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1、A GUIDE TO MANAGEMENT,ENFORCEMENT,AND EVALUATIONOn-Street Parking Pricing ACKNOWLEDGMENTSAUTHORS AND KEY CONTENT CONTRIBUTORS INCLUDE:Dana Yanocha itdp global Tara Dasitdp global Michael Kodransky itdp usJaco Mab son itdp globalCITY REPRESENTATIVES AND RESEARCHERS WHO PROVIDED BACKGROUND INFORMATION
2、 AND DATA FOR THE GUIDE AND WHO HELPED BRING MANY KEY ASPECTS TO LIGHT INCLUDE:David Gal Maria Majorovaparking manager,moscow,russiacity of sydney Vaclav Lukes Jacob Jonssonmobility specialist,traffic office,city of prague city of stockholmRami Reihan Robert Pressltransportation,austrian mobilitytra
3、ffic&parking research authority,tel avivChristophe Begon Dmitry Bespalovsareco france kyiv,ukraineKristopher Carter Mary Catherine Snydermayors office of parking strategist,seattlenew urban mechanics,department of transportationcity of bostonPaul Barter Micha Lejksingapore parking department,warsaw
4、city&roads administrationLuciano Acquaviv(fmr)head of active mobility,city of rosarioINTERNAL DRAFT REVIEW AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SCOPING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDE WERE PROVIDED BY:Lorena Freitas Santiago Reyesitdp brazil itdp mexicoEmilio Romero AV Venugopalitdp mexico itdp india Parin Visariy
5、a Xianyuan Zhuitdp india itdp chinaEXTERNAL DRAFT REVIEW WAS CONDUCTED BY THE FOLLOWING EXPERTS:Paul Barter Todd LitmanQian Liu Dorina PojaniFINALLY,THIS GUIDE WOULD NOT BE POSSIBLE WITHOUT CONTRIBUTIONS FROM:Andres Sanudo(Mexico City),Maria Jose Perez,Aimee Gauthier(ITDP Global),and Danielle Hoppe(
6、ITDP Brazil),as well as research support from former ITDP analysts including Daniel Paschall,Bogdan Kapatsila,and Santiago Salamanca.We also acknowledge those who contributed to previous ITDP materials that factored into this guide,including Bram van Oojin,Chris Kost,Ranga Rohini,Shreya Gadepalli,Ud
7、aya Laksmana,Gabriel Oliveira,Rachel Weinberger,Zoltan Gyermati,and Benjun Huang.cover photo:Liberdade neighborhood,Sao Paulo,Brazilsource:Alf Ribeiro/ShutterstockFOREWORDRapid motorization has been a global trend in recent decades and has presented troubling consequences,such as air and noise pollu
8、tion,traffic-related injuries and deaths,and inequity.As vehicle use increases,so does demand for storing vehicles,both for short-term stays on the street near drivers destinations and longer-term stays in off-street lots and garages.Managing and pricing parking is therefore critical to ensure equit
9、able use of public space among high-volume,low-polluting transport modes like public transport,cycling,and walking.However,efforts to regulate and price parking in cities have generated controversy,as drivers tend to come from higher-income,vocal groups who believe they have a right to ample,free-of
10、-charge or very low-cost parking wherever and whenever they need it.The COVID-19 pandemic turned long-standing driving and vehicle use trends on their heads.Lockdowns,shelter-in-place orders,and similar restrictions transformed bustling city streets into empty thoroughfares overnight.Public transit
11、ridership dropped dramatically early on.Walking and cycling emerged as key transport solutions.In Chinese cities,data showed that those who owned a car chose to drive instead of returning to public transport to commute when the most extreme restrictions on travel were eased.Meanwhile,those who did n
12、ot own a car also reduced their use of public transportation,but this group replaced metro and bus trips with personal and shared bicycles at a high rate.1The pandemic also demonstrated the possibility of reallocating space in ways that work for more people:Many cities allowed restaurants to repurpo
13、se on-street parking into outdoor dining space,expanded sidewalks,or temporary cycle lanes.While these types of changes can take a long time to implement,this meant people were able to experience their cities in a new way almost overnight.As we begin to emerge from pandemic-imposed restrictions,this
14、 reality where more space and priority are given to people over parked cars is still possible with effective parking management.Cities that take action to address long-standing parking management issues now may be able to shift some of the increased demand for vehicles expected in the aftermath of t
15、he pandemic to other modes.Parking management that includes pricing enables cities to reallocate space for bus lanes,bicycle lanes,wider sidewalks,and flexible pickup zoneswhich are also seeing high demand as low-contact,physically distanced solutionsand the revenue from pricing parking can help fun
16、d these improvements.High-quality public transport,cycling,and walking infrastructure benefits users of these modes as well as drivers by reducing congestion as demand shifts away from driving.MORE EFFICIENT PARKING MANAGEMENT AND PRICING ENABLES CITIES TO PRIORITIZE VALUABLE URBAN SPACE FOR PEOPLE
17、AND LOCAL BUSINESSES INSTEAD OF CARS,RESULTING IN MORE EFFICIENT,EQUITABLE,HEALTHY COMMUNITIES.Liu,R.2020.The impact of COVID-19 epidemic on urban traffic in China.12INTRODUCTION 41.1 Redefining the problem 41.2 Who is this guide for?91.3 How did we develop this guide?121.4 Recommendations 12 MANAGI
18、NG PRICED PARKING WITH LIMITED CAPACITY 15 IMPLEMENTATION GUIDANCE 18 3.1 Set citywide goals for on-street parking 183.2 Choose a parking management structure 22Implementing agency 23Operating structures 263.3 Generate a financial model 38Capital costs 39Operating costs 39Revenue streams 40Revenue s
19、haring 433.4 Produce an outreach plan 453.5 Develop an enforcement strategy 48Enforcement agents 51Vehicle registration databases 53Supportive solutions for enforcement 53Technological“smart”solutions 53Physical solutions 60Penalties 61Fines 62Wheel clamping 64Towing 653.6 Prepare for system evaluat
20、ion 67SUPPORTIVE PARKING ELEMENTS 73CASE STUDIES 765.1 Mexico City 765.2 Shenzhen 795.3 Chennai 815.4 Madrid 835.5 Moscow 85APPENDIX 88 CONTENTS1234564INTRODUCTIONParking in cities is not just about vehicle storage:How a city pricesand ultimately managesparking has direct and indirect effects on how
21、 people travel and therefore impacts related issues like congestion,air pollution and emissions,road safety,land use development patterns,and street design.Together,these contribute to the quality and livability of public space.A basic economic principle is that prices(what consumers pay for goods o
22、r services)should reflect the full cost of producing goods and services,unless a subsidy is specifically justified.Most goodshousing,food,clothingare priced based on their costs;parking is a glaring exception.Public rights-of-way and curb space are valuable assets,and drivers receive more than their
23、 fair share of these assets compared to other road users,like bus riders,cyclists,and pedestrians.2 Furthermore,cities often undervalue and therefore underprice public parking facilities.Current practices exacerbate this undervaluing of curb space,dedicating a majority of street space to private veh
24、icle storage and much less space for more efficient,sustainable transport modes and other productive,healthy activities that occur in public rights-of-way.1.1 REDEFINING THE PROBLEMDuring the last half-century,most cities struggled to accommodate the growth in vehicle ownership they experienced,ofte
25、n dedicating more and more public space to vehicle throughput and storage.The primary goal of transport planners and engineers has been to facilitate fast,convenient automobile travel.In fact,parking has been referred to as“an under-researched area of transport.”3 Planners often assumed that“parking
26、 problems”stemmed from a shortage of parking spaces,which justified policies to increase supply.And cities did just that,dedicating curb space to(free or underpriced)on-street parking and requiring developers to provide abundant off-street parking at each destination.Peopleparticularly drivershave c
27、ome to believe that free parking is the optimal scenario,when in fact it is only optimal for the first person who finds a free-of-charge space and it is dysfunctional for everyone else.IN OTHER WORDS,PARKING MANAGEMENT HAS NOT ALWAYS BEEN VIEWED AS A TOOL TO HELP CITIES ACHIEVE A MORE SUSTAINABLE TR
28、ANSPORTATION SYSTEM.Rules related to parking can be buried in regulatory ordinances and overseen by different agencies.Further,a lack of communication between parking managers(who tend to focus on operational aspects)and transportation or urban planners(who focus more on strategic integration betwee
29、n different elements within the transport system)can cause tensions.4 Together,these factors lead to a fractured approach to handling the transport,land use,and street-level-access aspects of parking.Without an overall goal for parking management,agency efforts may end Gosling et al.2015.Urban space
30、 distribution and sustainable transport.Mingardo et al.2015.Urban parking policy in Europe:A conceptualization of past and possible future trends.Mingardo et al.2015.Urban parking policy in Europe:A conceptualization of past and possible future trends.2341previous page:In response to the COVID-19 pa
31、ndemic,Mexico City repurposed on-street parking spaces to allow for outdoor dining,helping businesses continue to operate during the crises.source:ITDP Mexico5up contradicting one another.A nuanced approach is required to manage parking well,but nuances are often lost when too many departments have
32、a hand in setting policy objectives without proper coordination.The long-standing trend of local governments and businesses supplying roads and ample parking has subsidized vehicle use and storage,encouraging residents who can afford it to own more vehicles and drive more often and for longer distan
33、ces.This,of course,generates a host of related issues that impact everyone,not just drivers,including:Drivers looking for bargain parking spaces create traffic and add unnecessary vehicle kilometers traveled(VKT)in neighborhoods.The act of cruising for parking can lead to more neighborhood congestio
34、n because the chance of finding a bargain space induces vehicle trips.5 Exposure to harmful air pollution is exacerbated by city policies that subsidize parking(and,thus,encourage private vehicle use)instead of improving walking,cycling,and public transit integrated with mixed-use,dense development.
