifting in water currents over longer distances.In this regard,restoration in locations of historical mussel reefs are likely to be more successful as these spatial prerequisites to allow migration of juveniles from larval settle
226、ment sites into adult populations are most likely to be already in place.TECHNIQUESOnce causal factors have been addressed,a range of treatment options can be applied,selected to suit the level of degradation at the site.Where enhancing larval settlement through the addition of substrate is insuffic
227、ient to stimulate the recovery of mussel reefs,the addition of adult or post-settlement individuals for expanding adult reefs may be appropriate to increase the size of broodstock populations.Compared with the sedentary nature of oysters,mussels are highly mobile,which results in key differences in
228、terms of approaches to restoration.For example,the deployment of juvenile mussels to restoration sites may require the use of biodegradable socking or netting to prevent them from moving whilst they become established.Likewise,loads of live adult mussels can be dropped overboard from a vessel in a s
229、uitable location and once they settle onto the seafloor they will move around,orientate themselves so they can feed,and then attach to one another using byssus threads to form the basis of a fully functioning mussel reef(Figure 8.2).This also means that,unlike oysters,mussel restoration can take pla
230、ce in the absence of hard structures,such as oyster cultch,as the adult mussels can develop a stable carpet-like reef structure on top of the seafloor sediment by anchoring to one another.The ability of contiguous mussel reefs to stabilise soft sediments and generate complex structure on the surface
231、 of sediments,are major reasons for their ecological importance in providing habitat for other species.Deploying mussels,Port Phillip Bay,Australia.Photo:Johno Rudge.66CHAPTER 8 SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION:BEYOND OYSTER REEFSLEARNING FROM RESTOCKING AND STOCK ENHANCEMENTMany mussel species are fished
232、 because they are recognised as an excellent food source and they usually occur in concentrations(mussel reefs)in shallow coastal waters.This can make them vulnerable to overharvesting.While this can be problematic in some restoration scenarios,it can also provide the impetus for communities to rest
233、ore mussel reefs.Restoration of shellfish populations,including mussels,for the purpose of restoring or improving their harvesting has been common practice among coastal populations for centuries and in more recent times generally takes two forms,which are commonly referred to as restocking and stoc
234、k enhancement.Restocking normally involves the release of cultured juveniles into the wild in an attempt to restore the spawning biomass of a depleted fishery so that ultimately the increased recruitment will restore harvests.In contrast,stock enhancement is specifically aimed at increasing the harv
235、est from an existing fishery by a range of possible direct interventions,such as artificially enhancing settlement or recruitment(Bell et al.2005).Although the ultimate aim of restocking and stock enhancement of shellfish populations is different to restoration of shellfish reefs(i.e.increasing harv
236、ests versus conservation)the approaches used are often similar.As such,there is substantial knowledge that can be transferred to mussel reef restoration from past commercial restocking and stock enhancement efforts with a variety of shellfish species,including mussels.A number of useful reviews are
237、available that are worthwhile examining more closely for this purpose (see Bell et al.2005).Some key lessons that can be transferred include the importance of establishing a large enough local population of broodstock to provide a sufficiently large spawning biomass capable of producing adequate sel
238、f-recruitment to maintain a sustainable or expanding population(Bell et al.2005).Building a sufficiently large broodstock population to meet this requirement may take some considerable effort or an accumulation of mussels from multiple deployments over a number of years.However,defining what constit
239、utes a sufficiently large broodstock is difficult because it will vary with mussel species and for the local context.Figure 8.2:Revive Our Gulf volunteers in New Zealand shoveling mussels onto restoration site.Photo:Shaun Lee.RESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFS67MONITORINGMonitoring settlemen
240、t and recruitment is a particularly important tool for determining changes in the supply of juveniles into restored populations of mussels(see Chapter 7).Such monitoring needs to be undertaken in a consistent manner over a long term,because most mussels are highly variable in their reproductive outp
241、ut and larval settlement,and consequently this background variability may mask the true impact of restoration efforts in the short term.Monitoring of established mussel reefs is also a long term endeavour,as mussel reefs appear to frequently undergo quite large natural fluctuations in their extent d
242、ue to variation in predator numbers and natural events,such as severe storms.The persistence and recovery of mussel reefs after such occurrences are strong indicators of successful mussel reef restoration.REFERENCESBell,J.D.,Rothlisberg,P.C.,Munro,J.L.,Loneragan,N.R.,Nash,W.J.,Ward,R.D.and Andrew,N.
