《国际能源署(IEA):2023年澳大利亚能源政策评述报告(英文版)(213页).pdf》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《国际能源署(IEA):2023年澳大利亚能源政策评述报告(英文版)(213页).pdf(213页珍藏版)》请在三个皮匠报告上搜索。
1、Energy Policy ReviewAustralia 2023The IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues including oil,gas and coal supply and demand,renewable energy technologies,electricity markets,energy efficiency,access to energy,demand side management and much more.Through its work,the IEA advocates policies tha
2、t will enhance the reliability,affordability and sustainability of energy in its 31 member countries,11 association countries and beyond.Please note that this publication is subject to specific restrictions that limit its use and distribution.The terms and conditions are available online at www.iea.
3、org/t&c/This publication and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Source:IEA.All rights reserved.International Energy Agency Website
4、:www.iea.orgIEA member countries:Australia Austria Belgium CanadaCzech Republic Denmark EstoniaFinland France Germany Greece HungaryIreland ItalyJapanKoreaLithuania Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands New Zealand NorwayPoland Portugal Slovak Republic Spain Sweden Switzerland Republic of TrkiyeUnited Kingd
5、om United StatesThe European Commission also participates in the work of the IEAIEA association countries:INTERNATIONAL ENERGYAGENCYArgentinaBrazilChinaEgyptIndiaIndonesiaMoroccoSingaporeSouth AfricaThailandUkraine 3 FOREWORD Foreword The mission of the International Energy Agency(IEA)is to shape a
6、secure and sustainable energy future for all.We work with countries around the world on strengthening energy security and reaching net zero emissions.Our in-depth reviews are an essential IEA tool for providing insight and advice to governments on how to best achieve their energy and climate goals.S
7、ince the last IEA review of Australia in 2018,the government has significantly raised its climate ambitions,with the 2022 Climate Change Act doubling the target for emissions reductions by 2030 and setting the goal of reaching net zero emissions by 2050.Australia also signed up to the Global Methane
8、 Pledge in 2022,joining 130 governments who are collectively targeting a reduction in methane emissions of at least 30%by 2030 across all sectors.Since the last review,Australia has continued to achieve remarkable growth in solar PV and now aims for clean electricity sources to account for over 80%o
9、f its power mix by 2030.To adapt to this change,Australias power system needs to quickly enhance its flexibility through interconnections,storage and a diverse renewables portfolio.The Governments Powering Australia Plan and the Capacity Investment Scheme are important initiatives in this regard.Aus
10、tralia remains a major exporter of energy and of the critical minerals that are used in many clean energy technologies.It has sought to drive progress in the areas of hydrogen,critical minerals and resilient supply chains all essential pillars of our future energy security and the global energy tran
11、sition.These priorities were reflected at the Sydney Energy Forum in 2022,which was co-hosted by the Australian Government and the IEA.I would like to thank Prime Minister Anthony Albanese and Energy and Climate Minister Chris Bowen for their leadership and engagement with the IEA on these issues.I
12、hope that the recommendations set out in this report will help the country accelerate its energy system transformation while ensuring affordable and secure energy supplies.Dr Fatih Birol Executive Director International Energy Agency IEA.CC BY 4.0.5 TABLE OF CONTENTS ENERGY INSIGHTS 1.Executive summ
13、ary.11 2.General energy policy.17 Country overview.17 Energy production,supply and demand.18 Key institutions.20 Climate and energy strategy and targets.23 Securing the social licence for energy infrastructure.27 Diversifying Australias economy.28 Towards a people-centred strategy.30 Energy data str
14、ategy for tracking the energy transition.32 Assessment.33 Key recommendations.35 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION 3.Energy sector response to climate change.37 Overview.37 Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions.38 Emission drivers and carbon intensity.40 Australias energy exports and climate change.40
15、Climate targets.41 Climate mitigation policies and measures by sector.44 Climate change adaptation.47 Climate financing.49 Assessment.50 Recommendations.52 4.Energy efficiency.55 Overview.55 Energy demand by sector and energy savings.56 Energy efficiency strategy and targets.57 Energy efficiency pol
16、icy strategy and governance.59 Buildings.60 Industry.64 IEA.CC BY 4.0.TABLE OF CONTENTS 6 Transport.66 Assessment.71 Recommendations.75 5.Renewable energy.79 Overview.79 Renewable electricity generation.80 Renewable energy strategy and targets.81 Assessment.86 Recommendations.88 6.Energy R&D and inn
17、ovation.91 Overview.91 Energy innovation priorities and guiding documents.92 Resource push.94 Knowledge management.96 International collaboration.97 Market pull.99 Carbon capture and storage.101 Assessment.103 Recommendations.106 ENERGY SECURITY 7.Electricity.109 Overview.109 Electricity generation.
18、110 Electricity demand.111 Power systems in Australia.112 The National Electricity Market.113 Managing annual and seasonal variability of variable renewables.121 Electricity security.128 Electricity emergency policy and response.130 Assessment.131 Recommendations.135 8.Coal.139 Overview.139 Coal res
19、erves,production and supply.140 IEA.CC BY 4.0.TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Coal trade.142 Coal demand.142 Coal policy and transition.143 Assessment.147 Recommendations.150 9.Natural gas.151 Overview.151 Gas supply and demand.152 Gas infrastructure.155 Gas market structure and prices.161 Spe
20、cial focus:The role of gas in Australias energy transition.164 Security of supply in the east coast gas market.168 Assessment.172 Recommendations.176 10.Oil.179 Overview.179 Supply and demand.180 Oil policy.183 Market structure.185 Infrastructure.187 Oil emergency policy and stockholding.189 Assessm
21、ent.190 Recommendations.191 11.Special focus on critical minerals.193 Overview.193 Production and prospects.194 Policies.196 Government programmes in R&D.196 Institutional governance for critical minerals.197 Assessment.199 Recommendations.201 IEA.CC BY 4.0.TABLE OF CONTENTS 8 ANNEXES ANNEX A:Review
22、 team and supporting stakeholders.203 ANNEX B:Statistical notes and energy balances.207 ANNEX C:International Energy Agency“Shared Goals”.212 ANNEX D:List of abbreviations.214 LIST OF FIGURES,TABLES AND BOXES Figures Figure 2.1 Overview of energy production,supply and demand in Australia,2021.18 Fig
23、ure 2.2 Total energy supply and demand by source in Australia.19 Figure 2.3 Energy demand per sector and fuel,and electricity generation by fuel in Australia,2021.20 Figure 2.4 OECD Best Practice Principles for Regulatory Policy.23 Figure 2.5 Australias fossil fuel support by beneficiary,2010-2020.2
24、9 Figure 2.6 Australias fossil fuel subsidy by fuel type,2010-2020.29 Figure 3.1 Greenhouse gas emissions by sector in Australia,1990-2020 and 2030 and 2050 targets.38 Figure 3.2 Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions by sector and fuel in Australia,2000-2021.39 Figure 3.3 Energy-related greenhouse
25、 gas emissions and main drivers in Australia,2000-2021.40 Figure 3.4 Historical and projected emissions reductions in Australia,2020-2035.42 Figure 3.5 Greenhouse gas emissions intensity of electricity generation in Australia and selected countries,2005-2021.45 Figure 3.6 Carbon intensity of manufac
26、turing and mining industry sectors per value added in Australia,2005-2020.46 Figure 4.1 Energy demand and drivers in Australia,2000-2021.55 Figure 4.2 Energy demand(TFC)by major end-use sector in Australia,2000-2021.56 Figure 4.3 Energy savings due to efficiency in Australia,2000-2020.57 Figure 4.4
27、Australias average annual energy efficiency improvements and targets.58 Figure 4.5 Total final consumption in the building sector by source in Australia,2000-2021.61 Figure 4.6 Average annual energy efficiency improvements in the buildings sector in Australia,2000-2020.61 Figure 4.7 Energy consumpti
28、on in the residential sector in Australia by end-use,2020 and change since 2005.62 Figure 4.8 Space heating energy consumption by source in Australia and energy intensity of space heating in selected countries.62 Figure 4.9 Total final consumption in industry by source,2000-2021,and average annual e
29、nergy efficiency improvements in industry in Australia,2000-2020.65 Figure 4.10 Total final consumption in industry by subsector in 2020 and energy intensity per value added in Australia.65 IEA.CC BY 4.0.TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 TABLE OF CONTENTS Figure 4.11 Total final consumption in transport by fuel,2
30、000-2021 and average annual energy efficiency improvements in the transport sector in Australia,2000-2020.67 Figure 4.12 Electric vehicle fleet and public charging points in Australia,2012-2021.67 Figure 4.13 Energy intensity of passenger and freight transport in Australia,2005-2020 and global net z
31、ero target.69 Figure 5.1 Renewable energy in total final energy consumption in Australia,2000-2021 .79 Figure 5.2 Renewable energy in electricity generation in Australia,2000-2021.80 Figure 5.3 Renewable energy by end-use sector in Australia,2021.81 Figure 5.4 Australias renewable capacity additions
32、,2010-2027(left)and quarterly distributed PV installation capacity,2017-2022(right).84 Figure 6.1 Australias energy innovation chain,policies,and institutional governance.93 Figure 6.2 Public budget on energy RD&D per GDP in IEA countries,2021.95 Figure 6.3 Public budget on energy RD&D by sector in
33、Australia,2003-2021.95 Figure 6.4 New patents in clean energy technologies in Australia,2000-2019.96 Figure 6.5 Hydrogen and CCS clusters and hubs across Australia.100 Figure 6.6 Storage and carbon capture and storage projects across Australia.102 Figure 7.1 Electricity generation by source in Austr
34、alia,2000-2021.111 Figure 7.2 Electricity final consumption by sector in Australia,2000-2021.111 Figure 7.3 Electricity generation mix and power systems in Australia.112 Figure 7.4 The Australian Energy Market Operators electricity outlook:Step Change Scenario up to 2050.114 Figure 7.5 Australias ex
35、isting and committed scheduled generation capacities in the National Electricity Market,2022-2030.114 Figure 7.6 Vertical integration in the National Electricity Market,2021.116 Figure 7.7 Liquidity in the contracts market in Australia.117 Figure 7.8 Household retail electricity prices in selected I
36、EA countries,2021.117 Figure 7.9 Weekly wholesale electricity prices in the National Electricity Market,December 2020-June 2022.118 Figure 7.10 Expected 2023 short-term liquefied natural gas netback price at Wallumbilla .119 Figure 7.11 Electricity wholesale prices in selected countries,2019-2024.12
