《UNDP：切断根源：全世界如何终结塑料污染创造循环经济（2023）（英文版）（88页）.pdf》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《UNDP：切断根源：全世界如何终结塑料污染创造循环经济（2023）（英文版）（88页）.pdf（88页珍藏版）》请在三个皮匠报告上搜索。

1、Turning off the TapHow the world can end plastic pollution and create a circular economy 2023 United Nations Environment Programme ISBN:978-92-807-4024-0 Job number:DTI/2522/NAThis publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit services without specia

2、l permission from the copyright holder,provided acknowledgement of the source is made.The United Nations Environment Programme would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose

3、 whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme.Applications for such permission,with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction,should be addressed to unep-communication-directorun.org.DisclaimersThe designations employed and the presenta

4、tion of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory or city or area or its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Me

5、ntion of a commercial company or product in this document does not imply endorsement by the United Nations Environment Programme or the authors.The use of information from this document for publicity or advertising is not permitted.Trademark names and symbols are used in an editorial fashion with no

6、 intention on infringement of trademark or copyright laws.The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Environment Programme.We regret any errors or omissions that may have been unwittingly made.Maps,photos and illust

7、rations as specifiedCover photo:Picture UNEP.Art Installation Von Wong Productions,#TurnOffThePlasticTap.The Giant Plastic Tap was an art installation by artist Benjamin Von Wong at the UN Headquarters in Nairobi.It was on display during the United Nations Environment Assembly in 2022,when delegates

8、 agreed to establish an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee with the mandate to forge an international legally binding agreement to end plastic pollution.Suggested citation:United Nations Environment Programme(2023).Turning off the Tap.How the world can end plastic pollution and create a circula

9、r economy.Nairobi.Production:United Nations Environment Programme https:/www.unep.org/resources/turning-off-tap-end-plastic-pollution-create-circular-economyAcknowledgements“Turning off the Tap.How the world can end plastic pollution and create a circular economy”is the product of the generous dedic

10、ation and extraordinary investment of numerous individuals,whose knowledge,expertise and insight helped shape this important body of work.UNEP acknowledges the contributions made by many governments,individuals and institutions to the preparation and publication of this report.Special thanks are ext

11、ended to:This publication was financially supported by the Governments of Norway and Sweden.Lead Authors:UNEP:Lloren Mil i Canals(lead coordinator);Alison Cairns;Peggy Lefort;Allan Meso;Andrew David Raine;Aphrodite Smagadi;Steven Stone;Elisa Tonda.Systemiq:Yoni Shiran;Jos de la Fuente;Julia Koskella

12、;Anne Titia Bove;Eline Boon.University of Portsmouth:Steve Fletcher;Antaya March;Keiron Roberts.KnowlEdge Srl:Andrea BassiOverall supervision:Sheila Aggarwal-Khan,Andrea Hinwood,UNEP.Contributing authors:Vincent Aloysius,Sandra Averous,Stephanie Gerretsen,Claudia Giacovelli,Toma Iida,Pushpam Kumar,S

13、tphanie Laruelle,Silvana Loayza Len,Ekaterina Poleshchuk,Heidi Savelli,Himanshu Sharma,Ran Xie,Xiaozhen Xu(UNEP);Natalie Harms(UNEP COBSEA);Kei Ohno Woodall(UNEP BRS);Kabir Arora(Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing,WIEGO);Nao Takeuchi(UN Habitat);Anjali Acharya,Milagros Aim(World

14、 Bank Group).Reviewers:The following experts are gratefully acknowledged for supporting the preparation of the report,including providing comments on two versions of the draft report(July 2022 and March 2023):Carsten Wachholz,Sander Defruyt(Ellen MacArthur Foundation);John Duncan,Alix Grabowski,Ho H

15、uu Huy,Erin Simon,Anthony Tusino,Jess Zeuner(WWF);Timothy Grabiel,Thomas Gammage,Christina Dixon,Jacob Kean-Hammerson,Amy Youngman(Environmental Investigation Agency);Andrs del Castillo,Giulia Carlini(CIEL);Thomas Maes,Ieva Rucevska(GRID-Arendal);Lizzie Fuller,Dominic Charles,Ebony Minicozzi,Emma Si

16、lver,Margot Dons(Minderoo Foundation);Gonzalo Muoz,Gaspar Guevara,Carla Germani(Manuia);Carolyn Deere Birkbeck,Mahesh Sugathan,Simon Ardila(TESS);Kabir Arora(WIEGO);Larke Williams,Ross Alliston,Eric Davidson,So-Jung Youn(U.S.Department of State,Office of Environmental Quality);Patti Pedrus(Federated

17、 States of Micronesia);Gordana Topic(European Commission);Go Kobayashi(Marine Plastic Pollution Office,Ministry of Environment Japan);Silje Rem(Norwegian Environment Agency);Carmen Zuloaga Marn,Claudia Alejandra Guerrero Alvarado(Ministry of Environment,Chile);Andrew Brown,Elena Buzzi,Frithjof Laubi

18、nger,Giulia Galli(OECD);Kristin Hughes,Christian Kaufholz,Madeleine Brandes(WEF-Global Plastic Action Partnership);Anjali Acharya,Milagros Aim(World Bank Group);Moustapha Kamal Gueye,Tahmina Mahmud,Sarah Gondy,Yasuhiko Kamakura(International Labour Organization);Gergana Kiskinova,Daniel Ramos(World

19、Trade Organization);Henrique Silva Pacini Costa(United Nations Conference on Trade and Development);Desiree Raquel Narvaez(UNICEF);Bernard Barth,Voltaire Acosta(UN Habitat)Bing Zhu(Tsinghua University);Karen Raubenheimer(University of Wollongong);Paromita Chakraborty(SRM Institute of Science and Tec

20、hnology);Richard Thompson(University of Plymouth);Sabine Pahl(University of Vienna);Rosalind Malcom(University of Surrey);Rachel Karasik(Duke University);Vikas Chhajer(Gemini Corporation NV);Jodie Roussell,Jochen Hertlein(Socit des Produits Nestl S.A.);Vincent Colard(CITEO);Anne-Gaelle Collot(Plasti

21、cs Europe/World Plastics Council);Stewart Harris(American Chemistry Council/World Plastics Council);Ed Shepherd(Unilever);Willemijn Peeters(Searious Business);Roland Weber(POPs Environmental Consulting);Sven Saura(Veolia).iReviewers(UNEP):The expert review from the following UNEP colleagues is also

22、acknowledged:Jacqueline Alvarez;Katy Ayres;Juan Bello;Atif Ikram Butt;Beatriz Martins Carneiro;Garrette Clark;Ludgarde Coppens;Jost Dittkrist;Kamala Ernest;Beatriz Fernndez;Hilary French;Tessa Goverse;Bettina Heller;Mijke Hertoghs;Maria Hughes;Toma Iida;Joy Kim;Brenda Koekkoek;Paolo Marengo;Alexande

23、r Mangwiro;David Marquis;Patricia Mbote;Mushtaq Memon;Laura Mesias;Svitlana Mikhalyeva;Susan Mutebi-Richards;Iyngararasan Mylvakanam;Kakuko Nagatani-Yoshida;Takehiro Nakamura;Fatou Ndoye;Fabienne Pierre;Jos Pineda;Jordi Pon;Helena Rey;Amlie Ritscher;David Rubia;Malgorzata Alicja Stylo;Callum Sweeney

24、;Claire Thibault;Gina Torregroza;Feng Wang;Alison Watson;Ying Zhang;Maria Cristina Zucca;Tabea Zwimpfer.Production and launch support:UNEP Communication Division Editor:Amanda Lawrence-Brown Design and layout:Beverley McDonald,with contribution from Murat Ozoglu.iiAcronymsBAU-Business-as-usualBPA-Bi

25、sphenol ACapex-Capital expenditureCEN-European Committee of Standardisation DEHP-Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalateEIA-Environmental Investigation AgencyEMF-Ellen MacArthur FoundationEOL-End-of-LifeEPR-Extended Producer ResponsibilityEPS-Expanded polystyrene ESM-Environmentally sound managementEU-European Un

26、ionG20-The Group of Twenty(the premier forum for international economic cooperation)GDP-Gross domestic productGESAMP-Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental ProtectionGHG-Greenhouse gasGIZ-German Agency for International CooperationHDPE-High-density polyethyleneHI-Hi

27、gh-income economiesICAO-International Civil Aviation OrganizationIFC-International Finance CorporationILO-International Labour OrganizationIMO-International Maritime Organization INC-Intergovernmental Negotiation CommitteeIRP-International Resource PanelISO-International Organization for Standardiza

28、tionISWA-International Solid Waste AssociationIUCN-International Union for Conservation of NatureLCA-Life Cycle AssessmentLDPE-Low-density polyethylene LI-Low-income economiesLiFE-Lifestyles for EnvironmentLLDPE-Linear low-density polyethyleneMMt Million metric tons NIVA-Norwegian Institute for Wate

29、r ResearchNPV-Net Present Value OECD-Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Opex-Operational expenditureP2F-Plastic-to-fuelP2P-Plastic-to-plasticPBDE-Polybrominated diphenyl ethersPCDD/F-poly-chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans(dioxins and furans)PCR-Post-consumer recycle

30、d contentPE-PolyethylenePET-Polyethylene terephthalatePFASs-Polyfluoroalkyl substancesPOPs-Persistent organic pollutantsPP-PolypropylenePPA-Power purchase agreementsPS-PolystyrenePVC-Polyvinyl chlorideR&D-Research and DevelopmentRDF-Refuse-derived fuelRPET-Recycled PETSAPEA-Science Advice for Policy

31、 by European AcademiesSC scenario-Systems change scenario SDG-Sustainable Development GoalsUMI-Upper middle-income economiesUNEP-United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNIDO-United Nations Industrial Development OrganizationWEEE-Waste from Electrical and Electronic EquipmentWEF-World Economic ForumWWF-

32、World Wide Fund for Nature iiiAdditives-plastic is usually made from polymer mixed with a complex blend of chemicals known as additives.These additives,which include flame retardants,plasticizers,pigments,fillers and stabilisers are used to improve the different properties of the plastic or to reduc

33、e its cost(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Business-as-usual(BAU)-see definition under Scenarios.Bio-based plastic-plastic derived fully or partially from plant materials,such as cellulose,potato or corn starch,sugar cane,maize and soy,instead of petroleum or natural gas.Bio-based plast