35、6 Responding to national air quality regulations set in the United States in the 1970s,cities like New York and Boston capped the amount of parking that could be built in central districts where air quality was so poor it was deemed detrimental to human health.7The availability of free or low-cost p
36、arking results in an implicit subsidy for trips made by car or motorbike.In other words,public space that should be usable by everyone is being allocated narrowly to those wealthy enough to own cars and those who currently use two-or three-wheelers and aspire to own a car.This subsidy also shifts pr
37、iority away from bicycle use,walking,and transit,thus tilting the choice toward driving even for short trips.8 Shifting demand away from these modes makes them more costly,arduous,and dangerous.Where developers are required to provide a minimum number of off-street parking spaces,their costs drive u
38、p rents,making housing and businesses less affordable.These additional costs may be modest for higher-priced housing,but they represent a large portion of costs for lower-priced housing,especially in areas with higher land prices.After So Paulo removed parking minimums,developers reported being able
39、 to finance affordable housing projects closer to the city center because they did not have to factor in costs related to providing parking.9Traffic congestionPoor airqualityInequityUnafford-abiliityTransitCenter&Frontier Group.2014.Subsidizing congestion:The multibillion-dollar tax subsidy thats ma
40、king your commute worse.Goel,Anju.2015.Characterisation of nanoparticle emissions and exposure at traffic intersections through fast-response mobile and sequential measurements.Ross,Casey.2013.Boston Globe.Boston limiting new parking as number of residences soars.Knoflacher,Hermann.2006.A new way to
41、 organize parking:The key to a successful sustainable transport system for the future.Pojani et al.2000.Parking:An International Perspective,p.56.567896More recently,however,a fundamental change is occurring in the way parking problems are defined and potential solutions are evaluated.This new parad
42、igm acknowledges a wider range of problems:too much space and too many resources devoted to parking,inefficient parking management,and underpriced parking facilities.A wider range of problems catalyzes a wider range of possible solutions,including transportation and parking management strategies tha
43、t result in more efficient use of streets and public space.Notably,the new paradigm does not seek to eliminate parking supply;rather,it aims to ensure that every vehicle trip and parking space provides maximum value to drivers and nondrivers alike.SOME CITIES HAVE BEGUN TO RECOGNIZE THE NEED TO BOTH
44、 PRICE AND USE THEIR PARKING SUPPLY MORE EFFICIENTLY(INSTEAD OF BUILDING MORE TO MEET DEMAND),AND EVEN POSITION PARKING POLICIES WITHIN THE GOALS OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING.Maintaining free-of-charge or underpriced parking encourages vehicle trips and congestion because drivers will cruise around th
45、e area in the hopes of finding a“bargain”space as opposed to parking in the first available space.source:ITDP India7Price ofparkingSupplyDemandEquilibriumpriceUnder-priced$0Quantity of parking spacesAt the equilibrium price,the parking supply is able to meet demand without increasing the supplyWhen
46、the price increases,demand decreases,becoming closer to supplyWhen the price is$0,demand is much greater than supply,and there seems to be a shortage of parking spacesAs shown in the graph above,when parking is underpriced,demand greatly outweighs supply,and people who can afford to will choose to d
47、rive,even for short trips.But when the price of parking increases,some people will be prompted to make different choices,such as parking nearby or off-street,parking for a shorter period,or arriving by a different mode.Those who cannot or do not wish to shift away from driving will have a better cha
48、nce of finding a parking space but will pay the full price for what that space represents.8A COMMENT ON PARKING SUPPLYOFF-STREET PARKINGWhile the preferred solution to address parking issues is improving manage-mentimplementing pricing mechanisms,time limits that encourage short stays,enforcement,et
49、c.in some cases,increasing parking supply is part of the initial management equation.Cities that have seen rapid growth in both housing density and private vehicle ownership may see significant illegal park-ing due to a complete lack of designated parking spaces.To ensure that drivers are parking in
50、 appropriate places and are not blocking building entrances,sidewalks,etc.,parking spaces may need to be added.These should be priced,however,and the number of additional spaces should be informed by local parking inventory and occupancy data.This was the case in Moscow:When the city implemented its
51、 priced parking pilot in 2012,a shortage of spaces was identified.All parking spaces added to the supply as part of the pilot were priced.This guide focuses narrowly on implementing a well-managed on-street parking program,but off-street parking policies are also critical to reducing demand for park
52、ing more broadly.Off-street parking reforms rely heavily on successful on-street parking management:Off-street lots or garages will be underutilized as long as on-street parking is free or priced very low.Recognizing this connec-tion,some cities,like Pune,India,recommend that on-and off-street parki
53、ng be managed together at the district level by a single private operator.Cities that manage on-street parking successfully may not need to maintain their existing supply of off-street parking.In fact,some cities gain enough confidence in their parking management that they realize they can cap or ev
54、en reduce total parking supply in congested areas.This can help to reduce traffic and increase the role of public transport and other space-efficient modes by repurposing space from parking to support those modes.However,this type of progression is unlikely without effective management of on-street
55、parking.Well-designed parking regulations save everyone time and money and make public space more livable.Similarly,when on-street and off-street parking are managed in tandem,there is greater potential to improve transport networks and optimize public street space.Pune Municipal Corporation.2016.Sm
56、art Punes push towards sustainable transportation.10In Tirana,Albania,a housing boom and rapidly expanding private vehicle ownership led to chaotic parking scenarios because there were so few designated on-street parking spaces.In cases like this,parking spaces may need to be added as part of the pa
57、rking management strategy,however these spaces must be priced.source:Dorina Pojani91.2 WHO IS THIS GUIDE FOR?WELL-MANAGED PRICED PARKING PROGRAMS ARE THE EXCEPTION,NOT THE RULE.Most cities have not conducted neighborhood-level parking supply evaluations(that is,the number and location of parking spa
58、ces of different types)or established a system for pricing on-street parking.This implementation guide is intended for use by municipal planners,practitioners,and decision-makers tasked with implementing a priced on-street parking program.The guide aims to provide practical implementation steps and
59、recommended actions,with a particular focus on implementing a well-managed parking program despite limited capacity(see Section 2).The focus of this guide is on parking management and operations,including developing a management structure,contracting,planning for enforcement,and evaluating and adjus
60、ting system performance.This is indeed a narrow focus when considering the many interconnected elements of an urban parking system as shown on the next page.In Pune,India,regulated on-street parking ensures that footpaths and public spaces are free of vehicles.source:ITDP India10This guide does not
61、discuss the different policy and design approaches for establishing a priced parking system.A number of resources are available that provide helpful guidance on these concepts.These are noted throughout the guide,where appropriate,and also listed in the Appendix.This guide assumes that users have al
62、ready gone through the initial phases of setting up this system,including conducting a feasibility study and parking space audit,as well as deciding which parking locations or zones will be priced,the technology that will be used,and fee structures.Additionally,cities should have already considered:
63、OFF-STREETPRIVATERELATED ELEMENTS TO CONSIDEROFF-STREETSURFACEOFF-STREETPUBLICUNDERGROUNDOFF-STREETRESIDENTIAL/COMMERCIALUNDERGROUNDON-STREETPRICEDON-STREETINFORMALON-STREETPROHIBITEDON-STREET PARKING IMPLEMENTATION GUIDEMANAGEFINANCEENFORCEEVALUATE Congestion pricing Parking minimums/maximums Emmis
64、ions-based pricing(LEZ)Land use Public transport quality Trip avoidance Freight logisticsTHE URBAN PARKING ECOSYSTEM11How to approach motorcycle parking,especially if motorcycles make up a large share of trips.Motorcycles require much less parking space than cars,and thus on-street motorcycle parkin
65、g should be priced at a lower rate.Motorcycles can also more easily fit into spaces not intended for parking(such as on sidewalks or in bicycle lanes)and may pose higher enforcement requirements,particularly in cities where they account for a large share of trips.Many of the approaches discussed in
66、this guide can be applied to urban contexts where motorcycles are more widely used than cars,but it is important to acknowledge that certain strategies will not be universally applicable.How the transition from an informal parking system to a formal priced system will impact drivers as well as parki
67、ng attendants.Cities should work with local communities to understand parking needs and opportunities to ease this transition.If illegal parking is rampant,more time and attention for public outreach and educational programs may be required(see Section 3.4).+See On-Street Parking Management:An Inter
68、national Toolkit and Parking Policy in Asian Cities for more information.These insights will enable city planners or practitioners to better understand how the system should be operated,enforced,and evaluated.Cities with large shares of trips made by motorcycle must consider how motorcycle parking w
69、ill be addressed since motos can more easily fit into spaces not intended for parking,and may pose higher enforcement requirements.source:ITDPIn Mexico City,backlash from informal parking attendants threatened successful implementation of the priced on-street parking program,ecoParq.source:ITDP121.3
70、 HOW DID WE DEVELOP THIS GUIDE?ITDP took a comprehensive approach to developing this guide.Interviews with external experts and parking managers were conducted in 2018,and they produced examples and data referenced throughout the guide.These interviews were supplemented by a review of on-street park
71、ing pricing literature,both academic and gray.The intention of this review was to understand what was covered well by the literature and also what knowledge and technical gaps exist.This mapping exercise,which can be found in Appendix 6.1,helped to narrow the scope of this guide on on-street parking
72、 contracting,operations,enforcement,and evaluation.Furthermore,detailed guidance on operational topics is not as easy to find as information on scoping and design,because parking managers can be hesitant to share this information publicly.We also discussed the structure and scope of the guide with I
73、TDP staff based in Mexico,Brazil,Kenya,Indonesia,India,and China to understand and integrate needs expressed by city officials and other local partners.ITDP staff also contributed to the selection of case study cities for Section 5.All contributors to this guide are noted on the Acknowledgments page
74、 at the beginning of the guide.Parking management frees up space for uses,like bikeshare stations,that benefit everyone.source:ITDP131.4 RECOMMENDATIONSThis guide aims to give cities the tools to manage parking more efficiently,with a focus on how to contract for and operate,enforce,and evaluate suc
75、cess of on-street parking.Under each of these categories,we offer actions and recommendations(summarized below)based on lessons learned from other cities,consultations with experts,and our own work helping cities to manage their parking.This guide also provides the foundation cities need to develop
76、a parking program that operates in tandem with broader transportation demand management,public space,and livability goals.Align on-street parking program implementation with city-wide goals.Communicate program-specific and citywide goals to parking operator(s)and require operators to share data that
77、 will help to track progress.Ensure the primary purpose for pricing on-street parking is to improve parking management,not to generate revenue.On-street parking management responsibilities should be centralized under one municipal entity to ensure a compre-hensive vision and accountability,and to en
78、able connec-tions to other transport decision-making.The operating structure should reflect capacity,while allow-ing for growth and adaptation.Privatizing on-street parking is not a recommended contract approach because of the significant restrictions it places on cities to effectively manage their