37、0 Figure 7.12 South Australia electricity balance,21 November 2021.122 Figure 8.1 Share of coal in different energy flows in Australia,2000-2021.139 Figure 8.2 Coal production and total energy supply by type in Australia,2000-2021.140 Figure 8.3 Coal production regions in Australia.141 Figure 8.4 Au
38、stralias coal net trade,2000-2021.142 Figure 8.5 Coal demand by sector in Australia,2000-2021.143 Figure 8.6 Australias National Electricity Market coal capacity and announced decommissioning,2020-2050.145 Figure 8.7 Scheduled closure profile of coal-fired generators in Australia,2024-2050.146 Figur
39、e 9.1 Share of natural gas in Australias energy system,2000-2021.151 Figure 9.2 Australias gas production,consumption and exports,2000-2021.152 Figure 9.3 Natural gas demand by sector in Australia,2000-2021.153 Figure 9.4 Australias natural gas exports by destination,2000-2021.153 Figure 9.5 Natural
40、 gas reserves and resources in Australia.154 IEA.CC BY 4.0.TABLE OF CONTENTS 10 Figure 9.6 Natural gas infrastructure in Australia.156 Figure 9.7 Wallumbilla Gas Supply Hub trade volume and volume-weighted average prices by pipeline.162 Figure 9.8 Eastern Australia gas market prices,2017-2022.164 Fi
41、gure 9.9 Eastern Australia daily gas spot prices,January 2021 June 2022.164 Figure 9.10 Projected annual adequacy in south-eastern regions in Australia,Step Change Scenario,2022-2041.169 Figure 10.1 Shares of oil in Australias energy sector,2000-2021.180 Figure 10.2 Australias crude oil,natural gas
42、liquids and refinery feedstock net imports by country,2000-2021.181 Figure 10.3 Oil products demand by sector in Australia,2000-2021.182 Figure 10.4 Oil products production from refineries in Australia.182 Figure 10.5 Australias oil products net trade by country,2000-2021.183 Figure 10.6 Price compa
43、rison for automotive diesel in the IEA,2Q 2022.186 Figure 10.7 Price comparison for unleaded gasoline(95 RON)in the IEA,2Q 2022 186 Figure 10.8 Map of oil infrastructure in Australia.187 Figure 11.1 Australian critical minerals at operating mines and major deposits.194 Tables Table 2.1 Australias na
44、tional 2020,2030 and 2050 energy and climate goals.24 Table 2.2 Australian state and territory energy targets.25 Table 2.3 Indirect government support to fossil fuels in Australia,in billion AUD,2015-2020.29 Table 4.1 Australias electric vehicle targets by state.68 Table 5.1 Australias state and ter
45、ritory renewable energy targets and policies up to 2030.82 Table 6.1 Australias participation in IEA technology collaboration programmes.97 Table 6.2 Operational low-emission hydrogen projects in Australia.101 Table 8.1 Australias operating and closed coal power plants.144 Table 9.1 Gas transmission
46、 lines and regulation(excluding Western Australia)in Australia.158 Table 9.2 Gas storage facilities in Australia.159 Table 9.3 Constructed and planned liquefied natural gas projects in Australia.160 Table 10.1 Crude oil refineries in Australia.188 Boxes Box 2.1 OECD Best Practice Principles on the G
47、overnance of Regulators.22 Box 2.2 International experience in faster permitting of energy infrastructure.28 Box 3.1 International case studies Denmark,the United Kingdom and Canada.43 Box 7.1 The National Electricity Market energy crisis of June 2022.118 Box 7.2 Government measures to address risin
48、g energy prices and inflation.120 Box 7.3 Challenges and opportunities for the integration of very high shares of variable renewables in Australia.124 Box 8.1 International experience in phasing out coal from the energy system.146 Box 9.1 The European Union hydrogen and decarbonised gas market packa
49、ge:An example for Australia to consider.167 Box 9.2 Australias 2022 gas supply emergency.172 IEA.CC BY 4.0.11 ENERGY INSIGHTS 1.Executive summary Energy transition towards net zero Since the International Energy Agencys(IEA)last review of Australia in 2018,the Australian Government has stepped up it
50、s climate ambition at the federal level,building upon the goals and policies of states and territories.In June 2022,the Australian Government submitted a revised 2030 Nationally Determined Contribution(NDC),pledging a 43%reduction of greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions by 2030 from 2005 levels,an increase
51、from the previous governments target of 26-28%.This target was legislated alongside the NDC commitment to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 in the Climate Change Act 2022.Australia caught up with the pace of emissions reductions pledged by other advanced economies and more closely aligns with a tra
52、jectory compatible with the Paris Agreement.In October 2022,Australia joined the Global Methane Pledge.Reaching the 2050 target is possible but will require a clear policy road map with key milestones by sector and policy area to 2050.Monitoring progress based on a coherent energy transition data st
53、rategy will be critical to allow early corrective actions to be taken.As stipulated under the Climate Change Act 2022,the government will present an Annual Climate Change Statement to Parliament.The first one was presented in December 2022.The statement can indeed serve as an annual progress review
54、of Australias energy transition.Existing strategies need to be updated in the context of Australias higher near-term emissions reduction goal and net zero targets,including the Long-Term Emissions Reduction Plan.The net zero commitment requires a faster trajectory and increased efforts in energy eff
55、iciency and renewable energy.The Australian Government is taking a collaborative approach with states and territories under the new National Energy Transformation Partnership(NETP)with a broad scope of action.The NETP focuses on consumers,energy market reforms,technology development,manufacturing in
56、 Australia,job creation,and the underpinning requirements to create a just and inclusive energy transition.Australias focus on deploying low emissions technologies over the past two decades means that 72%of total government expenditure of AUD 21 billion was spent on commercialisation,while only 23%w
57、as spent on energy-related research and development(R&D)and 6%on demonstration.The government and state-owned energy RD&D budget peaked in 2013 at AUD 1 124 million,but dropped thereafter before reaching AUD 460 million in 2021.By international comparison,public funding for energy RD&D accounted for
58、 0.019%of gross domestic product(GDP)in 2020,half the IEA average.This does not reflect Australias research and development tax incentive which is an important driver for innovation investment by the private sector.IEA.CC BY 4.0.1.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 12 Australias energy transition will require a whol
59、e-of-government just energy transition strategy at both federal and state and territory levels,boosting job opportunities and skills for the transition and securing the social licence to construct and operate the necessary infrastructure.Australia is taking active steps on reskilling and jobs under
60、the forthcoming Energy Workforce Strategy to transform its energy and mineral resources sector into higher value products for exports,creating new manufacturing jobs and export-ready technologies.Key role for energy efficiency Under the National Energy Productivity Plan(NEPP),the Australian Governme
61、nt,jointly with states and territories,committed to an energy productivity target of a 40%improvement between 2015 and 2030.IEA analysis confirms that energy efficiency improvements have allowed Australia to achieve energy savings since 2000 in industry and services sectors thanks to efficiency disc
62、losure regimes and labelling as well as the GEMS product efficiency standards.However,between 2015 and 2019,annual improvement rates slowed down to around 1.9%per year,similar to trends in other countries.There is a need to accelerate action and annual improvement rates from their recent drag to bri
63、ng Australia back on track to reach its target and closer to net zero.Transport and residential buildings have the greatest productivity potential.Higher energy efficiency benefits or 60%productivity improvements could be expected from a net zero aligned trajectory,which would require an annual impr
64、ovement of 4.2%between 2020 and 2030 on average according to the global IEA net zero road map.The Australian Government estimates that a 53%improvement could be achieved if the measures proposed by the end of 2021 are implemented.Hitting the target would mean Australia could decrease its energy cons
65、umption while GDP continues to increase.It is welcome that the Australian Government is proposing stricter standards and policies,notably for the high potential transport and residential buildings sectors.In the transport sector,the National Electric Vehicle Strategy is an opportunity to raise the e
66、fficiency savings of and decarbonise the transport sector.As part of the strategy,Australia is considering introducing fuel economy standards.The revision of the National Construction Code with efficiency standards for new builds and large-scale renovations is another positive development.The revisi
67、on is supported by the expansion of the home energy rating scheme to include energy used by appliances,not just the homes thermal shell.To reach an early peak in emissions and address upwards pressure on energy bills due to the global energy crisis,accelerating energy efficiency can reduce household
68、 and business energy expenditure and is,therefore,more relevant and urgent than ever.The government must confirm the role of energy efficiency and the expected share in achieving Australias climate ambition and scale up policies and measures to unlock efficiency upgrades and higher productivity acro
69、ss the economy.The Department of the Treasury forecasts a 56%hike in electricity prices over financial year 2022-2023,with gas prices rising by 44%.The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission(ACCC)confirmed that electricity bills have jumped by AUD 300 on average since April 2022.This is the
70、equivalent of a 25%increase for the median residential household in the National Electricity Market(NEM)and AUD 1 500 for small businesses.The ACCC retail pricing inquiry of 2018 found that 30%of the lowest income households IEA.CC BY 4.0.1.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 13 ENERGY INSIGHTS spend 8%on fuel,but th
71、is has greatly increased since.Judging by the United Kingdom fuel poverty definition(10%of lowest income households),energy poverty is becoming an issue.The critical importance of lowering energy bills has also been emphasised by the new Australian Governments election commitment to reduce consumer
72、energy bills by AUD 275 per household by 2025.The IEAs 2022 Energy Efficiency Market Report also confirms how living in a more efficient home and driving a more efficient car can save consumers up to 70%of their household energy bill.Towards a largely decarbonised power generation in 2030 Renewable