34、ic can be engineered to be biodegradable or compostable,but they can be designed to be structurally identical to petroleum-based plastics,in which case they can last in the environment for the same period of time(UNEP Law and Environment Assistance Platform n.d.)Bio-benign(materials)-a material harm

35、less to natural systems in case it unintentionally escapes collection and recovery systems.Biodegradable(materials)-a material that can,with the help of microorganisms,break down into natural components(e.g.water,carbon dioxide or biomass)under certain conditions(The Pew Charitable Trusts and System

36、iq 2020).Capex(capital expenditures)-funds used by an organisation to acquire or upgrade assets such as property,buildings,technology,or equipment.Chemical conversion-process that breaks down polymers into individual monomers or other hydrocarbon products that can then serve as building blocks or fe

37、edstock to produce polymers again(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Circular economy-one of the current sustainable economic models,in which products and materials are designed in such a way that they can be reused,remanufactured,recycled or recovered and thus maintained in the economy fo

38、r as long as possible,along with the resources of which they are made,and the generation of waste,especially hazardous waste,is avoided or minimized,and greenhouse gas emissions are prevented or reduced,can contribute significantly to sustainable consumption and production(UNEP/EA.4/Res.1).Circular

39、infrastructure-for the purposes of this report,circular infrastructure is understood as that which contributes to circularity,e.g.collection and reverse logistics schemes,washing systems for reuse schemes,recycling infrastructure,etc.Infrastructure for end disposal(e.g.landfills and incineration wit

40、h or without energy recovery)are excluded from this working definition.Circular plastic products-are designed to be reused safely many times,and their material recycled or composted at the end of use,in practice and at scale,minimizing their adverse environmental impacts and respecting the rights,he

41、alth and safety of all people involved across their life cycle(UNEP/PP/INC.1/7),including product users(adapted from UNEP/PP/INC.1/7 to include health considerations).Closed-loop recycling-is the recycling of plastic into any new application that will eventually be found in municipal solid waste,ess

42、entially replacing virgin feedstock(i.e.plastic bottle,pen etc.)(See Recycling)(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Compostable(materials)-materials,including compostable plastic and non-plastic materials,that are approved to meet local compostability standards(for example,industrial compos

43、ting standard EN 13432,where industrial-equivalent composting is available)(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Design for recycling-the process by which companies design their products and packaging to be recyclable.(See Recycling).Downcycling recycling processes where the recovered materi

44、al is of lower quality or functionality than the original material,due to e.g.structural strength,composition/impurities,colour or other properties.Downstream activities involve end-of-life management including segregation,collection,sorting,recycling and disposal.Recycling is a process that starts

45、downstream and closes the loop by connecting with upstream(i.e.starting a new life cycle for new plastic products with old materials).Similarly,repair/refurbish processes provide another way to close the loop by bringing products back into the midstream(UNEP/PP/INC.1/7).GlossaryivDumpsites-places wh

46、ere collected waste has been deposited in a central location and where the waste is not controlled through daily,intermediate or final cover,thus leaving the top layer free to escape into the natural environment through wind and surface water(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Durable plas

47、tics-plastic materials often selected for applications requiring resistance.Refers to the plastics with average use cycles above three years.These plastics are frequently used for industrial and construction applications(Geyer,Jambeck and Law 2017).End-of-Life(EOL)a generalised term to describe the

48、part of the life cycle following the use phase.Essential(plastic products)use uses that are considered necessary for health,safety or other important purposes for which alternatives are not yet established(Garnett and Van Calster 2021).Extended Producer Responsibility(EPR)is an environmental policy

49、approach in which a producers responsibility for a product is extended to the waste stage of that products life cycle.In practice,EPR involves producers taking responsibility for the management of products after they become waste,including:collection;pre-treatment,e.g.sorting,dismantling or depollut

50、ion;(preparation for)reuse;recovery(including recycling and energy recovery)or final disposal.EPR systems can allow producers to exercise their responsibility by providing the financial resources required and/or by taking over the operational aspects of the process from municipalities.They assume th

51、e responsibility voluntarily or mandatorily;EPR systems can be implemented individually or collectively(UNEP/PP/INC.1/6).Feedstock any bulk raw material that is the principal input for an industrial production process.Flexible monomaterial plastics-see definition under Plastic categories.Geographic

52、archetype-parts of the world with similar characteristics when it comes to plastic waste.The archetypes are divided into groups depending on country income,according to World Bank definitions:high-income economies;upper and lower middle-income economies;and low-income economies.The rural and urban s

53、ettings for each of the four income groups are also analysed separately to create eight geographic archetypes(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Incineration-destruction and transformation of material to energy by combustion.Informal waste sector where workers and economic units are involv

54、ed in solid waste collection,recovery and recycling activities which are in law or in practice not covered or insufficiently covered by formal arrangements.Leakage materials that do not follow an intended pathway and escape or are otherwise lost to the system.Litter is an example of system leakage(T

55、he Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Legacy(plastic)-plastics that cannot be reused or recycled,including plastics that are already in the environment as existing pollution,or are stocked or will enter in the economy e.g.in short-lived or durable products designed without considering their ci

56、rcularity or long-term use in the economy.Managed landfill-a place where collected waste has been deposited in a central location and where the waste is controlled through daily,intermediate and final cover,thus preventing the top layer from escaping into the natural environment through wind and sur

57、face water(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Maritime sources-all plastics that enter the environment from seagoing vessels(including from fishing activities)(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Mechanical recycling-processing of plastics waste into secondary raw material or prod

58、ucts without significantly changing the chemical structure of the material(ISO:472:2013).Microfibres-microsize fragments(10m)to coarse fraction(1mm)released through mechanical abrasion of tyres,with chemical composition depending on rubber type(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Upstream a

59、ctivities-include obtaining the raw materials from crude oil,natural gas or recycled and renewable feedstock(e.g.biomass)and polymerization.Plastic leakage into the environment(e.g.pellets and flakes)already happens at this stage(UNEP/PP/INC.1/7).Urban vs.Rural-the classification of urban versus rur

60、al is in alignment with the United Nations Statistics Division,which allows countries to use their own approaches for distinguishing urban and rural areas according to their individual circumstances(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).viii Table of ContentsAcknowledgements iAcronyms iiiGlos

61、sary ivForeword xiiExecutive Summary xiii1.The need for a compass to end plastic pollution 011.1 Purpose of this report 021.2 Scope and methodology 041.3 The economic case for circularity in plastics 051.4 The systems change scenario:An economic opportunity 081.5 A better plastics future 142.Market

62、transformations:Creating the marketplace for the new circular plastics economy 182.1 Market shift one:Accelerate reuse 202.2 Market shift two:Accelerate recycling 252.3 Market shift three:Reorient and diversify the market for sustainable and safe plastic alternatives 342.4 Addressing demand for dura

63、ble plastic products 393.Dealing with the legacy 413.1 Prevent microplastics at their source 423.2 Identify or build safe waste disposal facilities 443.3 Eliminate plastic waste exports except in specific situations 473.4 Deal with the existing pollution 484.Policy and legislative changes required 5

64、04.1 Regulatory interventions 514.2 A harmonised approach to measures and obligations 584.3 Establish a global monitoring and reporting system 595.Conclusion 60References 62Annex 1:MethodologyTopic sheets:Reuse Schemes Materials and Products Substitutions Extended Producer Responsibility Criteria fo

65、r Chemicals in Plastics Design Guidelines for Circularity Chemical Recycling Just Transition Think Global,Act Local,NOW ixTable 1:06 Damage estimates of plastic pollution across the life cycle of plastics(in billion USD per year).Table 2:08 Summary of the coefficients used in the study.Table 3:16 Th

66、e systems change scenario outcomes and scale of change in the next 5 years and by 2040.Table 4:22 Implications of the reuse shift for different actors across the value chain.Table 5:27 Implications of the recycling shift for different actors across the value chain.Table 6:33 Innovation opportunities

67、 to unlock greater impact from recycling.Table 7:36 Implications of the reorient and diversify shift for different actors across the value chain.Table 8:53 Policy and legislative options to support the market transformation.Table 9:58 A harmonised approach to measures and obligations.List of figures

68、Figure ES 1:xiv The systems change towards a new circular plastics economy.Figure ES 2:xvi Possible plastic futures.Figure 1:02 Short-lived plastic flows in 2020.Figure 2:04 Total plastic waste in 2019 by category,million metric tons(MMt).Figure 3:05 Relative value of social costs and likelihood of

69、consensus on plastic pollution related externalities.Figure 4:07 Wedges showing share of treatment options for plastics from short-lived products entering the system under a systems change scenario from 2016 to 2040.Figure 5:09 Total system costs for short-lived plastics for the business-as-usual an

70、d systems change scenarios(20212040).Figure 6:10 Net change in annual costs between the business-as-usual and systems change scenarios(SC-BAU),2021-2040 (in constant 2020 USD billion).Figure 7:12 Total jobs in different parts of the short-lived plastics value chain in the current market,and under bu

71、siness-as-usual and systems change scenarios.List of tablesx Figure 8:14 The compass to end plastic pollution.Figure 9:15 Top:Modelled short-lived plastic flows in 2040 under a business-as-usual scenario.Bottom:Modelled short-lived plastic flows in 2040 under a systems change scenario to deliver the

72、 necessary market transformation.Figure 10:24 Utility demand in 2016 and 2040,and how it is met by eliminate solutions and the reuse shift in the systems change scenario.Figure 11:28 Pollution vs.production by plastic type.Figure 12:29 Collection rates required to achieve systems change.Figure 13:30

73、 Mechanical recycling capacity(MMt/year).Figure 14:31 Chemical conversion capacity in 2040(MMt/year)by region.Figure 15:34 The role of reorienting and diversifying in a systems change scenario compared to BAU 2040.Figure 16:43 Microplastic pollution under BAU and reduction from four sources under th

74、e systems change scenario in 2040.Figure 17:44 Volumes(MMt)to be safely disposed by region.Figure 18:47 Volumes(MMt)exported in systems change scenario vs.business-as-usual.xiTurning off the TapPlastics,in many ways,contribute positively to society.There is,however,a dark side:the way we produce,use

75、 and dispose of plastics is polluting ecosystems,creating risks for human and animal health and destabilizing the climate.For these reasons,the international community is negotiating a deal to end plastic pollution,which is due by 2024.This report,Turning off the Tap:How the world can end plastic po

76、llution and create a circular economy,is designed to inform negotiations and help end this pervasive and growing threat.The report shows that only an integrated,systemic shift from a linear to a circular economy can keep plastics out of our ecosystems and bodies,and in the economy.The report lays ou