79、curbs and streets.Develop a financial model to estimate capital and operating costs as well as revenue streams,which can vary signifi-cantly depending on the size and sophistication of the parking program.Surplus revenue should be allocated to a fund used exclu-sively for sustainable transport and r
80、elated public space improvement projects.Revenue sharing,particularly among parking districts,can help to encourage local support for priced parking because businesses and residents will benefit directly from the reve-nue generated in their district.SETGOALSMANAGEFINANCE14 Develop an outreach plan t
81、o communicate both the vision of the parking program and the new parking rules to the public.Develop a communications strategy that includes branding the parking system in line with a broader vision and/or taking part in already established global or regional campaigns around parking.Consider assign
82、ing a staff member within the implementing agency to oversee public education and outreach.This person should liaise with local organizations and stakeholders to prepare them for the transition to a priced parking program and ensure implementation of the outreach plan.Define indicators that will be
83、used to evaluate impacts of the parking program and related progress toward broader public goals.Establish a process to collect and analyze data on operator performance to compare against level of service standards.Publish operations and financial indicators,as well as public support,in an annual re
84、port.Develop a parking enforcement plan that considers the role of informal parking attendants in the new parking system and includes:an appropriate number of enforcement agents,technological and/or physical support mechanisms,and penalties that encourage parking compliance.Parking enforcement shoul
85、d remain independent of police operations.Set parking fines high enough to be a deterrent but no higher,and offer payment plans or other mechanisms that relieve disproportionate economic burden on low-income drivers.Generate a vehicle registration database,if one does not exist,to enable more effect
86、ive enforcement and payment of penalties.Consider adopting technological solutions that support enforcement,reduce corruption,and allow for easy and transparent data collection on parking infractions,payments,occupancy rates,and related behavior trends.Understand and anticipate challenges to enforci
87、ng parking with special statuses,such as government vehicle or disabled parking.ENGAGEEVALUATEENFORCE15MANAGING PRICED PARKING WITH LIMITED CAPACITYThroughout this guide,we discuss options for cities interested in implementing a priced on-street parking program.Designing,operating,and enforcing such
88、 a program is a complex challenge,and it requires local governments to demonstrate effective management and problem-solving capabilities,including:Awareness and buy-in from decision-makers(“having a vision”);Technical ability of city staff(or ability to hire qualified consultants)to facilitate polic
89、y design and implementation,write contracts,and conduct related program planning,design,and implementation tasks;Strong institutions and/or the ability to create structures,when appropriate,to coordinate and plan actions;and Funding for project implementation,operations,and maintenance.This section
90、reviews the political,technical,and funding requirements of pricing parking,and aims to help cities think through potential capacity constraints.Political complexity,upfront capital investment,technology needs,and data privacy concerns are a few key topics that need to be evaluated and addressed,par
91、ticularly if institutional capacity is limited.2Before and after:In Chennai,ample space for on-street motorcycle parking ensures that motos do not park on the footpath,making the pedestrian space safer and more accessible for all.source:ITDP India16POLITICAL COMPLEXITY Political will to formalize an
92、d manage on-street parking is critical.Political pressure can prevent implementation of a priced system,or,if a system is in place,political pressure can block parking prices from being raised(and thus effective management of parking demand)over time.In some cases,the design of the parking program a
93、nd the entity responsible for implementation can separate decisions about pricing from shifting political views(see Section 3.2).Some public pushback against pricing parking has been documented where it is perceived that the city government is implementing such a program to boost municipal revenues(
94、see sidebar on Revenue Generation in Section 3.1)or in places where corruption is high and parking revenues are perceived to“line pockets”rather than support public improvements.Backlash may also arise around the idea that drivers will be charged for something(parking)that they perceive to be“free”o
95、r priced very low.These critiques can be countered if governments are transparent aboutand release public reports that detailthe share of revenues needed to operate the system and their commitment to dedicate surplus revenues to specific programs that benefit all residents,not just drivers.For examp
96、le,Mexico Citys ecoParq program allocated surplus revenue from parking fees to be used for sidewalk and other pedestrian infrastructure improvements in the neighborhoods where parking revenues were generated.This type of local reinvestment of revenues helped to build public acceptance and political
97、will.Another political complexity to consider is whether or not existing informal parking attendants will be integrated into the formal priced parking system and how this would impact their livelihood.Developing a clear outreach plan that includes consultation with informal parking attendants throug
98、hout the formalization process will help key groups understand the citys motivations for moving away from an informal parking system.While these initial conversations should be coordinated by the city,funding and coordination for continued outreach and public engagement can be conducted by the parki
99、ng system operator(s),as written in the contract.In Mexico City,surplus revenue from the ecoParq priced parking program has been invested hyper-locally to improve streetscapes and public spaces in the communities where revenues are generated.source:ITDP Mexico17CAPITAL INVESTMENT Establishing a pric
100、ed parking system requires some upfront capital investment by the city,namely for parking meters or pay stations and any installation costs.The city may also need to invest in streetscape changes,such as repaving,street markings and signage,and physical barriers needed to effectively communicate new
101、 parking areas and rules.Other capital costs,such as setting up and staffing a control center or equipment needed to support enforcement(vehicles,technology,labor costs),may be passed on to a contracted or concessioned operator.However,this may result in the city having less influence over the quali
102、ty of these services.Alternatively,if funding for capital investments is very limited or if the city cannot assume the risk associated with establishing a parking system,a build-operate-transfer model may be considered(see sidebar in Section 3.2).This enables a concessioned operator to cover all cap
103、ital and operating costs for a set time,after which assets and management of the system transfer to the city.TECHNOLOGY NEEDSA priced parking program may require upfront investment in technology to encourage payment(such as through a mobile application)and to support more effective enforcement(such
104、as smart parking meters,sensors,or Automated License Plate Recognition ALPR cameras).These technologies vary in cost.It is important to consider how technologies with higher up-front costs can improve the efficiency of enforcement and payment compliance,which could reduce the number of parking contr
105、ol officers needed as well as associated labor costs.If the city cannot afford to purchase certain desired technologies outright,it should consider contracting with a private operator or concessionaire that can provide and operate them.DATA PRIVACY If one does not exist,governments should create and
106、 maintain an up-to-date vehicle registration database that parking operators can access(with proper safeguards)to follow up on unpaid parking fines.The existence of this type of database,however,has raised concerns around cities ability to protect personal information(namely,the addresses of vehicle
107、 owners).If a city does not have the capacity to ensure protection of such data,it should consider partnering with a(public)third-party organization,such as a university or nongovernmental organization,that has experience managing large datasets that include personal data.In this case,vehicle regist
108、ration data would be maintained by the third party and operators,enforcement agents,and the city could be given limited access,but the data would not be housed on city servers.18Choose managementstructureProduce outreachplanPrepare forsystem evaluationIMPLEMENTATION GUIDANCEImplementation of a price
109、d parking program depends on several elements that are not unique to parking and are common across large projects managed by a municipal agency and operated by that agency or a private operator.Different cities will require different system structures to meet their specific needs,and these should be
110、 informed by a feasibility analysis(see sections 1.2 and 1.3 for more).In this section,we discuss six steps to implementing a priced on-street parking program:3Set citywidegoalsGenerate financialmodelDevelop enforcementstrategySection 3.1Section 3.2Section 3.3Section 3.4Section 3.6Section 3.53.1 SET
111、 CITYWIDE GOALS FOR ON-STREET PARKINGPriced on-street parking is typically introduced to help control demand.To that end,a managed parking program should:Control on-street parking supply and price spaces to favor high-value uses,such as by pedestrians and buses,parking for people with disabilities,s
112、hort-stay parking,and freight loading;Enable cities to better allocate and prioritize curb space;Ensure off-street parking supply is market-driven,publicly accessible,and limited;and Use parking revenue to improve sustainable transportation and related public projects that benefits drivers and nondr
113、ivers.19Cities should also be intentional and transparent about linking parking reform with citywide transport goals such as:Improving access,including by public transport,cycling,walking,and driving;Improving equity by reallocating space on public roads for uses that benefit more people,particularl
114、y those who have been historically marginalized by the transport system;Improving health and the environment by minimizing air and noise pollution;Improving safety by reducing injuries and deaths resulting from distracted driving while searching for parking and by providing ample space for clear sid
115、ewalks,crosswalks,and cycle lanes;11 andEstablishing a reliable revenue stream to finance sustainable transport improvements.Cities should clearly communicate these system-level outcomes with parking operators and other stakeholders to ensure that all parties are working toward them.Additional resou
116、rces related to setting goals for on-street parking are included in Appendix 5.1.SFMTA.2014.SFpark pilot project evaluation.”11REVENUEGENERATIONPricing on-street parking has been shown to generate significant revenue for cities(see Revenue streams),and this can support a number of services,from stre
117、etscape improvements,to public bikeshare operation,to major public transportation projects.For example,in Fortaleza,Brazil,100%of surplus parking revenues support the citys bikeshare program and maintaining and expanding cycling infrastructure.Notably,pricing on-street parking is one of the few ways
118、 that local governments can collect revenue from nonresident drivers,which helps to offset the environmental and societal costs these visiting drivers impose.It is important,however,for cities to be clear about the primary purpose of pricing parking:managing parking demand and related traffic challe
119、nges.In other words,decisions related to siting,installing,and otherwise managing parking meters(or other pricing devices)should not be made solely to generate revenue.In some cases,allocating parking revenues to non-transport-related programs can make it difficult to remove parking spaces in the fu
120、ture which would decrease funds for those programsunless the difference in revenue can be covered by slightly higher fees.Similarly,if revenues are allocated to a general operating fund,priced parking can be perceived as another tax as opposed to smart transportation management.20Indeed,cities that
121、have managed to implement outcome-oriented parking systems have seen success both in terms of improved parking management and in progressing toward broader goals:Reducing air pollution in ParisParis has an explicit goal of removing private cars from the city center to combat dangerous levels of air
122、pollution.As a result,the city has been removing thousands of on-street car parking spaces and replacing them with public bikeshare stations;bicycle parking;motorbike parking;parking for carshare,electric,and hybrid vehicles;and sidewalk extensions.12 Building off the 20152020 Plan Velo,Paris plans
123、to remove at least 60,000 of its 83,500 on-street spaces downtown and reallocate that space for public uses.13 Henley,J.2015.Guardian.Electric Boris Cars are coming to Londonhow do they work in Paris?Reid,C.2020.Forbes.Anne Hidalgo reelected as mayor of Paris vowing to remove cars and boost bicyclin