73、energy has seen remarkable growth,meeting all incremental electricity demand in the past decade thanks to the Commonwealth Large-scale Renewable Energy Target and the state-based auctions.Renewable electricity generation quadrupled between 2000 and 2021,from 17.6 terawatt hours(TWh)to 70.3 TWh,pushi
74、ng up the national share of renewables from 8%to 27%in electricity generation.Most of the growth stems from solar photovoltaics(PV),as high state-level targets and power purchase agreements(PPAs)are driving the expansion of utility-scale renewables.At the household level,Australia has the highest pe
75、netration in the world,with one in three households having solar PV installations.Up to 2027,the IEA forecasts Australias renewable energy capacity to expand by 85%to reach 40 gigawatts(GW),thanks to the introduction of ambitious targets and increased clean energy funding at federal and state levels
76、,PPAs,and new projects announced in the renewable energy zones(REZ).Provided Australia can accelerate the implementation of the REZ and related grid projects alongside additional coal retirements,the IEA expects 57 GW of renewable electricity capacity to be achieved by 2027.This forecast also includ
77、es Snowy Hydro adding 2 GW by 2026 or 2027.Grid development and new wind power deployment will require more community engagement and the work of the Energy Infrastructure Commissioner is important in this regard.While commissioning lead times decreased for onshore wind projects,they increased for di
78、stributed solar PV projects,notably due to the introduction of grid fees and higher system costs.In the NEM,the Australian Electricity Market Operator(AEMO)expects renewable energy to account for 83%by 2030 as part of the Step Change Scenario,which is aligned with the Australian Governments plans of
79、 reaching 82%of renewables in the national electricity mix.The Australian Government places an emphasis on promoting major infrastructure investment to“rewire the nation”and agreed under the NETP that an emissions reduction goal would be enshrined into the National Electricity Objective alongside se
80、curity,competition and affordability objectives.The NEM will see a major energy system transformation,with a substantial loss of dispatchable capacity in the coming decade.Changing generation economics and the age of the plants are accelerating closure decisions.Lignite use in power generation is ex
81、pected to end in 2032,according to the AEMO.There is no clarity provided on the speed of coal retirements.The AEMOs Integrated System Plan(ISP)expects 14 GW of the 23 GW current coal capacity in the NEM to be retired by 2030,while coal plant owners have so far announced the retirement of 8.4 GW.The
82、Australian Government only requires a minimum three-year notice from coal-fired power plant owners for plant closure.IEA.CC BY 4.0.1.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 14 Considerable uncertainty remains on the pace of clean energy investment at the right time and in the right place and the system integration and fl
83、exibility needs in generation and storage;demand response and grid investment;and workforce,supply chain and community needs.An implementation plan for the NETP could provide guidance on the road map for the transformation.In December 2022,energy ministers endorsed in principle a new Commonwealth Ca
84、pacity Investment Scheme to help reduce investment uncertainty and price volatility by underwriting investment in zero emissions dispatchable capacity,including storage.Maintaining energy security during the transition Australia has a vast natural resource base of renewables,critical minerals and fo
85、ssil fuels.Today,it is one of the largest energy exporters in the world and has the stated ambition to become a renewable energy export superpower in the future.Australia produces a breadth of critical minerals,including lithium,of which it is the largest producer in the world,and cobalt and rare ea
86、rth elements.The Russia Federations(hereafter“Russia”)invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 has created a new set of energy security challenges both internationally and domestically for Australia with regard to energy security and energy affordability.A combination of factors led to a natural gas and
87、 subsequent electricity crisis in June 2022,including the delayed maintenance of generation plants post-Covid-19,the flooding of coal mines,the higher gas demand in July(during a colder winter in the southern hemisphere),and very high international prices for natural gas and coal.The June 2022 crisi
88、s saw the temporary introduction of administered price caps in the east coast gas market and the suspension of the NEM.The crisis has prompted the Australian Government to consider a range of reforms to increase its resilience against such events across the gas,oil and electricity sectors.Since the
89、last IEA review in 2018,the government has carried out major reforms in its energy markets,prompted by the Finkel Review of 2017 and the 2016 South Australia blackout.Many of the IEAs 2018 recommendations have been implemented.The NEM regulatory rules and system operation are being adapted to higher
90、 shares of variable renewables based on key reforms,such as the AEMOs ISP and its REZs,alongside the introduction of the five-minute settlement and new ancillary services markets.The Energy Security Board progressed longer term market design reforms with the post-2025 market design framework.Compare
91、d to market operators in other jurisdictions,the NEMs rules grant the AEMO more power to directly intervene at times of market stress.This includes applying a wholesale market price cap and a price floor,to direct generators to run(which triggers generators rights to apply to the Australian Energy M
92、arket Commission AEMC for compensation),to direct load shedding,and to suspend the market.These AEMO directions come at a substantial and rising cost,notably for maintaining frequency control and procuring ancillary services.The AEMO can procure out-of-market reserves through the Reliability and Eme
93、rgency Reserve Trader.However,the NEM has no obligatory arrangements for power generators to hold oil/gas/coal fuel in storage.The June 2022 electricity crisis reinforces the urgency and the need for an orderly transition in the NEM.Based on the AEMOs and the Australian Energy Regulators(AER)IEA.CC
94、BY 4.0.1.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 15 ENERGY INSIGHTS analysis of the crisis and its upcoming recommendations,the government should expedite a review of the reliability approach taken by the AEMC.A period of sustained high international fossil fuel prices cannot be excluded in the short term as global lique
95、fied natural gas(LNG)investment is subdued and the global LNG market is expected to remain tight through 2025.With the start-up of LNG exports from the east coast and rising global demand and prices,Australia has also seen rising domestic gas prices,which are increasing in step with LNG netback pric
96、es.This is a unique situation for a producer and exporter.The Australian Government is commended for the east coast gas market reforms and the more robust approach to ensuring adequate supplies.In 2022,it started a review of the Australian Domestic Gas Security Mechanism and adopted the necessary ru
97、les for the transition to low-emission and renewable gases.Based on the results of the ACCCs latest inquiries,the Australian Government should implement the new Heads of Agreement with LNG producers by ensuring adequate and affordable gas for the domestic market.The IEA urges the government to revie
98、w incentives for gas storage investment and LNG import terminals.Net imports of oil products have increased sharply following significant refining capacity rationalisation,and with oil demand expected to grow in the coming decade,net imports will likely rise further.The Australian Government has pla
99、ced a strong focus on improving the security of oil supply in recent years,particularly through the various measures included as part of the 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 Budgets.The government has taken steps to ensure that Australias two remaining refineries remain open in the short term and to increase
100、 diesel storage capacity.It is also planning to implement a minimum stockholding obligation on oil suppliers.The government should also strengthen efforts to reduce oil consumption,particularly in the mining and transport sectors,which are the main drivers of oil demand growth.Once the IEA collectiv
101、e actions end,the government should take all necessary measures to increase its oil stock levels to comply with its IEA stockholding obligation.One of Australias major security challenges is its high exposure to more significant and more frequent extreme weather events,such as storms,flooding,wildfi
102、res and heat waves.The energy sector,from mining to renewables and grids,will need to adapt to the impacts of climate change.Australia has not yet completed a comprehensive assessment of climate change impacts on the energy sector outside of electricity.Developing a national-level energy sector plan
103、 that lays out future steps for climate resilience could further guide and accelerate co-ordinated action.Key recommendations Review Australias emissions reduction plan taking a consultative approach to emissions reduction pathways,inclusive of the energy,agricultural,land-use,industry and waste sec
104、tors.For 2030,elaborate,jointly with states/territories and various stakeholders,a national climate and energy strategy which lays out the milestones and actions.IEA.CC BY 4.0.1.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 16 Step up national energy efficiency polices and measures and clarify the role of efficiency in achievi
105、ng Australias climate goals and reducing energy bills.Introduce specific energy efficiency and savings targets and support programmes,notably for the energy poor.Ensure adequate infrastructure and policies are in place to guarantee the security of fuel supply domestically while pursuing efforts to s
106、trengthen long-term energy security by accelerating the uptake of energy efficiency,renewables and low-emission fuels.Agree on the critical energy market reforms as part of the National Energy Transformation Partnership to mobilise private sector investment and ensure reliability.Streamline the regu
107、latory landscape of the NEM and agree jointly with states/territories on policies and measures towards 2030 and 2035 for:i.decarbonisation of the energy sector,including through energy efficiency ii.affordability and consumer engagement iii.energy system reliability and climate resilience iv.researc
108、h,innovation and commercialisation v.workforce development and reskilling.Adopt a people-centered transition approach and evaluate reskilling,jobs and growth impacts on communities and workers.Develop the social licence with citizens and communities for infrastructure through community engagement.En