77、t key elements of the required market transformation rethinking and redesigning products;reusing,recycling,reorienting and diversifying markets;and addressing demand for durable plastics.The reports also looks at how to manage the legacy of plastic pollution already in the environment,and it defines

78、 the policy and legislative changes that can drive the transformation.Crucially,the report demonstrates that the transformation would provide economic and social wins.Governments and the private sector would save money and hundreds of thousands of new jobs would be created,contributing to poverty al

79、leviation and a just transition for workers.Everybody has a role to play.Governments can create the regulatory environment to incentivize the shift to a circular economy and the political will to do so is there,backed by broad social support.The petrochemical industry,municipalities,informal waste p

80、ickers,plastic converters and key users such as packaging,textile,transport,fisheries and agricultural can accelerate reuse and recycling and ensure the sustainability of alternatives introduced in the market.The finance industry can play a central role by aligning capital flows with a circular plas

81、tics economy.UNEP,as host of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee and a long-term actor on plastics,is fully committed to working with all relevant parties to end plastic pollution.This report provides clear guidance as we undertake this necessary journey to a healthier and more prosperous de

82、stination.We must all follow this guidance to start turning off the tap on plastic pollution.Inger AndersenExecutive Director,UNEPForewordxii Executive SummaryIn a historic decision at the fifth United Nations Environment Assembly in March 2022,all 193 UN Member States decided to end plastic polluti

83、on.With negotiations on a binding legal agreement by 2024 now underway,the question is how to realise that goal.While many technical solutions for a circular plastics economy are known,the economic,fiscal and business models to address the associated impacts while also safeguarding livelihoods are l

84、ess clear.This report examines these issues and proposes a systems change scenario-addressing the causes of plastic pollution,rather than just the symptoms.Such a systems change will enable countries to turn off the tap and end plastic pollution while at the same time transitioning towards safer and

85、 more stable jobs for those currently working in the informal sector,and create business and job opportunities.The report analyses the opportunities and impacts of a systems change scenario.The scenario combines reducing the most problematic and unnecessary plastic uses with a market transformation

86、towards circularity in plastics by accelerating three key shifts-Reuse,Recycle,and Reorient and Diversify and actions to deal with the plastic pollution legacy(Figure ES 1).xiiiFigure ES 1:The systems change towards a new circular plastics economy.Ending Plastic PollutionREDUCE the size of the probl

87、emRECYCLEREORIENT&DIVERSIFYREUSEDeal with the LEGACYMarket transformation to circularity through 3 MARKET SHIFTSPolicies and Regulatory FrameworkShift 1:ReuseAccelerating the market for reusable products,to transform the throwaway economy to a reuse society,by creating the enabling environment to en

88、sure the reuse market has a stronger business case than the single-use plastics market.Studies show that reuse systems provide the highest opportunity to reduce plastic pollution(a reduction of 30 per cent by 2040)by replacing some of the most problematic and unnecessary products(The Pew Charitable

89、Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Shift 2:RecycleAccelerating the market for plastics recycling by ensuring recycling becomes a more stable and profitable venture could reduce the amount of plastic pollution by an additional 20 per cent by 2040(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).This will require

90、an adequate availability of feedstock that can be recycled and that recycled materials can compete on a level playing field with virgin materials.Shift 3:Reorient and Diversify Shaping the market for plastic alternatives to enable sustainable substitutions,thus avoiding replacing plastic products wi

91、th alternatives that displace rather than reduce impacts.Sustainable alternatives could reduce pollution by 17 per cent by 2040(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020),but struggle to compete in markets with products made of virgin fossil fuel-based polymers owing to a number of challenges:cost

92、 of product,consumer demand and lack of appropriate regulations.Even with the market transformation approach,a significant volume of plastics cannot be made circular in the next 10 to 20 years and will require disposal solutions to prevent pollution.This refers to collecting and responsibly disposin

93、g of plastics that cannot be reused or recycled,including plastics that are already in the environment as existing pollution,or are stocked or will enter in the economy e.g.in short-lived or durable products designed without considering their circularity or long-term use in the economy.It also refer

94、s to new ways of financing collection and disposal of legacy plastics and preventing microplastics from entering the economy and the environment.Global plastic production and use has grown exponentially since the 1950s,with around nine million people employed globally in polymer production and plast

95、ic processing industries(United Nations Industrial Development Organization(UNIDO)Data Portal-ISIC codes 2013 and 2220).Light,strong and seemingly inexpensive plastics have permeated our lives,our societies and our economies but at a pace that has escalated into significant costs to the environment,

96、human health and the economy.Currently,the world produces 430 million metric tons of plastics each year(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD 2022),of which over two-thirds are short-lived products which soon become waste,and a growing amount(139 million metric tons in 2021 Min

97、deroo 2021)after one single use.Plastic production is set to triple by 2060 if business-as-usual continues(OECD 2022).A growing number of researchers are quantifying the social,economic and environmental costs of plastic pollution.Scientific literature is linking chemicals in plastic and xiv damage

98、to human health at every stage of the plastic life cycle including workers and fence-line communities that live next door to plastic production and waste disposal sites(Landrigan et al.2023;Merkl and Charles 2022;UNEP 2021c).As well as the potential for ecosystem impacts,microplastics have been foun

99、d in the deepest recesses of the ocean,in pristine mountain glaciers,in breast milk and human bodies(Braun et al.2021;Ragusa et al.2021;Jenner et al.2022;Horvatits etal.2022).Research also shows that under a business-as-usual scenario,plastic could emit 19per cent of global greenhouse gas GHG emissi

100、ons allowed under a 1.5C scenario by 2040,essentially making the goal out of reach(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Significantly,the costs and impacts are borne by all but fall disproportionally on people in some of the worlds poorest nations.This report indicates a heavy toll arising f

101、rom the current linear plastics economy with preliminary estimates of the annual social and environmental costs linked to plastic pollution ranging between USD 300-600 billion per year,with some estimates above USD 1.5 trillion per year(Landrigan et al.2023).Data shows potential litigation stemming

102、from plastic pollution is estimated to exceed USD 20 billion in corporate liabilities in one country alone in the period 2022 to 2030(Merkl and Charles2022).These lawsuits express the tension between different parts of society based on the profits received by the plastic industry and the costs borne

103、 by society at large but particularly by the most vulnerable,particularly within the framework of a universally recognized human right to a clean,healthy and sustainable environment(UN General Assembly Resolution 76/300 of 28 July 2022).An economically viable solution for all stakeholders does exist

104、 to achieve an end to plastic pollution.The transition to a new plastics economy is the most cost-effective way to ensure plastic pollution is substantially reduced by 2040,with solutions at hand that require vigilance,determination and creativity.While significant,the investment costs of the system

105、s change are less than the current investment trajectory,around USD 65 billion per year through 2040 as opposed to USD 113 billion per year.But time is of the essence:A 5-year delay could lead to an increase of 80 million metric tons of plastic pollution(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).

106、A transformed plastics economy will introduce new economic benefits by bringing new business opportunities particularly for those who adapt faster.By 2040,it is estimated a new plastics economy could:Create opportunities for jobs,income and innovation:700,000 additional jobs;improved livelihoods for

107、 millions of workers in informal settings;close to USD 1.3 trillion(10.3 per cent)savings in direct public and private costs between 2021 and 2040.Reduce damage to human health and the environment by reducing exposure through an 80 per cent reduction of plastic pollution;0.5 Gt CO2-eq GHG emissions

108、prevented annually;avoiding USD 3.3 trillion of environmental and social costs between 2021 and 2040(32.5 per cent cost savings).Reduce liabilities,risks and litigation associated with damage from plastics pollution.When the direct,environmental and social cost savings are added up,more than USD 4.5

109、 trillion are saved,or 20.3 per cent reduction in costs overall.The systems change cannot be done in isolation due to the cross-border flows of plastics,liabilities and risks:it requires harmonised international action.Aligned and coordinated measures and obligations between nations and across value

110、 chains will build synergies and create a major shift in the plastics policy landscape.A harmonised knowledge base,driven by strong national reporting requirements,from which to take informed action,measure progress and refine regulatory interventions,depends on a globally coherent approach to monit

111、oring and reporting.However,it is recognised that countries will start from different places to implement market transformations and the specific policy mix appropriate to a particular country will need to consider the trade-offs built into policy choices and options.The analysis in this report exam

112、ines the potential impacts of the systems change noted above.Figure ES 2,shows the plastic flows in the economy in 2040 in a business-as-usual linear economy(top)versus that projected in the systems change scenario(bottom).Under the systems change scenario,the inflow of new(virgin)material into the

113、economy of short-lived plastics is more than halved while the utility is unchanged,by increasing the flows of materials that are reused or recycled into the economy to 27 per cent of the total.As a result,the outflow of mismanaged plastic waste ending in the environment decreases by over 80 per cent

114、.Turning off the tap of plastic pollution is within reach.This compass points to an integrated package of policy measures,clear pathways and new business models that are available to enable countries individually and collectively,to achieve that ambition.What will this future look like?xv380MMt Foss

115、il-based plastics52MMtSecondary plastics408MMt Total wastegenerated73MMtSorted forrecycling129MMt DisposalUSE227MMt Mismanaged3.5MMt Bio-based plastics80MMt Secondary plastics216MMt Total wastegenerated111MMtSorted forrecycling95MMt DisposalUSE41MMt Mismanaged95MMt Reuse2.4MMt Bio-based plastics149M

116、Mt Fossil-based plasticsFigure ES 2:Possible plastic futures.Top:modelled plastic flows of short-lived plastics in 2040 under a business-as-usual scenario;Bottom:modelled plastic flows of short-lived plastics in 2040 under a systems change scenario.Source:UNEP modelling building on The Pew Charitabl

117、e Trusts and Systemiq(2020)and OECD(2022).Business-as-usual scenarioSystems change scenarioxvi Photo:Getty ImagesThe need for a compass to end plastic pollution 1This report is designed to inform decision-makers and stakeholders across the whole value chain of plastics about the necessary actions-in

118、cluding market shifts and the associated policies-that could be taken to achieve their stated ambition to turn off the tap and end plastic pollution.Grounded in science and economic analysis,the report aims to strengthen an understanding of the magnitude and nature of the change required in the plas

119、tics economy to achieve this goal.Ultimately this report provides stakeholders a compass to implement change.Building on previous analyses(Ellen MacArthur Foundation EMF et al.2016;The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020;United Nations Environment Programme UNEP 2021c;International Resource Pane

120、l IRP 2021;Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OECD 2022;World Bank Group WBG 2022a;UNEP 2022a;Economist Impact 2023),as well as consultations with leading international experts,the problems with the current plastics economy are identified(Box 1)and what is needed to transition to