243、L.(Eds)(2005).Restocking and stock enhancement of marine invertebrate fisheries.Advances in Marine Biology 49,1-392.de Paoli,H.,van de Koppel,J.,van der Zee,E.,Kangeri,A.,van Belzen,J.,Holthuisjsen,S.,van den Berg,A.,Herman,P.,Olff,H.and van der Heide,T.(2015).Processes limiting mussel bed restorati
244、on in the Wadden-Sea.Journal of Sea Research 103,42-49.Dankers,N.,Brinkman,A.G.,Meijboom,A.and Dijkman,E.(2001).Recovery of intertidal mussel beds in the Waddensea:use of habitat maps in the management of the fishery.Hydrobiologia 465,21-30.Deploying settlement plates,Yueng Shui O,Hong Kong.Photo:Lo
245、ri Cheung.68CHAPTER 8 SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION:BEYOND OYSTER REEFSCHAPTER 9 SUCCESSFUL COMMUNICATION FOR SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION PROJECTSIan McLeod WHY COMMUNICATE?Effective communication with a variety of stakeholders is essential for the success of shellfish reef restoration projects.It is mo
246、st often a permitting and funding requirement and,when done well,helps people feel connected to and excited about the project.In contrast,if communication and engagement are not done early and well,this can lead to misunderstanding and mistrust,causing problems and delays.Effective communication nee
247、ds to be budgeted for and incorporated directly into the project planning.This section of the report describes the key elements of an effective communication strategy for a shellfish reef restoration project.COMMUNICATION PLANNINGPlanning for successful communication can seem daunting,but a good str
248、ategy makes the most out of limited resources and will likely lead to greater project support and funding(Olsen 2009).It can also provide clarity about a projects mission and goals.Often these elements are not clearly defined until a group is faced with building a website or preparing a supporting d
249、ocument for the project.So where do we start?Build the team identify the people involved in your project who can assist with communication activities.This could include communication professionals from associated permitting or research institutes.Consider appointing a communications manager to overs
250、ee this aspect of the project,and recruiting paid professionals if the budget allows.Define the audience write down the most important people for the success of the project in order of importance and make sure these people are prioritised in your communication strategy.Make sure this includes funder
251、s,the team,project champions,local stakeholders and potential beneficiaries.Further guidance about how to define the projects audience can be found on the Reef Resilience Network website(http:/reefresilience.org/communication).Work out the key messages start with the vision for the project.What prob
252、lems is the project trying to overcome,and what benefits are envisaged?Keep it positive,non-political and based on evidence.Do not forget to mention partners and funders,and do not overstate what can be achieved through the project.Discuss benefits to local people and the economy rather than just ec
253、ological benefits as many people care more about the former.Work out the best methods to communicate with the projects target audience the best communication methods will be a compromise between the communication methods that are used by your audience,what your team is comfortable using and what is
254、possible considering the projects time and financial budget.Keep track of the strategy write down objectives and track the projects success.Objectives should be S.M.A.R.T.(Specific,Measurable,Attainable,Realistic,and Time-bound).Review the strategy projects change so make the time to review the stra
255、tegy and reflect on what has and has not worked well.Make a calendar entry to ensure the strategy is reviewed and renewed at least once per year.Tools such as Google Analytics can be useful to determine what has been the most effective,for example by allowing tracking of posts that lead to visits to
256、 the projects website.Also ask the audience directly what they find the most effective.Cull communication methods that are not helping reach the goals and objectives,or be prepared to modify the content being provided to the audiences to increase communication effectiveness.PRO-TIP:Make the effort t
257、o engage with potential opponents and be willing to make some modifications to get them on board.One of the most exciting things about shellfish reef restoration projects is that they bring together a diverse group of stakeholders,who may be adversarial in other situations.RESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR
258、 SHELLFISH REEFS69DO THE BASICS It is tempting to focus on social media or news stories but as most projects rely on the buy-in of just a few people,face to face meetings,phone calls,public forums and visiting local stakeholders,these will often be more useful than thousands of followers on Twitter(