109、sure the Office of the Australian Energy Infrastructure Commissioner is fully resourced to support communities and project developers.To track the progress of Australias energy transition,create an appropriately resourced national energy and climate information system,including end-use energy and pr
110、ices data,a national energy forecast and market data function,enlarged scope for mandatory reporting on natural gas and new fuels,while strengthening data governance and removing barriers to data sharing across government.IEA.CC BY 4.0.17 ENERGY INSIGHTS 2.General energy policy Key data (2021)TES:5
111、439 PJ,+2.88%since 2010 TES by source:oil 32.3%,coal 31.6%,natural gas 27.7%,solar and wind 3.8%,bioenergy and waste 3.6%,hydro 1%Energy intensity per capita(TES/capita):213.4 GJ/capita in 2020(IEA average:160.3 GJ/capita);-11%since 2010 Energy intensity per GDP(TES/GDP):5.4 MJ per 2015 USD PPP in 2
112、020(IEA average 4.7 MJ per USD);-16.2%change since 2010 TFC:3 307 PJ;+0.06%from 2011 to 2021 TFC by sector:transport 37.8%,industry 39.0%,buildings 23.2%Country overview Australia is a federation of six states(New South Wales,Queensland,South Australia,Tasmania,Victoria and Western Australia)and two
113、 mainland territories,the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory.Australia is a parliamentary monarchy with King Charles III of the United Kingdom as head of state.He is represented by the Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia,His Excellency,General the Honourable David
114、Hurley AC DSC(Retd).The prime minister leads the executive branch of the Australian Government.The legislative branch is composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate,together making the Australian parliament.The judicial branch consists of the Commonwealth,state and territory courts.In th
115、e 2022 federal election,held on 23 May 2022,the Australian Labor Party came to power with the Honourable Anthony Albanese as prime minister of Australia and the Honourable Chris Bowen MP as Minister for Climate Change and Energy.Australia has seen constant population growth,reaching 25.7 million inh
116、abitants in 2022.Australia has a high GDP per capita and a relatively low poverty rate.The countrys GDP grew for more than 20 years without a recession,achieving USD 61 632 per capita in 2022.In 2019,the country experienced a GDP downturn and has recently seen a slowdown in its economic growth,with
117、an expected growth rate of its GDP of 2.5%for 2022(OECD,2022).The economic recovery is projected to continue,with real GDP growth reaching 4.2%in 2022,supported by high commodity prices and improved terms of trade.Australias unemployment rate was 4.0%in March 2022,lower than the OECD average of 5%.I
118、EA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 18 Energy production,supply and demand Thanks to a wealth of natural resources,Australia is one of the largest energy exporters in the world,specifically of LNG,coal and minerals.The Peoples Republic of China(hereafter China),Japan,Korea and the United States are
119、 the largest export markets for Australia.In 2020,energy production mainly coal and natural gas was more than three times higher than the countrys total energy supply(TES).Australia is the fourth-largest coal producer in the world,after China,India and the United States.In 2020,coal production was 7
120、.6 higher than the countrys needs(TES).Since 2015,Australia has significantly increased the production of natural gas and exports of LNG.Its natural gas production was 3.4 more than the amount used domestically.Australia also produces a significant amount of crude oil,covering 47%of oil TES.Total en
121、ergy supply is strongly dominated by fossil fuels,covering 92%of the total in 2021.Oil accounts for one-third of TES,followed by coal(32%)and natural gas(28%).Coal is mainly used in electricity generation,while oil is directly used primarily in transport and accounts for more than half of total fina
122、l consumption(TFC).Transport is the largest sector for energy consumption(39%in 2020),followed by industry(38%)and buildings(23%).Figure 2.1 Overview of energy production,supply and demand in Australia,2021 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Australia exports a large share of the energy it produces,mainly coal and natur
123、al gas.*Other renewables include hydro,solar and wind.Note:PJ=petajoule.Source:IEA(2022).Coal,oil and natural gas dominate TES.While the share of oil has been stable at around 34%since 2015,the share of coal declined to a record low of 30%in 2020 while that of natural gas increased to 29%in the same
124、 year.Australia has seen a continuous increase in TES of renewable energy sources thanks to the increasing share of solar and wind,which together accounted for 3.8%of TES in 2021,and a stable contribution of bioenergy and waste(around 4%)and hydro(1%).01 0002 0003 0004 0005 0006 000Total energy supp
125、lyTFC(by fuel)TFC(by sector)PJOtherrenewables*ElectricityBioenergy andwasteNatural gasOilCoalTransformations and lossesIndustryTransportBuildings02 0004 0006 0008 00010 00012 00014 00016 00018 00020 000ProductionTotal energy supplyPJExportsIEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 19 ENERGY INSIGHTS Ene
126、rgy consumption(TFC)increased by 9%from 2010 to 2019.As elsewhere,because of the Covid-19 pandemic,consumption dropped by 3%in 2020,compared to 2019,notably in the transport sector.TFC is dominated by oil,covering 52%of the total in 2021.The share of electricity was stable at around 22%until 2021,wh
127、en it rose to 24%,as electricity demand increased,especially in the residential sector.Demand for natural gas has increased over time,mainly from the buildings sector,and accounted for 16%of TFC in 2024.Bioenergy is primarily used for residential space heating and accounted for 4.8%of TFC in 2021,wh
128、ile coal used in industry covered 3.4%of TFC.Figure 2.2 Total energy supply and demand by source in Australia Total energy supply(TES),2000-2021 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Total final consumption(TFC),2000-2021 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Fossil fuels dominate total energy supply,with rising contributions of natural gas and o
129、il and a decreasing role of coal.Total final consumption is largely covered by oil.Note:PJ=petajoule.Source:IEA,(2022).Oil-fuelled transport was the most energy-consuming sector in 2021,despite its consumption falling by 10%with respect to 2019.Energy consumption in the industry 01 0002 0003 0004 00
130、05 0006 000PJSolar and windHydroBioenergy and wasteNatural gasOilCoal0 5001 0001 5002 0002 5003 0003 5004 000PJElectricityBioenergy andwasteNatural gasOilCoalIEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 20 sector is more diversified and covered by oil(36%in 2021),natural gas(25%),electricity(22%),coal(9%)a
131、nd bioenergy and waste(8%).The main energy source for the buildings sector is electricity(61%),followed by natural gas(25%),minor shares of bioenergy and waste(6.2%),oil(5.7%)and solar thermal(2.6%).Coal still dominates electricity generation(53%in 2021),but its share has significantly decreased sin
132、ce 2010,when it was 71%.On the contrary,the share of natural gas increased from 18%to 21%from 2010 to 2020,but decreased to 19%in 2021.In recent years,electricity generation from renewables is growing at a fast pace:solar increased threefold from 2018 to 2021,when it accounted for 10.5%of the total,
133、closely followed by wind at 9.3%and hydro at 5.6%.Figure 2.3 Energy demand per sector and fuel,and electricity generation by fuel in Australia,2021 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:PJ=petajoule;TWh=terawatt hour.Source:IEA,(2022).Key institutions The Commonwealth government(hereafter the Australian Government)ha
134、s constitutional responsibility for trade,foreign relations(including international climate change),defence and immigration.States are responsible for energy production(including from renewable and non-renewable sources),land use,forestry,transport,mineral rights and environmental assessments(except
135、 offshore).Justice,health,education and consumer affairs are shared responsibilities.Most of the policies on energy and environment,and on wholesale/retail energy markets(electricity and natural gas)require collaboration.On 30 September 2022,the National Cabinet agreed to establish the Energy and Cl
136、imate Change Ministerial Council(ECMC).This council replaces the former Energy National Cabinet Reform Committee,which was preceded by the COAG Energy Council.Involving all jurisdictions in Australia,Commonwealth and local governments,the Energy and Climate Change Ministerial Council aims to deliver
137、 on the National Energy Transformation Partnership(NETP)across national energy,climate change and adaptation priorities.In the area of energy,the Australian Energy Ministers Meetings(EMM),composed of the Australian Government and the state governments has been the forum to enable co-0 200 400 600 80
138、01 0001 2001 400IndustryBuildingsTransportElectricitySolarBioenergy and wasteNatural gasOilCoalEnergy demandPJBioenergy and wasteOilHydroWindSolarNatural gasCoal0 50 100 150TWhElectricity generationIEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 21 ENERGY INSIGHTS ordination on energy market reforms in the Na
139、tional Electricity Market(NEM)and the east coast gas market.The NEM brings together five regional market jurisdictions Queensland,New South Wales(including the Australian Capital Territory),Victoria,South Australia and Tasmania.Western Australia and the Northern Territory are not connected to the NE
140、M.The EMM agree national rule-making under the National Electricity Law,the National Gas Law and the National Energy Retail Law,among others.Under the Australian Government,the Department of Industry,Science and Resources manages the broad portfolio of natural resources,e.g.upstream(oil/gas/coal),mi
141、nerals and mining regulation,and buildings,as well as supply chain resilience.It also guides the work of the Australian Building Codes Board and scientific advisory bodies.Constituted by the Science and Industry Research Act 1949,the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation(CSIRO
142、)is the national scientific research agency under the Department of Industry,Science and Resources.Other bodies are involved in climate science,including the Bureau of Meteorology,which advises on climate change impacts and science,and the National Climate Science Advisory Committee.The National Off
143、shore Petroleum Titles Administrator is responsible for administering petroleum and GHG titles in Commonwealth waters.The National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority is the national regulator for certain aspects of offshore oil and gas operations,and administers the Off
144、shore Infrastructure Regulator,that oversees the offshore renewables industry.The new Department for Climate Change,Energy,the Environment and Water(DCCEEW)has responsibility for gas,electricity,energy efficiency,climate change policies and regulatory aspects(including energy security)alongside net