121、a circular 1.1 Purpose of this reportplastics economy globally is outlined(Box 2).An analysis is provided of this systemic change and how it can be implemented:the regulatory and fiscal policy changes,the incentives to drive new more comprehensive business models and the practical approaches to mana

122、ge the job transition,among others.Crucially,the economic analysis used in this report shows that delivering the systems change scenario addressing the causes of plastic pollution,rather than just the symptoms-could save 10.3 per cent of the direct costs of the plastics life cycle,a value that incre

123、ases to 20.3 per cent when including indirect costs as well as addressing the benefit to the environment and health.The report is complemented by topic sheets on a range of issues including design guidelines,chemical recycling,extended producer responsibility,material and products substitutes,reuse,

124、ensuring an inclusive transition to a circular economy and implementation in local settings.33MMtSecondary plastics238MMt Total wastegenerated46MMtSorted forrecycling98MMt Disposal2MMt Bio-based plasticsUSE219MMt Fossil-based plastics107MMt MismanagedFigure 1:Short-lived plastic flows in 2020.Source

125、:UNEP modelling building on The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq(2020)and OECD(2022).2 The current use of plastic is a linear economy because material is extracted,produced and used only once before being disposed or ending in the environment;a very small circular flow of plastic is cycled back in

126、to new uses(Figure 1).Problems with the current plastics economy include:structural flaws:For example,95 per cent1 of the aggregate value of plastic packaging is lost to the economy after a single use cycle.In addition,many plastic products are placed in markets that lack the capacity to collect and

127、 safely dispose of them.A systemic approach can lead to a fundamental transformation of the global plastics economy.weak waste management systems:Capacities for the control of transboundary movements,environmentally sound management of plastic waste,including the necessary infrastructure,are often l

128、acking and have not kept pace with the sharp rise in plastic consumption,particularly in low-and middle-income countries(UNEP and International Solid Waste Association ISWA 2015).Collection of waste is chronically underfunded and,despite often being the single highest item in the budgets of municipa

129、lities,formal collection coverage remains patchy(UNEP and ISWA 2015).A significant share of plastic waste collection is carried out by the informal recycling sector,involving exposure to undignified labour conditions and significant health risks(UN-Habitat and Norwegian Institute for Water Research

130、NIVA 2022).Scaling this as plastic consumption grows is difficult as the informal sector typically only collects high-value plastics.Even when collection is effective(e.g.in many high-income countries)the rate of plastic waste being recycled back into the economy is very low(approximately 15 per cen

131、t for plastics in short-lived products or 10 per cent for all plastics UNEP 2021c).Gender-related aspects of waste management within value chains also needs to be addressed because when jobs become formalised they are often taken up by men thus leaving local women without a source of income(UNEP 201

132、5a;International Environmental Technology Centre IETC 2015).a lack of incentives to encourage the adoption of new solutions:Todays markets are structured around the ubiquitous use of plastic products,particularly in packaging.New business models that meet overall needs with less environmental impact

133、s have proven effective(UNEP 2021a)but have not reached the scale of impact needed.There are currently few policy incentives for new business models or to promote the adoption of safe and sustainable alternative materials,or new delivery models such as reusable or refillable packaging(Potonik and Te

134、ixeira 2022).design and packaging choices that do not account for local infrastructure:Many plastic products are designed for a global market,with marketing and sales as primary drivers of product design.Globalised supply chains of consumer goods fail to account for the realities of the local waste

135、management infrastructure available to deal with them,which can vary greatly from one municipality to another.Fast innovation cycles in product design outpace slower innovation downstream(waste infrastructure),which exacerbates the problem further(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).insuffi

136、cient data and reporting:Consistent definitions and standards for plastic data and metrics are lacking,and there is insufficient transparency regarding the plastic being placed on the global market,including its composition(polymers,chemicals and additives),demand and what drives it,trade flows,wast

137、e production,consumption,post-use patterns and impacts on human health and marine life.This lack of data and transparency currently limits effective and safe management of plastics throughout their life cycle.In addition,there is a lack of field data measuring plastic stocks and flows throughout the

138、 value chain,and many parameters have high uncertainty(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Box 1:Characteristics of the current global plastics economy1 Share of actual closed loop recycling for plastic in short-lived products is 5 per cent 3This report covers all plastics:short-lived produ

139、cts(including both household and commercial waste),main sources of microplastics(tyre abrasion,textile microfibres,personal care products,pellets and paints2)and durable plastics(including the use of plastics in automotive,construction,textiles,electronics,agriculture and fishing).Modelling is focus

140、ed on plastic flows and related interventions on short-lived plastic products and microplastics,as these categories have the highest likelihood to end up as plastic pollution.These plastic products represent approximately 67 per cent of the total volume of plastics waste generation in the economy(Fi

141、gure 2).1.2 Scope and methodology 238MMt(67%)39MMt(11%)40MMt(11%)16MMt(5%)14MMt(4%)6MMt(2%)Short-lived plastics(i.e.municipal solid waste)AutomotiveTextilesBuilding and constructionElectrical/electronicsOtherFigure 2:Total plastic waste in 2019 by category,million metric tons(MMt).Source:OECD 2022b3

142、.2 Microplastics from paints are addressed primarily in qualitative form,constrained by gaps in data.3 Data are derived from OECD Global Plastics Outlook 2022,which estimates 353MMt total waste,with the following adaptations:the estimated total of 238 MMt of short-lived plastic products in 2019 is e

143、xtracted from the Breaking the Plastic Wave model,and represents annual municipal solid waste.The OECD categories of Packaging,Consumer and Institutional Products,Personal Care Products,and a portion of the other category were all allocated into these 238MMt.OECD sub-categories for textiles(clothing

144、 vs other)and automotive(transportation-tyres vs.transportation-other)were combined,and OECD categories with US$100BN p.a.US$10-100BN p.a.100Exposure to hazardous chemicals130.8130.8920.6(USA only,related to use of three chemicals only:PBDE,BPA and DEHP)Bisphenols,Phthalates and Flame Retardants eac

145、h more than 100Micro-and Nano-Plastics and bodily injury 10 to 100Total Externalities in billion USD per year$293.5$459.5$4,500(covers exposure to all chemicals)$552.8(If global occupational health costs are included,the figure is over USD 1.5 trillion/yr)$500(Upper bound of range could reach USD 80

146、0 bn/yr)6 The vision of a circular,zero-pollution plastics economy is one that eliminates unnecessary production and consumption,avoids negative impacts on ecosystems and human health,keeps products and materials in the economy and safely collects and disposes waste that cannot be economically proce

147、ssed.This results in permanently increasing material circularity,reducing greenhouse gas emissions and stopping plastic pollution.Achieving this vision requires a fundamental shift to ensure that people responsibly consume,produce and manage plastic globally.This can be achieved with a systems chang

148、e.Systems change“captures the idea of addressing the causes,rather than the symptoms,of a societal issue by taking a holistic(or systemic)view.Systemic change is generally understood to require adjustments or transformations in policies,practices,power dynamics,social norms or mindsets.It often invo

149、lves a diverse set of players and can take place on a local,national or global level;systems change requires modifications in many of the system structures,such as the mindset or paradigm that creates the system or the systems goals or rules”(UNEP/PP/INC.1/7).A systems change involves:1.simultaneous

150、 action across the life cycle to trigger the change.For instance,investment in increased recycling capacity(downstream)is coupled with incentives to use recycled plastic in new products(upstream)and the manufacture of products(midstream)that are economically recyclable.2.international action to crea

151、te a flourishing circular plastics economy globally that benefits all countries.For instance,eliminating the manufacture of a problematic product in one country is less effective if that product can still be exported to a neighbouring country.The systems change scenario is a feasible solutionThe Pew

152、 Charitable Trusts and Systemiq(2020)identified a science-based roadmap to significantly reduce the amount of annual plastic pollution in the environment by 80 per cent versus a business-as-usual scenario;while accounting for a range of technical,economic,social and environmental constraints that im

153、pact the scale and speed of change in the global plastics economy(see also Lau et al.2020).The systems change scenario is technically feasible within existing technologies,is economically and socially viable(human rights for all and gender equality)and creates co-benefits for climate,health,jobs and

154、 the economy.To achieve it,upstream,midstream and downstream solutions are deployed together through ambitious,immediate and global action,as shown in Figure 4 and Table 3.Box 2:What is a circular plastics economy?45040035030025020302040200100500Reduce:130(30%)Substitute:71(17%)Recycle:84

155、(20%)Dispose:101(23%)Mismanaged:44(10%)Million metric tons per yearBusiness-as-UsualRECYCLEEliminateReuse(consumer)Reuse(new delivery models)PaperCoated paperCompostablesMechanical recyclingclosed loop(CL)Mechanical recyclingopen loop(OL)Chemical recyclingplastic to plastic(P2P)Chemical conversionpl

156、astic to fuel(P2F)LandfillIncinerationOpen burningTerrestrial pollutionOcean pollution Figure 4:Wedges showing share of treatment options for plastics from short-lived products entering the system under a systems change scenario from 2016 to 2040.Source:The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq(2020).7

157、To understand better the full economic implications of the systems change scenario,an assessment of the plastic waste and pollution flows was undertaken.This section provides an overview of the methodology used to(i)estimate the capital,operations and management costs,as well as the revenues generat

158、ed in the plastics value chain via recycling processes;(ii)evaluate the most significant health and environment externalities;(iii)assess the extent to which this scenario impacts costs,revenues and the value of externalities.The estimation of costs and revenues is based on the detailed estimation o

159、f plastic flows along the value chain,with consideration of specific capital and operation and management costs for each stage considered.This analysis builds on data from the model of these flows and costs described in ThePew 1.4 The systems change scenario:An economic opportunity Charitable Trusts

160、 and Systemiq(2020)and Lau et al.(2020)and is further detailed in Annex 1.2.The economic valuation of externalities quantified the cost of CO2,air pollution,ocean clean-up,marine ecosystem services and exposure to hazardous chemicals.This economic valuation has been performed by using estimated coef

161、ficients from the literature(See Table 2 below and further detail is provided in Annex 1.2)and multiplying by the relevant waste flow(e.g.annual amount of waste reaching the ocean,multiplied by the estimated economic damage caused by the impact of plastic pollution on marine ecosystem services).The

162、results of these calculations are presented in Figure 5 and Figure 6.Table 2:Summary of the coefficients used in the study.The numerical values are expressed in constant terms(inflation adjusted),so that all values are presented in US Dollars(with 2020 base year)per metric ton.IndicatorLower bound(U