124、g and walking.1213Reallocating public space in San FranciscoAnticipating improved parking efficiency from SFpark,which uses sensors built into the street to facilitate performance pricing based on occupancy targets,one of the City of San Franciscos goals was to repurpose“extra”parking spaces as park
125、lets.Paris has replaced thousands of on-street vehicle parking spaces in an effort to improve air quality,like on this street where a public bikeshare station has been installed in what was previously a parking lane.source:Didio,FlickrSan Francisco envisioned repurposing on-street parking spaces for
126、 parklets and other public spaces,like this outdoor dining area.source:Paul Krueger,Flickr21Reducing local traffic congestion in Mexico City Mexico City saw parking reform as a traffic reduction strategy and installed priced parking meters to improve traffic flows.After parking meters were installed
127、 in Mexico Citys Polanco neighborhood,cruising time fell significantlyfrom 13 minutes to fourand turnover increased from 3.5 to 4.5 cars per day.14 Occupancy rates during peak hours fell from 98%to 80%after the programs first year in operation,which helped to reduce instances of double-parking and o
128、ther parking violations that contribute to traffic congestion.15 Even in cities where there is not yet enough support for visionary transport transformations,the goals of order and safety in the streets and of improved street conditions for everyone(drivers,bus riders,pedestrians,and cyclists)are a
129、realistic starting point.Perez,I.2013.Mexico City makes dramatic recovery from gridlock.Saudo et al.2013.Impacts of the ecoParq program on Polanco.1415In Mexico City,on-street parking pricing was initially implemented as a strategy to reduce traffic congestion.source:ITDP MexicoAlign on-street parki
130、ng program implementation with citywide goals.Communicate program-specific and citywide goals to parking operator(s)and require operators to share data that will help to track progress.Ensure the primary purpose for pricing on-street parking is to improve parking management,not to generate revenue.S
131、ET GOALSACTIONS&RECOMMENDATIONS223.2 CHOOSE A PARKING MANAGEMENT STRUCTUREA fully functioning parking management program requires coordination between spatial planners,transport modelers,financial divisions,traffic police,and other related government bureaus.Parking management may be especially chal
132、lenging for cities to prioritize if it requires internal government restructuring.It also poses political risks by angering drivers,who will likely pay more under a managed parking system and who are often elites with ties to(or are themselves)key decision-makers.It is usually impossible to undertak
133、e an on-street parking reform campaign without full support from the highest elected official,such as the mayor or city manager.Different operational elements of on-street parking might be distributed among many government agencies and divisions,often without an intergovernmental coordinating mechan
134、ism.For example,in Ahmedabad,India,several city departments have jurisdiction over aspects of parking(see organizational chart).Vehicle registration is done by the state-level Regional Transport Office(part of the Ports and Transport Department),while parking enforcement is overseen by the Traffic P
135、olice(part of the state-level Home Department).Thus,for traffic police to accurately identify a violating vehicles owner and issue the penalty to that individual rather than the current driver,there needs to be coordination between the Home Department and the Ports and Transport Department.When many
136、 departments are managing different aspects of the parking system,the bigger-picture perspective and comprehensive understanding of how the system should work can be lost.This can lead to a lack of accountability for the system as a whole.TO COMBAT THIS PROBLEM,PARKING FUNCTIONS SHOULD BE INTEGRATED
137、 AND MANAGED BY ONE IMPLEMENTING AGENCY.In this section,we explore different options for implementing and operating a parking management program.23Home DepartmentRegional Transport Office,AhmedabadUrban Development Authority,AhmedabadAhmedabad PoliceAhmedabad Municipal CorporationAhmedabad Traffic P
138、oliceAhmedabad Janmarg Ltd(SPV)Issues driving licenses,vehicle registrationsConstructs,maintains streets Designates land for off-street parking in new town planningConstructs,maintains streets Contracts for parking fee collection on CG Road,walled cityEnforces on-street parkingContracts for on-stree
139、t parking fee collection along BRT corridorIMPLEMENTING AGENCYThe implementing agency is responsible for the design and implementation of the priced parking program,which may include tasks such as generating a feasibility study and/or neighborhood parking space audit,developing a comprehensive parki
140、ng plan,preparing requests for proposals(RFPs)and contract(s),and setting program goals and evaluation metrics.The implementing agency is typically a department or agency within the municipal government or an entity created by the government.The implementing agency can manage and operate the parking
141、 system directly,or it can create a process wherein one or more private operators will be responsible for day-to-day operations(management contract or concession agreement).Ports and TransportUrban Development and HousingChief Minister,GujaratAGENCIES IN AHMEDABAD,INDIA THAT OVERSEE PARKING ELEMENTS
142、24MUNICIPALDEPARTMENTPARKINGAUTHORITYBenefitsChallengesMunicipal departmentUnder a municipal department structure,a department head and support staff are responsible for managing the parking program.This is the most integrated approach to not only on-street parking management but also to related are
143、as overseen by the municipal government,such as transportation demand management,curb management,community and economic development,etc.Sometimes this department is housed within a larger municipal transportation,consumer affairs,or public works department that oversees more than just parking.Allows
144、 for integration between parking and other transportation plans and programsBudget integration between parking and other transport programs can yield financial predictabilityAllows for political independence from municipal governmentCity elected officials shielded from unpopular decisions(e.g.,incre
145、asing parking rates)May be difficult to establish if parking responsibilities are currently housed under various different agenciesMay require legislative changes at higher levels of government to legally create a parking authorityCan be isolated from municipal agencies responsible for transportatio
146、n programs or decisionsMay not have the authority to carry out certain parking tasks,like enforcement25In 2010,the city of Budapest established the BKK Centre for Budapest Transport,a municipal entity that oversees all aspects of urban transport,including public transportation,road management,bicycl
147、e and pedestrian infrastructure,taxis,and parking.BKK is also responsible for comprehensive transport planning,integrating equity and sustainability across these program areas.16 In regards to parking,BKK took over responsibilities for parking organization,strategic planning,development,fee collecti
148、on,and parking management from Parking Kft.,which had previously been operating the system in a parking authoritystyle arrangement,isolated from other urban transport departments.17 BKK enabled Budapest to develop an integrated transport budget,which helped to make funding for transport operations m
149、ore predictable.As such,parking revenues,as well as other revenues,are directed to BKK and distributed across the entitys areas of responsibility.18 Over the past decade,BKK has worked to implement elements of the citys Balzs Mr Plan(20142030)to reduce private vehicle use and improve public transpor
150、t.BKK is now working closely with the municipal government on the Cities-4-People project,which aims to use participatory planning to improve active and public transportation options citywide.19BUDAPEST Budapesti Kzlekedsi Kzpont.Who we are.MTI.2011.Fvrosi Kzgyls-Beolvad a BKK-ba a Parking Kft.-Buda
151、pesti Kzlekedsi Kzpont.Budapesti Kzlekedsi Kzpont.2020.Budapest Mobility Plan 2030.Cities4People.Budapest,Hungary.16171819In Budapest,the Centre for Budapest Transport(BKK)oversees parking management in addition to other aspects of urban transport,allowing for coordination across efforts to reduce p
152、rivate vehicle use and fund and improve cycling,walking,and public transport.source:Blue Corner Studio/shutterstock26Parking AuthorityA parking authority is a corporatized entity fully owned by a municipal(or county/district)government.Typically,the government creates(through a resolution or legally
153、 binding ordinance)a parking authority to oversee the management of a parking system,including on-street parking,enforcement,and rate setting,on behalf of the municipality.This may require legislation to be passed at a higher level of government,such as a county or state/province.20 Parking authorit
154、ies can also oversee off-street parking facility ownership,planning,and maintenance.Sometimes,particularly if staff capacity is limited,parking authority staff will work with an external parking management firm to carry out daily operations.Parking authorities are typically overseen by a board or co
155、mmission and not the local municipal government.This can be preferable to municipal management because it allows the parking authority to be politically independentto establish a clear mission that is shielded from political interference or may not be supported by the majority in government.This can
156、 enable consistent market rate prices in spite of any short-term political opposition.However,parking authorities that are shielded from political influence can run the risk of operating rigidly,without much reason to adjust or evolve.Parking authorities can also bring in other groups aside from cit
157、y staff,such as private developers and the business community,to make decisions regarding system operation.Parking authorities are often led by a president or executive director who can bring extensive experience in parking management to the organization.This person reports directly to the parking a
158、uthority board.Cities with the legal framework of a parking authority include Antwerp,Amsterdam,Barcelona,and the district of Ixelles in Brussels.21New Jersey Government Parking Authorities.New Jersey Act on Parking Authorities.Kodransky&Hermann.2011.Europes parking U-turn:From accommodation to regu
159、lation.2021OPERATING STRUCTURESOnce the implementing agency is decided,the next step is to determine whether that agency will be responsible for direct operation of the parking program or if operations will be contracted out to a private firm.The city must decide which type of operating structure is
160、 most relevant depending on local conditions.For example,a small city with limited resources may not have the staff time or technical knowledge to run the day-to-day operations of a parking program and could benefit from contracting that responsibility to an experienced private firm.The operating st
161、ructure should enable efficient operations and enforcement and,as a result,greater user compliance with parking regulations.Benefits and challenges of common operating structures are included in the table on page 28 and discussed in detail in this section.27Citing worsening traffic congestion,Barcel
162、ona implemented pricing and limited the duration of on-street parking stays to improve the efficiency of existing parking spaces.The city council mandated that Barcelona de Serveis Municipals(BSM),a municipal public limited company(PLC),oversee on-street parking,off-street car parks,and parking enfo
163、rcement and towing in Barcelona.BSM also manages Barcelonas public bikeshare system,Bicing,as well as several cultural spaces in the city,including the historic Park Gell,the Olympic Stadium,and Barcelona Zoo.Thus,BSM provides these services as an entity of the government of Barcelona,but it also ho
164、lds municipal shares in other companies.In 1984,the BSM-operated regulated parking area included 648 nonres-ident spaces and 34 parking meters,growing to 7,000 priced spaces by 2005 and over 10,000 by 2013.22 Nearly 400 BSM agents perform park-ing enforcement duties under the management of the city
165、police.23Starting in 2005,revenue from parking fees was directed to a fund to support mobility projects.Initially this fund was used to implement street calming,then it financed the launch of Bicing in 2006.BSM reported on-street parking revenues of nearly 35.6 million in 2018.24 As of 2020,the Barc
166、elona city government is working to further reduce the number of free on-street parking spaces that remain in the city center and imple-mented an emissions-based pricing structure for parking that discounts(or eliminates,depending on the zone)fees for zero-emission and eco vehicles.25 Barcelona City
167、 Council.The Barcelona area:Background.Barcelona City Council.The Barcelona area:Management.Esteve,A.2019.Caen los ingresos de la zona azul y verde de Barcelona.Subirana,J.2020.Las caras tarifas del rea azul y verde,el 11 de mayo.22232425BARCELONAIn Barcelona,a public limited company manages on-stre