145、zero technology and innovation.The department is directly engaged with international energy and climate policy.The DCCEEW also oversees the activities of several government agencies for clean energy:the Australian Renewable Energy Agency(ARENA),the Clean Energy Finance Corporation(CEFC),the Clean En
146、ergy Regulator(CER)and the Climate Change Authority(CCA).The CEFC is the largest government-owned green bank in the world.The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade(DFAT)is responsible for international climate finance policies and overseeing investment and trade,notably in the resources and energy
147、 sectors.The Department of Infrastructure,Transport,Regional Development and Communication is responsible for transport policies,including vehicle emission standards.Under the NEM rules,the Commonwealth has provided for greater self-governance of the national electricity and gas markets through inde
148、pendent authorities.NEM energy markets are overseen by three main market authorities with overlapping competences and areas of responsibility:the Australian Energy Regulator(AER)oversees wholesale/retail energy markets and the federal economic regulation of energy networks.The AER is a constituent p
149、art of the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission(ACCC)and shares its resources but is independent in its financial and executive decisions by the board.The Australian Energy Market Commission(AEMC)is the supervisory body of electricity and gas markets,independent from Commonwealth or state
150、governments.The AEMC is the rule maker for the NEM.The Australian Energy Market Operator(AEMO)operates Australias largest gas and electricity markets and IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 22 power systems ten gas hubs and the NEM,and the wholesale electricity market and the power system in Weste
151、rn Australia.The AEMO is 60%government owned and 40%privately owned but funded through fees.The Energy Security Board was created following the 2017 Finkel Review.It brings together the heads of the AEMC,the AER and the AEMO.Its main task is to foster co-ordinated rule making across the NEM with reg
152、ard to reliability,security and emissions reduction policies.The NEM has a commitment to consumer outcomes under the national energy objective and is mainly represented by Energy Consumers Australia.Set up under the Treasury,the ACCC is an independent Commonwealth statutory authority whose role is t
153、o enforce the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 and a range of additional legislation,promoting competition,fair trading and regulating national infrastructure through the AER in the energy sector(gas and electricity).However,the National Competition Council,a research and advisory body,deals with r
154、egulating third-party access to services provided by monopoly infrastructure.Box 2.1 OECD Best Practice Principles on the Governance of Regulators Australia has a strong track record in working with dedicated regulatory agencies and regular reviews,including in the energy and climate sector.Efficien
155、t and effective regulators,with good regulatory management and governance practices,are needed to administer and enforce regulations,notably during the energy system transformation.The comprehensive regulatory reviews of individual policy areas carried out by governments frequently find that there i
156、s scope to enhance governance as part of broader initiatives to improve regulatory outcomes,notably for consumers and businesses.The OECD Best Practice Principles for Regulatory Policy:The Governance of Regulators were developed in 2014 to assist countries in developing such a policy.The principles
157、seek to construct an overarching framework to support initiatives to drive further performance improvements across regulatory systems in relation to national regulatory bodies or agencies(regulators).The best practices set out seven principles of good governance:1)role clarity;2)preventing undue inf
158、luence and maintaining trust;3)decision making and governing body structure for independent regulators;4)accountability and transparency;5)engagement;6)funding;and 7)performance evaluation.Achieving good regulatory outcomes is almost always a co-operative effort:by the government,among regulators,th
159、e regulated and the broader community.Governance arrangements for regulators can be important to foster such co-operative efforts and build the legitimacy of any necessary,strong enforcement action.For these reasons,governance arrangements require careful consideration to ensure they promote,rather
160、than hinder,the efficient achievement of policy objectives and public confidence in the operations of regulatory agencies.Good governance also requires that the government sets core policies through strategies and frameworks.IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 23 ENERGY INSIGHTS Climate and energy
161、 strategy and targets The National Energy Transformation Partnership is Australias integrated national energy and emissions agreement,as agreed by energy ministers in August 2022.The partnership will serve as an umbrella framework for the short-,medium-and long-term actions that all governments must
162、 take to optimise the energy sectors role in the national transformation to net zero.The National Energy Transformation Partnership reflects a new era of collaboration across governments,and will deliver actions through a series of discrete work streams and working groups along the key themes of dec
163、arbonisation(introduction of an emissions objective in the National Energy Objective),energy governance,offshore renewable energy,generation and storage adequacy,co-ordinated gas and electricity planning,enhanced energy security management,and the implementation of nationally significant transmissio
164、n projects.Several concrete co-designed strategies have been announced,including the development of a First Nations Clean Energy Strategy and the National Renewable Energy Supply Chain Action Plan.Key priority actions for 2023 envisaged under the partnership are as follows:transforming Australias en
165、ergy system to align with net zero while providing more affordable,secure,and reliable energy to Australians,(including improving regulatory certainty and efficiency for,and accelerating delivery of,dispatchable renewable energy,storage and nationally significant transmission projects)efficiently an
166、d effectively contributing to the achievement of all Australian emissions reduction targets investing in Australias adaptation and resilience to climate change Figure 2.4 OECD Best Practice Principles for Regulatory Policy Source:OECD(2014).Strategic government statements of orientation that define
167、the underlying principles of regulating and governing.The functions and roles within different bodies and capacities that are responsible for implementing,monitoring and enforcing the delivery of a high-quality regulatory environment.Practices and procedures that are designed and implemented to ensu
168、re regulatory quality.Core policies Actors,institutions and capacities Systems,processes and tools IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 24 empowering and comprehensively engaging with Australias regions and remote communities,including First Nations,on the pathway to decarbonisation and Australia b
169、ecoming a renewable energy superpower delivering a co-ordinated and strategic approach to achieving improvements in energy productivity across the economy.In September 2022,Australia adopted the Climate Change Act 2022.The act legislates Australias updated NDC,which targets GHG emissions reductions
170、of 43%from 2005 levels by 2030 and net zero emissions by 2050.With the act,the Australian Government adopted overarching targets which embrace the ambitions of the states and territories with net zero goals and energy and climate targets(Table 2.2).The act requires an Annual Climate Change Statement
171、,informed by the Climate Change Authoritys advice to the minister on the future GHG emissions reduction targets and periodic implementation reviews.The first statement was issued in December 2022(DCCEEW,2022).Table 2.1 Australias national 2020,2030 and 2050 energy and climate goals 2020 and 2021 sta
172、tus 2020 2030 2050 GHG emissions GHG emissions versus 2005(excluding removals)-20%-43%Net Zero Energy productivity Real GDP/primary energy consumption+8.5%+40%Renewable energy Share of renewable generation capacity in electricity(GWh)40 000 or 30%33 000 82%Notes:GHG=greenhouse gas;GDP=gross domestic
173、 product;GWh=gigawatt hour.The Australian Government put forward a plan to reach a share of 82%of renewable electricity by 2030 in the national energy mix across Australia.The NEPP,adopted in 2015,set a goal of boosting Australias energy productivity by 40%between 2015 and 2030.In 2019,energy minist
174、ers agreed to the Trajectory for Low Energy Buildings as a national plan to set a pathway towards zero energy-ready commercial and residential buildings in Australia.In 2022,the Australian Government consulted on the National Energy Performance Strategy,which will provide guidance across the governm
175、ent on the long-term vision for energy efficiency.IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 25 ENERGY INSIGHTS Table 2.2 Australian state and territory energy targets State or territory Net zero commitments Emissions reduction targets Renewable energy targets Australian Capital Territory Yes by 2045 50-
176、60%by 2025 65-75%by 2030 90-95%by 2040 compared to 1990 levels 100%electricity since 2020 Transition away from gas by 2045 New South Wales Yes by 2050 50%by 2030 compared to 2005 levels 12 GW of renewable energy by 2030 Northern Territory Yes by 2050 No interim targets 50%by 2030 70%renewable electr
177、icity for Indigenous Essential Services communities by 2030 Queensland Yes by 2050 30%by 2030 compared to 2005 levels 50%by 2030 70%by 2032 80%by 2050 South Australia Yes by 2050 50%by 2030 compared to 2005 levels 100%by 2030 500%by 2050 Tasmania Yes by 2030 No interim targets 100%renewable electric
178、ity since 2020 150%by 2030 200%by 2040 Victoria Yes by 2045 28-33%by 2025 45-50%by 2030 75-80%by 2035 compared to 2005 levels 65%and 2.6 GW of storage planned by 2030 90%and 6.3 GW of storage planned by 2025 Western Australia Yes by 2050 80%emissions reduction target below 2020 levels for government
179、 operations No state-wide interim targets State-owned coal-fired power stations,under Synergy,will be retired by 2030 Source:DCCEEW,(2022).IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 26 Energy market reforms and energy security In electricity,the government is implementing measures to further boost the in
180、tegration of variable renewable energy into the electricity system and to ensure adequate firming capacity is available in NEM jurisdictions,building on the lessons from the South Australia blackout in 2016 and the June 2022 energy market crisis.Major reforms include adapting the NEM regulatory rule