163、SD/ton)Upper Bound(USD/ton)ReferenceCarbon dioxide50 100 Bond et al.2020Air pollution250500Bond et al.2020Ocean clean-up(per ton disposed in water)1,8383,676UNEP 2014Ecosystem service costs5,74911,771WWF 2021Exposure to hazardous chemicals from incineration0.050.95Nzihou et al.(2012);Cheng and Hu(20

164、10)Exposure to hazardous chemicals from open burning 487Martnez-Snchez et al.2017;Zhang et al.2017;Smeaton 2021;Atabay et al.2022Exposure to hazardous chemicals from dumpsite180Martnez-Snchez et al.2017;UNEP(2012)Exposure to hazardous chemicals from microplastics 16,500Atabay et al.2022Note:The cost

165、 of air pollution focuses on(macro)plastic waste and considers air pollutants from production.The cost of CO2 emissions linked to plastic production is used as a proxy for health impacts from plastic(Bond et al.2020).The cost of exposure to hazardous chemicals focuses on the impact of microplastics

166、and,in addition,to the end-of-life damage emerging from macroplastics(specifically from open burning and fires in dumpsites).Full methodology described in Annex 1.2.8 1.4.1 Estimating the benefits from the systems change scenario by 2040The results indicate that the systems change scenario is econom

167、ically viable and creates immediate annual savings as compared to that of a business-as-usual(BAU)scenario.When considering the timeframe,the avoided costs are significant,reaching between USD 130 billion and USD 200 billion per year by 2040.This magnitude of savings and avoided cost is a large part

168、 of the size of the prize.By 2040 the systems change scenario results in a net cost reduction of 10 per cent when considering the direct costs of reduced investment(capex),operation and management costs(opex)and increased revenues(e.g.from recycled materials)(Figure 5).These savings result from redu

169、ced plastic production and processing and reduced demand on capacities required to produce them;as well as increased revenues from recycled materials.Note that while operating costs increase somewhat over the projected timeframe,these increases are more than offset by savings in the capital costs.An

170、 additional saving of 33 per cent in avoided costs is possible over the period 20212040.The savings in externalized(indirect)costs are considerable:the total cost of the plastics life cycle is estimated at USD 22.3 trillion between 2021 and 2040 in the BAU scenario,and 45 per cent of that value is r

171、epresented by externalities.The percentage related to externalities declines to 38percent in the systems change scenario,which carries total cumulative costs of USD 17.8 trillion by 2040(all values are presented in constant 2020 USD).Taken together,the costs avoided in the systems change scenario re

172、present an overall savings of 20 per cent of the total.Overall,the systems change scenario results in USD 1.3 trillion in savings considering investment,operations and management costs and recycling revenues.A further USD3.3 trillion is saved from avoided externalities.These results point to a consi

173、derable societal value emerging from increasing the sustainability of the plastics economy:for each dollar of conventional(direct)cost saved a further two dollars of societal damage(indirect cost)are also avoided.Figure 5:Total system costs for short-lived plastics for the business-as-usual and syst

174、ems change scenarios(20212040).Note:Marine ES=Marine ecosystem services;Exp.hazard.chem.=Exposure to hazardous chemicals.9The forecast evolution of the plastics value chain over time,especially under the systems change scenario,offers valuable insights(Figure 6).Even when using lower bound estimates

175、,the savings are substantial,and externalities in particular decrease with a systems change.The potential savings in terms of avoided costs and damages are illustrated over time in Figure 6 along with reduced investment costs.The avoided cost of pollution represent the largest cost savings in the pl

176、astics value chain under the systems change scenario,where continued progress to increase circularity results in annual avoided costs of plastics pollution in the range of USD 412billion per year by 2040 using the lower bound coefficients(this grows to more than USD 602 billion per year when using t

177、he upper bound cost coefficients).To put these numbers into context,USD 100 billion per year is roughly equal to the amount committed by the World Bank Group in 2022 for all development lending(WBG 2022b).Of note,both private sector and government/municipal operators in the value chain can realize s

178、avings in capital costs as a result of more effective management of waste and reduced waste flows.Operating and maintenance costs may increase in the short term,with collection,sorting and managing waste to increase recycling and reuse but this increase is smaller than the cost saving realized on ca

179、pital cost.Further,opex is forecast to decline from 2030,because of reduced waste flows entering the economy.Figure 6:Net change in annual costs between the business-as-usual and systems change scenarios(SC-BAU),2021-2040(in constant 2020 USD billion).In interpreting these results,it is important to

180、 highlight the difference between direct and indirect avoided costs.The former are costs that translate in cash flows(e.g.avoided investment,made redundant by the reduction in the generation and use of plastics).The latter refer instead to impacts that do not necessarily carry a market price,and are

181、 hence not directly converted into cash flow even though they pose real costs(e.g.loss of marine ecosystem services).Yet even if they do not impose direct costs,externalities can be valued economically by considering indirect and induced impacts(e.g.the loss in tourism revenue emerging from the redu

182、ction of marine ecosystem services).Finally,it should be mentioned that several additional externalities,as well as co-benefits,could and should be included in the analysis.An example is represented by employment and income,where a portion of the income created(estimated using country or region-spec

183、ific income multipliers for upstream and downstream activities),for instance discretionary impact(e.g.30percent of the total salary)could be considered a societal benefit.Section 1.4.3 further explains the job implications of the systems change scenario.10 1.4.2 Bridging the finance gap of systems c

184、hange through public and private financial flowsMaintaining the status quo is far from what is economically or socially optimal,and support is required to transition to a more sustainable path in the plastics value chain.First,support may be provided to generate behavioural and systems change.A trig

185、ger is required,for instance to reduce plastics use upstream by accelerating reuse,so that savings can be accrued downstream,on the waste management side.The recent push by the G20 Presidency of India to focus on lifestyles for environment(LiFE for short)is an indicator that behavioural change and p

186、ersonal choice decisions are on the agenda for many countries.Actions that promote positive behavioural change are impactful when they consider gender roles,consumption and waste generation preferences;this also helps designing gender-responsive initiatives thus accelerating progress towards sustain

187、able plastic management(OECD 2020).Second,certain investments may require a considerable amount of upfront capital.Challenges may include the high cost of financing,a lack of collateral to qualify for financing for the private sector or a stretched fiscal balance for the public sector.Third,the inve

188、stor may not necessarily be the main beneficiary of improved sustainability in the context of the plastics value chain.For instance,if a tax is charged on plastics consumption,most of the indirect savings will be accrued by the government(or by the organisations and institutions managing plastic was

189、te),and only indirectly by all citizens(e.g.via the reduction of CO2 emissions,air pollution,marine ecosystem degradation and exposure to hazardous chemicals).Such taxes may also have significant impacts on the poorest in society,and further amplify impoverishment.While the systems change scenario g

190、enerates positive outcomes systems-wide,only a careful design of the interventions ensures that the transition is economically and financially viable for all actors involved:producers,consumers,citizens and the government.Consider the case of a virgin plastic tax or levy in the systems change scenar

191、io:if 500 USD/metric ton was charged on virgin plastic produced for short-lived products5,an additional cumulative revenue of USD 1.1 trillion would be generated from 2025 until 2040,higher than the total capex in the same period and circa 16percent of the cost of externalities between 2021 and 2040

192、.If,for instance,such levy was to be invested into an international circularity fund,to leverage private financing,it could thus finance the capital expenditure as well as part of the operations expenditure required for the systems change scenario and greatly accelerate the transition.This funding c

193、ould also be used as an incentive(e.g.a 4:1 type of incentive,where the government provides a 20 per cent contribution and the private sector brings in the remaining 80 per cent),which would deliver five times as many resources(i.e.USD 5.5 trillion more of investment available).Higher taxes of 1,000

194、 and 2,000 USD/metric ton(as suggested in OECD 2022c)would recover 33 per cent and 66 per cent of the externality costs incurred between 2021-2040.Initial analyses suggest that a tax at USD 500/metric ton would be financially viable for the industry.Additionally,Figure 5 clearly shows that the highe

195、st costs in both scenarios are related to operational expenditure.Well-designed Extended Producer Responsibility(EPR)schemes can cover the full costs of ensuring the systems circularity,as shown in successful examples around the world(see topic sheet on Extended Producer Responsibility).In the Europ

196、ean Union,for example,EPR schemes place the responsibility on producers for the financing of collection,recycling and responsible end-of-life disposal of packaging,waste from electrical and electronic equipment,batteries.In France,the fees collected through the EPR schemes for packaging reduce the w

197、aste management burden of municipalities by over 50 per cent(UN-Habitat Urban Agenda Platform 2022).Belgium is also often cited as having one of the most successful EPR schemes with rates of over 80 per cent recycling for packaging(EXPRA 2023).Overall,the emerging literature suggests that a combinat

198、ion of policies are required to shift demand and bend the consumption curve(OECD 2022c;Economist Impact 2023).Price instruments such as levies and even EPR schemes can be helpful,but due to the low-price elasticity of demand will do more to raise revenues than dampen demand;and must therefore be com

199、bined with bans on single use plastic products and additives and polymers that are particularly hazardous for human health and the environment.5 i.e.similar to the tax already in place in a few frontrunner countries and lower than what OECD(2022c)proposes.111.4.3 The job implications of systems chan

200、geAs shown in Figure 7,a detailed analysis of direct employment and livelihood impacts shows that the systems change scenario is good for the jobs market.By 2040,relative to the BAU scenario,the systems change scenario would result in 700,000 more jobs directly associated with short-lived plastics;t

201、here is a net growth of 970,000 jobs in developing countries and a net loss of 270,000 jobs in developed countries(but still a net growth of 150,000 jobs in the Global North relative to today).Further details of the job implications of systems change are shown in Annex 1.1.This growth is due to the

202、systems change scenario expanding collection and sorting across developing countries,which would support more livelihoods.Additionally,the circular economy is typically more labour intensive than the linear economy because it shifts much of the production activity(which relies mainly on machines)to

203、services which require humans(recycling,reverse logistics and reuse).The considerations of gender equality in job creation is crucial to ensure a just transition,more so in developing countries(International Labour Organization ILO 2022).WASTE1.9Million3.2Million1.5MillionVirgin plastic production1.

