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1、Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and TrendsUnited Nations UniversityInstitute for Water,Environment and Health United Nations University Institute for Water,Environment andHealth(UNUINWEH),2023Suggested Reference:Bouhlel,Z.,Kpke,J.,Mina,M.,and Smakhtin,V.,2023.Global Bottled Water I
2、ndustry:AReview of Impacts and Trends United Nations,UniversityInstitute forWater,Environment and Health,Hamilton,Canada.Front cover image:Shutterstock,Riccardo Mayer Back cover image:Shutterstock,Chaiyapruek Youprasert Design:Art and Words Inc.Download at:http:/inweh.unu.edu/publications/ISBN:978-9
3、2-808-6114-3 UNUINWEH is supported by the Government of Canada throughGlobal Affairs Canada.About UNUINWEHUNU INWEHs mission is to help resolve pressing water challenges that are of concern to the United Nations,its Member States,and their people,through critical analysis and synthesis of existing b
4、odies of scientific discovery;targeted research that identifies emerging policy issues;application of on-the-ground scalable science-based solu-tions to water issues;and global outreach.UNUINWEH carries out its work in cooperation with the network of other research institutions,international organis
5、ations and individual scholars throughout the world.UNU INWEH is an integral part of the United Nations University(UNU)an academic arm of the UN,which includes 13institutes and programmes located in 12 coun-tries around the world,and dealing with various issues of development.UNU INWEH was establish
6、ed,as a public service agency and a subsidiary body of the UNU,in 1996.Its operations are secured through long-term host-country and core-funding agreements with the Government of Canada.The Institute is located in Hamilton,Canada,and its facilities are supported by McMaster University.Zeineb Bouhle
7、l United Nations University Institute for Water,Environment,and Health,Hamilton,ON,CanadaJimmy Kpke United Nations University Institute for Water,Environment,and Health,Hamilton,ON,CanadaHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research,Leipzig,GermanyMariam Mina McMaster University,Hamilton,CanadaVladimi
8、r Smakhtin United Nations University Institute for Water,Environment,and Health,Hamilton,ON,CanadaSummary .2Introduction .3Bottled Water Market:Status and Trends .4Bottled water types .4Market size,structure,and geography.5Key drivers.10The Question of Quality .14Bottled Water and ResourceDepletion
9、.19Bottled Water and Plastic Pollution .22Impacts.23Recycling.24Alternatives.24Bottled Water and Sustainable Development .25Conclusions .28Acknowledgements .30References .30ContentsGlobal Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends2SUMMARYThe report examines facts and perceptions about bot
10、tled water in the global context.It analyses the geography,structure,trends,and drivers of the global bottled water market.It examines the existing knowledge on the qual-ity of bottled water,its impacts on water resources,and its role in plastic pollution.It raises the question of the bottled water
11、industrys contribution to the sustainable development goal on universal access to safe drinking water.The analysis considered only those types of bottled water that have little or no difference in taste from the tap water provided by regular municipal water supply.It is shown that bottled water is w
12、idely consumed in the both Global North and South although prices can be orders of magnitude higher than tap water.The current global bot-tled water sales are estimated at almost 270 billion US$and 350 billion liters.The report maps and ranked the top 50countries in the world by total and per capita
13、 bottled water sales both in dollars and liters.The Asia-Pacific region constitutes about half of the global bottled water market,and the Global South countries together about 60%.The USA,China and Indonesia combined comprise half of the global market.Germany is the biggest market in Europe,Mexico i
14、n the LAC region and South Africa in Africa.Singapore and Australia stand out as the leaders in both annual revenue and volume of bottled water sold per capita,with the USA and China per capita indicators being much smaller.The report indicates that bottled water market drivers dif-fer significantly
15、 between the Global North and the Global South.In the former,bottled water is often perceived as a healthier and tastier product than tap water and is more a luxury good than a necessity.In the Global South,bottled water sales are stimulated primarily by the lack or absence of a reliable public wate
16、r supply.Based on around 60 case studies from more than 40coun-tries from every region of the world,the report illustrates that there have been numerous cases of inorganic,organic,and microbiological contamination of hundreds of bottled water brands of all bottled water types and that such con-tamin
17、ation often exceeded local or global standards.This represents strong evidence against the misleading percep-tion that bottled water is an unquestionably safe drinking water source and argues that the provision of a safe and reliable drinking water supply in any country may not be achieved at the ex
18、pense of onewater source over another.Withdrawals for bottled water can contribute to ground-water resource depletion in areas of bottled water procurement,although case studies that illustrate this are rare.However,even if such withdrawals are small in abso-lute terms globally or compared to larger
19、 water consumers like irrigated agriculture,local impacts on water resources may be significant.The lack of data available on water volumes extracted by the bottled water industry is largely due to the lack of transparency and a legal foundation that would have forced bottling companies to publicly
20、disclose extracted water volumes and assess the environmental consequences of their activities.The Global South,where safe drinking tap water is not always available,represent potential future markets for bottled water.Lack of national policies for water management may promote uncontrolled groundwat
21、er withdrawals for bottled water procurement with little or no contribution to a sustainable long-term drinking water supply.The report collates scattered information on plastic pollu-tion associated with bottled water,pointing out that the world currently generates around 600 billion plastic bottle
22、s amounting to approximately 25 million tonnes of plastic waste,which is not recycled but is disposed of in landfills or as unregulated waste.While there are signs of growing social awareness of the adverse impacts of plastics on the environment,a breakthrough solution that could radically reduce th
23、e environmental impacts of plastics does not yet appear to exist.Hence plastic pollution will likely continue in the years to come.The report argues that while progress toward universal access to safe drinking water for all is significantly off-track,the expansion of bottled water markets slows this
24、 progress down,distracting attention and resources from acceler-ated public water supply systems development.Estimates suggest that less than half of what the world pays for bot-tled water annually would be sufficient to ensure clean tap water access for hundreds of millions of people without it for
25、 years.There are recent high-level initiatives that aim to scale up financing for the Sustainable Development Goals,including water-related ones.Such initiatives are an opportunity for the bottled water sector to become an active player in this process and help accelerate the prog-ress toward sustai
26、nable watersupply,particularly in the GlobalSouth.Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends3INTRODUCTIONBottled/packaged drinking water,the water that is filled into hermetically sealed containers of various compos-itions,forms,and capacities(i.e.bottles,water dispensers,sachets)a
27、nd that is safe for direct consumption(FAO/WHO,2007),has at present a large variety of types and brands and is widely consumed around the globe in countries with dif-ferent levels of economic advancement.For simplicity,the term“bottled water”in this report refers to water packaged in any type of con
28、tainer,for individual and household use.Bottled water evolved from a niche product to one of the most popular beverages in the world.In Europe,it can be traced as far back as the 16th Century when natural min-eral water was sold in glass bottles and was considered a luxury beverage for special occas
29、ions(Brei 2018,Hawkins 2017).The first bottled mineral water for public consump-tion in the USA was in the second half of the 18th century(Hawkins et al.2015,Pandal 2020),and industrially carbon-ated water was patented in 1806(Jainet al.2019).Despite the decrease in the cost of glass,bottled water c
30、onsumption remained relatively low until the middle of the 20th century(Brei and Tadajewski 2015,Foltz 1999,Hawkins 2017,Marty 2005,Spar 2008).This began to change in the late 1960s and 1970s with the emerging interest in general fitness and the increased European mineral water imports to the USA(Ha
31、wkins,2017,Jain et al.2019).The introduction of polyethylene terephthalate plastic(PET)in the late 1970s further accelerated bottled water sales(Hawkins 2017).In the 1980s,big food and bev-erage corporations such as Nestl and Danone seized the opportunity to diversify their beverage products by prod
32、u-cing“water”and in the 1990s,PepsiCo and Coca-Cola also entered the market(Green 2014,Hawkins2017).The following decades were marked by a rapid global mar-ket expansion,product diversification(e.g.,“functional water”or“vitamin water”)and even the replacement of tap water with bottled water as the m
33、ain drinking water commodity in some countries.These processes occurred simultaneously with a general underinvestment in public water supply and distribution systems(Cohen and Ray 2018)and increasingly negative perceptions of tap water quality and concerns over its impacts on health(Jaffee and Newma
34、n 2013,Rodwan 2018,Wilk 2006).Beverage corpor-ations marketed bottled water as a safe alternative to tap water and drew consumers attention to water quality(Opel 1999,Wilk 2006)by using isolated public water system fail-ures such as the cholera outbreak in Mexico(1985)and the cryptosporidium crisis
35、in Sydney(1998)(Cohen and Ray 2018,Greene 2014).At the same time,bottled water rarely faced the same rigorous public health and environmental regulations as tap water(Brei 2018,Hawkins 2017).At present,the global market for all non-alcoholic pack-aged beverages generates revenues of over$1,225billio
36、n.Bottled water makes 1724%of this number depending on how“beverage market”and“bottled water”are defined(Ross 2021,Statista 2022b).With such significant“weight”,the bottled water sector can play a major role in global sus-tainable development processes,particularly considering how critical water is
37、to humans.At the same time,the controversy surrounding bottled water is also significant,and the overarching question in this context is whether the bottled water sector already contributes to such development,and if so,where,how,and to what extent.Consequently,the report makes an attempt to develop
38、 a comprehensive look at the bottled water sec-tor globally.Accordingly,the report objectivesare to:Evaluate the current state of and trends in the global bottled water market.Examine the existing knowledge and quantitatively sum-marize the key health and environmental impacts of the bottled water i
39、ndustry.Determine if and how the above bottled water market measures,trends,and drivers on one hand,and bottled water impacts on the other,affect the achievement of the SDGs and water-related ones inparticular.Mineral water in sachet container sold in Yaounde,Cameroon.By StreetVJ,Shutterstock Global
40、 Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends4Natural mineral water(Figure 1).This water comes from groundwater sources where the water is naturally protected from pollution and is characterized by the presence of minerals and trace elements.The composition of elements varies with the geogr
41、aphical location and gives the water a characteristic taste and commercial name(e.g.,Evian,Fiji Natural Artesian).Thereis no clear consensus,however,on the concentration of minerals at which the water is con-sidered mineral.For instance,The International Bottled Water Association(IBWA)standard is 25