181、s and system operation to higher shares of variable renewables towards the decarbonisation of electricity.The Australian Government aims to reach a share of 82%of renewable electricity in the national energy mix by 2030.Based on the EMM announcement of 12 August 2022,an emissions reduction goal will
182、 be included in the National Electricity Objective alongside security,competition and affordability objectives.The Australian Government is promoting major infrastructure investment with AUD 20 billion to“rewire the nation”,a National Reconstruction Fund of AUD 15 billion and the Powering the Region
183、s Fund of AUD 1.9 billion.The government has implemented a series of gas market reforms to support affordable,reliable,secure gas supplies for domestic consumers.These include reforms for greater market transparency,transmission access and secure east coast gas supplies through the new Heads of Agre
184、ement(Australian Government and LNG exporters).A reform of the Australian Domestic Gas Security Mechanism was also announced in 2022.In October 2022,amendments to the National Gas Law were passed to extend the AEMOs functions and powers to manage reliability and gas supply adequacy for the east coas
185、t gas market over the winter of 2023 and beyond.Australia also extended both the National Gas Law and National Energy Retail Law to hydrogen and other renewable gases.The ACCC conducted regular price inquiries on gas and electricity markets,and rules of retail misconduct have been adopted to keep an
186、 average wholesale electricity price of 70 AUD/MWh and the domestic gas price below the LNG netback price.As part of the market reforms and in the light of a cost-of-living crisis,energy affordability has been a strong driver of policy action.In December 2022,the Australian parliament passed legisla
187、tion setting a domestic wholesale price cap of AUD 12 per GJ on natural gas for one year.New South Wales and Queensland Governments are taking action by effectively setting ceilings for the price of coal used for electricity generation to AUD 125 per tonne,with the Commonwealth to contribute to cost
188、s.The government presented an AUD 1.5 billion relief package for households and small businesses alongside financial assistance for the electrification of heating and cooking.Coal companies whose operating costs exceed that price limit will be compensated to ensure supply stability.Concerning petrol
189、eum products,the Australian Government adopted a comprehensive fuel security package and undertook a Liquid Fuel Security Review in 2019.Its long-term fuel security goal is to increase Australias domestic storage and hold a sovereign refining capability that meets Australias needs during an emergenc
190、y.Energy security management is a major priority under the National Energy Transformation Partnership,and in particular cybersecurity,which will require an update of the Australian Energy Security Cyber Security Framework for proactively managing emerging energy system risks in areas such as climate
191、 resilience and cybersecurity of distributed energy IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 27 ENERGY INSIGHTS resources.At their December 2022 meeting,energy ministers endorsed a rule change request to confirm and clarify the AEMOs roles and responsibilities in cybersecurity.Securing the social licen
192、ce for energy infrastructure The Australian Government supports public investments in major energy infrastructure projects,including NEM-wide interconnectors,dispatchable generation(Snowy 2.0 and the Hunter Power Plant)and storage as well as microgrids and clean energy generation at the local and co
193、mmunity levels.Timely permitting and environmental and social approvals are critical for Australias energy transition.“Rewiring the Nation”is an agreement between the Commonwealth,Tasmanian and Victorian governments to deliver key projects,including Kerang Link(2028-2029),both Marinus Link cables(20
194、31),North West Tasmanian Transmission Developments,Victorian offshore wind transmission and Tasmanias Battery of the Nation.In addition,states and territories are investing in major infrastructure plans.The NSW Electricity Infrastructure Roadmap includes plans for at least 12 GW of renewable energy
195、and 2 GW of long-duration storage by 2030,alongside the construction of the Waratah Super Battery,the largest network battery in the southern hemisphere.The Queensland Energy and Jobs Plan includes an AUD 62 billion supergrid and 22 GW of additional renewables capacity by 2035,7 GW of pumped hydro s
196、torage,the conversion of coal-fired power stations to clean energy hubs,including a jobs security guarantee.For“Rewiring the Nation”,the Australian Government adopted AUD 20 billion funding package and committed AUD 9.4 million to design a new framework for nationally significant transmission projec
197、ts,including the regulatory process in the NEM for the development of this critical infrastructure.A new Rewiring the Nation Office was created with the AEMO as a technical adviser and the CEFC as the bank.The Rewiring the Nation Office will partner with the Australian Energy Infrastructure Commissi
198、oner and state,territory and local governments on new transmission projects and regulatory reforms and will focus on strengthening community engagement,social licence and benefit sharing for transmission.The Australian Energy Infrastructure Commissioners mandate was extended on 26 March 2021 by the
199、then-Minister for Energy and Emissions Reductions.The role and mandate built on the National Wind Farm Commissioner,created in November 2015.The current commissioner is Andrew Dyer,executive,chairman and company director,who serves on a number of boards and advisory boards and is a Professorial Fell
200、ow at Monash University.Under the National Energy Transformation Partnership,energy ministers have outlined plans to work jointly on a First Nations Clean Energy Strategy.Placing First Nations communities at the heart of Australias clean energy transition is part of a new strategy to share the benef
201、its of clean energy investment across the nation,notably for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.The Australian Government is committed to the referendum to enshrine an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice in the Constitution.The Australian Government presented an AUD 5.5 million inv
202、estment to kick-start and support the co-design process and strategy development,alongside an initial investment of AUD 83.8 million for microgrids in remote First Nations communities.This funding will leverage and build on the best practice work of jurisdictions,First Nations communities and organi
203、sations to shape the strategy,including identifying priority reforms and investment.IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 28 Diversifying Australias economy Australias economy relies on the natural resource base of fossil fuels and critical minerals.The country is one of the largest energy exporters
204、 in the world,and the leading coking coal and LNG exporter.Australia produces a breadth of renewable energy,critical minerals,including lithium,of which it is the worlds largest producer,and cobalt and rare earth minerals.Australia has the stated ambition to become a renewable energy,critical minera
205、ls and hydrogen exporter.At the federal level,energy taxation and rates are not in line with sustainable or efficient energy consumption(see Chapter 3)and are not reflective of carbon content.The Australian Government levies fuel excise and duties at various rates,based on energy content.Australia a
206、pplies a fuel excise on transport fuels(including aviation)and residential and commercial heating.Petrol and diesel are indexed twice a year in line with the consumer price index and are taxed at AUD 0.433 per litre as of August 2021.The Goods and Services Tax applies to the excise-inclusive price o
207、f petrol and diesel at a single uniform rate of 10%.The Goods and Services Tax also applies to biofuels and gaseous fuels.Box 2.2 International experience in faster permitting of energy infrastructure Around the world there is a growing urgency of and commitment to faster approvals.In the context of
208、 the European energy crisis,the European Council adopted temporary emergency rules to accelerate the deployment of renewable energies like wind(repowering),solar PV and heat pumps(EC,2022).Under the rules,renewable energy projects“would be presumed to be of overriding public interest,”which will all
209、ow a“simplified assessment”to speed up procedures.The new rules clarify the scope of nature protection rules under the European Unions(EU)Birds and Habitats Directives to eliminate bottlenecks in the permit-granting process for renewable energy projects.Canada modernised its environmental and regula
210、tory approval regimes in 2019.Bill C-69 of 2019 replaced the National Energy Board Act with the Canadian Energy Regulator Act*.Bill C-69 also helped to streamline Canadas environmental and regulatory system by modernising the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency through the creation of the Impac
211、t Assessment Agency of Canada,which reports to the Minister of Environment and Climate Change.Bill C-69 set out responsibilities for both the Canadian Energy Regulator and the Impact Assessment Agency to consult and accommodate,when required,during the three-year process indigenous peoples,provinces
212、 and territories,companies,environmental groups,and the public.The new impact assessment system includes a more inclusive participation process,provides clear expectations and shorter legislated timelines,and aims to avoid duplication with other jurisdictions wherever possible with a“one project,one
213、 review”approach.*The Canadian Energy Regulator regulates pipelines,power lines and offshore renewable energy projects;provides oversight of oil and gas exploration and activities on frontier lands and offshore;approves the export and import of natural gas and the export of oil;and provides energy s
214、tatistics,analysis and information.IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 29 ENERGY INSIGHTS Fuel tax credits are applied to heavy vehicles for gasoline and diesel and heavy oil use in industry and electricity fuels.Fuel tax credits provide businesses with a rebate of the tax embedded in the price of
215、 fuel.In 2020-2021,fuel tax revenue was AUD 19.78 billion and businesses claimed AUD 7.6 billion of fuel tax credits,net of road user charges.This is counted as an indirect fossil fuel subsidy by the OECD,as shown in Figures 2.5 and 2.6.Table 2.3 Indirect government support to fossil fuels in Austra
216、lia,in billion AUD,2015-2020 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Tax expenditures 9.313 9.236 8.015 7.883 7.937 7.175 Direct transfers 1.031 0.827 0.579 1.47 2.176 1.847 Total 10.344 10.063 8.594 9.353 10.113 9.022 Source:OECD,(2021).Figure 2.5 Australias fossil fuel support by beneficiary,2010-2020 IEA.C