259、Figure 9.1).Ensure traditional owners and local industry are included early in communication planning as they are key partners and audiences for most projects(McLeod et al.2018).Building websites is no longer a daunting process with many companies offering easy to use templates that can provide a ho
260、me for the project where anyone can find out the basic details.Keeping websites up to date,however,can stop being fun after a burst of initial enthusiasm,so consider linking social media accounts to the projects website to keep some new content popping up.Email and eNewsletters are still a powerful
261、way to communicate with an audience and effort put into building comprehensive distribution lists will be well worth it.Consider partnering with a research institution and include scientific publications in the projects communication strategy so that lessons learned through the project can be record
262、ed and shared with the scientific community.Spend some time to generate frequently asked questions and answers about the project.These will provide a great resource for future media coverage and spending time generating these will help the project team get on the front foot with risks and objections
263、.This is an opportunity to address perceived project risks and reduce concerns by providing context and evidence.TRADITIONAL NEWS AND MEDIALocal newspapers and similar media can be really important for the project and local journalists can be key project champions,especially if the project includes
264、a lot of local people and offers solutions to local problems.Journalists are generally really busy and often do not know a lot about the context of the project.Providing key messages,photos and video will increase the chance that they will tell your story without misconstruing it.Be cautious about o
265、verstating project objectives and expected outcomes.It is tempting to get enthusiastic when speaking with media and overblow the potential outcomes of a project(for example this project will clean up the bay).Better to keep these realistic,but with a positive spin.When speaking with media,think abou
266、t the key message before the interview,do not get political or off track,and avoid adding too much technical detail.Figure 9.1:A shellfish restoration information tent at a harbour regatta day in New Zealand,with a yacht skipper coming by to talk over shellfish reef restoration activities in the nea
267、rby harbour.Photo:Andrew Jeffs.70CHAPTER 9 SUCCESSFUL COMMUNICATION FOR SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION PROJECTSVISUAL COMMUNICATIONGood visuals are extremely important for getting key messages across to your audience.Photos and videoGreat photos and short videos are powerful ways to share news of the pr
268、oject.Budget for professional photography if possible.However,not every photo needs to be National Geographic standard,bad photos are still useful,so take a lot of photos to show the projects progress and the people involved.Make sure people look(and are)safe and professional in photos and consider
269、using release forms(or use a phone App to record informed consent).Take photos from the same place over time as time-series photographs are a great way to show project progress.Develop an electronic media pack a folder stored online with photos and video for media and including information about app
270、ropriate use and credit.PRO-TIP:Use a phone to shoot,edit and share videos.These are always handy and most phones are capable of capturing high quality videos and photos.PRO-TIP:Action cameras such as GoPro cameras are ideal for shooting underwater visuals for shellfish restoration projects because
271、they can shoot at a wide angle and therefore can be placed closer to the subject.This is especially useful in low underwater visibility conditions.Infographics and other visualisationsNon-scientists rarely understand traditional graphs and charts so if these are used,make sure they are simple and cl
272、ear.A better solution is to use infographics that display the main points in a visual and entertaining way.See Figure 9.2 for an example of an effective infographic.It is relatively easy to make free online infographics using the free online software such as Easelly (https:/www.easel.ly/).GETTING SO
273、CIAL HOW TO USE SOCIAL MEDIAThe advantages of social media include that it is an interactive process rather than one-way communication through traditional media.This also allows more control of messages because they are not being interpreted and modified by a journalist.Social media is usually free
274、to use and relatively easy to run.Social and traditional media are converging,and journalists will often trawl through social media to get stories.There is a wide-range of platforms(Box 9.1)and you will not have time to use them all,so choose one or two that you and your audience are comfortable wit