42、0 ppm,while that of the European Federation of Bottled water is 50 ppm.It is critical for mineral bottled water that its mineral compos-ition remains unchanged from the source to the consumer and receives no treatment.Its mineral composition,origin,and source should be clearly indicated.(In the rest
43、 of this report,“natural mineral water”is referred to simply as“mineral”water).Other natural water.Water in this category comes pre-dominantly from groundwater sources such as wells and springs.Glacier water is also included in this category(Figure 1).The water source gives the product its taste and
44、 commercial name.The product should be free of pollutants,should not be subjected to any major treatment,and may or may not contain minerals.Other natural water differs from natural mineral water in several ways:i)for well and spring water,the mineral composition doesnt need to be constant from sour
45、ce to the consumer:ii)packaging can be done far from the source,and iii)listing mineral composition is not required even though bottled water companies often do so for commercial purposes.In the rest of this report,“other natural water”is referred to simply as“natural”water.Treated water.Treated wat
46、er is sometimes called purified,prepared,processed,or table water.Its origin is not rel-evant to its branding and there are no legal obligations to disclose this information.It could come from a municipal or community water system,a surface water source,or an unconfined aquifer.This water is subject
47、ed to required treatments and disinfection,including chlorination,to make it safe for consumption.Treatment may be by reverse osmosis,distillation,deionization,or other processes.Bottled water in any category can be still or sparkling(i.e.,carbonated,either naturally or industrially).To ensure confo
48、rmity in interpretations and comparisons between tap and bottled water,only still water is considered in this report.Sparkling water constitutes only 10%of the bottled water market(Figure 1)and its taste differs from tap water.Bottled waters that have been modified by the addition of minerals,flavor
49、s,or supplements are not considered in this report as they are considerably different from regular tap water and represent a small portion of the bottled water market(Brei 2018).BOTTLED WATER MARKET:STATUS AND TRENDSBottled water typesThe market today contains a wide range of bottled water types.Def
50、initions of these types provided by various inter-national and governmental sources,such as the Codex Alimentarius Commission(FAO and WHO,2007),the Inter-national Council of Bottled Water Associations(ICBWA,2022),the International Bottled Water Association(IBWA 2022b),the Drinking Water Research Fou
51、ndation(DWRF 2022)and others vary significantly.However,the main cri-teria for the most common categorization appear to include geological origin(where the water is collected),chemical composition(whether itcontains minerals and if they are stable),and carbonation(whether or not water has carbon dio
52、xide in it)and hence,whether it is sparkling or still.In addition,all waters that are bottled can essentially be separated into two large categories natural and treated,although such a simple categorization alone may not be reflective of the wide range of bottled water types.This report considered p
53、rimarily those bottled water types that have little or no difference in taste from tap water provided by municipal water supply.Such types can be grouped into three maincategories.Treated WaterSpakling/Carbonated WaterMineral WaterSpring WaterWell and Artesian Well WaterGlacier Water42%10%20%18%6%4%
54、FIGURE 1.Market structure by volume of bottled watertype(2021)Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends5Market size,structure,and geographyThe global market for the above three main types of bottled water is estimated to be almost 270 billion US$from sales of 350 billion liters in
55、 2021.The market has increased by 73%during the last decade,making it one of the fastest-growing markets in the world(Statista 2020).Current bottled water total sales vary significantly between major geographical regions(Figure 2).The Asia-Pacific region represents the largest regional market both i
56、n dollar terms and liters(consumption),followed by North Amer-ica and Europe.The Global South combined(Asia-Pacific,Africa,Latin America and the Caribbean)represents around 60%of the global sales both in dollarsand liters.Treated water was the largest market component in 2021 by volume,representing
57、almost half of all bottled water consumed globally(47%),followed by mineral water(33%)(Figure 3,right).A similar pattern has been observed as confirmed by other market analyses(Grand View Research 2022,Statista 2020).However,the category“natural water”appears to be the most profitable market segment
58、(Figure3,left).Asia-PacificNorth AmericaEuropeLatin America and the Caribbean Africa49%29%9%11%2%MineralNaturalTreatedVOLUMEUSD28%22%50%MineralNaturalTreatedVOLUME47%20%33%MineralNaturalTreatedVOLUMEUSD28%47%20%33%22%50%FIGURE 2.Global bottled water market structure by major geographical region in 2
59、021(percent of global US$revenue)FIGURE 3.Global bottled water market structure by three main water types in 2021 (percent of global US$revenue and consumption volume in liters)Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends67.2%7.0%4.9%3.1%2.9%2.0%2.0%1.9%1.9%1.7%1.7%1.7%62.2%PepsiCo I
60、nc.(Aquafina)The Coca Cola Company(Dasani)Nestl WatersDanonePrimo Water CorporationHangzhou Wahaha Group Co.,LtdPoland SpringIcelandic Glacial Inc.AJE GroupSuntory Beverage&Food LtdNongfu SpringNiagara Bottling,LLCOther small companies(less than 1.5%)FIGURE 4.Global bottled water market structure by
61、 company in 2021(percent of global US$revenue)The bottled water market comprises a range of compan-ies from multinational to local.PepsiCo,Inc.,Coca-Cola Company,Nestl S.A.,Danone S.A,and Primo Corporation are the five companies with a share of the global market exceeding 2%each and have combined sa
62、les of$65 billion(over 25%of the total market by sales,Figure 4).Collect-ively,smaller local businesses have a significant influence over the sector.Over 70%of bottled water products are produced locally and transported regionally,although some large national markets like the USA and China import so
63、metimes millions of liters of bottled water(Ross 2021,UN Comtrade 2021).On a country level,the largest market is the USA with total revenue of around$64 billion,followed by China(almost$50 billion)and Indonesia(almost$22 billion)(Figure 5 and Figure 6).These three countries combined earn half the gl
64、obal total revenue(24%,18%and 8%respectively).Germany is the biggest market in Europe,Mexico in the Latin America and Caribbean region(LAC),and South Africa in Africa(Figure 5).Although both high-income coun-tries(HIC)and low and middle-income countries(LMIC)appear among the top 50 biggest bottled w
65、ater markets,the market value for a specific country can be related to either a high price per unit sold or a high quantity sold.For instance,the price for a unit of bottled water in North American and European countries is around$2.5 per unit on average,which is more than double that in Asia,Africa
66、 and LAC($0.80,$0.90 and$1 respectively).Australia,the fifth largest market,has the highest price per unit on aver-age($3.57)(Statista 2020,2022a).Total consumption of bottled water in liters follows a similar pattern to sales in US$,with the USA,China,andIndonesia being the largest consumers,collec
67、tively accounting for nearly 40%of the global bottled water volume.Figure 7 shows the top 50 countries by total bottled water con-sumed while illustrating the structure ofthis consumption by the three main water types.Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends7FIGURE 5.Bottled wate
68、r market size(billion US$)by country(2021)Bottled water sales per capita reveal a different picture(Figure 8).Singapore and Australia emerge as the lead-ers in both annual revenue and volume of bottled water sold(Singapore:1,129 liters and$1,348 per capita in 2021;Australia:504 liters and$386 per ca
69、pita the same year).There is a large drop in both indicators between Singapore and Australia,after which the per capita numbers are much lower(Figures 9 and 10).The USA,Indonesia,and particu-larly China,rank much lower in terms of both per capita bottled water consumption and revenue compared to the
70、ir corresponding total numbers.At a compound annual growth rate of 5.2%since 2021(UNStats 2021),the bottled water market has been grow-ing faster than other beverage markets such as coffee(3.5%)during the same period(Statista 2021a,2022a).From 2022,the market is projected to increase at an even fast
71、er rate of approximately 7%and reach$500 billion by 20252030.This gives bottled water the highest growth potential among all soft drink products(BlueWeave 2022,Grand View Research 2022,Statista 2021a and 2022b).Market growth differs by bottled water type.Treated and natural mineral water are the fas
72、test-growing markets since 2018(10%and 12%respectively)whereas the market for natural water is growing at a slower rate at around 5%for the same period(BlueWeave 2022).Table 1 lists the top 10 fastest-growing country markets by water type.Egypt has the fastest-growing treated water market overall(40
73、%).Seven other countries from the Global South are in the top 10 fastest-growing treated water markets with growth rates of 1017%(Algeria,Brazil,Indonesia,UAE,India,Morocco and Saudi Arabia).India(27%),Egypt(18%)and Algeria(17%)are among the top 10 fastest-growing markets of mineral water,competing
74、with South Korea(28%),Japan(24%),France,Peru,South Africa and Malaysia(1316%).For natural waters,the lead-ers are all from Europe(Belgium,Netherlands,UK,and France)with a range of 69%),where spring water is the most appealing bottled water product(NMWE 2021).Billion USD 20 520 25 12 0.51 0.250.5 0.1
75、0.25 0.050.1 00.05 No DataGlobal Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends8FIGURE 6.Top 50 countries in 2021 by their bottled water sales(US$million)Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends9FIGURE 7.Top 50 countries in 2021 by total bottled water consumption and compo
76、sition by water type.(“Nodata on types”indicates cases where only totals are available)Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends10FIGURE 8.Bottled water sales in US$per capita(2021)Key driversBottled water market drivers vary significantly by country.In high-income countries,bottl
77、ed water consumption is often high despite well-developed domestic water supply systems,and a significant percentage of the population prefers bottled water.About 31%and 38%of Canadians and Americans use bottled water as their primary drinking source(Johnstone and Serret 2012,Vieux et al.2020).In Fr
78、ance,bottled water accounts for 64%of the soft drinks market,even though bottled water can be almost 350 times more expensive than tap water(Brei 2018).Bottled water appears to be the main drinking water source for around 60%of Italians(Johnstone and Serret 2012)and Koreans(Cha and Lee 2020).Accordi
79、ng to multiple sources(Brei 2018,Clarke 2007,Hawkins et al.2015,Opel 1999,Stoler 2017)high bottled water consumption in the Global North countries is related to:Health concerns:bottled water is seen as a healthier product than tap water.Taste concerns:bottled water is perceived to taste better,due t
80、o its mineral composition and because tapwater may carry a taste of chlorine.Active marketing by water companies exploiting the idea of bottled water purity and providing brands for specific target groups like pregnant women,children,and sports-minded people.Convenience and lifestyle aspects:bottled
81、 water is easy to purchase and carry and the bottles are easy todisposeof.Some of the above perceptions are overrated(as the next section of this report will illustrate)and overall,based on the above,it may be argued that in high-income countries bottled water is largely a“luxury good”.In mid-and lo
82、w-income countries,bottled water con-sumption is linked to poor tap water quality and often unreliable public water supply systems.These problems are often caused by corruption and chronic underinvestment in piped water infrastructure(Greene 2014,Hawkins 2017,Jaffee and Case 2018,Pacheco-Vega 2019).
