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1、Energy Policy ReviewSwitzerland 2023The IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues including oil,gas and coal supply and demand,renewable energy technologies,electricity markets,energy efficiency,access to energy,demand side management and much more.Through its work,the IEA advocates policies t
2、hat will enhance the reliability,affordability and sustainability of energy in its 31 member countries,13 association countries and beyond.This publication and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international fronti
3、ers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Source:IEA.International Energy Agency Website:www.iea.orgIEA member countries:AustraliaAustriaBelgiumCanadaCzech RepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIrelandItalyJapanKoreaLithuaniaLuxembourgMexicoNetherlandsNew Zeal
4、andNorwayPolandPortugalSlovak RepublicSpainSwedenSwitzerlandRepublic of TrkiyeUnited KingdomUnited StatesThe European Commission also participates in the work of the IEAIEA association countries:Argentina BrazilChinaEgyptIndiaIndonesiaKenyaMoroccoSenegalSingapore South Africa Thailand UkraineINTERNA
5、TIONAL ENERGYAGENCY 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ENERGY INSIGHTS Executive summary.9 Key recommendations.12 1.General energy policy.13 Country overview.13 Energy supply and demand.16 Key policies.18 Measures to ensure short-term energy security during the winters of 2022/23 and 2023/24.24 Hydrogen.25 Assessm
6、ent.26 Recommendations.28 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION 2.Energy and climate change.29 Overview.29 Energy-related GHG emissions drivers and GHG intensity.30 Energy-related GHG emissions.31 Climate targets.32 Climate policies.33 Carbon capture and storage and carbon dioxide removal.39 Adaptation and r
7、esilience to climate change.39 Environmental impacts of the energy sector.40 Assessment.40 Recommendations.43 3.Energy efficiency.45 Overview.45 Policy targets and measures.46 Buildings.47 Transport.51 Industry.55 Public sector.56 Assessment.57 Recommendations.61 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 4.Renewable ener
8、gy.63 Overview.63 Renewable electricity.65 Renewable electricity policies and measures.65 Renewable heating and cooling.71 Renewable transport.72 Assessment.73 Recommendations.77 5.Energy research,development and demonstration.79 Overview.79 Key actors in the energy innovation ecosystem.79 Resource
9、push.80 Energy innovation policies,priorities and programmes.81 Knowledge management.85 Assessment.87 Recommendations.88 ENERGY SECURITY 6.Electricity.89 Overview.89 Electricity supply and demand.89 Industry structure.91 Retail prices and taxes.92 Electricity policy.93 Security of electricity supply
10、.96 Assessment.97 Recommendations.100 7.Natural gas.101 Overview.101 Gas supply,demand and trade.102 Market structure.103 Natural gas infrastructure.105 Natural gas policy.106 Biogas.107 Natural gas security.107 Assessment.108 TABLE OF CONTENTS 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Recommendations.109 8.Nuclear.111 O
11、verview.111 Status of the Swiss nuclear fleet.112 Power generation.113 The role of long-term operation of Swiss nuclear power plants in the generation mix.113 Radioactive waste management strategy.115 Nuclear research.118 Assessment.118 Recommendations.120 9.Oil.121 Overview.121 Supply and demand.12
12、2 Oil policy.124 Market structure.125 Biofuels.126 Infrastructure.127 Oil emergency policy and stockholding.128 Assessment.129 Recommendations.130 ANNEXES ANNEX A:Organisations visited.131 Review criteria.131 Review team and preparation of the report.131 ANNEX B:Glossary and list of abbreviations.13
13、4 Acronyms and abbreviations.134 Units of measure.135 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figures Figure 1.1 Policy-making cycle in Switzerland.14 Figure 1.2 Overview of energy production,supply and demand in Switzerland,2021.16 Figure 1.3 Total energy supply by source in Switzerland,2005-2021.17 Figure 1.4
14、Total final consumption by source in Switzerland,2005-2021.17 TABLE OF CONTENTS 6 Figure 1.5 Energy demand per sector and per fuel and electricity generation by fuel in Switzerland,2021.18 Figure 2.1 Total greenhouse gas emissions by sector in Switzerland,1990-2021,and 2030 and 2050 targets.30 Figur
15、e 2.2 Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions and main drivers in Switzerland,2005-2021.31 Figure 2.3 Energy-related GHG emissions by sector in Switzerland,2005-2021.31 Figure 2.4 Energy-related GHG emissions by energy source in Switzerland,2005-2021.32 Figure 2.5 Selected measures of Switzerlands C
16、O2 Act over time.34 Figure 3.1 Energy demand and drivers in Switzerland,2005-2021.45 Figure 3.2 Total final consumption by sector in Switzerland,2005-2021.46 Figure 3.3 Total final consumption in the buildings sector in Switzerland by source,2005-2021.48 Figure 3.4 Total final consumption in transpo
17、rt in Switzerland by energy source,2005-2021.52 Figure 3.5 Registered electric vehicles and public charging points in Switzerland,2010-2022.53 Figure 3.6 Total final consumption in industry by source in Switzerland,2005-2021.55 Figure 4.1 Renewable energy in total final energy consumption in Switzer
18、land,2005-2021.64 Figure 4.2 Share of renewable energy by source in each of Switzerlands sectors,2021.64 Figure 4.3 Renewable energy in electricity generation in Switzerland,2005-2021.65 Figure 4.4 Allocation of network surcharge by funding mechanism in Switzerland,2022.67 Figure 5.1 Energy-related
19、public RD&D budget by sector in Switzerland,2010-2021.81 Figure 5.2 Energy-related public RD&D spending per GDP in IEA countries,2021.81 Figure 5.3 Switzerlands participation in IEA technology collaboration programmes.85 Figure 5.4 New patents in energy-related climate change mitigation technologies
20、,Switzerland,2005-2019.86 Figure 6.1 Electricity generation by source in Switzerland,2005-2021.90 Figure 6.2 Electricity demand by sector in Switzerland,2005-2021.90 Figure 6.3 Switzerlands electricity imports and exports,2005-2021.91 Figure 6.4 Electricity prices for industry and households in IEA
21、member countries,4Q 2022.92 Figure 7.1 Share of natural gas in Switzerlands energy system,2005-2021.102 Figure 7.2 Natural gas demand by sector in Switzerland,2005-2021.102 Figure 7.3 Switzerlands natural gas trade by country,2005-2021.103 Figure 7.4 Natural gas prices for households in Switzerland,
22、4Q 2022.104 Figure 7.5 Natural gas prices for industry in Switzerland,4Q 2022.104 Figure 8.1 Nuclear electricity generation in Switzerland,2005-2021.111 Figure 9.1 Shares in oil in Switzerlands energy sector,2005-2021.122 Figure 9.2 Switzerlands net imports of crude oil and refinery feedstock by cou
23、ntry,2005-2022.122 Figure 9.3 Oil products demand by fuel(2005-2022)and sector(2005-2021)in Switzerland.123 Figure 9.4 Oil products production by fuel in Switzerland,2005-2022.123 Figure 9.5 Switzerlands net imports of oil products by country,2005-2022.124 Figure 9.6 Price comparison for automotive
24、diesel in the IEA,1Q 2023.126 TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Figure 9.7 Price comparison for unleaded gasoline(95 RON)in the IEA,1Q 2023.126 Figure 9.8 Switzerlands biofuels and shares in transport fuels,2011-2021.127 Tables Table 1.1 Energy efficiency targets in the ES2050,EP2050+and parliam
25、ent decision.23 Table 1.2 Renewables targets in the ES2050,EP2050+and parliament decision.23 Table 2.1 Switzerlands GHG emissions trends under main sectors and CO2 Act goals.32 Table 2.2 Summary of Switzerlands climate targets.33 Table 2.3 Terminology to describe the evolution of the CO2 Act.33 Tabl
26、e 3.1 Switzerlands energy efficiency targets according to ES2050 and EP2050+.47 Table 3.2 Switzerlands indicative energy efficiency targets and actual achievement in 2020.47 Table 6.1 Main cross-border interconnection capacity by source in Switzerland,2021.95 Table 8.1 Status of Swiss nuclear power
27、plants as of 2021.112 Table 8.2 Major modernisation and/or refurbishment of nuclear operating plants in recent years in Switzerland.114 Table 8.3 Timeline of the deep geological repository site selection process in Switzerland.116 9 ENERGY INSIGHTS Executive summary Switzerland is committed to reach
28、 net zero emissions by 2050 and reduce greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions by at least 50%by 2030 compared to 1990.To support this,the government has prepared several pieces of legislation.The long-term Federal Act on Climate Protection Goals,Innovation and Strengthening Energy Security foresees substantia
29、l subsidies for replacing fossil heating and processes.A revision to the CO2 Act for the period beyond 2025 with instruments to reach the countrys 2030 target under the Paris Agreement was being debated in parliament at the time of writing.The third piece of legislation is a revision of the 2018 Ene
30、rgy Act to replace the indicative targets for the expansion of renewables and per capita energy and electricity consumption with binding targets complemented with concrete measures to speed up deployment.Reaching the climate target for 2030 will require substantial efforts,especially in the building
31、 and transport sectors,which both failed to meet their 2020 sectoral emissions targets.One challenge for the government is that the domestic climate legislation is currently in a flux.A revision of the CO2 Act for the period to 2030 was rejected in referendum in 2021 and the new proposed CO2 Act is
32、still in the legislative process.Voters have,in particular,rejected the planned substantial increase in the CO2 levy on stationary fuels.The new proposed CO2 Act shifts the focus from regulations and tax increases to incentives and foresees a notable increase in funding for measures targeting the tr
33、ansport and building sectors.The new proposed CO2 Act to 2030 also increases the share of emissions reductions that can happen abroad to a maximum of 40%.Energy efficiency is a key pillar of Switzerlands strategy towards reaching its energy and climate targets for 2030 and the net zero target for 20
34、50.Switzerland shows notable decoupling between energy consumption and economic growth.Its total final consumption per capita is substantially below the IEA average and decreased by 13%between 2011 and 2021.However,the governments five-year monitoring report published in late 2022 concluded that the
35、 current policy measures are insufficient to reach the 2030 targets.It is,therefore,important that energy efficiency as the first fuel principle is anchored as a pillar of new energy and climate legislation.Switzerland recognises that by 2050 it will still emit around one-quarter of its current GHG
36、emissions from hard-to-abate sectors,around 60%of which would be balanced via net emissions technologies(NETs)in Switzerland and abroad.The country also has plans to develop carbon capture and storage(CCS)technologies and infrastructure to avoid the remaining approximate 7 million tonnes(Mt)of carbo
37、n dioxide(CO2)from waste incineration and concrete production a notable shift in positions compared to the IEAs last in-depth review in 2018,when CCS and NETs were not part of the proposed policy and technology mix.However,the federal government is legally limited in the development EXECUTIVE SUMMAR
38、Y 10 of CO2 transport and storage infrastructure within Switzerland because surface and subsurface territorial planning is under the competence of cantons.Ensuring security of electricity supply in winter While advancing its energy transition,Switzerland must also ensure security of supply,especiall
39、y during the winter months.There are several challenges ahead and tackling them in a co-ordinated way will require a whole-of-government,whole-economy approach.The greatest challenges lay in the electricity sector,which will undergo major changes with the gradual phase-out of nuclear,the accelerated
40、 electrification of the heating and transport sectors,and the need to ramp-up generation from renewable electricity to ensure the net zero emissions trajectory to 2050.Primarily,solar PV and hydro are expected to fill the gap from the phase-out of nuclear power.The Swiss electricity system has a ver
41、y high degree of flexibility thanks to its large installed capacity of pumped hydro storage.But Switzerland is dependent on imports to cover its electricity demand in winter when water reserves run low,and demand is high.With the expected changes to the energy mix in neighbouring countries,the winte
42、r import dependency might become critical,although Switzerland is importing electricity mainly at times when electricity prices are low in Europe.There is hence a need to accelerate the expansion of renewable energy and,in particular,technologies that offer more generation during winter,such as wind