275、h.In general,keep it short,make it visual,do not get political,check the spelling,and give all posts a final read over before they go live.Spend time to understand how each platform works.Be nice to others,and take a balanced and reasonable approach when dealing with others points of view.Choosing t
276、he right social media platform will depend on the needs of the projects audiences,and the capacity,comfort level and time commitment of those managing the project.Do not try to do everything,choose what works for the team and commit to achievable goals(likeone post a week)rather than building up an
277、audience and then running out of steam.Consider developing a one-page social media plan for the project,defining platforms,and who is responsible for posting.SALTMARSHMeadows are protectedfrom waves and erosionSHELLFISH REEFS Bufer energy from waves,protecting shorelinesPROVIDE SHELTERFor crabs and
278、snails and nursery habitat for juvenile fishesPROVIDE A RICH NUTRIENT SOURCEFor seafloor animals,through depositing waste material from filter feedingSTABILISE THE SUBSTRATEShellfish draw down sediments to the seafloor and increase seafloor heightSEAGRASS Increased growth rates in clearer water cont
279、ributes to reduced wave energyCOASTAL INFRASTRUCTUREProtected against erosion and property damageFigure 9.2:Infographic of the coastal protection,water quality and other habitat benefits of shellfish reef restoration.RESTORATION GUIDELINES FOR SHELLFISH REEFS71BOX 9.1:SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS Below ar
280、e some of the more commonly used platforms for shellfish reef restoration projects.These platforms are likely to change,come into or go out of fashion and may not even exist in the future,but represent our best advice in 2019.Facebook this is still the most used social media platform with 2.5 billio
281、n active users in 2018.Facebook groups can be a good way to keep in touch with project participants and these can be closed so only people specifically added can see the content.Facebook has powerful video and photo compression so your projects audience uses the minimum amount of data.The downsides
282、of Facebook include that a post will generally only be shown to a small proportion of a potential audience unless you pay the Facebook company.WeChat and Weibo both are the most dominant social media platforms used in China,with 1 billion active users on WeChat and 300 million users on Weibo.Both pl
283、atforms allow convenient posting and sharing of images,videos,short messages or blog-type of articles.Posts and articles can be in foreign languages such as English,depending on the targeted audience.In WeChat,an official account needs to be created,and only people with subscription to that account
284、gets automatic notification for new posts;whereas on Weibo posts can be promoted by using#tags.YouTube often forgotten as a platform,but very powerful and a great way to house and share videos.When media agencies create videos about the project,ask for a copy and permission to upload these to the pr
285、ojects YouTube channel.YouTube detects the bandwidth of a device and chooses an appropriate playback quality and provides the easiest way to embed the videos on websites.Instagram focussed on images and can be good for reaching a younger audience.One challenge with shellfish reef restoration is that
286、 people often do not have a picture of them in their mind,so providing compelling imagery through Instagram can help people care.Twitter tends to be more important for researchers,journalists and politicians.Journalists love Twitter and get many of their stories from it.LinkedIn could be suitable fo
287、r some projects,as it is often used by consultants,engineers,and government workers.ResearchGate is a social networking site for scientists and researchers to share papers,ask and answer questions,and find collaborators.The questions and answers section can often generate specific answers to detaile
288、d questions.Great for sharing scientific outputs and project descriptions.LEARN MORECheck out the communication content in the Reef Resilience Network toolkit-there is a communication planning section that is for marine resource managers and conservation practitioners with little to no communication
289、s training(see http:/reefresilience.org/communication).REFERENCESMcLeod,I.M.,Gillies,C.,Creighton,C.and Schmider,J.(2018).Seven pearls of wisdom:advice from Traditional Owners to improve engagement of local Indigenous people in shellfish ecosystem restoration.Ecological Management and Restoration 19,98-101.Olsen,R.(2009).Dont Be Such A Scientist:Talking Substance in an Age of Style.Island Press,Washington,USA.72CHAPTER 9 SUCCESSFUL COMMUNICATION FOR SHELLFISH REEF RESTORATION PROJECTSMargarets Rock,Port Phillip Bay,Australia.Photo:Paul Hamer.