83、In Mexico,distrust in tap water increased significantly after several cholera outbreaks following the 1985 Mexico-city earthquake that affected public water utilities and people turned to bottled water(Greene 2014).Only about 20%of Mexicans are satisfied with the quality of publicly supplied tap wat
84、er,with over 90%of those citing health concerns.About 80%of the population use bottled water and 10%home-purified water as their primary drinking water source(Johnstone and Serret 2012).In the Dominican Republic,60%of households use bottled water as their primary water source,but there is a strong p
85、ositive correlation between income and bottled water consumption(McLennan 2015,National Population Commission 2013).USD/Capita 200 100200 50100 4050 3040 2030 1020 510 15 No DataGlobal Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends11FIGURE 9.Top 50 countries in 2021 by their bottled water sal
86、es per capitaGlobal Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends12FIGURE 10.Top 50 countries by per capita consumption in 2021Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends13Bottled water is a common option for self-supply in Asia and Pacific region countries that have low lev
87、els of access to pub-licly provided piped water sources(Foster et al.2021,WHO and UNICEF 2021).This explains a high and growing reliance on bottled water in countries such as Indonesia,Thailand and the Philippines(Foster et al.2021,Francisco 2014).In Africa,sachet packaged water is a significant pri
88、mary drinking water source(Howell et al.2020,Olukoju 2007,Stoler 2017,Stoler et al.2013).In Ghana,sachet water con-stitutes up to 43%of urban and up to 12%of rural household drinking water(Ghana Statistical Service 2009 and 2013,Morinville 2017,Wright et al.2016).In Nigeria,sachet water is a primary
89、 source for 12%of urban households(National Population Commission 2013).The growing use of bottled water by poor communities in Rwanda,Uganda,Kenya and Ghana is driven by a desire for clean,safe drinking water(Howell et al.2020,Quansah et al.2015).Market growth in the Global South may also be influe
90、nced by factors ranging from the lack of regulations covering beverage company operations(Greene 2018,Rosemann 2005)to increasing urbanization and growing cities that TABLE 1.Bottled water market growth rates during 20182021 among 10 fastest-growing national markets for each of three main bottled wa
91、ter typesMineralNaturalTreatedRankCountryCAGR*,%Country CAGR*,%CountryCAGR*,%1South Korea28.0Belgium9.4Egypt43.32India27.1Netherland7.8Algeria17.53Japan24.2Argentina7.5Brazil17.24Egypt17.7UK7.1Indonesia14.85Algeria16.6France6.3UAE12.96France16.1Japan6.0India12.57South Africa13.2Spain5.9Netherland10.
92、68Peru13.0Mexico5.6South Korea10.39Malaysia12.3Nepal5.4Morocco10.310Australia12.3Singapore5.4Saudi Arabia10.1*CAGR compound annual growth ratecannot rely on groundwater wells(Foster et al.2021).Over-all,the pattern of bottled water consumption in low-and middle-income countries appears to be determi
93、ned by the following factors(Ferrier et al.2001,Hawking et al.2016,Race et al.2015,Race 2012,Packialakshmi et al.2011,Zhelaeve et al.2021):The need to ensure reliable and safe supplies of clean drinking water.Government failures to provide quality drinking water through local water utilities.Increas
94、ing urbanization but limited water delivery infra-structure to and within urban centers.Marketing campaigns by the bottled water industry aimed at discrediting tap water and promoting the con-cept of bottled water purity.Public water supply systems in low-and middle-income countries need improvement
95、.It is only natural that in the absence of a reliable public water supply,communities will seek alternative solutions such as bottled water.Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends14across various sources.The evidence in this review has been compiled from peer-reviewed journals o
96、n academic databases such as Google Scholar,Web of Science,and ScienceDirect and considers all aspects of bottled water quality including organic,inorganic,and microbiological.The results(non-exhaustive)are summarized in Table 2 by date of publication under each contamination type.This summary,while
97、 non-exhaustive,presents the docu-mented evidence against the misleading perception that bottled water is an unquestionably pure and safe drinking water source.Although contamination may be occasional,similarly to tap water,it is clear that bottled water is not immune to all possible types of contam
98、inants.This review complements the recent report by WHO et al.(2022),showing,among others,that water quality from all source types is subject to contamination and that the risk of contamination varies considerably depending on the source.Open surface water sources and unprotected wells and springs a
99、re at the most risk,while packaged,bottled,delivered,and piped water all appear to be at the safe end of the spectrum in most surveyed countries.Overall,there is no justification to contrapose bottled water and public drinking water supply sources on the basis of quality.Moreover,as the bottled wate
100、r market grows,it is more important than ever to strengthen legislation to regu-late industry quality processes andstandards.THE QUESTION OF QUALITY Bottled water is often seen as a product for those con-cerned with high health standards compared to tap water(IBWA 2021,Pokus et al.2021).The massive
101、and appealing marketing of bottled water by the beverage industry has gradually changed perceptions of bottled and tap water(Cohen et al.2022,Hawkins 2017,Jaffee and Newman 2013,Jain et al.2019,Rodwan 2018,Valavanidis 2020).While there are examples of water quality issues with public tap water,it is
102、 generally of good quality and safe to drink with or without filtering in most high-income countries.Provision is highly regulated,and frequently tested,and water quality parameters are publicly disclosed(Cohen et al.2022,Diduch et al.2011,Geerts et al.2020,Valavanidis,2020).In contrast,bottled wate
103、r is generally not nearly as well-regulated and is tested less frequently and for fewer parameters(Abd El-Salam et al.2008,Cohen et al.,2022,Diduch et al.2013,Parag and Opher 2011).Strict water quality standards for tap water are rarely applied to bot-tled water and even if such analyses are carried
104、 out,the results seldom make it to the public domain(Ferrier 2001,Parag and Opher 2011,Valavanidis 2020).A range of factors can adversely affect bottled water quality.For example,water origin plays an important role in quality(Diduch et al.2011,Ikem et al.2002).The min-eral composition of bottled wa
105、ter can vary significantly between different brands,within the same brand in differ-ent countries,and even between different bottles of the same batch(Abd El-Salam et al.2008,Chidya et al.2019,Dindarloo et al.2016,Ikem et al.2002,Mihayo and Mkoma 2012).Treatment processes such as chlorination,ultra-
106、violet disinfection,ozonation and reverse osmosis(Ahmed and Shafique,2019,Napier and Kodner 2008,Pokus et al.2021),storage conditions(duration,light exposure,tem-perature)and packaging material(plastic,glass)may all have a potentially adverse impact on bottled water quality(Diduch et al.2011 and 201
107、3,Nawrocki et al.2002,Vala-vanidis 2020).Contamination of bottled water due to these factors may be(i)inorganic(e.g.heavy metals,pH,turbid-ity,etc.),(ii)organic(benzene,pesticides,microplastics,etc.)and(iii)microbiological(pathogenic bacteria,viruses,fungus,and parasitic protozoa).It has been demons
108、trated across countries and bottled water brands that the claim“bottled water is a safer and healthier alternative to tap water”must be critically evaluated(Cha and Lee 2020,Cohen et al.2022,Diduch et al.2013,Valavanidis 2020,Venturini and Frazo 2015,Williams et al.2015).However,hard evidence for an
109、d against claims of purity and safety is limited or scattered Workers carefully inspecting bottles in a bottling plant in the Maldives.By Asian Development BankGlobal Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends15TABLE 2.Reported cases of bottled water contaminationCOUNTRYTYPE or BRANDDESCR
110、IPTION REFERENCEInorganic contaminationUSA103 brands About 20%of tested brands are chemically contaminated at levels beyond the national drinking water standards.Olson et al.1999USA(Alabama)25 brands of springwaterSeveral contaminants exceeded national standards(e.g.As,Cd,Hg,Zn,Se).Ikem et al.2002Tu
111、rkey189 brands Some contaminants are above national and international guidelines(Na,Cl,F,Cd,Fe,Pb,Ni,Se)aswell as borons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs).Gler 2007Egypt14 brands Many samples contain elements above national and international standards including Pb(exceeding 0.01mg L-1 with
112、up to 0.49 mg L-1 in 86%of samples),and Fe(exceeding 0.3 mg L-1 in 64%of samples).Abd El-Salam et al.2008USA10 brands 38 pollutants including As,bromates,chlorination by-products,and trihalomethane.Stephenson 2009,Environmental Working Group,2008Malawi12 brands Over 82%of brands did not comply with
113、local standards for turbidity and pH.Significant discrepancy between claimed composition on the label and the actual composition.Chidya et al.2019NigeriaBottled and sachetwaterHigh heavy metal contamination across the country(e.g.Cd,Ni,Cu).Ajala et al.2020Organic contaminationArgentinaMineral water
114、Food additives and organic micropollutants up to 38g L-1(e.g.butylated hydroxytoluene).Tombesi and Freije 2002Thailandbottled from groundwaterPesticides,organochlorides,surfactants,disinfection by-products,18 g L-1.Kruawal et al.2005Poland,Japan,Europe,North AmericaMineral waterCarbonyl compounds fr
115、om packaging material and storage(e.g.formaldehyde,acetone);levels of 0.6 to 318 g L-1.Mutsuga et al.2006,Nawrocki et al.2002China,Greece23 brands of purified,mineral,and spring waterHaloacetic acids(e.g.dichloracetic acid,bromate,trichloroacetic acid);0.1 to 71.8 g L-1.Leivadara et al.2008,Liu and