217、C BY 4.0.Source:OECD,(2021).Figure 2.6 Australias fossil fuel subsidy by fuel type,2010-2020 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Source:OECD,(2021).Australias LNG export earnings are forecast to rise from an estimated AUD 70 billion in 2021-2022 to AUD 90 billion in 2022-2023,driven by rising global energy and commodity
218、prices.The Petroleum Resource Rent Tax(PRRT)revenue also increased,02 0004 0006 0008 00010 00012 000Million AUDProducer supportGeneral servicessupportConsumer support02 0004 0006 0008 00010 00012 000Million AUDPetroleumNatural gasEnd-use electricityCoalIEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 30 from A
219、UD 897 million in 2020-2021 to AUD 2.17 billion in 2021-2022.The PRRT is levied on the profits from petroleum projects in offshore petroleum production in Australian waters at a rate of 40%.To support the shift towards diversified and environmentally sustainable government spending,Australia can als
220、o learn from other countries that are scrutinising public spending with the aim of boosting“green budgeting”.France was the first country to conduct a first assessment of the environmental impact of the 2021 Budget Bill,by using the six criteria of the EU Taxonomy Regulation:1)climate change mitigat
221、ion;2)climate change adaptation;3)sustainable use and protection of water and marine resources;4)the transition to a circular economy;5)pollution prevention and control;and 6)the protection and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystems.The abundance of domestic renewable and non-renewable energy re
222、sources,along with a diverse wealth of critical minerals,presents Australia with a clear opportunity for a secure energy transition to a net zero emissions economy while continuing to perform a key role in international energy markets as a reliable trading partner.The Australian Government has the s
223、tated objective of making Australia a superpower for exports of renewable energy and critical minerals.Australia expects major supply chain bottlenecks for wind and solar power materials and transmission cables.The Supply Chain Resilience Initiative and the Sovereign Manufacturing Capability Plan ai
224、m to support efforts in this direction(see Chapter 11).Towards a people-centred strategy A number of initiatives are underway to support workers throughout the energy transition.The Australian Government has committed AUD 12.9 million to the priority of Jobs and Skills Australia to help tackle skill
225、 shortages and plan for the workforce of the future.A new Clean Energy Capacity study will be a high priority for Jobs and Skills Australia.The study will provide evidence and insights to support workforce planning,and inform skills development needs and training for Australias clean energy sector.T
226、he DCCEEW produces the Australian Energy Employment Report,a national workforce survey of businesses and organisations in,or supporting,the Australian energy sector.This will give federal,state and local governments insights to assist in the development of policies regarding jobs,skills development
227、and training opportunities.Both initiatives will support the development of a National Energy Workforce Strategy,which will provide a comprehensive national approach to ensure Australias future energy system has a pipeline of highly skilled and diverse workers to support the energy transition.Austra
228、lia joined the Equality in Energy Transitions Initiative in May 2018.At COP26 in November 2021,it announced it had joined the Equal by 30 campaign as a public commitment to work towards equal pay,equal leadership and equal opportunities for women in the clean energy sector by 2030.The Australian Gov
229、ernment has endorsed the campaigns four key public sector principles and is developing tailored commitments outlining the concrete action to accelerate the participation of women in the clean energy sector.IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY31 ENERGY INSIGHTS In 2021,the IEA Global Commission on P
230、eople-Centred Clean Energy Transitions adopted a set of actionable recommendations for governments,industry and citizens by drawing on recent experiences and best practices from around the world(Figure 2.7).Figure 2.7 Principles for just energy transitions DECENT JOBS AND WORKER PROTECTION 1 2 3 Des
231、ign transitions to maximise the creation of decent jobs Develop tailored government support for communities and workers as well as focus on skills and training Use social dialogue,robust stakeholder and policy co-ordination to deliver better outcomes SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 4 5 6 Ensure that
232、 policies enhance social and economic development,and improve quality of life for all Prioritise universal clean energy access and the elimination of energy poverty Maintain and enhance energy security,affordability and resilience EQUITY,SOCIAL INCLUSION AND FAIRNESS 7 8 9 Incorporate gender,equalit
233、y and social inclusion considerations in all policies Ensure fair distribution of clean energy benefits and avoid the risk of disproportionate negative impacts on vulnerable populations Integrate the voices of younger generations in decision making PEOPLE AS ACTIVE PARTICIPANTS 10 11 12 Involve the
234、public through participation and communication Use insights from behavioural science to design effective behaviour change policies Enhance impact through international collaboration and exchange best practice Source:IEA,(2021).International experience can inform Australias strategy.The United Kingdo
235、m has created the green jobs task force which is completing a survey of jobs/skills to understand sectoral requirements relative to new opportunities.European countries have adopted just energy transition strategies with dedicated funding arrangements.For instance,Spain has initiated Just Transition
236、 agreements between government,companies and labour,while the EU Just Transition Fund is a financial instrument to help European Union member governments address asymmetric job shifts,particularly in coal mining regions,through long-term support mechanisms.The German government established a multi-s
237、takeholder Commission on Growth,Structural Change and Employment,which made recommendations on the timing and pace of the coal phase-out as well as transitional assistance to affected communities.The United States has recently introduced new geothermal tax credits under the Inflation Reduction Act f
238、ocused on energy communities(defined as those that have typically depended on coal/fossil fuels for economic activity).IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY32 Energy data strategy for tracking the energy transition Regarding the energy portfolio,the Australian Government has seen frequent institutio
239、nal changes that have had implications for energy and climate data collection and monitoring.The DCCEEW was created in 2022.With its energy and climate portfolio,this is an opportunity for setting up data requirements for Australias transition.The Department of Industry,Science and Resources maintai
240、ns oversight of upstream development,mining and critical minerals and hosts the Office of the Chief Economist.The DCCEEW is responsible for the Australian Energy Statistics,the governments official source of energy statistics forming the basis of Australias international reporting obligations,includ
241、ing those to the IEA.The data set is updated annually and consists of historical statistics on energy production,trade and consumption.The energy data landscape includes multiple agencies collecting and publishing energy data,sometimes subject to competing priorities.The main source is the National
242、Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Scheme(NGERS)data collected by the Clean Energy Regulator under the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Act 2007.It covers reporting at the facility level from companies above a certain threshold based on a financial year ending in June.Data-sharing operations wi
243、th NGERS are very successful.Other sources include:the Australian Petroleum Statistics Survey;the Department of Industry,Science and Resources and National Offshore Petroleum Titles Administrator;the Australian Bureau of Statistics;the Bureau of Infrastructure,Transport and Regional Economics;the AE
244、MO;the Australian Energy Regulator;state government data sets;own estimates;and modelling.With regard to energy demand by sector,the government has mandatory data reporting only from large users in manufacturing and mining(above a threshold of 25 000 tonnes),based on the NGERS.Data for small to medi
245、um-sized users are estimated;data for transport are derived from Australian petroleum statistics and activity data from the Bureau of Infrastructure,Transport and Regional Economics;data for the residential and commercial sectors are derived from utilities regulator data combined with data,studies a
246、nd analysis from other sources,such as the Residential Baseline Study.Several initiatives to improve data have been introduced and are ongoing:a new data strategy on governance to reduce barriers to data sharing across jurisdictions and organisations(Energy Security Board Data Strategy);a new data p
247、latform to improve data accessibility and use with a focus on energy and emissions data(Data Management and Analytics Platform);a partnership between the Commonwealth,CSIRO and the AEMO to enable data science to be used to support improved operation and planning of the energy system(National Energy
248、Analytics Research Program);improvements to sectoral estimates(for example using for the first time actual electricity and gas consumption for the residential sector from the utilities regulator);and automation to reduce human error in data compilation and validation.The IEA also praises the recent
249、efforts to submit updated and improved energy technology RD&D data.Data on energy prices and household expenditure remain incomplete,as the official data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics excludes“electricity,gas and other fuels”.Australia does not submit natural gas prices for households(40%
250、of residential energy consumption);nor quarterly electricity prices(56%of households energy consumption);nor fuel oil,light fuel oil,coal,natural gas for all users and electricity;nor diesel and liquefied petroleum gas prices for industrial users.IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 33 ENERGY INSIG
251、HTS With regard to oil and gas data,the government legislated a mandatory reporting programme for petroleum sector data which is collected and managed by the DCCEEW and informs the Australian Petroleum Statistics.This mandatory programme replaced the voluntary survey conducted to collect monthly pet
252、roleum data from 1 January 2018 onwards.The DCCEEW collects data and publishes comprehensive statistics on oil supply and use in Australia via the departments official Australian Petroleum Statistics monthly publication.The bulk of the data comes from the departments own data collection,which has,si