204、2Million2.1Million1.1MillionPlastic conversion3.1MillionReorient-new materials1.4MillionReuse and New delivery models4.0Million5.9Million4.8MillionFormal and informal collection and sorting10.5Thousand13Thousand9ThousandThermal treatment and landfillsRecycling(mechanical and chemical)TOTAL JOBS101Th

205、ousand167Thousand250Thousand7.2Million11.3Million12.0Million2020 Current2040 Business-as-usual2040 Systems change scenarioFigure 7:Total jobs in different parts of the short-lived plastics value chain in the current market,and under business-as-usual and systems change scenarios.Source:The Pew Chari

206、table Trusts and Systemiq 202012 Many of the manual jobs required by the circular economy(collection,sorting,recycling,washing of reusables etc.)also have a direct contribution to poverty alleviation because these typically require lower skillsets.While the BAU scenario also has many jobs in these c

207、ategories,they are mostly in high-income countries as low-income countries still suffer from insufficient waste management infrastructure.And while areas such as production of virgin plastic and conversion of plastic products decrease in this scenario(all of them are in the high-income countries),th

208、ese are typically high skilled labour that operate machinery and work in factories,so this labour can likely be directed towards other industrial activities.At the same time,new circular industries like reuse,new delivery models and new materials development and production have the potential to crea

209、te millions of new jobs in the circular economy6.As with any transition,job creation and displacement require careful attention and forward planning,not least to ensure that adequate skills and retraining opportunities exist,as new jobs are created and new opportunities open.The International Labour

210、 Organization(ILO)has outlined measures that can underpin a just transition to an economy which is greener and more inclusive for both women and men and other minority groups who are often marginalised(ILO 2015).Even if the systems change scenario results in net increase in jobs,safeguards and just

211、transition should be in place to care for informal workers who may not qualify for formal labour and yet still wish to participate in the system.Photo:Getty Images6 Including jobs in the other plastic categories not in the scope of this analysis(automotive,construction,electronics,textiles,fishing g

212、ear etc.),could increase the growth in net jobs given that these sectors may experience a smaller relative reduction in volume compared to packaging and single-use plastic.131.5 A better plastics future For decades the three Rs framework(Reduce-Reuse-Recycle)has been the focus of plastic waste manag

213、ement.While these elements all remain core to tackling plastic pollution,to move to a new plastics economy by 2040 requires an expansion of this framework.Integrated actions are required across the life cycle(UNEP/PP/INC.1/7)under three main categories:1.5.1 Reduce the size of the problemEliminating

214、 the use of unnecessary or problematic plastics and hazardous chemicals can be achieved by prioritising high-value durable uses such as reusable and refillable products,or removing plastic that is not delivering a necessary function(e.g.excessive headspace).In some cases,such unnecessary plastics ca

215、n also be substituted by safe and sustainable materials.1.5.2 Transform the market from linear to circular through three market shiftsShift 1:Accelerate the market for reusable productsREUSEShift 2:Accelerate the market for plastics recyclingRECYCLEShift 3:Reorient and diversify the market for susta

216、inable and safe plastic alternatives REORIENT&DIVERSIFYThe reuse market shift,together with elimination of unnecessary and problematic plastic products,can reduce demand for new plastics in 2040 by approximately 30per cent,while accelerating the recycling market shift can further manage 20 per cent

217、of the plastics volume.Reorient and diversify sustainable alternatives to plastic products,particularly those that are short-lived,can reduce approximately 17 per cent of plastics that risk ending up as pollution.Some cross-cutting policy and fiscal measures,such as a levy on virgin plastic producti

218、on,could drive market transformation and support the success of all three shifts.Chapter 2 outlines actions to accelerate the three market shifts.1.5.3 Deal with the plastic pollution legacyDespite the systems change scenario resulting in an 80 per cent decrease in the outflows of mismanaged plastic

219、 waste ending in the environment(Figure 9),action will still be required to manage 100 million metric tons of plastics from short-lived products not yet reduced,substituted or brought into circularity by 2040.These system-level actions are interdependent and rely on their successful implementation a

220、t scale,in parallel and with ambition,to shift towards a new circular plastics economy.For example,collection and sorting is required to expand recycling,and design for recycling improves the economic viability and scalability of mechanical recycling systems.These system-level actions must also be s

221、upported by cross-cutting measures,such as reporting and monitoring,which will provide transparency and a data base to support effective management through the value chain and drive further transformation.The three key market shifts(reuse,recycling,reorient and diversify)highlight economic opportuni

222、ties,are supported by actions that reduce the size of the problem and complemented by actions to deal with the legacy;overall they are accelerated by policy and legislative change.Taken together,these form the compass to end plastic pollution through a new circular plastics economy.Figure 8:The comp

223、ass to end plastic pollution14 380MMt Fossil-based plastics52MMtSecondary plastics408MMt Total wastegenerated73MMtSorted forrecycling129MMt DisposalUSE227MMt Mismanaged3.5MMt Bio-based plastics80MMt Secondary plastics216MMt Total wastegenerated111MMtSorted forrecycling95MMt DisposalUSE41MMt Mismanag

224、ed95MMt Reuse2.4MMt Bio-based plastics149MMt Fossil-based plasticsFigure 9:Top:Modelled short-lived plastic flows in 2040 under a business-as-usual scenario.Bottom:Modelled short-lived plastic flows in 2040 under a systems change scenario to deliver the necessary market transformation.Source:UNEP mo

225、delling building on The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq(2020)and OECD(2022b).Business-as-usual scenarioSystems change scenario 151.5.4 Wasting time will lead to more pollution The next three to five years present a critical window for action to set the world on the path towards implementing the s

226、ystems change scenario by 2040.If it takes longer to apply these same solutions,the model used indicates that an additional 80 million metric tons of plastic pollution will be entering the environment(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).To deliver the targets set out in Table 3,and ultimate

227、ly a better plastics future,it is crucial to align all financial flows with the goals of the market transformation by 2040(all values are in net present value NPV).This includes:Reducing by USD 2.2 trillion all financial flows towards virgin plastic production Mobilising at least USD 600 billion fro

228、m all sources to reuse and new delivery models Increasing by USD 230 billion financial flows to formal collection and formal sorting in middle income and low-income countries,and by USD 70 billion financial flows to improve recycling technologies and increase recycling capacity Mobilising at least U

229、SD 1.7 trillion from all sources to production of sustainable substitute materials and end of life management facilities and technologies Required scale of change in the next five yearsRequired outcomes and scale of change by 20407Reduce the size of the problem and Accelerate reuseReduce 10%(25 MMt)

230、of short-lived plastics versus BAU including at least 20%via reuse and new delivery models for all bottled products and beverage cups Reduce growth in short-lived plastic consumption to avoid 30%of 2040 projected plastic waste generation via elimination,reuse and new delivery models,including at lea

231、st 50%via reuse and new delivery models for bottled products and beverage cupsAccelerate recyclingRe-designing 25%of multi material and multi-layer globally into mono material formats(13 MMt)Design products to expand the share of economically recyclable plastics,e.g.switching 100%of multi-material f

232、lexibles to mono-material Increase the amount of post-consumer recycled content in all new products from circa 6%in 2020 to 14%globally(i.e.69 MMt)Increase the amount of post-consumer recycled content in new products to 35%of new short-lived plastic products(i.e.80 MMt)and 6%of durable plastic produ

233、cts(i.e.19 MMt)Achieving 70%collection rates(vs.50%in 2016)in low-income urban areas,while supporting livelihoods of informal waste pickersExpand waste collection rates in middle and low-income countries to 90%in urban areas and 50%in rural,supporting the informal collection sectorIncreasing the glo

234、bal mechanical recycling capacity by 50%versus 2016,from 43 MMt to 65 MMt(equivalent to growing mechanical recycling rate of short-lived plastics from 14%in 2016 to 20%in 2028)DOUBLE annual mechanical recycling capacity globally from 43 MMt to 86 MMt(equivalent to growing mechanical recycling rate o

235、f short-lived plastics to 35%globally).Enhanced ambition could TRIPLE mechanical recycling capacity to 129 MMt*Develop sustainable plastic-to-plastic conversion,potentially to a global capacity of 13 MMt per yearTable 3:The systems change scenario outcomes and scale of change in the next 5 years and

236、 by 2040.MMt=million metric tons.7 Building from Breaking the Plastic Wave-The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020.*It is important to note that while feasible financially(the necessary investment could pay for itself as the economics of recycling are favourable and would be more favourable with

237、 the integrated actions),this recycling target can only be achieved and can only make sense with very ambitious design for recycling,collection and sorting requirements ensuring that virtually all plastic otherwise going to landfill will be recyclable and recycled.16 Reorient&diversifySubstitute 7%(

238、i.e.22 MMt)of short-lived plastics for alternatives when these are more sustainable Substitute short-lived plastic with alternative materials when these are more sustainable,switching 17%of projected 2040 plastic waste generationDeal with the legacyRoll-out solutions to prevent 5.7 MMt of annual mic

239、roplastic pollution by 2040(50%reduction microplastic versus total by 2040)Adding 6 MMt in annual capacity for controlled waste disposal in low-and middle-income countriesBuild facilities with an annual capacity of 42 MMt to dispose of necessary but unrecyclable plastics until we have a better solut

240、ionReduce leakage of 3.5 MMt of plastic to the environmentReduce leakage of 7 MMt of plastic to the environmentReduce mismanaged waste globally from 40%in 2016 to 27%in 2028 Reduce mismanaged waste globally to 10%in 2040Reduce plastic waste exports to countries with low collection and high leakage r

241、ates by 50%compared to 2020 plastic waste trade Completely eliminate plastic waste exports to countries with low collection and high leakage rates1.5.5 Considering further ambition is possibleTwo additional considerations in modelling the systems change scenario to 2040 are as follows:Assuming no ne

242、w incineration capacity is built after 2020(and instead take what would have been incinerated in new capacity to engineered landfill),one would save USD 7.1 billion NPV from 2021 to 2040 in capex and opex,as well as 240 million metric tons(MMt)CO2e for the entire period.This would divert an addition

243、al 172 MMt of plastic waste from incineration to engineered landfill,predominantly in High-and Upper Middle-Income countries which is where the new incineration capacity is being built.The impact on jobs of this assumption would be negligible.Adding extra recycling capacity up to 129 MMt annual capa

244、city by 2040(instead of letting waste go to landfill)would cost an incremental capex of approximately USD 33 billion NPV from 2021 to 2040 and opex of approximately USD 140 billion NPV from 2021 to 2040 for the recycling infrastructure(accounting for savings from not building landfill capacity)plus

245、incremental capex of USD 43 billion NPV from 2021 to 2040 and opex USD 130 billion for sorting.In addition,this would save costs for virgin plastic production and plastic conversion as follows:capex USD 185 billion NPV from 2021 to 2040 and opex USD 290 billion NPV from 2021 to 2040.In other words,t