116、Mou 2004SpainMineral bottled waterPerfluorinated compounds between non-detectable to 0.9 ng L-1.Ericson et al.2008MexicoMineral water Pesticides(e.g.DDT,endosulfan)up to 0.15 gL-1.Daz et al.2009Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends16China(Guangzhou)21 brands of mineral water f
117、orinfantsFood additives and organic micropollutants(e.g.nonylphenol in all samples)(108 to 298 ng L-1),bisphenol A in 17 of 21 samples(17.6 to 324 ng L-1),triclosan in 18 of 21 samples(0.6 to 9.7 ng L-1).Li et al.2010Mexico6 brands Polychlorinated biphenyls(PCB)levels between 0.035 to 0.067 g L-1.Sa
118、linas et al.2010Saudi Arabia,United Arab Emirates,Kuwait,Egypt,Lebanon,Italy,Turkey,Spain,Scotland,Iceland,Greece,USA134 brands of mineral and other bottled water types High levels of volatile organic compounds such as Di and Trihalomethanes(e.g.bromoform,chloroform)between 0.1 to 38 mg L-1(e.g.WHO
119、guideline value for drinking water:0.1 mg L-1 for bromoform and 0.3 mg L-1 for chloroform).Diduch et al.2011,2013Spain,Greece,Italy,Czech Republic,Honduras,Nepal,Switzerland,China,Mexico,Argentina,USA5 to 17 brands of treated water Alkylphenols and phthalates between non-detectable up to 9.9 g L-1(e
120、.g.bisphenol A,triclosan).Diduch et al.2013Germany,France,Italy13 brands 72%of samples showed significant anti-estrogenicity and 89%were antiandrogenic;detection of responsible endocrine disruptor di(2-ethylhexyl)fumarate.Wagner et al.2013Poland,EU,Ireland,GermanyMineral water Endocrine disruptor co
121、mpounds from packaging materials were found in 10 to 78%of samples.Diduch et al.2013China,USA,Brazil,India,Indonesia,MexicoUnspecified 93%of samples contained microplastics and synthetic polymer particles,10.4 particles L-1(100 m),and 325particles L-1(6.5 to 325 m).Mason et al.2018GermanyMineral wat
122、er in reusable and single-use plastic bottles,cartons,glass Small microplastic fragments in every type of bottled water(returnable plastic:11888 particles L-1,single-use plastic:14 particles L-1;11 particles L-1).Schymanski et al.2018UnspecifiedUnspecified Over 90%contained fibres and particles of m
123、icroplastic.WHO 2019UnspecifiedUnspecified 4,000 microplastic particles are consumed annually via tap water and 90,000 particles per year via bottledwater.Cox et al.2019USAUnspecified Ingestion of 90,000 particles annually from bottledwater.March et al.2020Thailand10 brands 140 particles of micropla
124、stic L-1 in single-use plastic-bottled water and 52 particles L-1 in glass-bottled water.Kankanige and Babel 2020Iran11 brands of mineral waterMicroplastic particles were detected in 80%of samples with an average concentration of 8.5 particles L-1.Makhdoumi et al.2021IndiaUnspecified Plasticizers le
125、ach from PET into bottled water(upto64,000 ng L-1).Mukhopadhyay et al.2022Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends17Microbiological contaminationPortugal,SpainUnspecified Bacterial contamination leading to cholera and typhoidoutbreaks.Warburton et al.1992,Blake et al.1977 Blake e
126、t al.1977CanadaUnspecified bottled water Bacterial contamination in various stages of bottled water production.Warburton 1993UAE,USA23 brands of bottled water(mineral,non-carbonated)48%of bottled water samples with bacterial contamination,and 4%with amoebas.Nsanze et al.1999,Penland and Wilhelmus 19
127、99Brazil13 brands 15%of brands contaminated with highly infectious Cryptosporidium oocysts(0.2 to 0.5 oocysts L-1).Franco and Cantusio Neto2002Argentina8 brands of mineral water79%of samples with filamentous fungi contamination by Penicillum citrium,Cladosporium cladosporioides,2.4%of samples were c
128、ontaminated with fecal streptococci spp.Cabral and Pinto 2002GhanaPackaged water(bottles,sealed sachets,hand-filled hand-tied bags)Number of colony-forming units(CFUs)exceeded national standards in all three types of water;fecal contamination in factory-bagged sachets(2.3%),hand-filed hand-tied bags
129、(23%);5%Enterococci.Obiri-Danso et al.2003Mexico3 brands of mineral water Detection of human parasites Giardia and Cryptosporidium(protozoan).Nichols et al.2004Germany,Italy,France,Mineral waterDetected occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistant genes against several groups ofantibiot
130、ics.Messi et al.2005,Mary et al.2000,Massa et al.1995,Rosenberg and Duquino1989GreeceMineral water14%of samples with inadequate microbiological quality.The most frequently detected bacterial contaminant was P.aeruginosa.Venieri et al.2006Australia,Canada,Cuba,Germany,France,Greece,Hungary,India,Ital
131、y,Mexico,Norway,Austria,Spain,Tanzania,Turkey68 brands of mineral water 12%of brands with confirmed bacterial Legionella pneumophila contamination.Klont et al.2006SpainUnspecified Bacterial contamination with Salmonella enterica,causing 41 cases of infection in infants.Palmera-Suarez et al.2007Greec
132、eUnspecified 31%of samples were unsuitable for consumption according to Greek legislation;14%contained Pseudomonas aeruginosa(bacteria),and 11%contained coliform bacteria.Carr et al.2008Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends18GermanyUnspecified Hospital acquired outbreak of Pse
133、udomonas aeruginosa(bacteria)caused by contaminated bottledwater.Eckmanns et al.2008Puerto Rico21 brands Bacterial contamination due to high numbers of CFUs(max.7500 CFUs mL-1);Contamination by Pseudomonas fluorescence,Aeromonas baumanni,Flavobacterium indolgenes.Reyes et al.2008IrelandUnspecified 7
134、%of tested samples failed to meet European microbiological standards or guidelines.Food Safety Authority Ireland 2009France,PortugalMineral bottled waterAntibiotic resistance phenotype of cultivable bacteria present in all tested bottles of three brands.Falcone-Dias et al.2012Ghana(Accra)Packaged wa
135、ter(Bottles,sachets)Number of CFUs(87%of samples)and protozoa(50%of samples)for sachet and bottled water(CFUs:10%)exceeded international standards;tap water with 40%of samples exceeding CFUs and protozoa.Osei et al.2013Nigeria(South-West)15 brands 33%of samples with CFUs within acceptable limits;14
136、to 18%of samples contained another indicator organism including Staphylococcus aureus(bacteria).Igbeneghu and Lamikanra2014BulgariaUnspecified Most frequently isolated contaminant:Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria(11%of samples).Georgieva and Dimitrova2016ChinaUnspecified 17.7%of samples did not meet
137、national bottled water quality standards.Pu and Fukushi 2016PhilippinesUnspecified 89%were contaminated with non-fecal coliforms and 44%with fecal coliforms.Atienza et al.2016USA(Ohio)15 brands Contamination in bottled water from 0.01 to 4,900 CFUs mL-1.Valavanidis 2020NigeriaPackaged water(Bottles,
138、sachets)High abundance of microbiological contamination across the country(coliforms,facultative pathogens).Ajala et al.2020NepalDomestic brands of bottled water 48%contamination with total coliform bacteria and multi-drug resistant isolates(e.g.Pseudomonas aeruginosa).Gautam 2021IndiaUnspecified 40
139、%of samples were contaminated with bacteria such as E.coli,V.cholerae,Enterobacter aerogenes;indication of antibiotic resistance.Reddy et al.2022Iraq20 domestic brands 11%bacterial contamination(coliform bacteria)and problematic bacterial isolates with antibiotic resistance(Klebsiella pneumonia,P.ae
140、ruginosa).Hamad et al.2022Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends19BOTTLED WATER AND RESOURCEDEPLETIONLike many other industries,bottled water is a high consumer of water.Besides being the obvious main product,water is used in the production processes(Nestl2021,Coca-Cola Company
141、 2021).It has been estimated that Coca-Cola uses 1.95 liters of water on average to produce one liter of its final product,Unilever 3.3 liters,and Nestl 4.1 liters(Hall 2009,Coca-Cola 2021).Across the globe,the main source of water that is bottled is groundwater.In the USA,Nestl Waters extracts 3mil
142、lion liters a day from Florida Springs.In France,Danone extracts up to 10 million liters a day from Evian-les-Bains in the French Alps.In China,the Hangzhou Wahaha Group extracts up to 12 million liters daily from Changbai Moun-tains springs(BlueWeave 2022).Most of Chinas bottled water,however,is so
143、urced from lakes and reservoirs as over 86%of groundwater wells are unsafe for drinking(Zhang et al.2022).In countries like Germany,Italy,the UK,Canada,and Indonesia,bottled groundwater constitutes 7085%of all bottled water produced(BlueWeave 2022).Hence,water withdrawals by the beverage industry co
144、ntribute to depleting groundwater resources,already suffering from othersectors.Globally,over 2 billion people rely on groundwater as their primary water source(Alley et al.2002).More than half of all irrigation water used to grow food is extracted from aquifers(Bierkens and Wada 2019,Wada et al.201
145、0).Esti-mates suggest that global groundwater depletion varied between 56 to 362 km3 per year over the last three decades(Dll et al.2014,Konikow 2011,Pokhrel et al.2012,Wada et al.2012).The amount of groundwater withdrawn in certain regions frequently exceeds natural recharge rates(Castellazzi et al
146、.2016,Famiglietti et al.2011,Richey et al.2015).Fifteen percent of all extracted groundwater is non-renewable(Dll et al.2014).Figure 11 illustrates estimated annual rates of groundwater depletion in some of the worlds major river basins.Sig-nificant groundwater depletion has been reported in China(F
147、amigliett 2014,Huang et al.2015,Tang et al.2013)India and Pakistan(Dll et al.2014,Rodell et al.2009)the USA(Famiglietti 2014,Richey et al.2015)Australia(Leblanc et al.2009,Richey et al.2015)the Middle East and North Africa(Joodaki et al.2014,Voss et al.2013),Sub-Saharan Africa(Richey et al.2015)and
148、Central Mexico(Castellazzi et al.2016).In some of these regions,people rely entirely on groundwater(Gleeson et al.2010,Konikow and Kend 2005,Walton,2015).Globally,the major water-depleting sector is irrigated agriculture(Molden 2013).Compared to irrigation,bottled water use,both globally and within
149、most countries is much lessat present.However,there is little data available on actual water volumes extracted by the bottled water industry,and in most cases only indirect and likely inaccur-ate estimates.Total water withdrawals by Coca-Cola and Nestl in 2021 were estimated to be about 300 and 100