168、et parking and the citys bikeshare system.Many bikeshare stations are located in what was once on-street parking space.source:travellifestyle/shutterstock28DIRECT OPERATIONParking system operated directly by city department,parking authority,or similar entity City/authority hascomplete control overp
169、arking management,staffing,training,andquality of service Can align parkingprogram branding with other city services City receives andmaintains all systemrevenues Can be subject to politicalinterference Requires highestadministrative andmanagerial capacity amongcity staff Strict rules for government
170、hiring can lead to high staffcosts City assumes maximumfinancial risk(capital andoperating costs)City responsible forcustomer servicePRIVATE OPERATIONManagement contractParking system operated by a contracted manage-ment firm;city/parking authority reimburses operations expenses Maintain somecontrol
171、 of day-to-daysystem operations Leverage experienceof parking serviceprovider May be cost-efficientcompared to directmanagement becauseoperator has lowerstaffing,administra-tive,and insurancecosts May require high upfrontadministrative capacity(CSOsor similar may provide sup-port as partners)to deve
172、lopa contract and facilitate anRFP process that attractshigh-quality service providers Strong public backlash mayemerge if inexperienced and/or nonlocal operators areawarded contracts Poorly written contract canlead to disproportionate riskfor the city Less oversight over laborprotections Can be dif
173、ficult to coor-dinate parking with other city-managed programs(e.g.,transit,bikeshare)Concession agreementParking system operated by a contracted management firm that is responsible for all expenses and pays a set fee to the government Requires minimalongoing administrativecapacity on the cityspart
174、Requires littleinternal technicalknowledge aboutparking operations Lowest financial riskto city“Hands-off”approach couldlead to low quality of service Limited ability forgovernment to respond toresident feedback on parkingprogram,which could degradetrust in government City misses out onpotentially l
175、arge revenuestream Limited understanding bycity about parking systemexpenses No oversight over laborprotectionsOPERATING STRUCTUREBENEFITS(for city)DOWNSIDES(for city)29Direct OperationA direct operating structure means the system is fully owned and operated by a municipal department or other design
176、ated government entity,such as a parking authority.The administrative body has complete control over daily operations,staffing,training,and customer service,as well as responsibility for the costs associated with these,which are typically covered by parking revenues.For this structure to be successf
177、ul,the city must have significant administrative and managerial capacity,including well-trained,experienced staff.If the program is under the complete control of the city,it can be easily integratedin terms of branding and capabilitieswith other city services.Such integration can benefit users by cr
178、eating a more seamless experience.If the system is run by a municipal department,there is usually no need for contracting because all operations activities are undertaken by city staff.Parking systems run by a parking authority or business district,which tend to have smaller staffs than a city depar
179、tment,may contract out certain activities or services beyond what the staff can manage directly.$Customer serviceMUNICIPALITY OR PARKING AUTHORITYEND USERSFEECOLLECTIONWhether the parking program is operated directly by the municipality or a parking authority or if one of those entities enters into
180、a management contract for operations,it is important to consider who actually collects the money generated by parking fees and fines.If the operator both collects the money and operates the system,they hold an enormous amount of unchecked power and it becomes very difficult to ensure effective overs
181、ight.Similar to how public transit contracts are sometimes structured26,parking operations could include bringing on a separate vendor responsible for fee collection.This way the fee collector and operator serve as a check on each other,which limits the possibil-ity of corrupt behavior.30 See ITDPs
182、BRT Planning Guide for more on the use of fare collection vendors in public transportation operations.26Private Operation:Management ContractIn this model,a private operator is contracted to finance all upfront costs for setting up the parking management regimen or to operate the system.However,if p
183、arking meters or kiosks are being used,these are typically financed and owned by the government.The municipal government takes in the revenue from the parking system(user fees)and uses a portion of it to pay the operator to manage the system,including maintaining assets,collecting data,conducting ba
184、seline studies,and other tasks.The operator may,in some cases,subcontract some of these responsibilities to other private companies.SUBCONTRACTORS$Customer serviceManagement contractMonthlyreportsEND USERSMUNICIPALITY OR PARKINGAUTHORITYOPERATOR$31The implementing agency should follow the existing m
185、unicipal procurement process for selecting a private operator.This may include developing and releasing a request for proposals(RFP)that lays out minimum requirements that bidding operators must meet and evaluation criteria the city will use to select the winning bid.Preference may be given to opera
186、tors able to demonstrate having a minimum number of years of experience with the duties prescribed in the RFPnamely,implementing and/or running a priced on-street parking program.The city may also want to stipulate that operators have ongoing parking contracts with other entities in the region or co
187、untry,or that they are already operating locally.27 Strong public backlash has been observed in cities where inexperienced operators were awarded contracts,as was the case in Mexico City.In Ranchi,India,contracting with nonlocal“expert”operators irritated not only local operators but local politicia
188、ns,which generated backlash.If local informal operators are already in place,the city should consider opportunities to bring them into the new parking system,perhaps boosting their capacity as part of the contract.Additional qualifications necessary for operators to be considered could include the a
189、bility to:Set up a control center to monitor the parking system,especially the cash flow data from fee collection mechanisms;develop and dispatch any real-time interventions into daily operations;and analyze operational data and share it with the city;Monitor daily parking activity using vehicles an
190、d a dispatcher service,and monitor parking enforcement(fining,wheel-clamping,and/or vehicle removal)using adequate information technology;Collect and process payments in a timely and accurate manner(especially if a cash payment option exists),replace tickets,issue receipts,and clean the parking mach
191、ines;Properly collect,store,and handle data from parking monitoring and enforcement;Monitor and record customer issues for review;data regarding customer issues is easily searchable,filterable,and backed up to prevent loss;Choose software that provides customers with reliable information and allows
192、the parking system to respond quickly to customer issues;Ensure mutual compatibility between all the machinery(tools,devices,equipment)and information technology;Troubleshoot or replace malfunctioning hardware(especially for parking machines)within a target time period;Provide a hardware damage prot
193、ocol.SFMTA.2020.Request for proposals for single-and multi-space parking meter hardware and associated meter management systems.2732Once proposals are submitted,city staff should review them based on criteria included in the RFP instructions.If capacity allows,city staff should consider conducting i
194、n-person interviews to supplement the written proposals of short-listed candidatesthis can help to clarify operators responses before a final selection is made.Cities that pursue the management contract approach must also consider whether to contract for all services using a single provider or to cr
195、eate separate RFPs and contracts for different services.Multiple providers could also be contracted to operate parking in different areas or districts,as is done in Mexico City.A single service provider brings together operations,enforcement,and monitoring,which can increase efficiency and lower cos
196、ts.For example,a government can negotiate to purchase parking meters with other hardware(such as handheld devices for enforcement personnel),software,or service provisions under one umbrella contract to get better prices or interest rates.Contracting a single provider to operate all parking services
197、 across the city could establish consistency from the perspective of users and may attract operators interested in having an exclusive contract.In addition to parking activities and services,a single service provider can provide consistency and compatibility when it comes to technologyboth hardware
198、and software.Since operations are often dependent on technology,the government can set technology specifications that the service provider must meet.Using a single provider for operations,enforcement,and technology can pose a risk to the city if that operator is not able to provide high-quality serv
199、ice,engages in corrupt behavior,or otherwise ceases operating.Contracting with multiple service providers enables the city to procure the most experienced providers for individual system elements,such as managing operations,hardware and software provision,enforcement,and prepayment or pay-by-phone t
200、ransactions if those options are included(see sidebar).In several European cities including Paris,Amsterdam,and Barcelona,one operator holds the contract for on-street parking equipment and operations,but there are multiple mobile payment operators.Multiple providers may also be contracted to operat
201、e parking by district or other service area instead of one operator being responsible for the entire program citywide.Separating service provider and equipment contracts can reduce overall risks and the likelihood of corruption,increasing Single service providerMultiple service providers 33public be
202、nefits.For example,if multiple service providers are contracted and one provider is unable to provide service,the program may still be able to operate in the interim;however,if one provider is supplying all aspects of the program,the entire programs ability to operate rests on that single provider.E
203、ntering into multiple contracts can also enable the city to partner with the most cost-effective or qualified provider for each operational aspect to achieve a higher-quality system overall.However,in that case the city may miss out on economies-of-scale advantages for equipment.Separating the opera
204、tions and technology providers can also create a problem of accountabilitywhen there are problems with the system,the providers could blame one another and not assume responsibility.This could increase risk for the city.Furthermore,managing multiple contractswhether for different services or differe
205、nt districts/service areasadds an administrative burden for city staff and will likely require additional time and capacity to oversee.PREPAYMENT&PAY-BY-APPMunicipalities may want to offer prepayment or pay-by-phone options for on-street parking.If the system operator cannot provide these services,t
206、he implementing agency may need to develop agreements with specific pay-by-app providers.Often the city will pay a mobile application provider a fee for each transaction made on their platform.It is important,however,to ensure that revenues generated through pre-payment or pay-by-phone/mobile applic
207、ation are managed by the municipality.PREPAYMENTPrepayment typically enables parking users to add money to a digital wallet that is connected to an RFID card that the user inserts into a parking meter to deduct the appropriate fee at the start of their parking stay.This can be useful for frequent pa
208、rking users,and it eliminates the need to have exact change or a credit card to pay for parking.In some cases,like Rosario,Argentina,the same card can be used to access a citys public transport and to pay for parking.Prepayment can also be offered in the form of tear-and-display coupons,which are pu
209、rchased from local retailers and torn or pierced to designate the parking start time.These are used in Singapore and some cities in Brazil,but although operational costs are low,there is high potential for counterfeiting and driver error in display.Given technological innovations in recent years,pre
210、payment is being replaced by pay-by-app systems in many cities.New York City,which previously offered prepayment for parking using an RFID card,is shifting to pay-by-phone/mobile app.Similarly,Singapore,which had solely used tear-and-display coupons,is offering a mobile-app payment option for all ex
211、isting priced parking.PAY-BY-PHONE/MOBILE APPLICATION A pay-by-phone system lets users pay for parking by calling or sending an SMS message to a designated number or by using a mobile application instead of paying with a credit card or cash at a physical meter or kiosk.Pay-by-phone and SMS payments
212、can be a useful alternative for drivers who do not have a 34PREPAYMENT&PAY-BY-APPcredit card.Typically,users are charged by the pay-by-phone provider,including a small transaction fee,and the provider reimburses the parking fee to the city or system operator.Pay-by-app systems enable users to more e