43、 and hydro.The 2022 energy crisis and the tense situation in the nuclear sector in France(a major exporter to Switzerland in winter),compelled the government to implement urgent but time-limited measures to ensure short-term security of electricity and gas supply.It advanced several policy initiativ
44、es that had been languishing in the complex Swiss legal approval system.Under the so-called“winter reserve ordinance”,Switzerland is implementing measures to address the specific Swiss electricity shortage during winter;they include the creation of and regulation for the use of a hydropower reserve
45、of 500 gigawatt hours(GWh)and the construction of a 250 megawatt(MW)reserve power plant that can run on several fuels(gas,oil and hydrogen),with provisions for contracting pooled emergency generators and other existing gas turbines.Both would have permission to operate until the end of April 2026.By
46、 then,the ordinance would have been absorbed in the Act on the Secure Electricity Supply with Renewables that is currently in the legislative process.In the gas sector,the government obliged the gas industry to secure additional storage capacities outside of Switzerland equivalent to 15%of annual co
47、nsumption(there is no gas storage within the country)and to buy gas purchase options for about 20%of winter consumption.The energy crisis has revealed how necessary basic gas sector regulation is;the creation of an independent transmission system operator and a gas regulator should be pursued with u
48、rgency.Facilitating permitting processes and enhancing policy co-ordination A key obstacle to Switzerlands energy transition is the permitting processes for energy projects which mirror complex,time-intensive governance and legal structures.Projects often face long legal proceedings,which can delay
49、projects for decades.Although the EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 11 ENERGY INSIGHTS Energy Act of 2018 requires cantons to designate areas for renewables,the practical impact so far is limited,as the overall approval process remains complex.The same legislation designates large hydro and wind projects as being i
50、n the national interest.The government should now provide legal clarification that this designation applies to all renewable power plants and their connection to the grid,as well as the building and operation of electricity grids in general.The energy security benefits of such projects should also b
51、e reflected when weighing the legal interests in individual cases.Under Switzerlands distinct federal structure,the cantons have extensive legal prerogatives with respect to energy and,in particular,for energy use in buildings,spatial planning and water resources.Close co-operation between the feder
52、al and the cantonal level is hence a must to advance the energy transition.Moreover,cantons have their own laws,programmes and financing schemes,which are,however,co-ordinated at the national level.As such,the model regulations of the cantons in the energy sector,developed by the Conference of Canto
53、nal Energy Directors,have contributed to achieving some harmonisation in cantonal energy regulations for buildings.They set a best practice example.A similar approach could also be applied to further enhance harmonisation between cantons in other fields,such as permitting processes and spatial plann
54、ing.Another challenge for the energy transition is the lack of qualified labour,which is also an issue for the Swiss economy more broadly,causing delays in project development and construction.The Swiss Federal Office for Energy(SFOE),jointly with concerned stakeholders,launched a“training offensive
55、”in late 2021 specifically targeting professions related to the building sector.This is a commendable initiative,and the government should closely monitor its implementation and reinforcement if it fails to deliver the expected results.Relationship with the European Union Switzerland is not part of
56、the European Union(EU)but its energy,and in particular its electricity,market is closely intertwined with that of its neighbouring EU countries.However,since the IEAs last in-depth review in 2018,negotiations on an electricity agreement between Switzerland and the European Union have suffered a majo
57、r setback,as they were suspended in 2018.Switzerland is increasingly excluded from the advancing EU market integration,including certain market mechanisms which are crucial for grid security.Market integration with the European Union would improve the efficiency and co-ordination of transmission flo
58、ws;contribute to security of supply in Switzerland and in EU member countries,especially in view of the export of highly flexible Swiss hydropower;and offer benefits for Swiss consumers.Switzerlands electricity and gas markets are not yet fully liberalised and there has never been public support for
59、 this despite the governments efforts.Moreover,skyrocketing energy prices due to the energy crisis have reduced support for further opening the market.The government has aimed to cushion the opening by ensuring that no consumer is forced into the open market and that the supplier of last resort woul
60、d remain an option for each consumer.Open markets are a pre-condition for any eventual signing of an electricity agreement with the European Union.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 12 Key recommendations The government of Switzerland should:Work together with cantons to speed up permitting of energy projects of nat
61、ional interest.Encourage the cantons to harmonise and accelerate permitting processes,improve spatial planning for renewables,and remove legal barriers.Ensure timely preparation for the period after 2030 by starting to conceptualise the measures that need to be included in a new draft CO2 Act for th
62、e post-2030 period.Introduce basic gas market regulation.Establish an energy efficiency first principle in the energy and climate legislation to ensure it is considered and implemented in all relevant policies and plans.Align its electricity market regulations with those in the European Union,includ
63、ing on full market opening,while preserving the system of electricity supplies of last resort,and prepare for the legal integration of Switzerland into the EU internal market.13 ENERGY INSIGHTS 1.General energy policy Key data(2021)Total energy supply(TES):954 PJ,-9%since 2011 TES by source:oil 34.3
64、%,nuclear 22.3%,hydro 14.0%,natural gas 13.6%,bioenergy and waste 13.1%,solar and wind 1.4%,electricity net imports 0.9%,coal 0.4%Energy intensity per capita(TES/capita):109.5 GJ/capita(IEA average:166.7 GJ/capita);-18%since 2011 Energy intensity per GDP*(TES/GDP):1.61 MJ per USD(IEA average at 3.7
65、MJ per USD);-23%change since 2011 Total final consumption(TFC):759 PJ;-5%since 2011 TFC by sector:Buildings 47.4%,transport 29.3%,industry 23.3%*GDP data are in USD 2015 prices and purchasing power parity(PPP).Source:IEA(2022),IEA World Energy Balances.Country overview Switzerland is a small,landloc
66、ked country located in the centre of Western Europe.Bordered by Austria,France,Germany,Italy and Liechtenstein,the countrys territory expands over 41 285 km and is composed of 3 distinct geographical regions:the Alps(58%of the country),the Central Plateau(31%)and the Jura(11%).Switzerland has 6%of t
67、he European freshwater reserves,including the Rhone,Rhine,Ticino and Inn Rivers in the Swiss Alps.There are about 1 500 lakes,which together with other bodies of water cover 4%of the countrys surface.Switzerlands population was 8.7 million in 2021,20%higher than in 2000.Population growth is notably
68、higher than the average rate of IEA member countries,which experienced a population growth of 13%in the same time frame.With 218.6 people per square kilometre and 85%of the population living in urban areas,Switzerland has a relatively high population density.The capital of Switzerland is Bern,with a
69、round 135 000 residents;other major cities include Zurich,Geneva,Basel and Lausanne.Switzerland has four official languages,with German being the mother tongue for 63%of the population,French for 22%,Italian for 9%and Romansch for just under 1%.A notable amount of the population has a mother tongue
70、other than the national languages.Switzerlands climate is temperate but varies across regions,ranging from glacial freeze on the mountain tops to an almost Mediterranean climate at the southern tip.Precipitation is spread evenly throughout the seasons,with little variation.1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 14
71、 Switzerland is a federal state comprising 26 cantons,with a high degree of autonomy and each with a constitution and an assembly.Powers are devolved to the lowest possible state level,following the subsidiarity principle,and the cantons and communes implement most of the federal policies.Vertical c
72、o-operation is maintained through close consultation between the Federal Council(government)and the cantons for policy-and law-making processes.All policies not explicitly assigned to the federal level are the responsibility of the cantons.The federal legislative power is vested in the bicameral par
73、liament,the Federal Assembly,which is elected every four years.It consists of the National Council,representing the people,and the Council of States,representing the cantons.The executive power is held by the Federal Council,which consists of seven councillors who each serve as the head of a governm
74、ent department.Switzerland does not have a full-time president.Following an established order,the Federal Assembly elects one of the seven councillors every year to take up presidential duties,which are mainly representational.Swiss people have a unique direct say on political affairs and laws under
75、 the countrys direct democracy.A referendum is mandatory for any change to the Constitution and international treaties and optional for new legislation passed by parliament.A collection of 50 000 signatures within 100 days after parliament adopts a law triggers a referendum,which,if successful,inval
76、idates the law.Figure 1.1 Policy-making cycle in Switzerland Source:IEA(2018),Energy Policies of IEA Countries Switzerland 2018 Review.Two referendums are mentioned in this review:The first,on 13 June 2021,which rejected the CO2 Act for 2021-30,which had been adopted by parliament in the second half
77、 of 2020.The second,on 18 June 2023,which aimed(unsuccessfully)to overturn the Climate IEA.CC BY 4.01.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 15 ENERGY INSIGHTS Protection Act1 adopted by parliament in September 2022(see Chapter 2).In Switzerland,100 000 signatures are required to launch a popular initiative for a co
78、nstitutional amendment.This review mentions one initiative,the so-called“Glaciers Initiative”,launched in 2019,which called for a constitutional ban on the use of fossil fuels by 2050.The government and parliament considered this to be excessive and passed the Climate Protection Act in September 202
79、2 as a counterproposal.The promoters of the“Glaciers Initiative”withdrew their proposal but reserved the right to table it again in case the Climate Protection Act was defeated in the June 2023 referendum(see Chapter 2 and Figure 2.5).While the Swiss political system can result in a considerable inc
80、rease in the lead time of legislation,once approved,policies prove to be stable and effective.The federal governments forward-looking policy making and effective public engagement are essential for any policy initiative.Switzerlands energy policy is guided by Article 89 of the Constitution,which cal
81、ls for a sufficient,reliable,diversified,cost-effective and environmentally sound energy supply and emphasises the importance of energy efficiency.Energy policy is a shared responsibility between the federal government and the 26 cantons.Federal energy policy making has been strengthened in recent t
82、imes,chiefly by means of amendments to the 1998 Energy Act.Beyond setting targets,the federal level,for example,also provides incentives for renewables and decides on the allocation of the receipts from the CO2 tax.In other domains,such as spatial planning and buildings,cantons have retained their p
83、rerogatives.Cantons also have their own energy laws,programmes and financing schemes,which complement federal laws and programmes.The Department of the Environment,Transport,Energy and Communications(DETEC)is the lead ministry in charge of energy policy,in both its formulation and implementation.Com
84、bining the energy and environmental portfolios under a single ministry is intended to strengthen sustainability concerns in energy policy making.Within DETEC,the Swiss Federal Office of Energy(SFOE)is responsible for the administration of energy policy.Economy In 2021,Switzerlands nominal gross dome