150、billion liters respectively(Nestl 2021,The Coca-Cola Com-pany 2021).While such withdrawals are small in absolute terms,local impacts on water resources may be significant.A non-exhaustive summary of case studies reflecting these impacts is presented in Table 3.Some of these cases indi-cate that bott
151、led water companies operate in places where communities are already suffering from drinking water shortages(Rosemann 2005,Hall and Lobina 2012).Other cases report conflicts between local communities and newly established bottled water plants and potential or perceived adverse impacts on local water
152、resources(Jaffee and Case 2018,Rosemann 2005).Women taking fresh water from open bore well in Mumbai Maharashtra India.By Bodom,Shutterstock Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends20FIGURE 11.Groundwater depletion in large aquifers and river basins of the world between 2003 and
153、2016Note:The unit mm/year for groundwater depletion represents the annual loss in the height of an imaginary water column per squaremeter.Sources:Dll et al.2014,Famiglietti 2014,Huang et al.2015,Richey et al.2015,Voss et al.2013.Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends21TABLE 3.C
154、ase studies on water depletion caused by bottled water companies.CompanyLocationPeriodImpactReferencesCoca-ColaIndia:Mehdigani,Uttar Pradesh 19892009Decrease in groundwater level by 7.9 m during 11 years of bottling operations.Ghawana et al.2011,Hall and Lobina 2012,Hassan 2016Coca-ColaIndia:Kala De
155、ra,Rajasthan 1990 2010Decrease in groundwater level 10 years after bottling operation from-3.94 to-25.3 m.Hassan 2016,Hall and Lobina 2012,Ghawana et al.,2011,Hall and Lobina,2012,Hassan,2016Coca-ColaIndia:Plachimada,Kerala 19992004Decrease in groundwater level from 45 to 100 m.Groundwater turned br
156、ackish and milky-white due to limestone dissolution.Soil and groundwater were contaminated by heavy metals such as lead,cadmium and chrome due to bottling plants waste sludge used as free fertilizer that damaged crops and caused health issues.Estimated economic loss of$48 million.Aiyer 2007,Bijoy 20
157、06,Carroll 2013,Ghawana et al.2011,Hall and Lobina 2012,Ravi Raman 2010,Shree 2010,Sitisarn 2012Coca-ColaMexico:Chiapas 1994presentCoca-Cola plant owns over 30%of water resources in Chiapas using over 1 million liters of water/day(2016).Wells are drying up and local communities do not have access to
158、 safe drinking water and consume soft drinks instead resulting in an increase in diabetes and obesity.Pliego 2019,Pskowski 2017,Vinci etal.2018NestlPakistan:Karachi million liters of water are extractedannually.Rosemann 2005NestlPakistan:LahoreEarly 2000sDecrease in groundwater level at a
159、n annual decline of 1.4 m/year.Winschewski 2017Rosemann,2005NestlPakistan:Bhati Dilwan village,Southern Pakistan 20032016Decrease in groundwater level from 30to 90-120 m leading to dried springs and depriving locals of accessible groundwater sources.Locals will end up consuming Nestls bottled water(
160、Pure Life)as analternative.Winschewski 2017Rosemann,2005NestlUSA:Sacramento,California2015Extracted over 300 million liters from the aquifers in a drought year while water use restrictions were imposed on localcommunities.Gumbel,2015NestlCanada:Wellington County,Ontario2016Extraction of 1.6 million
161、liters/day in addition to the 4,7 million liters/day Nestl was already extracted in the region during the 2016 drought year.Jaffee and Case 2018,Nestl WatersCanada 2016Not specified Nepal:Jhaukhel 20032011Extraction of up to 90 million liters in 20102011 from 12 commercial wells.Increased pumping de
162、pths from 3 to 7.6 m.Groundwater drawdown varied from 0.5 to 1.9 m/year from 2003 to 2009.Shrestha et al.2013Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends22Lack of national policies and norms for groundwater management(Allen et al.200,Hassan 2016,Packialakshmi et al.2011,Winschewski 2
163、017)can result in significant volumes of groundwater abstractions by bottled water companies without disclosing the volumes extracted or considering social and environmental impacts(Hall 2009,Jaffee and Newman 2013,Rooy 2002).The global expan-sion of the industry over the last two decades has been t
164、oo fast for national legislation to be implemented effectively(Hassan 2016,Rooy 2002).This has led to the current lack of transparency and legal measures that would have compelled bottled water companies to publicly disclose the water volumes extracted and assess the environmental consequences of th
165、eir activities.It would have given affected communities some leverage to hold companies accountable for adverse impacts on local groundwater resources(Ghawana et al.2011,Packialakshmi et al.2011).Cases have been reported where these companies used expired permits or incorrect land-use declarations w
166、hich triggered public scandals(Ghawana et al.2011,Gumbel 2015,Sitisarn 2012,Wramner 2004),or when companies faced accusations of water resources overexploitation(Brei 2018,Carroll 2013,Jaffee and Case 2018,Jithin 2016,Shree 2010,Sitisarn 2012,Wramner 2004).Water withdrawals for bottled water affect
167、small businesses,tourism,agriculture,and public water supply(Bierkens and Wada 2019,Konikow and Kendy 2005).Uncontrolled extraction of groundwater can disrupt local agricultural production,thereby increasing the deficit of irrigation water or leading to natural ecosystem damage(Castellazzi et al.201
168、6,Konikow 2011).It can also affect aquifer water quality through the remobilization of minerals and pollut-ants or groundwater salinization(Famiglietti 2014,Huang et al.2015,Rooy 2002).Recharging aquifers with untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater from a bottled water plant can severely aff
169、ect the suitability of groundwater as a resource for drinking water and irrigation(Hassan 2016,Packialakshmi et al.2011,Sitisarn,2012,Wramner 2004).While such impacts may be relatively small in global terms,at least at present,compared to other industries,local impacts can be significant.The absence
170、 or weakness of water regulations and policies in many countries,particu-larly in the Global South,increases the pressure on local water resources with little or no contribution to sustain-able long-term drinking water provision.BOTTLED WATER AND PLASTIC POLLUTIONAlthough water can be packaged in gl
171、ass bottles,aluminum cans and carton boxes(Ghoshal 2019),plastic contain-ers represent by far the most common packaging used in the industry.Every minute,over 1,000,000 bottles are sold globally(Plastics Europe 2020,UNEP 2022)and with single-use bottle disposal comes the question of plastic pollutio
172、n.This leads to a major problem,as plastic materi-als can take up to 1,000 years to degrade(Statista2021c).Today,about 400 million tons of plastic waste are produced every year(UNEP 2022).The plastic used by the bottled water industry is mostly polyethylene terephthalate(PET),which makes up 5.5%of t
173、his global plastic production(OECD 2022).PET is made from a thermoplastic polymer originating from petroleum and when heated can be easily shaped into any form(Plastics Europe 2020).This contrib-uted to the surge of single-use plastic bottle products.PET has been in use by the bottled water industry
174、 since the 1990s,when Nestl first introduced a plastic bottle(Gleick 2010).Today,PET is the most widely used packaging material in the beverage industry(Aslani et al.2021).Over 97%of bottled water containers are made of plastic and almost 80%of this plastic is PET(IBWA 2022a).The amount of PET waste
175、 generated by the bottled water sector is not evident from existing public sources but can be estimated using more general data on global plastic production and use in main sectors(Johnstone and Serret 2012).In 2019,the bottled water sector used 35%of the globally produced PET bottles(Smirthers 2019
176、,Statista 2022a).This percentage does not change significantly over time.Related estimates suggest that 85%of the total PET water bottles produced are subsequently disposed of in landfills or as unregulated waste(UNEP 2022).This sug-gests that around 30%(or a factor of 0.3)can be applied to the OECD
177、(2022)annual data on PET packaging to estimate bottled water PET waste.Figure 12 shows the result of this estimation since the beginning of the century.It appears that the annual average amount of PET water bottle waste over this period was around 18 million tons and the 2021 amount already exceeds
178、25 million tonnes.Figure 12 also shows some available estimates of the total number of PET bottles disposed of(Smithers 2019).The bulk of this PET waste is produced in North America,China,and Europe(OECD 2022).Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends23ImpactsAs mentioned above,ab
179、out 85%of all plastic bottles sold become waste(UNEP 2022).Most of the marine plastic debris originates from inland waste,with rivers acting as major transport pathways(Plastics Europe 2020).Plastic pollution transported via rivers accounts for up to 7080%of the plastics in the marine environment(Li
180、 et al.2016,Ritchie 2021,Schmidt et al.2017).Macroplastics,of which PET makes up a part,comprise over 80%of the annual plastic pollution in the environment,around 22 million tonnes in 2019(OECD 2022).This also contributes to sewage system blockages in cities and towns and damages tourist and landsca
181、pe values due to polluted rivers,lakes,and beaches(Nikiema and Asiedu 2022).PET,as most plastics,degrades into tiny invisible pieces,referred to as microplastics.PET“share”in microplastics is signifi-cant(Lamichhane et al.,2022)and are the most abundantly documented form of plastic debris in the oce
182、an at present(Lamichhane et al.2022,Law and Thompson 2014).There are other hazardous substances released from plastic bottles.These are petroleum and toxic chemical deriva-tives(Li et al.2021)commonly known as persistent organic pollutants(POPs)that are resistant to environmental degradation and spr