213、asily and accurately pay for parking and,if needed,extend parking time without having to return to a meter or kiosk.The easier it is for users to pay,the more willing they will probably be to comply,resulting in higher revenues and more effectively managed space.Pay-by-phone/mobile app capability ha
214、s,in some cases,eliminated the need for parking meters:Singapore has never had parking meters,and Tel Aviv and Shenzhen have fully mobile-app-based payment systems.In cities that have never had parking meters,the best option might be to avoid installing them at all.Before deciding to forego parking
215、meters,cities should consider the percentage of the population without access to compatible mobile phones and other groups who may not be able to pay for parking if physical meters are not available.App-based payment has also enabled cities to cheaply expand paid parking zones beyond initial areas w
216、ith meters.For example,app-based payment can add a paid option for visitors to park in low-demand on-street spaces that are otherwise not priced,such as residential spaces,and where it would not be cost-effective to install parking meters.Mobile-app-based payment systems also present an opportunity
217、for payment integration with other city services,such as public transport or bikeshare.For example,parking meters in Rosario,Argentina,are linked to the citys MOVI app,where users can plan trips and pay for public transport,bikeshare,and taxis.Private Operation:Concession AgreementIn a concession ag
218、reement,the government transfers the management of a public goodin this case,on-street parkingto a private operator for a determined period of time.The operator is responsible for all aspects of the parking program:capital costs,daily operations,staffing,training,and customer service.With this struc
219、ture,the municipality has the least involvement in parking management.This may be the only option for cities with a lack of technical or institutional capacity to manage a priced parking system to offer one.In some cases,outsourcing parking operations to a private operator can provide a level of ser
220、vice efficiency and quality that would not be possible if the government were responsible for operating the system.However,in a concession agreement,the city has no involvement in how the operator runs or staffs the program because all expenses are coveredand all financial risk is assumedby the oper
221、ator.Therefore,the operator,not the city,is responsible for maintaining a certain level of service.While this type of arrangement may be attractive to municipalities that have budget constraints,it is not always an optimal arrangement from an urban planning and traffic management perspective for two
222、 reasons:the lack of accountability on behalf of the city and the citys inability to benefit from any growth in revenue generated by the parking program.Even though 35SUBCONTRACTORS$Customer serviceConcessionEND USERSMUNICIPALITYOPERATORthe city is not responsible for program operations,staff may st
223、ill need to maintain close regulatory oversight to ensure the operator is meeting its contractual obligations.Furthermore,if contractual obligations are not being met,the citys only recourse is to terminate the concession.This is extremely disruptive to service provision.Most often,the private opera
224、tor will collect the parking fees from users and retain a percentage of the revenue.The remainder of the revenues are paid to the municipality.In this case,the percentage retained by the operator acts as a performance incentive,and can help to maintain a minimum level of service.Because it can be di
225、fficult for the city to track expenditures related to the parking system(since these expenditures are internal to the operator),cities should require consistent reporting from the concessioned operator to increase transparency.This,however,requires capacity and coordination on the part of city staff
226、.Mexico City used a type of concession agreement known as Temporary Revocable Administrative Permits(PATRs)to establish its parking program.Under a PATR,the operator owned the parking assets for an initial 10-year period.After the first 10 years,ownership of the assets transferred$36to the public se
227、ctor,at which point PATRs were transitioned to concession agreements.This model is referred to as“build-operate-transfer”(see sidebar on the next page).The city of Rosario,Argentina,uses a concession for on-street parking operation and enforcement.The concessionaire,Trnsito Rosario,was awarded the c
228、ontract in 2009 and will operate the system until 2026.Trnsito Rosario owns the parking meters and committed Mex.$45 million to update the meters as part of its 2018 re-tendering.28 The new meters are now compatible with the citys MOVI card,which is used to access public transport,bikeshare,taxis,an
229、d other transport services.PARKING PRIVATIZATIONAn extreme case of the concession model is known as“parking privatization”or“parking monetization.”In this model,a private company and not the government owns the parking meters or other assets for a longer time periodtypically more than 35 yearsbefore
230、 ownership is transferred back to the public sector.Therefore,in later years the government absorbs the depreciation costs.This can be an attractive option for cities with budget deficits;however,some cities will not have the legal authority to engage in parking monetization.Furthermore,privatizatio
231、n inverts the curbside parking paradigm wherein parking is underpriced,which leads to shortages.Privatization aims to maximize revenue,driving up parking rates and,likely,resulting in a surplus of parking spaces.At the same time,there is a strong disincentive to remove or repurpose surplus spaces.On
232、e of the most notable examples of parking privatization occurred in Chicago in 2009,when the city leased to investment bank Morgan Stanley its 34,500 on-street parking meters for 75 years in exchange for a one-time payment of US$1.2 billion to fill a budget gap.29 Parking rates increased year-over-y
233、ear until they were the highest in the US in 2013.Another key element of the deal severely restricts the citys ability to manage its streets:The city must pay a penalty to Morgan Stanley anytime on-street parking spaces are removed permanently or blocked temporarily,such as during public parades.Thi
234、s makes it extremely difficult for the city to replace on-street parking with bus-only lanes,cycle lanes,parklets,or other uses.Recent estimates show that in 2021,13 years into the 75-year agreement,Morgan Stanley will break even on its initial investment,accruing profits for the final 62 years.Mean
235、while,the City of Chicago is not receiving that revenue and cannot effectively manage its curb space.Rivera Basulto,D.2019.Metropolis in motion.Weinberger et al.2010.U.S.parking policies:An overview of management strategies.282937BUILD-OPERATE-TRANSFERThe build-operate-transfer(BOT)model is common a
236、cross large infrastructure projects and,in the context of parking,can be used to establish a new on-street pricing system in a neighborhood or citywide.In this model,the government issues a concession to a private operator where,in exchange for program revenues,the operator covers all capital financ
237、ing(including parking meters or pay stations)and operational costs for a set period of time.The time period must be long enough for the operator to collect enough in revenue to recover its investmenttypically at least 15 years;however,if the contract period is very long,the city could be limited by
238、what the operator is able to offer during that time.After the contract period expires,ownership of the parking system assets is transferred to the city,which will then need to decide to continue with another concession agreement or move to a more hands-on structure,such as a management contract with
239、 a private operator or direct management.The BOT model enables governments to provide an efficient,quality parking system that they may not have been able to provide using public funds.And the operator,not the city,assumes a significant amount of risk during the initial years of the project.However,
240、this model can be problematic,resulting in low-quality construction,duplicated functions,and unclear distribution of responsibilities between the operator and subcontractors.30Alternatively,in cities where parking meters or pay stations do not exist and public funds to establish a parking program ar
241、e limited,a fully app-based fee collection system could eliminate the need to enter into a BOT contract.While this payment approach presents limitations,such as for those who do not have access to mobile data or smartphones(see Pay-by-Phone sidebar,above),it is less capital intensive than installing
242、 new parking meters.Pastor,A.G.2006.Tramways of Barcelona:Advantages and disadvantages of BOT and its influence in concession contracts in Spain.30On-street parking management responsibilities should be centralized under one municipal entity to ensure a comprehensive vision and accountability and to
243、 enable connections to other transport decision-making.The operating structure should reflect capacity,while allowing for growth and adaptation.Cities with limited capacity should minimize the number of contracts by using a single private operator or build-operate-transfer model,reducing administrat
244、ive overhead and financial risk.As capacity grows,cities should reevaluate the operating structure and their ability to take on more financial risk or direct operations,if necessary,to ensure the system progresses toward established goals.Privatizing on-street parking is not a recommended contract a
245、pproach because of the significant restrictions it places on cities to effectively manage their curbs and streets.MANAGEACTIONS&RECOMMENDATIONS383.3 GENERATE A FINANCIAL MODELThe financial model for an on-street parking program includes two types of costscapital(fixed,one-time costs)and operating(va
246、riable costs incurred during program operation)as well as revenue streams.Capital and operating costs for operating a parking program are included below.The financial model is important for predicting and maximizing the long-term financial sustainability of the system:For example,capital costs to es
247、tablish a priced parking system can range from USD$8 million to USD$12 million or more.However,these costs do not necessarily need to be paid upfront if the city is using a concessionaire or debt financing.CAPITALCOSTSOPERATINGCOSTSParking meters or pay stationsMeter maintenance/repairMeter/pay stat
248、ion installation Enforcement staffStreetscape changes(paving,marking/signage,physical barriers,etc.)Control center/customer service staffControl center setupEnforcement vehicle fuel/maintenanceEnforcement equipment(vehicles,technology,etc.)Administrative costsMarketing,education,community engagement
249、In most cases,the public sector owns the parking meters or spaces.One way to minimize capital costs is to forgo meters and instead use a tear-and-display or pay-by-mobile-app system,though these have downsides(see sidebar on page 40).The government must decide how to finance additional capital costs
250、 and pay for any ongoing operational expenditures not covered by the operator(s).Operational costs of the program can be paid by a specific agency budget,the city general fund,parking program revenues,or a combination of these.If the government is contracting out certain services,the expectations de
251、tailed in the financial model must be written into the contract.39CAPITAL COSTSCapital costs are important to calculate because some or all of these costs will fall to the city,because of the operating structure and contract terms.Capital costs will vary significantly depending on the meters or pay
252、stations used(if at all),amount of streetscape adjustments needed to facilitate on-street parking,and whether and which technology will be used for enforcement.Capital costs to establish a priced on-street parking program may be financed through one or a combination of the following avenues:Local fu
253、nding:Cities with the legal authority and good financial standing to do so may issue municipal bonds to fund on-street parking infrastructure,which can be backed by municipal tax revenue or a portion of the revenue generated from the parking program.State/national fundingCities may be able to apply
254、for state or federal grants that can be used to establish a paid on-street parking program.This type of funding may carry specific requirements or outcomes the city will need to demonstrate the ability to meet.Publicprivate partnership If cities are not willing or able to pay for capital costs upfro
255、nt,they may partner with a private company to cover certain costs.For example,a parking meter company may lease meters to a city.This will likely cost the city more money over the life of the meters,but it presents an alternative to paying the full cost upfront.A management contract or concession ag
256、reement may include full or partial coverage of capital costs by the private operator.OPERATING COSTSOperating costs for an on-street parking program will reflect the programs size and level of sophistication.Operating costs can vary widely across regions because of differences in the cost of labor.