85、stic product(GDP)per capita was USD 75 951,the fourth-highest among IEA member countries after Luxembourg,Ireland and Norway,and well above the average of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD)of USD 48 957.The service sector accounted for 73.8%of Switzerlands GDP,industry
86、25.5%and the primary sector 0.6%.The unemployment rate in the third quarter of 2022 was 4.2%,lower than the OECD average(4.9%).The Covid-19 pandemic caused GDP to fall by 2.4%in 2020,but it rebounded in 2021 by 4.2%,higher than in 2019.Although Switzerland is not an EU member country,it maintains cl
87、ose engagements with the European Union,which is the countrys largest trading partner.In 2021,61%of Switzerlands imports originated from the European Union,and 47%of its exports were to the European Union.Switzerland participates in the European Free Trade Association and the Schengen Agreement.1 Fu
88、ll name:Federal Law on Climate Protection Goals,Innovation and Strengthening Energy Security.1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 16 Energy supply and demand Switzerland does not produce hydrocarbons.In 2021,the countrys energy production consisted of nuclear power(45%),hydro(28%),bioenergy and waste(25%),and on
89、ly a small share of variable renewable energies(2.8%)(Figure 1.2).Domestic production covers 50%of TES and the remainder consists of imported fossil fuels.Fossil fuels account for 48%of TES,with oil accounting for 34%,nuclear for 22%,natural gas for 14%and coal 0.4%.Oil is the largest fuel in total
90、final consumption(TFC)followed by electricity,natural gas and bioenergy.The buildings sector dominates TFC,followed by transport and industry.Figure 1.2 Overview of energy production,supply and demand in Switzerland,2021 *Other renewables include wind,solar and geothermal.Source:IEA(2022),World Ener
91、gy Balances.Total energy supply From 2005 to 2021,Switzerlands TES fluctuated in a downwards trend(Figure 1.3).The fluctuations were driven by changes in energy demand,mainly linked to heating,and fluctuating supply from hydro and nuclear.TES decreased in 2020 because of the pandemic,and in 2021 bec
92、ause of lower energy supply from nuclear(-19%),bioenergy(-4%)and hydro(-2%),partially offset by increased electricity imports.The share of fossil fuels in TES decreased from 56%in 2005 to 48%in 2021.Oil remains the single largest fuel in TES,accounting for 35%,but its share has decreased since 2005,
93、when it was 44%.The second energy source in TES is nuclear(22%in 2021),which fluctuated depending on the availability of nuclear reactors.In 2021,hydro had the third-largest share of TES(14%),slightly higher than natural gas(14%)and bioenergy and waste(13%).Hydro shows considerable annual change,dep
94、ending on the annual variation of precipitations.Solar,wind and geothermal still represent small shares of TES(1.4%in total in 2021),despite having grown fivefold since 2011.Coal use is insignificant and is consumed only by the cement industry to produce clinker.The cement industry is partly replaci
95、ng coal with other fuels,such as combustible renewables and old tyres.0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 9001 000ProductionTotal energy supplyTFC(by fuel)TFC(by sector)PetajoulesHydroOther renewables*NuclearDistrict heatElectricityBioenergy and wasteNatural gasOilCoalTransformations and lossesIndustr
96、yTransportBuildingsImportsIEA.CC BY 4.01.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 17 ENERGY INSIGHTS Figure 1.3 Total energy supply by source in Switzerland,2005-2021 *Other renewables include solar,wind and geothermal;it is barely visible at this scale and increased from 1.9 PJ in 2010 to 13.5 PJ in 2021.Source:IEA(2
97、022),World Energy Balances.Energy demand From 2005 to 2021,TFC decreased from 846 petajoule(PJ)to 755 PJ(-11%)(Figure 1.4).From 2019 to 2020,TFC dropped by 5.1%,mainly due to the Covid-19 pandemic,but rebounded in 2021 to a level very similar to 2019.In 2021,oil accounted for the largest share of TF
98、C,at 44%,followed by electricity at 28%.The share of electricity is the fourth-highest among International Energy Agency(IEA)member countries,showing a high level of electrification of Switzerlands energy demand.The share of natural gas in TFC increased from 12%in 2005 to 16%in 2021.Figure 1.4 Total
99、 final consumption by source in Switzerland,2005-2021 *Other renewables include solar and geothermal;it is barely visible at this scale and increased from 1.6 PJ in 2011 to 2.7 PJ in 2021.Source:IEA(2022),World Energy Balances.The buildings sector accounted for 47%of TFC in 2021,followed by transpor
100、t(29%)then industry(23%)(Figure 1.5).Electricity is the first source of energy in both buildings(37%of the sectors demand)and industry(36%).The share of electricity in industry is much higher than the IEA average(23%).All other energy demand in industry is covered by natural gas(24%),oil(19%),bioene
101、rgy(13%),district heat(4.4%)and coal(2%).After electricity,energy demand in buildings is covered by oil(27%,the fifth-highest share among IEA member countries),natural gas(23%),bioenergy(9%)and district heat(4%).-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000 1 100 1 200PJNuclearElectricity net imp
102、ortsOther renewables*HydroBioenergy and wasteNatural gasOilCoal0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900PJDistrict heatElectricityOther renewables*Bioenergy and wasteNatural gasOilCoal1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 18 As for most IEA member countries,Switzerlands transport sector largely relies on oil(91%in 20
103、21).Electricity,mainly used in rail,represents the second source of energy in transport(5%),followed by biofuels(3.5%)and natural gas(0.5%).In 2021,Switzerlands main source of electricity generation was hydro,which covered 59%of total generation,followed by nuclear(31%).Smaller shares come from bioe
104、nergy and waste(5.2%),solar(4.5%),and natural gas(0.8%),as well as 0.2%from wind and 0.1%from oil.Figure 1.5 Energy demand per sector and per fuel and electricity generation by fuel in Switzerland,2021 Note:TWh=terawatt hour.Source:IEA(2022),World Energy Balances.Key policies Energy Strategy 2050 Th
105、e Energy Strategy 2050(ES2050)is a strategic policy package to advance Switzerlands energy transition towards a low-carbon economy.It consists of a comprehensive set of new and revised laws and ordinances as well as policy measures that are implemented in phases.At its centre is the complete revisio
106、n of the Energy Act of 1998 that entered into force on 1 January 2018 jointly with related new and revised laws and ordinances.The ES2050 has four pillars:1)phase out nuclear energy;2)reduce energy consumption and emissions per capita;3)promote renewable energy sources and energy efficiency;and 4)im
107、proved energy security.The ES2050 contains a number of indicative targets for energy efficiency and the expansion of renewables for 2020,2035 and 2050(see Tables 2.1 and 2.2).It also addresses the impacts of Switzerlands decision for a progressive withdrawal from nuclear energy production in the ele
108、ctricity sector.The first nuclear plant(Mhleberg)shut down in 2019 for commercial reasons upon the decision of its operator.Implementation of the ES2050 is monitored through annual reports.The reports have been prepared annually since 2018.In addition,a five-yearly report was prepared for the first
109、time in 2022,with an assessment of energy policies,existing and planned measures towards reaching the objectives of the ES2050,and conclusions and recommendations on how to move forward.0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400Industry Buildings TransportHeatElectricitySolarBioenergy and wasteNatural gasOilC
110、oalEnergy demandPJOilWindNatural gasSolarBioenergy and wasteNuclearHydro0 10 20 30 40TWhElectricity generationIEA.CC BY 4.01.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 19 ENERGY INSIGHTS The key findings of the five-year report note that the policy measures in place are insufficient to reach the energy efficiency and re
111、newable deployment targets for 2030 and beyond.The report also noted the problems caused by lengthy approval and judicial processes for any kind of investments in the energy sector.The government is already addressing these concerns through,among other measures,the new Act on the Secure Electricity
112、Supply with Renewables(see below).Continuous monitoring based on relevant data and statistics to allow for early corrective actions,if needed,will be crucial to stay on track towards achieving the energy and climate targets.Switzerland has an excellent overall data collection system to monitor its p
113、olicies and continuously strives for further improvement.For sectoral demand data,the SFOE carries out an annual national survey on energy consumption in industry and services,covering 19 sub-sectors through a stratified sample.For all other sectors,data are based on information from energy supplier
114、s,such as electricity utilities.Energy end-use and efficiency data are produced as model analyses,with four sectoral bottom-up models(households,services,industry and transport).This work is carried out on an annual basis by external partners under the authority of the SFOE.Although input data for t
115、he model analyses are limited,there are no plans to develop any surveys to get more detailed sectoral and end-use information.The resources allocated for energy statistics are sufficient to address current data requirements,though they may be limited to ensure significant expansion of future data ne
116、eds for the energy transition.However,the energy crisis revealed severe gaps in closer-to-real-time data.Electricity and gas demand(or savings)data during the past winter were difficult to obtain for various reasons,such as fragmented,decentralised and reluctant sectors and industries and the lack o
117、f a legal basis to compel energy users to disclose data.The SFOE had to use various tools and specifically advanced data science modelling to compile plausible figures for its dashboard.The SFOE is currently preparing legislation to lay the base to enable it to access data.Long-Term Climate Strategy
118、 to 2050 and carbon pricing In 2019,Switzerland committed to net zero emissions by 2050.In 2021,the government adopted the countrys Long-term Climate Strategy to 2050 in line with the Paris Agreement.The strategy sets out emissions pathways for various sectors of the Swiss economy,including building
119、s,industry,transport,synthetic gases,aviation,and the waste industry,to reach the net zero target by 2050.Those pathways are based on the Energy Perspectives 2050+(EP2050+),a set of scenarios developed in 2020(see next section).Under the Paris Agreement,in December 2020 Switzerland committed to cut
120、GHG emissions by at least 50%by 2030 compared to 1990 levels.Emissions reductions in Switzerland are supported by the CO2 Act that first entered into force in 2000.Since 2008,Switzerland has levied a carbon price,the CO2 levy,on stationary uses of fossil fuels.Motor fuels are not subject to a CO2 le
121、vy.In total,about one-third of Switzerlands GHG emissions are covered by the CO2 levy and another 10%are covered by the Emissions Trading System(see Chapter 2).1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 20 The carbon content determines the amount of the CO2 levy for each energy source.The levy started at CHF 122 per t
122、onne of CO2(t CO2)in 2008 and was automatically increased if intermediate emissions targets were not achieved.This happened until the current level of 120 CHF/t CO2 was reached at the beginning of 2022.The current and proposed legislation does not provide for any further increases.In December 2017,t
123、he government proposed a new CO2 Act with additional instruments for the period to 2030 to ensure Switzerland can meet its Paris Agreement commitment.After having been adopted by parliament in autumn 2020,the law was rejected in a referendum in June 2021.As some of the instruments in the existing la
124、w were due to expire,parliament extended the CO2 Act until the end of 2024 in the hope of passing a revised law before then(see Chapter 2).In September 2022,the government submitted a revised proposed CO2 Act to parliament that no longer includes the proposal to increase the CO2 levy to 240 CHF/t CO
125、2 if intermediate emissions targets are not met,as was proposed in the rejected CO2 Act.A study undertaken in 2018 found that the CO2 levy has a higher emissions reduction impact than that of other measures.A special feature of the Swiss CO2 levy is the distribution of its revenues.Currently about t
126、wo-thirds are redistributed to the population and economy;the remaining third is used to support energy efficiency upgrades and the installation of renewable heating systems in buildings;a small amount is allocated to a Technology Fund.Swiss residents benefit on a per capita basis through a refund o