246、ripling recycling capacity(from the capacity in 2016)instead of only doubling it would create a net cost saving overall.The critical condition for this to work is ensuring that this extra amount of plastic waste,that would otherwise go to landfill,can be designed to be safely mechanically recycled a

247、nd that the economics of sorting and mechanical recycling are attractive enough to justify these investments.An ambitious legally binding instrument agreed by the end of 2024 could set the enabling conditions and economic incentives to make this possible,including transparency and controls on or cri

248、teria for plastics composition.The above examples show possible directions of additional impacts the market transformation to a circular plastics economy could have if the right ambition and economic incentives are put in place.This modelling can support policymakers with a full picture of the econo

249、mic,social and environmental impacts of their policy choices.17Photo:Getty ImagesMarket transformations:Creating the marketplace for the new circular plastics economy18 Analysis shows that circularity in plastics requires the simultaneous acceleration of three market shifts:reuse,recycling,and reori

250、enting and diversifying of plastic to more sustainable alternatives.The following section defines each of the shifts,how they can be delivered,the level of ambition that can be achieved,the barriers that may be encountered and the potential to improve the economics.Unnecessary plastics are those wit

251、h low or no utility(e.g.over-packaging)that can be eliminated while providing the same utility,those designed for a short use period when reuse or new delivery models could provide the same utility,and those that can be substituted for alternative materials with a more sustainable footprint(as valid

252、ated by Life Cycle Assessment studies).Additional criteria to identify problematic plastics is whether they contain hazardous chemicals that pose a significant risk to human health or the environment(applying the precautionary principle),hinder or disrupt the recyclability or compostability of other

253、 items and/or have a high likelihood of being littered or ending up in the natural environment.Criteria to help identify problematic or unnecessary plastic uses(EMF 2020):1.It is not reusable,recyclable or compostable in practice and at scale(as per Global Commitment definitions).2.It contains hazar

254、dous chemicals that pose a significant risk to human health or the environment(applying the precautionary principle).3.It can be avoided(or replaced by a reuse model)while maintaining utility.4.It hinders or disrupts the recyclability or compostability of other items.5.It has a high likelihood of be

255、ing littered or ending up in the natural environment.Box 3:What are unnecessary and problematic plastics and plastic products?In parallel to the market transformation to circularity,the size of the problem needs to be reduced by turning off the tap,i.e.:eliminating problematic and unnecessary uses o

256、f plastic in the economy(see Box 3).This entails removing from the economy those plastics which have least value for recycling precisely because they are the least recyclable and are neither designed to be reused.This also includes reducing the production of unnecessary plastics by redesigning overp

257、ackaging and reducing headspace,developing packaging-free products,increasing utility per package and extending life of durable goods such as through reuse and repair.19Plastic reuse and new delivery models,together with elimination of problematic and unnecessary plastics,are highly effective interv

258、entions because they can reduce waste at source.Reuse schemes(also referred to as reuse systems or models),refers broadly to new delivery models in which a single product(e.g.a package)achieves multiple trips,rotations or uses for the same purpose for which it was originally used(International Organ

259、ization for Standardization ISO 2013).This can range from simple bulk dispensers in-store to more complex schemes with deposits and packaging take-back,washing and repair.These include the shift to reusable water bottles,food containers and bags,new delivery models such as refill from dispensers and

260、 bulk systems in retail,low-packaging subscription services,concentrated product capsules,and take-back services with reverse vending machines,deposit refund schemes and washing pooling systems(EMF 2019;Environmental Investigation Agency EIA 2022).2.1 Market shift one:Accelerate reuseThese solutions

261、 also decrease risk of exposure to hazardous chemicals in plastics and our dependence on fossil fuel-based plastics,vital in the face of oil and gas price volatility,geopolitical risks,and the urgent need to tackle climate change.Reusable alternatives are environmentally preferable according to Life

262、 Cycle Assessment(LCA)meta-studies(UNEP 2021a).See topic sheet on Reuse schemes for further details.This market shift can be unlocked by improving the economics of reuse(which is in turn supported by aligning design and sharing of reuse elements to enable economies of scale);as well as aligning regu

263、lation of chemicals,material and waste flows to reuse.Photo:Getty ImagesPlastic consumption expected to double by 2040 globally under BAU versus 2016of plastics from short-lived products are avoidable and can be reduced of plastic reduction could come from reuse,refill and new delivery models2X30%70

264、%20 2.1.1 Improve the economics of reuse Once established,reuse schemes keep resources at a higher value in the economy and thus avoid losing the economic value of the manufactured goods after a single use.Reuse and new delivery models are the most economic schemes to put in place,after plastic elim

265、ination,and are estimated to generate net savings to the system(USD 1,289 per ton of plastic for reuse schemes and USD 516 per ton of plastic for new delivery models)(Annex 1.1;The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).However,the costs of shifting to reuse schemes should not be underestimated:pr

266、ivate costs of reuse models(reuse and new delivery models)are estimated at circa USD 609 billion between 2021 and 2040(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Sharing elements of the reuse system(such as return systems and containers in the case of reusable packaging)can enable economies of sca

267、le thus improving the economics of reuse.The topic sheet on Design guidelines for circularity provides more details on what can be achieved.Circular systems tend to be more labour intensive than linear systems,which are resource intensive;therefore,shifting the fiscal burden from labour to resources

268、 improves the economics of reuse(and other circular solutions such as recycling).Several studies(OECD 2022c;World Bank Group 2022a;Economist Impact 2023)have suggested the introduction of a virgin plastic tax to reduce or reverse the price gap between virgin single-use products and those that reduce

269、 the amount of virgin plastic demand(such as reuse systems and also recycled products).Reuse systems require services and infrastructure,which were eliminated a few decades ago when disposability became the norm.Fiscal incentives could support the transition until reuse becomes commonplace again,ack

270、nowledging that reuse will also deliver favourable outcomes in terms of jobs,economic benefits and reduced environmental impacts.Targets embedded in legislation(such as in Frances Anti-Waste Law:Government of France 2021)provide assurance in the market by de-risking the investments needed from the p

271、rivate sector to shift from the current single-use models to reuse e.g.through a fund for change within the EPR such as 5 per cent of the global EPR fee,eco-modulation with specific one shot bonus to help brand owners to shift from single use to reusable products and standards to scale up the reuse

272、and refill systems.Policies,which also encourage consumers behaviour change and increase the demand for reuse,are a key driver of increased investment in reuse models since 2015.Funds raised for reuse schemes between 2015 and 2021 are estimated over USD 1 billion,mostly in the United States of Ameri

273、ca,Canada and Europe(where the 2019 directive on single use plastic products has created the ground for the development of new reuse models).Policies and incentives will be crucial to unlock financing in emerging countries and for novel reuse models(World Economic Forum WEF 2022).When only a few fro

274、nt-running countries/value chains incentivise reuse,economies of scale are not achieved,and businesses may have to multiply their delivery systems to accommodate reuse and disposable systems.In the extreme this may even result in systems being incompatible at two ends of the same business,such as wi

275、th the aviation industry,confronted with reuse systems being favoured in one end of the journey and illegal at the other end(International Civil Aviation Organization ICAO 2022).Specifically,reuse systems require the following elements to run effectively:collection points,return incentives(to ensure

276、 high enough return rates),reverse logistics(including washing and sanitation),labelling and communication,consumer awareness,among others.Like with all transitions,it is crucial to assess and address any potential negative trade-offs from the market shift to reuse e.g.on vulnerable groups(such as w

277、aste pickers currently living off streams of single-use plastic products)or gender impacts e.g.because women are often central in managing plastic in terms of domestic purchasing decisions,recycling and disposing(UNEP 2021a).Overall,improving the economics of reuse requires addressing the tensions b

278、etween the economic actors that may perceive themselves as winning or losing with the transition(Table 4).21ActorConsiderations for the Reuse ShiftPolymer and chemical producers Overall plastic production may plateau/not grow as much as forecast Polymer production for short-lived plastics would decr

279、ease Stopping the expansion of new production plants now will avoid the risk of stranded assets Help diversify possible shift in polymer types/chemicals produced Early adopters/innovators of reuse-ready chemicals stand to win significantly Plastic converters Smaller volume of production,though highe

280、r value products May consider shifting business model to polymer leasingBrands/manufacturers Significant re-design effort for safe containers and delivery systems Likely increase in brand loyalty Strengthened social license to operate as branded litter diminishes Delivering on corporate targets(e.g.

281、New Plastics Economy Global Commitment)Reuse service providers sector Significant boom expected in this sector Major growth in revenues and jobs anticipatedRetailers Increased costs as need to devote a share of retail space to reverse logistics/return systems Strengthened social license to operate D

282、elivering on corporate targets(e.g.New Plastics Economy Global Commitment)Governments Delivery on waste targets and avoiding growth in greenhouse gas and toxic emissions linked to plastic production Significant job growth particularly in less skilled jobs that may support poverty alleviation and the

283、 economic empowerment of women from lower socio-economic status(International Labour Organization 2022)Reduced health impacts on the population and costs to health servicesConsumers Need to forego convenience of disposable and get used to products looking less shiny Opportunity to shape the future o

284、f consumption as reuse systems are co-designed with the user in mind Important to consider the gender dimension in the transition to avoid disproportionate impact on womenWaste pickers Reduced volume of single-use plastic items waste,with potential impact on their revenues Opportunity to become inte

285、gral part of the reuse service providing sector with safer and better paid jobs if conditions for a just transition are observed,e.g.by formalising the informal sector and including waste pickers in new reuse businesses such as reverse logistics8 and washing servicesWaste management companies Reduce

286、d volume of waste to be managed vs.BAU,although the sector will still grow compared to today to increase the population covered by waste collection and management Reduced costs of investment into costly disposal infrastructure.Opportunity to diversify into reverse logistics and washing systems for r

287、euseRecycling companies Need to adapt machinery and processes to more durable products(i.e.reusable products,after at least ten cycles of use)Table 4:Implications of the reuse shift for different actors across the value chain8 Reverse logistics refers to activities engaged to recapture the value of

288、products,parts and materials once they have reached end-of-use or end-of-life.All value retention processes(such as reuse)may be considered to be part of a reverse-logistics system,and in addition activities including collection,transportation and secondary markets provide essential mechanisms for f

289、acilitating reverse-logistics(IRP 2018).22 2.1.2 Align regulation of chemicals,material and waste flows to reuseChemicals are an integral part of plastics as they confer them with specific desirable functionalities;however,they can be released into the air,water and soil at all stages of the plastic