257、For example,operating costs for So Paulos on-street parking program are an estimated$6.4 million,while Westminster,Englands program costs$22.1 million to operate.31 32 The city will need to estimate(and work to minimize)operating costs if it plans to operate the system outright or through a publicpr
258、ivate partnership that includes some cost-sharing.Otherwise,operating costs fall completely to the operator(s),and the level of transparency around those costs will vary depending on how the contract is structured.As discussed previously,concessioned operators typically do not share operating cost i
259、nformation with the city because it is the sole responsibility of the operator to cover those costs.Operating costs are typically paid for using parking revenues,which can include on-street parking fees,off-street parking fees,and/or parking fines,or through a city agency budget.Dirio Oficial do Est
260、ado de So Paulo.2019.Pgina 107 da Cidade do Dirio Oficial do Estado de So Paulo(DOSP)de 26 de Novembro de 2019.City of Westminster.20182019.Westminster Annual Parking Report.313240METERS,PAY STATIONS,OR APP-BASED PAYMENT?Some cities are replacing some or all traditional coin-or card-operated parking
261、 meters with pay stations that require users to pay at a kiosk and enter their license plate number(pay by plate)or display a receipt on their dashboard(pay and display).Pay stations eliminate the need to install or maintain a meter at every single parking space,reducing the profile of parking infra
262、structure on the street and lowering costs.In Portland,Oregon it costs$450 to install one parking pay station which covers one parking block,compared to$700 to install single-space meters along the same block.Cities looking to minimize meter purchase,installation,or service costs can consider the pa
263、y station alternative for some or all single-space meters.Procurement for single-space meters and pay stations may be done separately,as was done by San Francisco.33 Another alternative to minimize capital costs for cities with no existing parking payment infrastructure is to forgo on-street meters
264、or pay stations altogether,instead implementing a mobile-app-based payment system(more on pay-by-app in the sidebar in Section 3.2).+See Parking Pricing Implementation for more on capital and operating costs of different parking pricing types.REVENUE STREAMSThe final component of the financial model
265、 is to determine revenue streamsnamely,parking fees and penalty fines.The financial model for a publicly funded system must be clear on where any revenue generated through the system will go,and this must be defined in any contracts.As shown in the table on the next page,most parking programs genera
266、te more revenue than is required to operate them,enabling cities to direct surplus revenue to sustainable transport and public space improvements.SFMTA.2020.Request for proposals for single-and multi-space parking meter hardware and associated meter management systems.33In 2015,the Seattle Departmen
267、t of Transportation replaced single-space parking meters with pay stations,which also enable on-street parking rates to vary throughout the day based on demand.source:Seattle Department of Transportation,Flickr41Westminster(ENG)$111.7 million(2019)$89.6 million(80%)Parking Places Reserve Account(PPR
268、A)69%to environment and citymanagement,remainder toplacemaking,public health,andfamily servicesSo Paulo(BRA)$17 million(2019)$10.6 million(62%)Data not availableOttawa(CAN)$7.1 million(2018)Data not availableData not availableSan Francisco(US)$79.7 million$47 million(59%)Subsidies for public transpo
269、rta-tion(MUNI)Guadalajara(MEX)$1.03 million$577,000(56%)Communications campaignto educate the public about thesystem Public space improvement(reinvestment program not yetestablished)Mexico City(MEX)$6.4 million(2018)N/A30%allocated to mobility and urban infrastructure projects in parking districts F
270、ortaleza(BRA)Data not avail-able$652,908100%of surplus revenues allocated to the citys bikeshare program and the maintenance and expansion of bicycle lanesAntwerp(BEL)$28.7 million(2019)$3.6 million(13%)Data not availableCITYON-STREET PARKING RENEVUE*INCLUDING FEES+FINESSURPLUS REVENUE(%OF TOTAL)WHE
271、RE ARE SURPLUS REVENUES DIRECTED?sources:Westminster,So Paulo,Ottawa,Mexico City,Antwerp;San Francisco,Guadalajara data courtesy of ITDP Mexico;Fortaleza data courtesy of Tais Costa,City of Fortaleza.*All revenues in USD 42DIRECTING REVENUE IN CONTRACTS In the case of a municipal department,parking
272、authority,or management-contracted private operator managing the parking system,revenues from parking fees,penalties,etc.,will go directly to the city.In Stockholm,for example,all revenues are received by the city,which then pays its contracted operator a fixed fee per transaction(rather than a perc
273、entage).Stockholm has also established a system where various mobile-based parking providers can purchase parking time from the city.However,in this case,the revenue generated goes directly to the mobile app provider.34 A number of cities take a similar approach,where an operator is contracted to op
274、erate metered spaces,while mobile app companies are permitted using a shorter,more flexible agreement.For example,in Warsaw,the company operating the parking meters is paid a fixed fee per transaction as part of a 10-year contract,while mobile providers are paid a percentage of the revenue generated
275、 as part of a three-year contract.35REVENUE ALLOCATIONRevenues may be housed in different places depending on the city.In some cases,revenue is placed in a municipalitys general operating fund.In others,all parking revenues are directed to the transportation department.This is the case in Portland,O
276、regon,where parking meters generate about$36 million annually.This accounts for approximately 10%of the total transportation department budget and 25%of the discretionary budget,which has fewer restrictions on how funds are spent.36 This flexibility has enabled Portland to require that 51%of net par
277、king revenues fund transportation projects within the district where the funds were generated,while the remaining 49%is placed in the transportation departments general revenue fund.37 Parking enforcement in Portland is also funded from this general revenue fund.Alternatively,a municipal department
278、may oversee a publicly owned trust that guards all the revenue generated by the on-street parking system.For example,in Chennai,India,the Greater Chennai Corporation established an escrow account,overseen by an independent financial manager,where parking revenues are deposited.The parking operators
279、fee is paid from this account,and surplus revenue is directed to walking,cycling,and public transport improvements.In some cases,a private operator may find this arrangementwhere they do not receive revenues directly from usersunsuitable,especially if the government is not able to make timely disbur
280、sements to them.Using an independent party to manage the account and disburse payments to the operator,as is the case in Chennai,can mitigate operators concerns.This can,in turn,ensure more accurate revenue reporting and discourage corruption.If a concessioned operator is managing the program,revenu
281、es will be received by the operator.As part of the concession agreement,the operator keeps a percentage of the revenues and the rest is remitted to the municipality.The municipality can peg the percentage retained by the operator to its level of service.It may be difficult,however,for the city to ac
282、curately track expenditures and revenues in a concessioned parking system(as those financials are internal to the operator),which could Interview with Jacob Jonsson,Trafikkontoret,Stockholm City,2018.Interview with Micha Lejk,Warsaw Parking Department,2018.Portland Bureau of Transportation.2019.Net
283、Meter Revenue Policy Presentation.Portland Bureau of Transportation.2020.Net Meter Revenue Policy Review.3435363743result in underreporting of revenue by the concessionaire.Anticipating this,cities should require,as part of the concession agreement,consistent reporting from the concessioned operator
284、 and be able to keep confidential any proprietary commercial or financial information.The city may also include in the concession agreement the ability to conduct an audit of the concessionaires financial records.When using a concessioned operator,there is still an opportunity to allocate revenue fr
285、om parking to support public transit and other sustainable modes.This is the case in Rosario,where the city passed an ordinance in 2013 that requires 20%of parking revenue to be allocated to public transportation.38REVENUE SHARINGRevenue sharing refers to the practice of sharing operating profits(an
286、d in some cases losses)among designated stakeholders.In the context of parking,revenue generated from the whole parking program can be shared:Between the city and private operator(s).In most cases,the share of revenues allocated to the operator(s)remains a fixed percentage over the length of the con
287、tract.However,some cities,like Guangzhou,have negotiated variable revenue shares,so the operators share will start high and decrease over the length of the contract(see example below).This increases the average share of revenue the government receives over the course of the contract.Years 13 30%70%Y
288、ears 4-8 40%60%Years 91050%50%Avg share39%61%GOVERNMENT SHAREPRIVATE OPERATOR SHAREMunicipalidad de Rosario.2014.Ordenanza N 9150/2013.38Across municipal agencies responsible for the management of parking program elements.For example,in Pune,revenues from parking fines are shared between the Pune Pa
289、rking Authority and the Traffic Police.44Among parking districts,as is the case in Portland and Mexico City.Parking benefit districts can help to encourage local support for priced parking because local businesses and residents benefit directly from the revenue generated in their district.39 Demand(
290、and fees to be collected)for parking spaces varies by location and time.Some operations costs(maintenance,enforcement)also vary by location,with central business districts and other high-demand areas requiring a larger share of revenues compared to districts with lower demand.Shoup,D.2016.Parking be
291、nefit districts.39PARKING DISTRICTS IN PORTLAND,OREGONIn Portland,average costs to the city for parking vary based on the district,and how revenues are distributed reflects those costs.As shown on the map below,the downtown neighborhood district receives an average of$357 per resident from parking r
292、evenues,while north and northeast Portland receive just over half that amount.$208$211$218$230$187$357$202$185In Portland,OR,average operating costs and capital spending for parking varies by neighborhood.source:Portland Bureau of Transportation45Develop a financial model to estimate capital and ope
293、rating costs as well as revenue streams,which can vary significantly depending on the size and sophistication of the parking program.Surplus revenue should be allocated to a fund used exclusively for sustainable transport and related public space improvement projects.Revenue sharing,particularly amo
294、ng parking districts,can help to encourage local support for priced parking because businesses and residents will benefit directly from the revenue generated in their district.FINANCEACTIONS&RECOMMENDATIONS3.4 PRODUCE AN OUTREACH PLANThe success of an on-street parking management system is highly co
295、ntingent on communicating to drivers and the general public about the programs purpose.Coupled with coalition-building efforts,a strong outreach plan that includes community engagement,education,and marketing can drum up enthusiasm for the improved parking services and higher-quality neighborhood st