127、n their mandatory health insurance.The redistribution to the economy is provided to all employers as a subsidy on their share of pension fund contributions.There is an ongoing discussion in Switzerland if and how to address the countrys embedded emissions into its climate policy.Switzerland imports
128、a large part of the goods it consumes,as the economy is dominated by the service sector and has a relatively low share of energy-intensive industry.McKinsey estimated that embedded emissions in imported goods are estimated to account for 1.5 times of domestic emissions.The OECD and the World Bank un
129、dertake similar calculations at a global level,albeit using different methodologies;however,they also point towards substantially greater total emissions for Switzerland if imports are taken into consideration.Energy Perspectives 2050+The SFOE commissioned a comprehensive study,the EP2050+,to set ou
130、t different pathways to reach a net zero GHG emissions by 2050 while also ensuring security of supply(no net electricity imports on a yearly basis by 2050).The study examined a base scenario(Zero Base)and three variants(ZERO A,ZERO B and ZERO C).The scenarios differ in the assumed technology mix whi
131、le the business-as-usual scenario shows how the Swiss energy mix and emissions profile would look in 2050 with the continuation of existing policies and measures.Scenario Zero Base is based on a mix of technologies that has high social acceptance and provides high cost efficiency today.In comparison
132、,Zero A has a higher degree of electrification.Zero B assumes a higher availability of synthetic gases.Zero C gives more importance to electricity-based liquid energy sources and heating networks.In addition,several scenarios were modelled specifically for the electricity sector to account for 2 CHF
133、:Swiss franc.CHF 1=EUR 1.04=USD 1.15(1 August 2023).1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 21 ENERGY INSIGHTS different pathways in the expansion of renewables while maintaining an annual electricity import-export balance in 2050.To allow Switzerland to reach net zero in 2050 with existing technologies and address
134、 residual emissions through NETs,the EP2050+noted the need to,among others:(i)Fully explore the potential of energy efficiency and domestic renewables.(ii)Use electricity as the main energy carrier for building heat and mobility.(iii)Only use electricity-based agents3 in areas where there are no,or
135、limited alternatives,given their current high costs.Those areas include aviation and heavy goods traffic.(iv)Exclude scenarios Zero B and C that imply higher energy imports and hence increasing import dependency,which counteracts the expected reduction of import dependency through lower consumption
136、of imported fossil fuels.Regarding the reduction of fossil fuels consumption,the EP2050+includes a target to replace natural gas almost entirely with biogas in 2050 with overall gas consumption at half the level of 2020(66 PJ).Mostly,imported electricity-based fuels such as green hydrogen will repla
137、ce fossil fuels in the heavy transport sector.To accelerate the shift towards electrification of the transport sector,the government has been implementing an e-mobility roadmap since 2018,which was revised in 2022 to reflect more ambitious goals by 2025(see Chapter 3).The EP2050+analysis found that,
138、compared to the business-as-usual case,the Zero Base scenario would result in additional net costs of CHF 73 billion;this is lower than for the other three scenarios and needs to be compared with annual end consumer expenditures for energy of more than CHF 20 billion.The government already has sever
139、al support schemes in place,for example for the accelerated deployment of renewable electricity sources and replacing fossil with renewable and non-direct electricity heating systems.It does not believe that shortage of funding will constrain the energy transition.Instead,the critical barriers ident
140、ified are high labour costs and a shortage of skilled labour;lack of social acceptance of some of the proposed measures,such as wind power;complex administrative and legal planning and permitting processes that can delay projects considerably,sometimes for decades.The government is taking steps to a
141、ddress the non-financial barriers.In early 2022,the SFOE,after two years of preparation with stakeholders,launched a roadmap“training offensive for buildings”.The roadmap includes 32 measures to increase the skilled workforce for building refurbishment,rooftop photovoltaics(PV),heat pumps,etc.The tr
142、aining offensive consists of a network of industry associations from the building sector,educational institutions and institutional partners such as federal agencies.It also includes the Conference of Cantonal Energy Services that is aligned with the Conference of Cantonal Energy Directors(EnDK),as
143、responsibility for buildings lays with the cantons under the Swiss Constitution.The EnDK focuses on the use of energy in buildings and has developed the“model regulations of the cantons in the energy sector”(MuKEn).With the MuKEn,the cantons aim to achieve a high degree of harmonisation in cantonal
144、energy regulations for buildings,to simplify construction planning and the certification for professionals who work in several 3 Electricity-based agents include synthetic fuels in liquid or gaseous form as well as hydrogen.1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 22 cantons.The MuKEn are not a law,but recommendatio
145、ns for the cantonal legislation and regularly updated(see Chapter 3).The government is also operating a single-window clearance for project permits at the federal level.The Energy Act of 2018 declares large hydro and wind projects to be of national interest,but still excludes smaller generation proj
146、ects and the necessary grid infrastructure.Moreover,it does not address the additional permits necessary from the cantonal and municipal authorities.While since 2018,cantons must designate go-to areas for renewables,data do not show a significant increase in the number of new projects going ahead,as
147、 the overall permitting procedure remains complex.With the new Act on the Secure Electricity Supply with Renewables presently in parliamentary debate(see below),this issue is addressed carefully,also in view of the urgency due to the 2022 European energy crisis.Therefore,at the beginning of 2022,the
148、 government proposed additional legal measures to accelerate the planning and licensing procedures for hydropower plants considered of high system relevance,and for wind power and solar PV.The objective is to create a single planning approval process at the cantonal level that combines all required
149、legal approvals into one process instead of going through different stages with each of those stages being open to a court challenge before the federal supreme court.The government is currently preparing this so-called acceleration bill and the parliament has already taken up some elements(see above
150、).While the approval of the energy amendment package is pending(see below),temporary legal adjustments were proposed in parliament to accelerate the construction of wind and solar power plants.The Act on a Secure Electricity Supply from Renewables The indicative targets in the ES2050 are no longer a
151、dequate to meet Switzerlands strengthened energy and climate commitments for 2030 and 2050.The government therefore prepared the Federal Act on a Secure Electricity Supply from Renewable Energy Sources.This act is a combination of amendments to the Energy Act and the Electricity Supply Act;hence cal
152、led the energy amendment package and is based on the Zero Base scenario of the ES2050+.The main purpose of the energy amendment package is to strengthen the security of electricity supply and reach the net zero target for 2050 through a rapid expansion of renewable electricity generation and to stre
153、ngthen longer term security of supply,including through an adequate grid infrastructure.To achieve this,the amendment includes provisions for the creation of a strategic energy reserve.It also introduces a legal basis to allow end consumers and storage operators to use their flexibility in a way tha
154、t is beneficial to the electricity system.The revision of the Energy Act(Pa.Iv.Girod)provides long-term planning certainty for investors by postponing the end of support measures for renewable electricity from 2030 to 2035;and by introducing new support measures for technologies that as of 2023 are
155、no longer supported through feed-in remunerations.It entered into force in 2023.The ongoing energy amendment package will further replace the indicative targets for renewables and energy consumption with binding targets and further strengthen the roll-out of renewable electricity production(Tables 1
156、.1 and 1.2).1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 23 ENERGY INSIGHTS Table 1.1 Energy efficiency targets in the ES2050,EP2050+and parliament decision Change with respect to 2000 ES2050 ES2050+Parliament decision 2035 2050 2035 2050 2035 2050 Per capita energy consumption-43%-54%-41%-53%-43%-53%Per capita electric
157、ity consumption-13%-18%-12%-5%-13%-5%Source:Country submission and information provided by Switzerland.Table 1.2 Renewables targets in the ES2050,EP2050+and parliament decision Yearly electricity production in terawatt hours(TWh)ES2050 ES2050+Parliament decision 2035 2050 2035 2050 2035 2050 Renewab
158、les excluding large hydro 11.4 24.2 17.3 39.1 35 45 Hydro 37.4 38.6 37.4 38.6 37.4 38.6 Source:Country submission and information provided by Switzerland.The revised Energy Act and Electricity Supply Act include binding parameters for security of supply and climate and will enhance planning security
159、 for investors.This has become necessary in light of the shift towards the electrification of the energy sector.Switzerland is principally a net electricity exporter but with strong intra-annual variations.It relies on electricity imports in the winter season when hydro reserves run low.With a shift
160、 to more electricity-based heating systems and the phase-out of nuclear electricity,the need for imports would increase and potentially undermine Switzerlands long-term security of supply.The EP2050+sees a 38%increase of electricity demand due to e-mobility,heat pumps and electrolyses in 2050.Ensuri
161、ng security of electricity supply in the winter is hence of urgency for policy makers.The revised Electricity Supply Act therefore includes provisions for an increase in hydro storage capacity to strengthen Switzerlands self-sufficiency in winter.The aim is to add 2 TWh of supply in winter by 2040.T
162、he revised Electricity Supply Act also includes a set of provisions to facilitate the integration of variable renewable sources into the electricity market by enabling local electricity communities,enhanced data management and the establishment of a data hub.The energy amendment package is not expec
163、ted to enter into force before 2025,as it is potentially subject to a referendum.In addition,the Climate Protection Act anchors the net zero target at the legislative level and defines a reduction path from 2030 to 2050 with sectoral emissions reduction targets for the buildings,transport,and indust
164、ry sectors(see Chapter 2).The European Unions clean energy package includes a provision that at least 70%of cross-border electricity grid capacities must be kept free for trading within the European Union from 2025 onwards but has not specified how such capacities in non-EU countries would be taken
165、into account.Potentially,Switzerlands import capacity could be strongly curtailed as a result,and the consequent loop flows resulting from intra-EU electricity trading could further increase and undermine Switzerlands,and ultimately also other EU countries,grid stability.At the same time,electricity
166、 exports from Switzerland,mainly from hydro pump and storage plants,are important to maintain security of supply in neighbouring countries.Excluding Switzerland from the European electricity trading could potentially also have 1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 24 negative consequences for European countries,e
167、ither by resulting in temporary outages and/or requiring additional investments in generation capacity and electricity systems expansion projects.Switzerland had aimed to sign a bilateral electricity agreement with the European Union,but negotiations were suspended in 2018 and no progress has been m
168、ade since,while electricity trade has continued.Beyond the political dimension of the bilateral electricity agreement,as a key condition for concluding the electricity agreement,the European Union demanded the full opening of the Swiss electricity market.The Swiss government had proposed the full ma