183、ead through food chains.Examples of POPs include polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs)and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane(DDT),which can be transferred to animal tissues by ingesting microplastics,especially in marine environments and contaminate animal and human food chains(Rhodes 2018,Zhou et al.2021).M
184、icroplastics can also be vectors for other environmental pol-lutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAH)and heavy metals(Cd,Pb,Cu,Zn,etc.)that can all be adsorbed by a plastic surface,thus leading to the formation of plastic-pollutant mixtures in the environment(Li et al.2021).FIGURE 12.Ti
185、me series of estimated global bottled water PET waste from 2000 to 2021.Note:Dark bars show estimates of number of bottles disposed of.Source:Smithers 2019Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends24Denmark,Germany,Norway,and Switzerland,where plas-tic recycling rates are generally
186、 over 80%.This is higher than the average European recycling rate(41%)(Eurostat 2021,Gleick 2010),while in North America,PET recycling rates were about 35%in2019(IBWA 2021,NAPCOR 2021).Although plastic recycling,while environmentally friendly,could be a costly challenge for companies(OECD 2018),ther
187、e is growing social awareness of the impacts of plas-tics on the environment and the importance of recycling.In North America,10%more products made of rPET were consumed in 2020 compared to 2019(NAPCOR 2021).In Mexico,the first plant for bottle-to-bottle recycling and producing rPET pellets was esta
188、blished by Coca-Cola in 2005(Schwanse 2011).In Indonesia,plastic bottle recyc-ling is an emerging industry(Kristina et al.2018).Some countries have implemented national programs to limit the use of PET bottles and plastics(Benyathiar et al.2022).Examples include Mexico(Schwanse 2011),Brazil(Coelho e
189、t al.2011),and the European Union(Franz and Welle 2022).AlternativesThere is an ongoing search for more environmentally friendly alternatives to plastic bottles.One such alternative is biodegradable bioplastics made from plants.Bioplastic was first introduced in the 1980s and it currently exists in
190、several varieties(Ferreira-Filipe et al.2021).For example,corn-based polylactic acid(PLA)bottles are biodegrad-able in principle but need specific conditions to degrade in landfills such as high temperature,high moisture,and the presence of certain micro-organisms(Gironi and Piemonte 2011).In the ab
191、sence of these conditions,they can take as long as PETbottles to degrade.Additionally,if PLA bottles run off into water bodies,they can cause eutrophication(Papong et al.2014)and can be adhered to PET,a combin-ation that seems to be challenging to separate(Gironi and Piemonte 2011,Gleick 2010).Turni
192、ng to polycyclic bottles may reduce greenhouse gas emissions,toxicity,and fossil energy demand.However,this needs careful management of bioplastic waste,including composting,incineration,and recycling(Gironi and Piemonte 2011).Another alternative is the use of ENSO bottles.These are regular PET bott
193、les that contain an additive that makes the bottle more enticing to the billions of micro-organisms that normally degrade plastic.Micro-organisms break down plastic bottles into biogases and inert humus leaving no toxic materials behind(Horowitz et al.2018).None of the available alternatives to PET
194、are yet a breakthrough solution that could significantly reduce theenvironmental impacts of plastic water bottles.People are also consuming microplastics through food.It is estimated that humans ingest an amount of plastic equivalent to the size of a credit card on a weekly basis(Statista 2021c).The
195、 long-term health effects are not yet fully understood.However,concerns remain about the bioaccumulation of microplastics in the intestines and liver and a greater health risk is perceived to be associ-ated with the presence of nanoplastics(Lim 2021).Some studies reported noticeable amounts of micro
196、plastics in bottled water(Mason et al.2018,Schymanski et al.2018)(see Table 2 for more examples)and there is also evidence of endocrine-disruptive chemicals in commercially avail-able bottled water(Wagner et al.2013).However,there is currently an overall lack of data and insufficient scientific evid
197、ence that could raise human health concerns from microplastics indrinking water(WHO 2019).Carbon dioxide pollution is another major global environ-mental issue,to which the bottled water industry is contributing.In 2019,emissions from the life cycle of all plastics were 860 million tonnes of carbon
198、dioxide world-wide.This is equivalent to the carbon dioxide emitted by 189 coal plants at full capacity.This is projected to triple by 2050(Statista 2021c).Information on PET-specific carbon emissions at the production stage,and PET water bottle carbon emissions in particular,has not been identified
199、 due to the lack of data,although they may be in similar proportions to total plastic emissions as the proportions between plastic types themselves,i.e.much smaller.How-ever,disposed PET,including bottled water PET,is often incinerated and can elevate carbon emissions from bottled water(OECD 2022).R
200、ecyclingSince the 1950s,only 6.5%of all plastics produced have been recycled(Statista 2021b)and today,only 14%is recycled(World Economic Forum 2022).Most PET bottles are disposed of after the first use.To make new bottles,more crude oil is required(Gleick 2010).Data on how much water bottle plastic
201、is recycled is elusive.Data on annual plastic production by major companies before 2017 were not readily available(Laville and Taylor 2017)but this appears to be changing.Some estimates suggest that Coca-Cola,for example,produced nearly 3 million tonnes of plas-tics in 2019,of which only 3%was reusa
202、ble(Greenpeace 2022).Over the last decade,bottled water companies have been making efforts to increase the use of recycled PET(rPET),but their recycling rates remain low(IBWA 2021).At a country level,recycling rates differ between countries depending on their policies and regulations.For instance,st
203、rong regulations are in place for bottle recycling in Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends252001,Jain et al.2019,Ochungo et al.2019).One can argue that the high price of bottled water is indeed a positive step toward reducing its waste and the high margin provides room for ta
204、xation and addressing inequalities through a transaction from the rich to the poor.However,the bottled water market is steadily growing,and plastic waste volume will not reduce in the coming decades.This ideal scenario could be applied in the presence of committefd govern-mental tax and environmenta
205、l regulations that financially frame the industry at the global scale,to benefit the population towards more equality.However,the industry remains often power-neutral,where politics,is absent from the discussion over how bottled water could be a supply to support achieving SDG6.1(Kooy and Walter 201
206、9)BOTTLED WATER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTAs may be inferred from the above sections,bottled water has links with and impacts on many Sustainable Develop-ment Goals(SDG)of the UN Agenda 2030.The withdrawal of groundwater for bottled water contributes to increasing water stress(SDG Indicator 6.4.2)i
207、n already water-depleted areas.Adoption of sustainable practices and integration of sustainability information into public reporting by bottled water companies would increase sector transparency in accordance with SDG 12 on responsible consumption and production.Increasing efforts in plastic waste r
208、ecycling in the bottled water sector would also contribute to SDG12 and SDG 14.1 by reducing marine pollution from land-generated plastic debris.However,it is universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water(SDG Target 6.1)where the impacts of bottled water are the strongest.Bott
209、led water can hardly be considered a sustainable or affordable solution to the issue of safe and reliable drinking water provision.That it takes between two to four liters of water to produce one liter of bottled water already raises ques-tions of sustainability and common sense(Hall 2009,The Coca-C
210、ola 2021).In the absence of water that meets quality standards,bot-tled water might provide a safe drinking water supply to a limited extent.However,it seems to have an ambiguous classification according to the JMP(Joint Monitoring Pro-gram),where it is excluded from the specifically“safely managed”
211、drinking water services,and considered an“improved”drinking water service,meaning that it has the potential to deliver safe water while meeting the following specific criteria:accessible on premises,available when needed,and free from contamination,a category,that combines piped water,boreholes,well
212、s,protected dug wells,protected springs,and rainwater(WHO et al.2022).However,considering the different bottled water types described herein with regard to the water sources,and the question of quality,this categorization of bottled water could be questioned.On the other hand,bottled water could be
213、considered a commodity traded as a commercial product,making its affordability and accessibility of it questionable.Therefore,the strategy of relying on bottled water as a source of clean water is hardly compatible with the human right to water and does not support progress toward achieving SDG 10 o
214、n reducing inequalities.Bottling companies are by-default exercising their lucrative activities to sell bottled water for 150 to 1,000 times higher than a liter of tap water(Ferrier Water reservoirs and bottles were distributed to respond to the earthquake in Les Cayes in Haiti in 2021,By UNICEF,OCH
215、AGlobal Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends26adversities at different levels.Appropriate legislation for bottled water quality control,groundwater exploitation,land use,plastic waste management,carbon emissions,finance,and transparency obligations,all need to be strengthened and ad
216、opted strategically in SDG6 national agendas.In addition,the national government should take into account other issues such as the growing population,food security,and climate change to complete the whole puzzle by including the bottled water industry,in the SDGs-and SDG6-related discussions.The exi