296、reets that can be expected.In cities with few or no existing rules around parking or that rely on informal rules and agents,the transition to a formal system can be challenging and confusing.An outreach plan can play an important role in helping people understand what the city is doing,why,and how t
297、he program works.The plan could also include a“grace period”so people can get used to the idea of paying for parking and understand the new parking rules before fines or other penalties are fully enforced.Cities should consider assigning staff within the municipal department that oversees on-street
298、parking or working with the contracted parking operator(s)to designate staff responsible for implementing the outreach plan.Funding for outreach can come from parking revenues,as in Guadalajara,where a portion of system revenue is allocated to communications campaigns to educate the public.COMMUNITY
299、 ENGAGEMENT To ease the transition to more formal on-street parking management,community engagement can align community and government expectations for a priced and managed parking program.Cities should identify and engage with frequent parking patrons,such as daily driving commuters.A key goal of p
300、arking management is to nudge daily all-day parkers towards alternatives,such as lower-demand parking locations,off-street parking,or other modes.Outreach should focus on helping commuters understand and choose these alternatives.46Starting early on in the planning process,setting up focus groups wi
301、th businesses,organizations,and entities that will interact with the paid parking system can help inform program roll-out and ensure it aligns with community needs.Commercial stakeholders often feel some sense of ownership over local parking adjacent to their businesses.While this is not a legal cla
302、im,city officials should be mindful that challenging this perception of ownership is likely to weaken relationships with these groups.To avoid such an outcome,city governments must strike a balance,ensuring that commercial and residential stakeholders feel meaningfully included in the process withou
303、t catering to demands that could jeopardize the effectiveness of a parking management program.EDUCATION Educating the public about new parking rules,rates,penalties,and the citys broader vision for parking management creates transparency.Education can be conducted through various channels,and the ci
304、ty should work with parking operators to carry out a coordinated outreach effort.In some cases,the operator(s)or a third-party consultant may be tasked with preparing an education strategy that informs the public of the new parking system and how it works.A website that explains all parking rules,ra
305、tes,and penalties of the new program should be part of any outreach or education effort.Transparency of the rules and enforcement aims to minimize instances of drivers feeling taken advantage of by a system they do not understand.Opt-in SMS messaging or newsletters that update users on parking rate
306、or enforcement changes after the program launches can be helpful in maintaining transparency over time.A parklet in the Leblon neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro provides a shady,comfortable public space to relax in what used to be a vehicle parking space.source:ITDP Brazil47Ros et.al.2013.Parking and d
307、emand management policies in Latin America,Inter-American Bank.Such ideas were introduced as part of the communications plan for Provo,Utah.4041MARKETING AND BRANDINGSuccessful marketing and branding of a new parking system can help communicate the connection between parking management and a broader
308、 vision of livability and prioritization of space for people over vehicles.Some cities,such as Mexico City,develop specific branding around the parking system to capture the imagination of the public about the systems goals.Known as ecoParq(see Mexico City case study),Mexico Citys parking management
309、 system uses green branding and the“eco”in its name to communicate to the public that it is part of a larger environmental program to improve air quality and other health outcomes.The name ecoParq was also intentionally distanced from the government and bureaucracy,which tend to be resisted in Mexic
310、o.40 The branding of ecoParq was part of a larger outreach plan that included sending flyers to notify residents of parking changes,distributing informational kits in public parks,and developing a user-friendly website.Marketing does not necessarily end with the launch of the new parking program.Tak
311、ing part in global campaigns such as PARK(ing)day,where artists and organizations temporarily transform parking spaces into more productive uses(e.g.,parklets,outdoor restaurant seating,play spaces,etc.),can help people visualize and experience the changes that are possible as a result of managing p
312、arking.41On-street parking was repurposed to create a pedestrian plaza on Shamian Island in Guangzhou,Chinasource:ITDP China48Develop an outreach plan to communicate both the vision of the parking program and the new parking rules with the public.Use focus groups and other engagement strategies to i
313、nvolve local community stakeholders in the process of planning and transitioning to a priced parking system.Work,with operators if applicable,to educate the public about new parking rules by setting up a website and distributing flyers and other resources.Develop a communications strategy that inclu
314、des branding the parking system in line with a broader vision and/or taking part in already established global or regional campaigns around parking.Consider assigning a staff member within the implementing agency to oversee public education and outreach.This person should liaise with local organizat
315、ions and stakeholders to prepare them for the transition to a priced parking program and ensure implementation of the outreach plan.ENGAGEACTIONS&RECOMMENDATIONS3.5 DEVELOP AN ENFORCEMENT STRATEGYEnforcement is a key piece of a successful priced on-street parking program because it establishes norms
316、 for orderly parking and disincentivizes violating parking rules.However,parking enforcement is often a major challenge for cities.Cities that have been unable or unwilling to enforce parking rules tend to experience significant violations and disorderliness,and they may not see progress toward the
317、citywide goals connected to the parking program.A range of common barriers to successful parking enforcement include:Parking rules not clearly communicated(lack of signage,delineated spaces,etc.)Multiple agencies responsible for different elements of street space managementLack of legal standing to
318、enforce parking violations49Nonexistent or unreliable vehicle registriesLower social status of enforcement agents compared to driversUse of police officers for enforcement,which officers view as a low priority,an opportunity for corrupt behavior,42 or where police priorities do not align with parkin
319、g management(e.g.,focusing enforcement only on main roads or on parking violations that obstruct traffic)Information technology(IT)system used for fee collection does not extend to enforcement,leaving issuing citations up to individual attendants and open to corrupt behavior.Negotiating a role for i
320、nformal parking managers within a formally managed systemAsian Development Bank.2011.Parking policy in Asian Cities.42An enforcement official checks on-street parking payment in Moscow,Russiasource:Ultraskrip/shutterstock50Penalty rates and towing should align with the severity of the violation.For
321、example,parking in an illegal zone carries the highest penalty,and the vehicle will be towed because it is actively blocking the flow of traffic or putting vulnerable users like cyclists using a bicycle lane at risk.These penalties serve as a strong disincentive to park in an illegal zone.However,wh
322、ile neglecting to pay to park in a priced space is also a violation and carries a penalty,doing so does not inconvenience other road users and does not necessarily warrant the vehicle being towed.The aim of enforcement is to ensure a well-functioning system,not to aggravate or target drivers.Underst
323、anding these and related barriers to enforcement can help cities design an enforcement plan that proactively addresses challenges.The first step is to ensure that enforcement actions are lawful and will not be subject to legal challenges that could undermine the program.An enforcement plan should en
324、able the city to identify and issue penalty notices for illegal parking activities.Such activities should be categorized as part of a hierarchy,where the most severe violations carry the highest penalties:Illegally parked in a no-parking zone Parked in a loading zone,cycle lane,bus lane or stop,on a
325、 sidewalk,dou-ble-parked,or blocking a fire hydrant or other emergency accessDid not pay to park or parked in illegal parking spaceParked in a priced space and did not pay,in a space not designated for vehi-cle parking,or in a space restricted to certain permitted drivers(e.g.,disabled driver space)
326、Exceeding maximum time permittedOverstayed time allotted for a paid space or a parking space that is free of charge for a certain time(e.g.,up to 2 hours)VIOLATIONPENALTY RATEVEHICLE REMOVED(TOWED)HighestHighLow+See On-Street Parking Management:An International Toolkit for more information.51ENFORCE
327、MENT AGENTS Enforcement agents are responsible for canvassing regulated parking zones and issuing citations for violations of parking rules.Depending on the contract and data-sharing agreement with the parking operator(s),cities may consider requiring the ability to monitor the movement of enforceme
328、nt agents and their inspection activity.This can help to ensure oversight and be a way to better understand and adapt enforcement protocols.When making decisions about enforcement staff,city officials should also consider the following questions:Who is being employed as an enforcement agent?What are
329、 the duties of an enforcement agent?What is needed for enforcement agents to do their job effectively and safely?What criteria can be used to evaluate enforcement agent performance?How many enforcement agents are needed?What is the cost of enforcement per parked vehicle per hour?How can technology b
330、e used to enhance services and minimize costs?Enforcement agents can be police officers,privately contracted agents,or existing traffic officials.The entity responsible for providing enforcement agents will likely determine what agents duties will be.For example,if enforcement is contracted out to a
331、 private company,the full range of dutiesfrom monitoring spaces,to issuing citations,to wheel clamping and towingmay be conducted by the enforcement agents.Alternatively,if enforcement is being conducted by the police,enforcement agents may only be able to identify infractions,requiring a police off
332、icer to actually issue the ticket.In cities where parking management is being transitioned from informal(e.g.,unsanctioned parking attendants)to formal,it is important to consider integrating existing parking attendants into the formal enforcement structure.For example,Mexico City set up an employme
333、nt program for franeleros,independent attendants who collected fees for parking before the citys ecoParq program was implemented.It is also necessary to anticipate and mitigate potential harassment that may occur as a result of enforcement:In informal parking systems,attendants may harass drivers,exploiting them through bribes or slashing tires if drivers refuse to pay a gratuity.In formal parking