169、rket opening for all end consumers in 2017 and reiterated this position in 2021.However,strong political forces threatened to launch a referendum against legislation calling for full market opening.Consequently,the upper chamber of parliament voted to remove full opening from the draft energy amendm
170、ent package even though the government made it clear that even if the electricity market was fully opened,no consumer would be forced to leave the current system of regulated prices but could stay with the supplier of last resort,as is the case in several EU member countries such as Germany.Measures
171、 to ensure short-term energy security during the winters of 2022/23 and 2023/24 With the single amending act,Switzerland aims to ensure the long-term energy security of supply.However,like most other European countries,Switzerland is also concerned with addressing short-term security of electricity
172、and gas supply,especially for the winter seasons 2022/23 and 2023/24.In the gas sector,Switzerland aligned with the EU goal of saving 15%of gas consumption between October 2022 and March 2023 and launched a public campaign to alert the population about the situation,despite the absence of a gas supp
173、ly act or a gas regulator.Moreover,the government implemented several measures to strengthen gas supply for the winter of 2022/23;these could also help address any possible security of supply concerns in the winter of 2023/24(see Chapter 7).Among those measures are an obligation for the gas industry
174、 to secure additional storage capacities outside of Switzerland equivalent to 15%of annual consumption and to explore options for additional supplies of non-Russian gas by buying gas purchase options for about 20%of winter consumption.The government has also strived for so-called solidarity agreemen
175、ts with some neighbouring countries,notably Germany and Italy.As of 1 October 2022,and until end of March 2023,all dual-fuel installations that can run on oil and gas have been encouraged to shift to oil,potentially increasing Switzerlands heating oil demand by 30 PJ in the winter of 2022/23.The gov
176、ernment released domestic oil stocks and granted temporary exemptions from certain air pollution and emission laws to prevent penalties on operators of dual-fuel installations.If the voluntary fuel switching and public savings campaign did not generate sufficient gas savings,the government planned t
177、o implement gas consumption quotas.The government noted that the delivery of the additional heating oil could have caused logistical challenges due to a lack of trucks and truck drivers.One possible solution considered was temporary permission for trucks to operate on Sundays.Temporarily,installatio
178、ns switching to oil are exempted from strict emissions and local air pollution norms to avoid having to pay fines.1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 25 ENERGY INSIGHTS The 2022 gas situation has underlined the need for a gas act in Switzerland that would assign clear responsibilities to the various actors at g
179、overnment and industry level and establish clear regulatory accountability for ensuring gas supply security under the supervision of a gas regulator.A draft Gas Supply Act has been debated for several years and the government is expected to present it in the first three months of 2024.The act should
180、 consider the lessons learnt from the gas supply situation in the winter of 2022/23 and propose elements of basic market regulation,such as a regulator and an independent transmission system operator.Switzerland is also implementing measures to address the specific Swiss electricity shortage during
181、winter which became even more urgent in 2022 due to the tense situation in the nuclear sector in France,the main exporter of electricity to Switzerland in the winter.The key measures are subsumed in the so-called winter reserve ordinance and aim to provide additional generation of 1 000 megawatts(MW
182、).It includes the creation of and regulation for the use of a hydropower reserve of 500 gigawatt hours(GWh)and the construction of a 250 MW reserve power plant that can run on several fuels(gas,oil and hydrogen)and provisions for pooling emergency power units based on tenders.The reserve power plant
183、 would have permission to operate until the end of April 2026.An innovative feature in the winter reserve ordinance is the creation of emergency power groups and pooling of co-generation installations.The reserve plants and emergency power groups would not produce for the market,only when called upo
184、n during times of expected shortages.Beyond these,the government also gave temporary permission from 1 October 2022 until the end of April 2023 for two additional measures.One was to allow certain hydropower plants that met lowered ecological requirements to use more water for electricity production
185、 than usually permitted;this would provide an additional 150 GWh of electricity.The second was to increase the capacities of two transmission lines to alleviate transmission bottlenecks and increase import capacities by up to 850 MW.Hydrogen The Swiss government is preparing a(green)hydrogen roadmap
186、 that will be presented in 2023.The roadmap will flag those sectors for which the use of renewable-based hydrogen is most suitable and highlight the required regulatory framework to allow the development of a domestic hydrogen economy.Another of the roadmaps important analyses is the assessment of i
187、f and at what cost the conversion of green hydrogen into electricity can contribute to ensuring Switzerlands security of supply in the winter period and the necessary extent of storage potential.The roadmap will also look at the overall grid infrastructure development needs and assess if the existin
188、g gas distribution network can be absorbed into the future hydrogen network,and at what costs.Finally,the roadmap will evaluate possible production sites for future hydrogen and power-to-X,sites for extraction of CO2 and CO2 transport possibilities.Switzerland has not set any specific targets for th
189、e hydrogen economy,pending the completion of the roadmap.However,the EP2050+anticipates a“power-to-x”demand of around 56 PJ by 2050 and a hydrogen production goal of around 7 PJ in 2050.The long-term aim is to use and produce green hydrogen by means of electrolysers.1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 26 Assess
190、ment Switzerland must simultaneously advance its energy transition and ensure security of supply in the context of an ongoing global energy crisis,especially during the winter months.There are several challenges ahead and tackling them in a co-ordinated way will require a whole-of-government,whole-e
191、conomy approach.In the immediate term,Switzerland,like many other countries,has been concerned with addressing security of supply due to the global energy crises.Domestic production of nuclear,hydro and renewable energy covered 50%of Switzerlands TES in 2021.However,the situation is very different f
192、or fossil fuels:oil is the single largest fuel in Switzerlands TES(34%in 2021)and the country is completely reliant on imports to meet all its fossil fuel needs.The government has implemented several short-term measures to help ensure security of supply,especially through the winter season.The quick
193、 measures seem to be appropriate to address the challenges of the winter of 2022/23 and the next,if needed.Binding and long-term energy and climate targets are necessary for forward-looking planning by all stakeholders.The government prepared a new Act on the Secure Electricity Supply with Renewable
194、s,which is a combination of amendments to the Electricity Supply and the Energy Act(the so-called energy amendment package)to replace the indicative targets of the ES2050 with binding targets to 2050,further strengthen the roll-out of renewable electricity production and ensure long-term energy secu
195、rity.The energy amendment package is currently being debated in parliament and is not expected to enter into force before 2025.The government has recognised the urgency and enacted some measures contained in the energy amendment package by way of ordinance.These include a hydropower reserve and gas
196、turbines to enhance security of supply especially in the winter,when Switzerland relies on electricity imports.A timely entry into force of the full single amending act is crucial.As well as setting targets,it is key to implement measures to reach the energy and climate targets.Switzerland has a bal
197、anced electricity trade on an annual basis,with substantial electricity imports in the winter season when hydro reserves run low and exports in the summer.The phase-out of nuclear electricity and a shift towards electrification of the energy system due to the roll-out of heat pumps and electric mobi
198、lity will further increase winter import dependency and underlines the need for the expansion of renewable energies for the countrys longer term security of supply.In particular,technologies with winter generation capacity,such as wind,would help.However,wind energy currently does not account for a
199、significant share of the expected capacity additions to 2030.Switzerland has a unique system of direct democracy and a distinct federal structure in which the cantons have extensive legal prerogatives with respect to energy(especially energy in buildings,spatial planning and water resources).An adva
200、ntage of this system is that the people are more closely involved in decisions.On the other hand,this can result in delayed decision making.Furthermore,the regulations may differ from canton to canton.A key obstacle to Switzerlands energy transition is the permitting processes for energy projects(ge
201、neration and grid),which reflect complex,time-intensive governance and legal structures.Projects are often subject to long legal proceedings all the way up to the 1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 27 ENERGY INSIGHTS Federal Court,which can delay them by decades.Although the Energy Act of 2018 requires cantons
202、 to designate areas for renewables,the practical impact so far is limited,as the overall approval process remains complex.The same legislation designates large hydro and wind projects as being in the national interest,and the government should now provide legal clarification that this designation ap
203、plies to all renewable power plants and their connection to the grid,as well as the building and operation of electricity grids in general.The energy security benefits of such projects should also be reflected when weighing the legal interests in individual cases.The MuKEn aim to achieve a high degr
204、ee of harmonisation in cantonal energy regulations for buildings and construction planning.The MuKEn are not a law,but recommendations for the cantonal legislation and are largely followed in all cantons.The process applied to develop the MuKEn could serve as a blueprint to enhance harmonisation bet
205、ween cantons in fields beyond buildings,such as permitting processes or spatial planning.Another challenge for the energy transition is the lack of qualified labour,which is also an issue for the Swiss economy more broadly.The lack of qualified labour causes delays in energy project development and
206、construction.The SFOE,jointly with concerned stakeholders,launched a“training offensive”in late 2021 specifically targeting professions related to the building sector.This is a commendable initiative,and the government should closely monitor its implementation and reinforcement if it fails to delive
207、r the expected results.Fully liberalised electricity and gas markets would strengthen consumer rights,create competition,enable the supply of electricity flexibility to the market,realise the full potential of digitalisation and further align the Swiss energy markets with neighbouring countries for
208、mutual benefits.In addition,the global energy crisis has revealed how necessary basic gas regulation is,and the creation of an independent gas transmission system operator and a gas regulator should be pursued with urgency.The lack of an electricity agreement with the European Union leads to difficu
209、lties for Switzerland and its market players.Market integration with the European Union would improve the efficiency and co-ordination of transmission flows,with benefits for Swiss consumers(via lower redispatch costs and security of electricity supply in winter)and contribute to security of supply
210、in EU member countries(especially with exports of highly flexible Swiss hydropower).1.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 28 Recommendations The government of Switzerland should:Work together with cantons to speed up permitting of energy projects of national interest.Encourage the cantons to harmonise and acceler