217、sting regulatory gaps represent suitable environ-ments for bottling corporations to grow their business and to use the“poor public water sources”excuse to fuel their campaigns that influence perception.This could lead to a vicious cycle by discouraging public institutions from investing further in m
218、aintaining piped water quality given the low willingness to use tap water for drinking.Even if the piped water is or can be of good quality,substantial mar-keting efforts may now be required to restore peoples trust in drinking water from a tap.A study conducted on Amer-ican consumers to evaluate th
219、eir attitudes and willingness to pay for improved drinking water systems has shown that consumers would support improvements in public water infrastructure for better quality(Tanellari et al.2015).Therefore,unrestricted bottled water development may,especially in LMIC,weaken or even eliminate the ro
220、le of the state in providing drinking water and slow or even halt improved water infrastructure development(Bakker et al.2008,Green 2018,Foster et al.2021).Conversely,if good quality tap water is provided through public water systems,the bottled water industry may not be necessary at the scale and m
221、agnitude it has achieved.Governments have powerful tools to change consumers attitude by increasing awareness among consumers with the help of environmental activists and civil society.While there is a growing social awareness of the issues related to the bottled water industry,especially with regar
222、d to the environmental impacts of PET and microplastics,more efforts are still needed in raising awareness of these issues,especially where recycling and environmental solutions are not nationally prioritized.In addition,governments should advocate for improved public water quality standards and reg
223、ulations,if applicable,while shedding light on the non-systematic safety and the possible contamination of water sold in packages.Countries that aim to accelerate their progress toward reliable drinking water supply may need to establish how and when bottled water represents an acceptable drinking w
224、ater service(Chigonda and Rusena 2019).In areas where improved water supplies are available,investments should be directed toward maintaining existing or developing The most straightforward linkage with regard to human rights to water and industry profitability is related to the control and exploita
225、tion of water resources(surface water and aquifers)by bottling corporations at a very low cost to meet the markets increasing demands.This could be considered as“an unfair competition”with the national population over sources of water for food and safe drink-ing water.While total water withdrawal vo
226、lumes are not eminent in absolute global terms,the impact of resource overexploitation on local populations is often alarming and scandalous,especially when bottled water corporations use expired permits and incorrect land-use declarations.In addition,in the top three biggest markets such as the Ame
227、rican and Indonesian markets,bottling tap water and reselling it(after a possible treatment)is a common prac-tice(Prasetiawan et al,2017).These activities of providing bottled water with higher prices instead of alternative cheaper options do not position bottled water as an“affordable”and“accessibl
228、e”water supply for everyone,contradicting the SDG 6.1 target foundation in providing water as essential for dignity and as a human right.It can be argued that the bottled water industry is not aligned strategically with the goal of providing universal access to drinking water or at least slows globa
229、l progress in this regard,distracting development efforts and redirect-ing attention to a less reliable and less affordable option for many,while remaining highly profitable for producers.The increasing market demands that bottling corporation aims to meet,is the product of complex interconnected re
230、asons,where governments and corporations share responsibility towards the role of bottled water in SDG6.In parts of LMIC,and particularly in the biggest regional markets,such as the Asian pacific countries,the increase in the consumption of bottled water is motivated by the poor quality of safe drin
231、king water which can be seen as a proxy indicator of the failure of public water supply systems(Foster et al.2021,Ochungo et al.2019,Prasetia-wan et al.2017).The weak governmental commitment to deliver safe drinking water is an unfortunate outcome of the decades of limited progress with a public wat
232、er supply and its many failures.In HIC,although consumption may also be related to the concerns about the reliability and the quality of tap water,it is mostly driven by perceptions fostered by big marketing campaigns against the public water distribution systems,that promote bottled water“purity an
233、d safety”using sporadic events and repetitive advertisement over years,making an impact on the col-lective subconscious.On a global scale,all countries share a common feature:weak and inadequate regulations.Poor policies framing bottled water corporations are noticed globally causing Global Bottled
234、Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends27the next eight years is a colossal challenge due to signifi-cant global vulnerabilities,competing financial priorities and because business-as-usual in the water sector prevails.However,attempts are being made to scale up financing for the SDGs and priv
235、ate sector support can play a major role.A recently established alliance of Global Investors for Sustainable Development(GISD)engages global business leaders from across the world to bridge the estimated annual gap of$4.3 trillion in financing all 17 SDGs.GISD has developed a unified definition of S
236、ustainable Development Investing and SDG-aligned,sector-specific metrics that strengthen reporting and enables credible comparisons of SDG performance within and across industries.Several business sectors such as consumer staples and utilities are already exploring how to align investments with sust
237、ainable development and specific SDGs,including SDG 6.There are definitely opportunities for the bottled water sector to become an active player in this process and collabor-ate with the public sector on providing reliable drinking water,help boost financing and investment in water infra-structure,p
238、articularly in LMIC,and integrate sustainable development into business strategies,management,and governance processes.new drinking water infrastructure.At the same time,bot-tled water may be useful or necessary in some cases,for example,in disaster situations(Cohen and Ray 2018,IBWA 2022)or during
239、sporadic disruptions or episodes of tap water contamination(Ferrier et al.2001).The current total annual volume of the three main types of bottled water considered in this review is around 350 billion liters,while if all bottled water types are considered,it would be around 470 billion liters(Statis
240、ta 2020,2022a).While these numbers may seem large,they are about 50%of the annual municipal drinking water consumption in a single city like London(London City Hall 2022)or about a third of Sydney,Australia(NSW Environment Protection Authority 2022).Clearly,only around 510%of domestic water provided
241、 is used for drinking(DeOreo et al.2016,Wei et al.2021).Yet,even if drinking water were to constitute a flat 5%of the total domestic piped water supply,the global annual volume would be in the tens of trillions of litersorders of magnitude higher than bottled water.In 2020,74%of the worlds populatio
242、n used safely man-aged drinking water compared to 62%in 2000(WHO et al.2022).Despite this progress,there are wide geograph-ical disparities and around two billion people still do not have access to safely managed drinking water.The lowest coverage of safely managed services is in the Sub-Saharan Afr
243、ica region(30%).Still,no region is on track to achieve universal access to safely managed drinking water services by 2030.The annual financing required from 2015 to 2030 to ensure safely managed,continuously available,and improved drinking water services to achieve a universal drinking water supply(
244、SDG 6.1)was initially estimated at 114 billion US$(Hutton and Varughese,2016).If this estimate is com-pared with the global annual sales of bottled water(around 270 billion US$),one year of revenue from global bottled water sales would be sufficient to finance safely managed drinking water supply pr
245、ojects globally for more than two years.In other words,it takes only about half of what the world is paying for bottled water annually to finance the required annual progress in provision of clean tap water for hundreds of millions of people without it.It is not likely that such investments will hap
246、pen in the eight remaining years of the SDGs.However,this comparison points to a global case of extreme social injustice,whereby billions of people worldwide do not have access to reliable water services(WHO et al.2022)while others enjoy water luxury.Seven years into the SDG era,the annual requireme
247、nt for water financing has never yet been met.It is estimated that quadrupling the current rate of progress is needed to meet SDG Target 6.1 by 2030(WHO et al.2022).Achieving this in Bottled and galon water containers are very popular in Indonesia due to the deteriorated piped water quality and low
248、public distribution coverage in the country.By Moh.Idrus,ShutterstockGlobal Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends28among the top-ten fastest-growing markets for bottled mineral water,although the three Asia-Pacific countries(South Korea,India,and Japan)have higher growth rates in thi
249、s category.There appears to be no obvious pattern that determines the size and rate of growth of a national market,but factors such as natural water endowment,degree of economic develop-ment,and population size may play their role.This aspect may need to receive more research attention in thefuture.