290、 life cycle and have a significant social and environmental cost(Grandjean and Bellanger 2017).Over 13,000 chemical substances have been identified as associated with plastics as monomers,additives and processing aids.After analysing a fraction of these chemicals(7,000),3,200 chemicals have been cat

291、alogued as of concern due to their potential adverse impacts on human health and the environment in UNEPs(2023)Chemicals in Plastics:A Technical Report.These include chemicals that can mimic,block or alter the actions of hormones,reduce fertility and damage the nervous system.See topic sheet on Crit

292、eria for chemicals in plastics,which builds on UNEPs(2023)Chemicals in Plastics:A Technical Report.While there is already legislation in place to regulate the safety of plastics,it is often designed to ensure safety of materials used in the economy from a linear perspective,i.e.assuming they will on

293、ly go through the economy once.For example,the Stockholm Convention does control various persistent organic pollutants(POPs)that have been used in plastics as additives,flame retardants,plasticizers or in the manufacture of fluoropolymers.The perspective of products having to be used and reused in t

294、he economy several times,and their materials cycled back into new products at the end of life,rather than disposed,may require alignment of safety-related regulation.In addition,the economic benefits of allowing new chemicals entering the market quickly will likely need to be balanced with the overa

295、ll society benefits of those same chemicals and their properties.Improved transparency and traceability on product contents(including chemicals used)must be ensured to allow safer management along the life cycle,for multiple cycles of products and materials in the economy.Because circularity(through

296、 reuse and recycling)will increase the time that these chemicals are circulating in the economy,the reduction of a wide range of hazardous chemicals will minimise potential impacts on human health and biota at all stages of the life cycle.This is particularly important for chemicals that are persist

297、ent,bio accumulative and toxic either at very low levels(e.g.carcinogens,mutagens,reproductive toxicants and endocrine disrupting chemicals)or at cumulative exposure.Higher exposure to chemicals happens during production,waste management and recycling phases(mostly in low-income countries).Consumers

298、 exposure to chemical additives in plastics is most significant at the use stage of plastic products(Fantke et al.2016),including plastic based food packaging,building materials,electronics,toys,textiles or household products.Beyond the regulation of chemicals,waste management generation has been re

299、gulated considering waste as a nuisance capable of generating impacts from which humans and the environment need to be protected.While this has ensured a good level of protection,in the context of circularity it may impede the most efficient use of resources.E.g.in reuse schemes empty containers are

300、 transported in reverse logistics schemes,for them to be washed and reused again.If these empty containers are classified as waste at the end of each useful cycle,this would generate high management costs and require the intervention of accredited waste handling companies making the shift to reuse e

301、conomically unfeasible.In the context of aviation,international catering waste often needs to be incinerated to avoid spreading animal diseases,even though research indicates that the risk is negligible(ICAO 2022).In summary,safety regulations established in the past may need to be revisited with a

302、risk management perspective to ensure losses in efficiency are not disproportionate compared to gains in safety.2.1.3 What level of ambition can be achieved through reuse?Per capita use of plastics in 2040 can be kept at roughly todays levels,by eliminating unnecessary plastics(9percent reduction by

303、 mass)and switching to reuse and new delivery models(22 per cent reduction,Figure 10).Elimination and reuse offer the biggest reduction in plastic pollution,often represent net savings,and provide the highest greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions mitigation(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020;UNEP 20

304、21a).In practice,an ambitious shift to reuse will see significant scale up of product volumes being sold in reusable/refill models,starting with those product categories where change may be easiest or impact highest.Examples of these categories are bottled products,products in sachets,hospitality,re

305、tail and catering(including fast food and food delivery).Other sectors have the potential for big impacts(e.g.personal care products such as diapers and menstrual products),but may require further support.23Figure 10:Utility demand in 2016 and 2040,and how it is met by eliminate solutions and the re

306、use shift in the systems change scenario.Source:The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020.2.1.4 How will implementation differ by context?Under the systems change scenario,decreased plastic consumption must happen across all regions,and per capita plastic consumption will decrease dramatically in

307、high-income countries.Despite per capita and total plastic consumption in low-and middle-income countries increasing somewhat compared to todays levels(before switching any plastics to single-use substitutes,which are discussed in section 2.3),a rapid decrease of the current rapid growth trajectory

308、is achieved under systems change.This can bring significant benefits,if countries leapfrog to a modern economy based on material-efficient,innovative reuse solutions that avoid exacerbating their already overburdened waste infrastructure.Design for reuse and refurbishment can bring more benefits in

309、terms of jobs and income in low-and middle-income countries where labour costs are lower.2.1.5 What are the potential barriers and opportunities for reuse over the next five years?Reuse solutions for short-lived plastics are already technologically available today,with many having already been used

310、in the past,and several offer cost savings.However,investment is required to support the transition to an economy that maintains products at their highest possible value.Well-designed EPR schemes provide effective economic incentives to shift supply chains and consumer behaviour and help overcome tr

311、ansition costs e.g.by removing any fees from reuse schemes.Many solutions are also at an early stage of availability and require financial investment to scale,from public and private source,with an essential role of governments to develop progressive policies and incentives to attract private capita

312、l,especially for business-to-consumer models which are less mature than business-to-business models such as reusable shipping and logistics(WEF 2022).However,the shift could ultimately bring strong cost savings and opportunities at-scale:for example,the Ellen MacArthur Foundation estimates the econo

313、mic opportunity of switching to reuse models at USD 10 billion(EMF 2019).Innovation in this area is on the rise:registered trademarks rose by 23 per cent annually for plastics reuse between 1995 and 2017(OECD 2022b).Companies are increasingly publicly reporting on plastic footprints and many have se

314、t measurable,absolute reduction and reuse targets,such as through the New Plastics Economy Global Commitment(launched by EMF and UNEP in 2018).It is critical to ensure that shifting to reuse models does not increase GHG or create other unacceptable trade-offs.While UNEP(2021a)shows how LCA studies u

315、sually confirm the environmental preference of reuse systems over single-use,it also points at key parameters to be considered to ensure their preference,such as a minimum number of reuse cycles,efficient reverse logistics or washing.24 For many years,the mantra has been to increase public support f

316、or recycling and move away from single-use plastics.However,plastic products need to be designed and made of materials that enable recycling.Close to 80 per cent of the plastic in short-lived plastic products is not economically recyclable due to design decisions such as additives(e.g.dyes),material

317、 combinations or even size.A tiny proportion of plastic products can be reused safely.Establishing design rules e.g.to reduce the number of different polymers altogether,favour the design formats that are easier to reuse or recycle,or standardize formats for reuse so they can be shared by multiple c

318、ompanies,can go a long way in improving the profitability of reuse and recycling schemes.By agreeing to establish common design rules and standards in problematic sectors such as packaging,governments could unlock multiple benefits such as significantly increasing reuse rates,expanding the share of

319、economically recyclable plastics(both contributing to a reduction in total plastic use with no change in utility)and unlocking the GHG savings potential of this sector.GHG emissions can be reduced by approximately 48 per cent when comparing recycling versus landfilling plastic waste(see Annex 1.1).H

320、owever,re-designing plastic products to enable recycling is not enough;collection systems need to be in place to facilitate recycling.It is estimated that today there are about two billion people not connected to waste collection systems(UNEP and ISWA 2015),and the challenge will only increase as po

321、pulations grow.Ensuring inclusivity in the informal collection sector will enable expansion of collection and sorting efforts.Aligning the collection and sorting processes with the recycling system can ensure recycled plastic matches the quality,consistency and grade requirements of virgin plastic.O

322、nce the product reaches the recycling plant,the two possible technologies are mechanical recycling or chemical conversion.Mechanical recycling is based on proven technologies,the economics are clearer and it emits approximately 50 per cent less GHG emissions per metric ton of plastic product than ch

323、emical plastic-to-plastic conversion(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Chemical plastic-to-plastic conversion is at its early stages of development but can become a 2.2 Market shift two:Accelerate recyclingof plastics is of recycled origin today(OECD 2022b)material loss rates intodays rec

324、ycling processes USD lost to the economy annually(95%of the material value in plastic packaging)(EMF,WEF and McKinsey&Co.2016)6%25-47%80-120Bnsynergetic solution to mechanical recycling-if and when its sustainability is demonstrated through LCA studies-for products that mechanical recycling cannot m

325、anage,including mixed polymers,low-value and/or contaminated plastic.It creates virgin-like quality which can be used for food-grade plastics and can accept a wider range of materials as feedstock.Hence,while this technology is controversial due to a high environmental footprint,it has the potential

326、 to play a role among the solutions to address plastic pollution if these challenges can be addressed.Currently,analyses estimate losses in recycling processes around 25 per cent;improved technologies could significantly reduce the losses(The Pew Charitable Trusts and Systemiq 2020).Recycling can be

327、 accelerated by improving its economics;aligning the incentives in design with the recycling economy and ensuring safe and fair recycling in practice and at scale(i.e.enabling investment in infrastructure).As with reuse,the presence of specific chemicals of concern in plastics reduces their potentia

328、l for circularity,and thus makes recycling less economically favourable.The considerations for reuse described in section 2.1.2 also apply to recycling.Trading plastic waste from areas where there is no recycling infrastructure to places with surplus recycling capacity can enhance circularity throug

329、h economies of scale and ensuring access to feedstock.By establishing a legally binding framework for the trade in plastic waste,the Basel Convention plastic waste amendments creates the conditions for more transparent global trade in plastic waste.Increased transparency,traceability and sharing of

330、information will make enforcement more effective,curbing the illegal dumping of plastic waste in countries not wishing to receive such waste or lacking the capabilities for environmentally sound management.The amendments also provide a powerful incentive for the private sector,governments and other

331、stakeholders to create enabling environments and technologies for recycling as well as for reducing the generation of plastic waste.252.2.1 Improve the economics of recyclingRecycling markets cannot take off while virgin plastic has a lower price than secondary plastic.Recycled materials are often s

332、old at higher prices than virgin plastic(10 to 47per cent lower in Europe,except for recycled polyethylene terephthalate(PET),according to a recent study by the European Commissions Joint Research Center)(Garca-Gutirrez et al.2023).Various subsidies for fossil fuels can in some countries lower the c

333、osts of producing virgin plastic,making it more difficult for systems that deliver the same function with less/no virgin plastic to appear economically attractive.Hence most recycling technologies are not economically viable and require support through subsidies or change is needed to the availability or price of feedstock and the market for the recycled output.Even though the economic viability o