211、ate permitting processes,improve spatial planning for renewables,and remove legal barriers.Focus on the implementation of effective measures to reach energy and climate targets.Fully open the electricity market while preserving the system of electricity supplies of last resort to legally integrate S
212、witzerland into the EU internal market.Introduce basic gas market regulation.Closely monitor measures to address the shortage of qualified labour in the energy sector and reinforce them if necessary.Consider cost-effective options to improve the granularity of sectoral and end-use data that are used
213、 as a basis for modelling,given the importance of tracking energy demand for energy transitions.29 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION 2.Energy and climate change Key data(2021)GHG emissions with LULUCF:*43.3 Mt CO2-eq;-19%since 2005,-19%since 1990 GHG emissions without LULUCF:*45.1 Mt CO2-eq;-20%since 200
214、5,-18%since 1990 Energy-related GHG emissions from fuel combustion:35.7 Mt CO2-eq;-20%since 2005,-14%since 1990 Energy-related GHG emissions by sector:transport 42%,buildings 34%,industry 16%,electricity and heat generation 7.8%Energy-related GHG emissions per GDP:0.06 kg CO2-eq/USD(IEA average in 2
215、020:0.19 kgCO2-eq/USD)Energy-related GHG emissions per capita:4.10 t CO2-eq/capita(IEA average in 2020:7.97 tCO2-eq/capita)*Source:Switzerland,Federal Office for the Environment,(2023).Overview In August 2019,Switzerland announced its target to achieve net zero GHG emissions by 2050.In January 2021,
216、the government further elaborated on the strategy to reach this goal within its Long-Term Climate Strategy submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC).According to this strategy,in 2050 Switzerland would still emit around 12 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equival
217、ent(Mt CO2-eq)per year from hard-to-abate sources.The government estimates that around 5 Mt CO2-eq of these residual emissions can be avoided through CCS.The remainder must be balanced via NETs in Switzerland(2 Mt CO2-eq)and abroad(around 5 Mt CO2-eq).In the shorter term,Switzerland has set an econo
218、my-wide target to reduce its GHG emissions by at least 50%by 2030 compared to 1990 levels through its updated first Nationally Determined Contribution(NDC).Additionally,emissions in the period 2021-30 must be reduced by at least 35%at a continuous rate.GHG emissions in the base year(1990)were 54.9 M
219、t CO2-eq,excluding land use,land-use change and forestry(LULUCF).In 2021,Switzerlands total GHG emissions stood at 45.1 Mt CO2-eq,an 18%decline since 1990(Figure 2.1).In 2020,the net effect of the LULUCF sector in Switzerland was a 1.9 Mt CO2-eq reduction.Over the period 2013-20,the CO2 Act the main
220、 climate policy instrument mandated Switzerland to reduce GHG emissions by 20%by 2020 compared to 1990 levels,2.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 30 exclusively with domestic measures.Switzerland narrowly missed this target,as it reduced GHG emissions by 19%.During the same time frame,Switzerland fulfilled
221、its international commitment under the Kyoto Protocol thanks to the purchase of emissions reductions abroad.In 2021,energy sector emissions were 34 Mt CO2-eq and accounted for 76%of total GHG emissions.Emissions from agriculture were 5.9 Mt CO2-eq,or 13%of total GHG emissions.Industrial processes ac
222、counted for 8.7%of total emissions,followed by waste with 2.5%.Figure 2.1 Total greenhouse gas emissions by sector in Switzerland,1990-2021,and 2030 and 2050 targets Notes:ITMOs=internationally transferred mitigation outcomes.The level of ITMOs used in 2030 is only illustrative.Source:IEA based on d
223、ata from UNFCCC(2022)and Switzerland,Federal Council,(2021).Energy-related GHG emissions drivers and GHG intensity Switzerland shows a notable decoupling between domestic energy-related GHG emissions and economic and population growth.Between 2005 and 2021,Switzerlands GDP increased by 34%while ener
224、gy-related GHG emissions decreased by 20%.This level of decoupling is even starker than the decoupling between economic and population growth and energy consumption(see Chapter 3).Switzerlands economy is dominated by the service sector,accounting for 74%of its GDP.The domestic industry,wherein the e
225、nergy-intensive process industries only play a small role,constitutes 26%of GDP.Including embedded emissions,Switzerlands total GHG emissions are estimated to be 1.5 times higher according to World Bank estimates(see Chapter 1).However,there is no globally accepted methodology on how to account for
226、embedded emissions in a countrys overall emissions.Switzerlands strong decoupling is also evident from other indicators.From 2005 to 2021,the energy-related GHG emissions intensity of Switzerlands GDP(GHG/GDP)decreased by 41%;GHG emissions over TES decreased by 10%and GHG emissions per electricity p
227、roduction fell by 41%(Figure 2.2).-20-100 10 20 30 40 50 601990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2020 2021 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050Mt CO-eqNegative emissionsTargetLULUCFWasteAgricultureIndustrial processesEnergyat least-50%Net zeroat least-35%IEA.CC BY 4.02.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 31 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFO
228、RMATION Figure 2.2 Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions and main drivers in Switzerland,2005-2021 Note:kWh=kilowatt hour.Source:IEA(2022),Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy(database).In 2021,energy-related GHG emissions per unit of GDP in Switzerland were 0.06 kilogrammes of CO2-eq per USD(kg C
229、O2-eq/USD),which is the lowest among IEA member countries,well below the IEA average of 0.19 kg CO2-eq/USD.Energy-related GHG emissions The transport sector is the largest energy-related GHG emitting sector.It accounted for 42%of the total energy-related GHG emissions in 2021.The other emitting sect
230、ors are buildings(34%),industry(16%),and electricity and heat generation(7.8%)(Figure 2.3).After peaking in 2005,energy-related GHG emissions have decreased unevenly depending on the year,with an overall decrease of 20%from 2005 to 2021.From 2011 to 2021,energy-related GHG emissions fell by 15%for i
231、ndustry,14%for transport,8%for buildings,and 1%for electricity and heat generation.The Covid-19 pandemic had also a noticeable effect on emissions.In 2019,energy-related emissions were 36.5 Mt CO2-eq.In 2020,energy-related GHG emissions decreased by 7%year-on-year to 34.1 Mt CO2-eq,mainly driven by
232、lower emissions in transport due to the Covid-19 pandemic.As the pandemic restrictions were relaxed in 2021,energy-related GHG emissions rebounded by 5%year-on-year to 35.7 Mt CO2-eq,but were still lower than the pre-pandemic level.Figure 2.3 Energy-related GHG emissions by sector in Switzerland,200
233、5-2021 Source:IEA(202),Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy(database).0.40.50.60.70.80.91.01.11.21.31.4Index 1=2005GDPPopulationGHG emissionsGHGemissions/TESGHGemissions/GDPGHG/kWh elecand heatIEA.CC BY 4.00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50Mt CO-eqElectricityand heatgenerationIndustryTransportBuildingsI
234、EA.CC BY 4.02.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 32 Oil accounts for the largest part of energy-related GHG emissions,reaching two-thirds of the total in 2021,followed by natural gas at 21%,waste at 12%and coal at 1%(Figure 2.4).From 2005 to 2021,energy-related GHG emissions from oil decreased by 31%while na
235、tural gas emissions increased by 13%.Figure 2.4 Energy-related GHG emissions by energy source in Switzerland,2005-2021 Source:IEA(2022),Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy(database).Climate targets For the period 2013-20,Switzerland had one national emissions reduction target and one international
236、target.The national target,defined in the 2013-2020 CO2 Act,provided that Switzerland had to reduce its GHG emissions by 20%by 2020 compared to 1990 levels.This target was narrowly missed,despite lower-than-usual emissions from the buildings sector in 2020 because of a mild winter and the Covid-19 p
237、andemic.Switzerland had 43.1 Mt CO2-eq of net emissions in 2020,which was 0.1 Mt CO2-eq above the set target.However,while the industry sector met its domestic emissions reduction goal,emissions in the building,transport and other sectors were above the objectives in 2020(Table 2.1).The internationa
238、l target,committed under the second period of the Kyoto Protocol,was to reach an average reduction by 15.8%over the period 2013-20.Domestically,Switzerland managed to reduce its GHG emissions by around 11%over the same period.Switzerland reduced the remaining 4.8%by purchasing emissions reductions t
239、hrough projects abroad,to comply with the international target.Table 2.1 Switzerlands GHG emissions trends under main sectors and CO2 Act goals Sector 1990 GHG emissions (Mt CO2-eq)2020 GHG emissions(Mt CO2-eq)Variation 1990-2020 CO2 Act objective for 2020 Buildings 17.1 10.4-39%-40%Transport 14.9 1
240、3.7-8%-10%Industry 13.0 10.7-17%-15%Others(including agriculture)8.7 8.6-2%-10%Total 53.7 43.4-19%-20%Source:Switzerland,Federal Office for the Environment,(2022).0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35Mt CO-eqOilNatural gasWasteCoalIEA.CC BY 4.02.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 33 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION Switzerland
241、enshrined its climate targets for the period 2021-30 in its updated first NDC,committing the country to reduce its GHG emissions by at least 50%by 2030 compared with 1990 levels,and by an average of at least 35%over the 2021-30 period.To reach this target,Switzerland plans to implement measures dome
242、stically and abroad,co-operating internationally with other countries.International co-operation means Switzerland will purchase emissions reductions and removals occurred abroad in the form of carbon credits(internationally transferred mitigation outcomes ITMOs,under Article 6 of the Paris Agreemen
243、t)that the country will claim against its NDC target.In the longer term,Switzerland aims to achieve net zero GHG emissions by 2050.It plans to reduce its GHG emissions to around 90%from 1990 levels by 2050,as was elaborated in its Long-Term Climate Strategy submitted to the UNFCCC.The remaining emis
244、sions(11.8 Mt CO2-eq)are associated with industry,waste and agriculture.The Swiss government estimates that around 5 Mt CO2-eq of these residual emissions can be avoided through CCS.The rest must be balanced via NETs in Switzerland(2 Mt CO2-eq)and abroad(4.8 Mt CO2-eq).Table 2.2 Summary of Switzerla
245、nds climate targets 2020 2030 2050 Emissions reduction target compared to 1990 levels-20%*At least-50%-90%Average reduction over the relevant period-15.8%*-35%N/A Estimated residual emissions in Mt CO2-eq(excluding CCS contributions)42.4 36.1 11.8*Domestic target.*International target under the seco
246、nd commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol.Sources:UNFCCC and Switzerland,Federal Council(2021).Climate policies Switzerlands domestic climate policy legislation is currently in a state of flux,making the climate policy landscape quite complex.This section provides an overview to illustrate the two
247、main pieces of legislation that guide Swiss climate policy,namely the current“CO2 Act”and the“Federal Act on Climate Protection Goals,Innovation and Strengthening Energy Security”(Climate Protection Act).The evolution of the CO2 Act The Federal Act on the Reduction of CO2 Emissions,the so-called CO2
248、 Act,is at the core of Switzerlands climate legislation.It was first enacted on 1 May 2000 and has been updated,amended and extended several times since(Table 2.3).The CO2 Act covers the main emitting sectors,building,transport and industry sectors,and other sectors(including agriculture).Table 2.3
249、Terminology to describe the evolution of the CO2 Act Period covered Terminology used 2013-20 2013-2020 CO2 Act 2021-30 Rejected 2021-2030 CO2 Act 2021-24 Extended 2013-2020 CO2 Act 2025-30 Proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act Source:IEA based on information provided by Switzerland.2.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE
250、34 On 1 January 2013,a revised CO2 Act(2013-2020 CO2 Act)entered into force to cover the period from 2013 to 2020,equivalent to the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol.The scope of the 2013-2020 CO2 Act was broadened to include all GHG emissions and carbon sinks from forestry and harveste
251、d wood products and introduced new measures for reducing emissions from heating and transport fuels.In the third quarter of 2020,parliament adopted a revised CO2 Act to cover the period from 2021 to 2030,including new instruments to help Switzerland meet its 2030 target under the Paris Agreement.How