250、However,the literature review suggests that bottled water market drivers differ significantly between regions and countries.In the Global North,bottled water is often per-ceived as a healthier and tastier product than tap water;it is,therefore,more a luxury good than a necessity with most of the Glo
251、bal North countries having often reliable and good quality public drinking water supply.In the Global South,the bottled water market develops primarily due to the lack or absence of this reliable public water supply along with increasing urbanization with associated limited infrastructure for water
252、delivery.Marketing campaigns by the bottled water industry aiming to promote the concept of bottled water“purity”and to discredit tap water for its poor quality,also played their role.The perception that bottled water is safer than tap water needs to be challenged.Beverage corporations are adept at
253、marketing bottled water as a“safe alternative”to tap water by drawing attention to isolated public water system failures.At the same time,bottled water rarely faces the same rigorous public health and environmental regulations as tap water.Scientific evidence backing claims of bottled water purity a
254、nd safety is limited.At the same time,exam-ples identified and summarized in this report from tens of countries from every region of the world,illustrate cases of inorganic,organic and microbiological contamination of hundreds of bottled water brands of all bottled water types.This review constitute
255、s strong evidence against the mislead-ing perception that bottled water is an unquestionably safe drinking water source.It clearly indicates that bottled water quality can be compromised either by the origin of water or by industrial processes that may potentially impact human health.Hence,while the
256、re are,indeed,also numerous exam-ples of poor water quality in public domestic drinking water supply,it is hardly justifiable to claim that bottled water is any“safer”.The report also shows that bottled water pro-ducers have,by and large,managed to avoid the kind of scrutiny imposed by government st
257、andards and regulations that public utilities must adhere to.As the bottled water market grows,it is probably more important than ever to strengthen legislation that regulates the industry overall and its waterquality standards in particular.CONCLUSIONSThe report attempted to review the existing inf
258、ormation on various aspects of and perceptions of bottled water and its role in the context of sustainable development.One general observation from this experience is that information and data in the public domain are often limited,fragmented,and sometimes inconsistent,especially in the countries of
259、 the Global South.Market-related information and data for individual countries or companies are often either not available or turn out to be prohibitively expensive for a detailed independent analysis.Therefore,the reports find-ings andconclusions should largely be seen as preliminary.The report sho
260、ws that bottled water has developed into a major and essentially standalone economic sector in just around the past five decades.Based on the analysis of 109 countries,the study estimates that the global bottled water market,encompassing the three tap-water-like water types,is currently worth 270 bi
261、llion US$producing some 350 billion liters.This market is one of the most dynamic in the world,growing faster than any other food market,and is projected to reach and exceed 500 billion US$by around 20252030.Bottled water sales and consumption are the highest in the Asia-Pacific region followed by N
262、orth Amer-ica and Europe.The Global South combined(Asia-Pacific,Africa,Latin America and the Caribbean)represents 60%of global sales.On a country level,the largest market is the USA with total revenue of around 64 billion US$,followed by China(almost 45billion US$)and Indonesia(22billion US$).These
263、three countries combined constitute almost half of the global bottled water market.Most other national markets are small compared to the top 1012 countries(USA,China,Indonesia,Canada,Australia,Singapore,Germany,Thailand,Mexico,Thailand,Italy,Japan)in both total sales in dollars and total consumption
264、 in liters.Singapore and Australia are identified as the largest consumers of bottled water per capita.The USA,and particularly China,rank much lower in terms of per capita consumption(sales in liters).Most national markets,if measured in per capita terms,are much smaller.Treated water appears to be
265、 the largest component on the market by volume,while other natural waters appear to generate the most profit.Treated and mineral bottled water types demonstrate the highest annual growth rates of over 10%.Egypt has the fastest-growing market of treated bottled water(with over 40%annual growth).In ad
266、dition to Egypt,seven other countries from the Global South are in the top-ten fastest-growing markets for treated water(Algeria,Brazil,Indonesia,United Arab Emirates,India,Morocco,and Saudi Arabia).Egypt and Algeria are also Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends29Water withdr
267、awals by the bottled water industry can lead or contribute to the depletion of groundwater resour-ces in areas of water procurement for bottling in many parts of the world,which makes this an issue of global scale and relevance as over two billion people globally rely on groundwater as their primary
268、 water source.In certain cases,groundwater withdrawn for bottled water production may not even be replenishable.Global South,where safe drinking tap water is not always available,may be lucrative markets for future bottled water market expansion.In this context,the lack of national policies and norm
269、s for groundwater management in many such countries may promote uncontrolled groundwater with-drawal for bottling.Some case studies on water depletion caused by bottled water companies have been identified and summarized in this report.Yet,there are very few and overall little data available on wate
270、r volumes extracted by the bottled water industry,again largely due to the lack of transparency and legal foundations that would have forced bottling companies to publicly disclose the extracted water volumes and assess the environmental consequences of their activities.Even if such water with-drawa
271、ls are indeed small in absolute terms globally at present or compared to larger water consumers like irrig-ated agriculture,local impacts on water resources may besignificant.In this context,again,the absence or weakness of water regulation policies in many countries,particularly those of the Global
272、 South,together with bottled water market growth in such countries may increase the pressure on local water resources,with little or no contribution to sus-tainable and reliable long-term drinking water supply.The report also examined various aspects of plastic pol-lution associated with bottled wat
273、er and collated some scattered information from available sources.It appears that the world currently generates around 600 billion plastic bottles and containers,which converts to some 25 million tonnes of PET waste.Most of this waste is not recycled.The report,however,identifies signs of a trend to
274、ward a growing social awareness of the adverse impacts of plastics on the environment and of the importance of its recycling.It also touches on the more environmentally friendly alternatives to PET bottles but concludes that at a breakthrough solution that could radically reduce the environmental im
275、pacts of plastics does not yet exist,and hence PET pollution will likely continue in the years to come.Although PET waste from bottled water consti-tutes a very small percentage of the total plastic of all types generated by all industries globally,eradicating even small sources of such pollution wo
276、uld contribute immensely to environmental health,particularly consid-ering that plastic waste takes a millennium to degrade.It may be argued that if the world focuses more attention on the provision of clean and safe piped water supply,bottled water production may be reduced,which,in turn will lead
277、to the reduction of plastic waste.It is important to deal with the source of the problem rather than with itsconsequences.Bottled water has clear and implicit links with several SDGs,but the strongest ones are obviously with universal access to drinking waterSDG target 6.1.The report argues that whi
278、le global progress toward this target is significantly off-track,expansion of bottled water essentially works against it or at least slows this progress down,distracting attention and resources from public water supply system development.Expansion of bottled water may adversely affect investments an
279、d the role of the state in long-term public water supply infrastructure development and improvement.A comparison of estimates of global bottled water sales with the estimated needs to finance the prog-ress to SDG 6.1 reveals that less than half of what the world pays for bottled water annually at pr
280、esent would pay to provide clean and long-term public water supply for hun-dreds of millions ofpeople without it.Bottled water producers have a financial incentive to expand their markets.They also have resources for mar-keting campaigns.To counter negative perceptions of tap water,civil society gro
281、ups and NGOs should be encouraged and financially supported to run advocacy campaigns.Private companies can be expected to resist attempts to implement any measures that would increase their costs,but they will respond to consumer demands.Advocacy campaigns can point to water quality and resource de
282、ple-tion issues.They can also highlight cases of successful provision of high-quality tap water and point to the posi-tive actions of companies such as steps to improve the transparency of operations,access to data or actions to enhance plastic recycling.Finally,there are currently some high-level i
283、nitiatives,like an alliance of Global Investors for Sustainable Develop-ment,that aim to scale up finance for the SDGs,including water-related ones.Such an initiative is an opportunity for the bottled water sector to become an active player in this process and help accelerate progress toward reliabl
284、e water supply,particularly in theGlobalSouth.Global Bottled Water Industry:A Review of Impacts and Trends30ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis research was supported by funds received by UNU INWEH through a long-term agreement with Global Affairs Canada.The authors thank Morgane Bouvet(The University of Edinburgh
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