252、ever,in June 2021,a referendum rejected the 2021-2030 CO2 Act.To avoid a legislative gap,in December 2021,parliament voted to extend the 2013-2020 CO2 Act until the end of 2024,in anticipation that a new revision could enter into force from 2025.This new proposed CO2 Act,as proposed by the governmen
253、t in September 2022,would cover the period 2025-30.At the time of writing,it was still in the legislative process and potentially subject to another referendum.Figure 2.5 Selected measures of Switzerlands CO2 Act over time *Referring to the share of transport sector emissions only.*This is the curre
254、nt proposal as of March 2023,subject to changes.Note:A draft 2021-2030 CO2 Act was introduced by parliament in 2020 but rejected by referendum in June 2021.The draft included a CO2 levy of 210 CHF/t CO2,a transport fuel levy of up to 12 cents/litre and an aviation carbon tax of up to CHF 120,with re
255、venues redistributed to the population.MeasuresCO2Act versionCO2levy(CHF/t CO2)if interim target not metTransport fuel compensation obligationSwiss Emissions Trading System(ETS)2008-2012 CO2 ActApplies to CO2 onlyCO2 levy Initially set at 12 CHF/t CO2(2008)Voluntary initiative (Fuel Importers Associ
256、ation)The Climate Cent Foundation(2005-2012)Voluntary programme(2008)2013-2020 CO2 ActIncreased to 36 CHF/t CO2(2013)60 CHF/t CO2(2014)KliK Foundation established,with initial compensation rate at 2%*Mandatory for energy-intensive entities(2013)Partial revision of2013-2020 CO2 ActIncreased to 84 CHF
257、/t CO2(2016)96 CHF/t CO2(2018)120 CHF/t CO2(2020)Increased to 5%for 2016-17Increased to 8%on January 2018Swiss ETSLinked with EU ETS(2020)2022-2025 extension of CO2ActStays at 120 CHF/t CO217%(2022)20%(2023)23%(2024)Parliamentary legislative procedure for 2025-2030 CO2Act*Stays at maximum cap of 120
258、 CHF/t CO2*Maximum increased from 40%to 90%*Tighten ETS in line with Fit-for-55Allow inclusion of CCS*2.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 35 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION Extended 2013-2020 CO2 Act until the end of 2024 The extended 2013-2020 CO2 Act contains several policy measures and instruments that will
259、 be valid until the end of 2024.Some of the key measures are discussed below.CO2 levy The CO2 levy applies to stationary fuel uses of fossil fuels,such as heating oil and natural gas.The level of the CO2 levy was automatically increased if intermediate emissions targets were not achieved(see Chapter
260、 1).The level was 12 CHF/t CO2 in 2008 and reached 120 CHF/t CO2 in 2022 after a number of automatic increases.Two-thirds of the proceeds from the CO2 levy are refunded to the Swiss population through a health insurance premium and to companies proportionally to payments into the pension scheme.The
261、remaining third is used to support a building refurbishment programme,and a smaller portion is used to replenish a Technology Fund.Operators of emission-intensive installations,who do not qualify to participate under the Swiss ETS can be exempted from the CO2 levy if they commit to reducing their em
262、issions.However,there is a high fine for non-compliance,equivalent to CHF 125 per over-emitted t CO2.According to the proposed revision of the CO2 Act for 2025-30,the exemption from the CO2 levy shall end in 2040 to also incentivise small and medium-sized enterprises to switch to non-fossil fuels.Sw
263、iss ETS The Swiss ETS caps the emissions produced by industrial installations by defining the total amount of emissions allowances in advance.This sets a maximum limit for the GHG emissions of all participants in the ETS.From 2021,a yearly linear reduction factor is applied to the emission cap equiv
264、alent to 2.2%.As of 2022,there were nearly 100 stationary installations covered by the Swiss ETS.The Swiss ETS linked with the EU ETS in 2020,expanding to cover domestic aviation and flights to the European Economic Area and fossil-thermal power plants.Industrial entities,including those in the ceme
265、nt,chemicals,pharmaceuticals,paper,refining and steel sectors,are subject to ETS compliance,which covered about 10%of the countrys total GHG emissions in 2019.Participants in the ETS are exempt from the CO2 levy,and some emissions allowances are allocated for free while others are auctioned off.The
266、ETS allows opt-in for smaller installations and opt-out for those with emissions below 25 kilotonnes of CO2 per year.Compensation obligation for fuel importers Because transport fuels are not covered by the CO2 levy,Switzerland requires fossil fuel importers to offset a portion of the transport sect
267、or emissions through the purchase and retirement of carbon credits.Since 2013,the KliK Foundation has been mandated to secure carbon credits from mitigation projects in Switzerland and abroad.The mandated share of transport sector emissions to be compensated increases gradually over time(see Figure
268、2.5).At least 15%of this share must be compensated for through domestic projects until 2024.Under the extended 2013-2020 CO2 Act,the Fuel Importers Association may levy a maximum of CHF 5 cents/litre on transportation fuels but effectively charged less than CHF 1.5 cents/litre in the period 2013-20.
269、Between 2013 and 2021,the proceeds from this levy were CHF 1 067 billion,which the KliK Foundation used to abate 12.07 Mt CO2 through domestic and international mitigation projects at an average reduction cost of 90.21 CHF/t CO2.Within Switzerland,this mechanism efficiently supports the clean 2.ENER
270、GY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 36 energy transition,with the KliK Foundation purchasing credits from projects in the transport sector,industry,buildings and agriculture.The scope of eligible compensation projects is limited by the CO2 Act and ensuring crediting additionality in an increasingly regulated poli
271、cy environment risks reducing the possibility to credit from domestic activities.Internationally,the KliK Foundation purchases carbon credits from foreign projects,meeting the requirement of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement and aligned with the CO2 Act.Switzerland has concluded bilateral agreements
272、with a dozen countries to carry out voluntary co-operation under Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement that can also be used by the KliK Foundation to source carbon credits to comply with the compensation obligation for fuel importers.However,if the international market for Article 6 credits struggles
273、to develop,there could be a risk of non-compliance for fossil fuel importers.CO2 emissions regulations for new cars and light duty vehicles Since 2012,Switzerland has CO2 emissions regulations for new passenger cars and light duty vehicles based on EU regulations(see Chapter 3).Since 2020,these limi
274、ts are 95 g CO2/km for new passenger cars,and 147 g CO2/km for vans and light duty vehicles.Climate Programme Training and Communication In addition to the key instruments above,the“Climate Programme Training and Communication”supplements and strengthens the measures of the CO2 Act.It supports skill
275、ed workers and communes as they work to achieve Switzerlands net zero target by 2050 and provides training to managers and skilled workers to contribute to the other targets set under the Paris Agreement,specifically adaptation to climate change and climate-aligned financial flows.Proposed 2025-2030
276、 CO2 Act The proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act reflects the results of the 2021 referendum that rejected the 2021-2030 CO2 Act and shifts the focus from regulations and tax increases to incentives,especially in the transport and building sectors.These incentives are supplemented by new targeted subsidies a
277、nd investments.Further changes to the proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act are possible as a result of the parliamentary debate.If the proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act is adopted,the 50%emissions reduction target(compared to 1990 levels)will be anchored in national law.And Switzerland remains committed to an emissi
278、ons reduction of 35%between 2021 and 2030.The reduction must be continuously achieved over the period.However,one important change in the proposed CO2 Act is the proportion of emissions reductions that have to be domestic(within Switzerlands borders).Under the extended 2013-2020 CO2 Act,a maximum 25
279、%of emissions reductions can be achieved abroad.Under the proposed CO2 Act,the government will determine the minimum domestic share.It is intended to achieve a ratio of at least 60%domestically and a maximum of 40%abroad.For this,Switzerland has already entered into agreements with several countries
280、 to voluntarily co-operate under Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement.The proposed CO2 Act is expected to reduce GHG emissions within Switzerland by 34%by 2030,which corresponds to a domestic share of more than two-thirds.The domestic reductions are achieved mainly in the transport,buildings and indus
281、try sectors.The government proposes to mobilise over CHF 650 million per year from various 2.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 37 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION fiscal instruments to fund the domestic measures under the proposed CO2 Act.This is a significant increase from the CHF 475 million available under t
282、he extended 2013-2020 CO2 Act,that is solely funded by the CO2 levy proceeds.The additional funds would be collected through existing measures,such as fines for vehicle importers,diesel tax proceeds,the fuel excise tax on domestic flights and revenues from ETS auctioning in the aviation sector.CO2 l
283、evy The rejected 2021-2030 CO2 Act planned to let the CO2 levy increase to a maximum of 210 CHF/t CO2,which is considered one of the main reasons the Act was rejected in the referendum.Consequently,the proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act keeps the maximum level at 120 CHF/t CO2,the current level.The proposed
284、 2025-2030 CO2 Act also proposes changes in the use of the receipt from the CO2 levy.Instead of refunding two-thirds directly to the population,this share will be reduced to 51%.Conversely,the share of revenues that can be used for emissions reduction measures such as building refurbishment,fossil h
285、eating replacement,e-vehicle charging stations,district heating planning and risk guarantees for geothermal energy is increased to 49%.The extended 2013-2020 CO2 Act provides that only specific sectors can be exempted from the CO2 levy under certain conditions,while the proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act op
286、ens the possibility of an exemption to all sectors if they are compliant with credible emissions reduction covenants.The proposed CO2 Act also foresees allowing companies to propose emissions reduction commitments up to 2040,after which no exemption will be possible.Companies will also have to submi
287、t a decarbonisation plan within three years of the start of the emissions reduction commitments and update it periodically.Swiss ETS The proposed CO2 Act foresees further developing and tightening the ETS for installations and the aviation sector in line with the revision of the EU ETS.This will inv
288、olve,for example,a faster reduction path of the cap and a gradual phase-out of free allowances.Furthermore,the ETS shall take into account CCS in the Swiss ETS,in analogy with the EU ETS.Compensation obligation for fuel importers While the extended 2013-2020 CO2 Act provides that fossil fuel importe
289、rs must compensate up to 23%of transport sector emissions until 2024(with a maximum possible share of 40%according to the law),the proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act foresees increasing the maximum share of emissions that must be compensated from 40%to 90%but reduces the quote of this share that must be com
290、pensated through domestic offsets.The proposed CO2 Act maintains the current levy level of maximum CHF 5 cents.CO2 emissions regulations for new cars and light duty vehicles The proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act includes the possibility to further tighten Switzerlands CO2 emissions regulations for new cars
291、 and light duty vehicles to the more stringent EU“Fit-for-55”targets.Moreover,it introduces for the first time CO2 emissions targets for heavy-duty vehicles(see Chapter 3).2.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 38 Other proposed measures The proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act also includes new measures that will also
292、contribute to enlarging the available financial envelope.These include:Sustainable aviation fuels(SAF)blending obligation:The proposed CO2 Act introduces minimum SAF blending obligations,aligned to the ones adopted in the related EU regulations.It proposes allocating CHF 25-30 million annually to in
293、centivise SAF production and research and development.Fossil-free transport:The proposed CO2 Act removes the tax exemption for diesel consumed by public buses and boats to accelerate the market uptake of electric or hydrogen buses and boats.Funds from the general budget will be used to promote the t
294、ransition to electric buses.Moreover,the proposed CO2 Act allocates up to CHF 30 million per year to support public transport companies to improve the offer for cross-border rail passengers,including through night trains.The proposed CO2 Act also includes incentives for installing electric vehicle(E
295、V)charging stations and blending requirements for biofuels(see Chapters 4 and 9).Extending tax exemptions for electric and hydrogen heavy-duty vehicles:The proposed CO2 Act extends to 2030 the exemption from the diesel tax and heavy-duty vehicle levy for electric and hydrogen heavy-duty vehicles,mak
296、ing them more economically competitive.Phasing out fossil heating in buildings:The building refurbishment programme(see Chapter 3)remains a major pillar of Swiss climate and energy policies.The proposed CO2 Act allocates on average CHF 470 million per year from the CO2 levy proceeds for building ref
297、urbishment.Moreover,improved investment incentives for district heating by replenishing the Technology Fund are planned,which will derisk the associated investments in the district heating networks and heat generation plants.Reporting obligation of climate risks for the financial system:The proposed
298、 CO2 Act introduces a requirement for the Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority to examine and regularly report climate-related financial risks of the financial institutions under its supervision.The proposed CO2 Act also tasks the Swiss National Bank to monitor potential risks to the stabili
299、ty of the financial system arising from climate change.Climate Protection Act In November 2019,a civil society initiative named“The Glaciers Initiative”called for enshrining climate neutrality in the Swiss Constitution and for banning all fossil fuels by 2050.In August 2021,the government tabled a d
300、irect counterproposal to“The Glaciers Initiative”,because it considered enshrining a fossil fuel ban into the Constitution as too radical.The direct counterproposal allows the use of fossil fuels for the military,police and emergency services beyond 2050.In September 2022,parliament adopted an indir
301、ect counterproposal to“The Glaciers Initiative”,the“Federal Act on Climate Protection Goals,Innovation and Strengthening Energy Security”,or“Climate Protection Act”.The Climate Protection Act includes the main elements of the initiative but would not enshrine the climate targets in the Constitution,
302、but rather in a new law.The Climate Protection Act was approved in a referendum on 18 June 2023.This new law is a cornerstone of Swiss climate policy,as it embeds the long-term 2050 net zero target in national law.It provides sectoral targets for the main emitting sectors(buildings,transport and ind
303、ustry)and puts forward two further objectives consistent with 2.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 39 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION the Paris Agreement:1)climate-compatible financial flows;and 2)strengthening climate adaptation measures.The Swiss Confederation is now a role model,with a net zero target set fo
304、r its operations and assets by 2040.All Swiss companies also must achieve net zero by 2050.To achieve these goals,the Climate Protection Act proposes two support schemes.The first is the promotion of innovative processes and technologies in industry,with an envelope of CHF 1.2 billion over six years
305、.The second is an incentive programme to replace fossil fuel heating systems and increase the energy efficiency of buildings,with a budget of CHF 2 billion over ten years.Both support schemes are financed through the regular budget and not the receipts from the CO2 tax.The implementation of the Clim
306、ate Protection Act will be ensured through future revisions of the CO2 Act.Carbon capture and storage and carbon dioxide removal Switzerland recognises that both CCS and carbon dioxide removal(CDR)technologies,such as direct air capture and storage(DACS),will be necessary to reach the domestic clima
307、te goal,but that these technologies must be applied only for mitigation or compensation of“hard-to-abate”emissions.As mentioned above,by 2050,Switzerland estimates it will need 5 Mt CO2 per year of CCS on fossil or geogenic emissions inland,2 Mt CO2 per year of CCS on biogenic emissions inland and 4
308、.8 Mt CO2 per year of CDR abroad(including DACS).However,the government is legally limited in the development of CO2 transport and storage infrastructure within Switzerland,because surface and subsurface territorial planning is the competence of the cantons.Currently,different cantons have different
309、 views of the potential that local energy and climate policies have for favouring the development of CCS and CDR projects on their land.More clarity on potential constitutional and regulatory modifications that could unlock this situation is expected in 2024.In the meantime,for CCS and CDR to be ach
310、ieved abroad,Switzerland has already signed a joint declaration of intent with Iceland(Agreement on DACS)as part of the international co-operation under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement.Under this joint declaration,the Swiss and Icelandic environmental agencies declared their intention to work toget
311、her to address climate change through CDR and CCS technologies.The joint declaration aims to form a partnership to exchange information,enhance understanding and consider legal frameworks for co-operation in this field.Switzerland has also signed a memorandum of understanding with the Netherlands to
312、 promote the development of CCS and CDR technologies,also under the framework of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement.The co-operation will be facilitated through a joint working group to share technical knowledge,evaluate policy mechanisms,and explore the need for a bilateral agreement or arrangement t
313、o enable cross-border transportation and storage of CO2.Adaptation and resilience to climate change Switzerlands average temperature is rising two to three times faster than the global average,with a 2C increase between 1864 and 2016.This trend is projected to continue until near the end of the cent
314、ury,with the level of warming ranging from 0.6C to 5.4C depending on GHG concentration scenarios.This will lead to more intense,frequent and longer heatwaves,particularly in southern Switzerland,affecting energy demand patterns 2.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 40 by decreasing heating needs and increasin
315、g cooling demands.Winter precipitation is expected to increase by 15%by 2070-99,and extreme precipitation events will continue to occur in all seasons and regions,with the largest increases in heavy precipitation likely to occur in winter and northern Switzerland.This intensification and a shift fro
316、m snowfall to rainfall will likely affect hydropower generation.In 2012,the government approved a strategy on adapting to climate change.The strategy establishes a framework for federal agencies to take coordinated action towards climate change adaptation,identifying fields of action and setting goa
317、ls.The strategy is supplemented with a corresponding action plan.The first Action Plan 2014-2019 was updated in 2019 with the Action Plan 2020-2025.It builds on analysis of the so-called regional“CH2018”Climate Scenarios and additional assessment of climate change-related opportunities and risks.The
318、 Action Plan 2020-2025 contains 75 concrete federal-level adaptation measures to enhance energy sector climate resilience,including building the climate resilience of the energy sector,a concrete time frame,cross-sector challenges,the scope of the intervention anticipated,resource needs and prioriti
319、es.The plan identifies rising energy demand for cooling in buildings,passenger transport and industrial processes as well as lower hydropower generation due to low water levels and flooding during summer as key challenges.Environmental impacts of the energy sector Switzerlands air quality is above t
320、he OECD average.The average annual exposure to particulate measures(PM)2.5 stood at of 10 micrograms per cubic metre air(g/m3)in 2019,a reduction of more than 30%since 2000.The main sources of Swiss air pollution are road transport,wood combustion,agriculture and industry.The Ordinance on Air Pollut
321、ion Control(OAPC,1985)defines limit values for atmospheric pollutants and the design of preventive measures.Swiss air quality standards are overall in line with the World Health Organizations recommended limits.Methane emissions accounted for 10.6%of Switzerlands total GHG emissions in 2020 and come
322、 nearly exclusively from the agricultural sector and waste landfill sites.Energy-related methane emissions are negligible,only occurring due to,for example,pipeline maintenance work,and voluntary measures for further reductions have been sufficient to almost completely replace problematic(brittle)pi
323、pe materials in the past decades.Methane emissions are estimated by the Federal Office for the Environment in the framework of the GHG inventory to the UNFCCC.Accordingly,the methodologies rely on respective IPCC Guidelines and are described in detail in Switzerlands National Inventory Report.Assess
324、ment Switzerland shows a notable decoupling between domestic energy-related GHG emissions and economic and population growth.After peaking in 2005,energy-related GHG emissions have decreased unevenly depending on the year,as weather conditions affect emissions for heating.Between 2019 and 2020,GHG e
325、missions decreased by 7%,mainly due to the Covid-19 pandemic,and rebounded in 2021 by 5%,to a level still 2%lower than in 2019.2.ENERGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE 41 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION Switzerland has narrowly missed its 2020 domestic climate target,and met its international commitment only thanks
326、 to emissions reductions abroad.Importantly,emissions in key sectors,such as building and transport,have decreased more slowly than expected.The government has set clear emissions reductions targets for 2030 and 2050.However,Switzerlands domestic climate policy legislation detailing how to achieve t
327、hese targets is currently in a state of flux,making the policy landscape quite complex.The two main pieces of legislation that aim to regulate future Swiss climate policy are the 2025-2030 CO2 Act and the Climate Protection Act(that was approved in a referendum in June 2023).Since 2008,the CO2 Act i
328、s an evolving piece of legislation with provisions for domestic emissions reduction measures in key sectors.The CO2 levy on stationary uses of fossil fuels,the Swiss ETS and a compensation obligation for fossil fuel importers have proven to be effective measures to put Swiss emissions in structural
329、decline.A proposal to make the CO2 Act more ambitious for the period 2021-30 was rejected by referendum in June 2021.One of the main reasons for the rejection was the perception that some of the new proposed measures were“punitive”.These measures included the introduction of a new aviation carbon ta
330、x,an increase of the compensation obligation for fossil fuel importers,an increase of the CO2 levy on stationary fuels up to 210 CHF/t CO2 if Switzerland was off its emissions reduction target trajectory(from 120 CHF/t CO2 in 2022),and an implicit phase-out of fossil heating systems through the grad
331、ual introduction of very strict refurbishment requirements.The rejected 2021-2030 CO2 Act was supposed to replace the 2013-2020 CO2 Act as of January 2021.To avoid a legislative gap,in December 2021,parliament approved an extension of certain measures of the 2013-2020 CO2 Act until the end of 2024.I
332、n the meantime,the government hopes to gain approval of the proposed CO2 Act 2025-2030 that was submitted to parliament in September 2022.The proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act shifts the focus from regulations to incentives,especially in the transport and building sectors,supplementing them with new target
333、ed subsidies and investments while reducing Switzerlands dependence on oil and natural gas.While the proposed 2025-2030 CO2 Act maintains some important measures,such as the CO2 levy or the CO2 emissions regulations for new cars and light duty vehicles,they are complemented by new measures,including blending mandates for sustainable fuels in road transport and aviation;increased support for fossil