253、nce 2018,been underpinned by legislation(the Petroleum and Other Fuels Reporting POFR Act 2017),which makes it mandatory for companies to provide the data to the government.The department also receives data from other sources,mainly through data-sharing arrangements with other government departments
254、 that collect information from both survey-based and administrative data sets.Under the POFR Act,activities such as producing,refining,wholesaling and holding stocks of oil products(such as crude oil,liquefied petroleum gas,petrol,diesel,bitumen and lubricants)and alternative transport fuels(such as
255、 biofuel)must be reported.The IEA commends the introduction of the mandatory reporting,which ensures reliable and accurate monthly oil data.A review of the POFR Act is ongoing,with the objective of potentially covering more products/flows.Since 2021,the department has enhanced its internal data mana
256、gement capabilities(called the Petroleum Statistics Information Management System),supporting a more automated and integrated data management system(the online submission portal“Liquid Fuels Gateway”for companies)and is modernising its data dissemination with a new interactive dashboard.Reporting of
257、 natural gas data(on a monthly basis)remains incomplete(observed domestic consumption and stocks levels are not transmitted)and trade data by country of destination cannot be reported due to confidentiality issues.Natural gas data are collected on a voluntary basis(only LNG is a covered product unde
258、r the POFR Act,while ordinary natural gas is not a mandatory item)and would benefit from future inclusion in a mandatory data collection system.With regard to monthly electricity reporting to the IEA(MES),Australia previously only reported generation from large-scale solar PV plants and grid-connect
259、ed generation,which does not fully represent the countrys power system.The government confirmed that data from another source are available for small-scale solar PV and has included this in the IEA MES since February 2022.However,monthly data is not available to report off-grid generation.Assessment
260、 Australia is an important energy producer of coal,gas and critical minerals needed for the global economy,which is important factor for its energy transition.In 2021,Australias energy production mainly of coal and natural gas was more than three times higher than the countrys total energy supply.TE
261、S is strongly dominated by fossil fuels,covering 92%of the total in 2021,the highest in the IEA.Australia is the fourth-largest coal producer in the world,after China,India and the United States.Since 2015,Australia has significantly increased its production of natural gas,exported in the form of li
262、quid natural gas(LNG).Conversely,solar PV has become the leading source of renewable energy and,together with wind,has met all the incremental electricity demand over the past IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 34 decade.Australia has the highest share of rooftop solar per capita in the world,whi
263、ch features on more than one in three Australian homes.With strong economic growth over decades,total final consumption has been increasing in Australia,with oil accounting for more than half of TFC in 2021,followed by electricity(24%)and natural gas(16%).The share of electricity is around the IEA a
264、verage(23%),with relatively high electrification in buildings and relatively low electrification in transport.In terms of sectors,industry accounts for the largest share of energy consumption(39%),closely followed by transport(38%)and buildings(23%).Australia has decoupled energy demand from both GD
265、P and population growth.Since the IEAs last review of Australia in 2018,the government has stepped up its climate ambition at the Commonwealth level,aligning to the net zero ambitions of the states and territories and is taking an inclusive and collaborative approach to energy policy under the new N
266、ational Energy Transformation Partnership.Energy and climate policy is a competency of the state and territory governments in Australia.Co-ordination is important for the national wholesale and retail electricity and gas markets.The Energy Ministers Meetings(EMM)established under the National Cabine
267、t with six working groups can enable energy policy co-ordination between these levels of government.Collaboration is now structured under the new National Energy Transformation Partnership,an integrated climate and energy emissions agreement.The Australian Government increased its climate ambition w
268、ith a new target of a 43%reduction of GHG emissions by 2030 from 2005 levels,an increase from the previous governments target of 26-28%.The government also legislated its new 2030 target alongside the net zero ambition by 2050 in the Climate Change Act 2022.As part of the Annual Climate Change State
269、ment,the government must review progress on Australias energy transition.Energy efficiency goals and policies were set out in the NEPP,which established a target to increase energy productivity(GDP/TES)by 40%between 2015 and 2030.At their October 2022 EMM,demand-side action and energy efficiency wer
270、e prioritised and new national rules proposed,notably the introduction of fuel economy standards,the new National Construction Code and energy performance in buildings.A new National Energy Performance Strategy is now under consultation and will refocus the governments strategy towards the energy de
271、mand side.The creation of the DCCEEW in July 2022 will be fundamental to ensure greater coherence of energy and climate data for policy making at the Commonwealth level.The upstream and critical minerals sectors remain the purview of the Department of Industry,Science and Resources.The new set-up wi
272、ll require more collaboration across departments to consolidate energy and climate data.This is particularly important in the context of liquid fuels security and progressing Australias energy transition,which requires the collection and analysis of data for the design,implementation and tracking pr
273、ogress on energy,resources and emissions-related policies and programmes for the government.There are not sufficient data available on sectoral end-use and pricing for policy making.The government needs to increase the availability of policy-relevant energy information and seek cost-effective action
274、s to enhance the data granularity on the demand side for energy prices across all IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY 35 ENERGY INSIGHTS fuels,while integrating new fuels and technologies(hydrogen)in data collection and legislation and making use of data science.A further challenge in the Australi
275、an energy system is the array of energy agencies and regulators,particularly in the NEM,of various jurisdictions and competency areas,which will also require co-ordinated action to achieve renewable energy and climate targets.The National Energy Transformation Partnership is a strong engagement plat
276、form and announced plans to streamline governance.This could also include a greater streamlining of the regulatory bodies,for instance,by creating a new Energy Sector Transformation Commission.The social acceptance to construct and operate the necessary infrastructure to achieve Australias net zero
277、ambition will have to be secured.The IEA is impressed with Australias Energy Infrastructure Commissioner,who is carrying out critical work towards improving public acceptance and making progress on major infrastructure projects on the ground.The benefits for local communities are significant and sho
278、uld be communicated as such.It is commendable that the new partnership reflects the opportunities for consumers,critical energy market reforms,technology development,manufacturing in Australia,job creation,and the needs for a just and inclusive energy transition.There is a growing shortage of people
279、 with the training and skills required to support the transition.The forthcoming National Energy Workforce Strategy should reflect on opportunities to reskill labour from fossil fuel industries to transfer their skills to sustainable industries.Key recommendations The government of Australia should:
280、Develop the social licence with citizens,consumers and communities for essential infrastructure in the energy and critical mineral sectors through community engagement.Ensure the Office of the Australian Energy Infrastructure Commissioner is fully resourced to support communities and project develop
281、ers.As part of the National Electricity Market reforms,streamline the regulatory landscape of the NEM in line with OECD principles for good regulation,particularly role clarity,independence,transparency and accountability.Mainstream a people-centred transition approach with an evaluation of the jobs
282、 and growth impacts from an inclusive and just transition of communities and workers in support of the diversification of Australias economy away from fossil fuel use and extraction.Track Australias energy transition by designing an appropriately resourced national energy and climate information sys
283、tem.The system should include end-use energy and energy prices and expenditure data,a national energy forecast,and market data function.Strengthen data governance,remove institutional and legislative barriers to data sharing,and enlarge the scope of mandatory data reporting to natural gas and other
284、fuels,including hydrogen.IEA.CC BY 4.0.2.GENERAL ENERGY POLICY36 References DCCEEW(Department of Climate Change,Energy,the Environment and Water)(2022),Annual Climate Change Statement,https:/www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/annual-climate-change-statement-2022.pdf EC(European Commissi
285、on)(2022),Proposal for a Council Regulation Laying Down a Framework to Accelerate the Deployment of Renewable Energy,https:/energy.ec.europa.eu/proposal-council-regulation-laying-down-framework-accelerate-deployment-renewable-energy_en IEA(International Energy Agency)(2022),World Energy Balances(dat
286、abase),https:/www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances(accessed on 26 August 2022)IEA(2021),Recommendations of the Global Commission on People-centred Clean Energy Transitions,https:/www.iea.org/reports/recommendations-of-the-global-commission-on-people-centred-clean-energy
287、-transitions OECD(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)(2022),Selected indicators for Australia,https:/data.oecd.org/Australia.htm(accessed on 12 December 2022).OECD(2021),Inventory of Fossil Fuel Support Measures(database),https:/www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/5a3efe65-en/1/3/4/index
288、.html?itemId=/content/publication/5a3efe65-en&_csp_=2ffa7a733148fec42dccf926d7619e1c&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book#tablegrp-d1e1707(accessed on 26 August 2022)OECD(2014),The Governance of Regulators,OECD Best Practice Principles for Regulatory Policy,http:/dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264209015-en IEA
289、.CC BY 4.0.37 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION 3.Energy sector response to climate change Key data GHG emissions with LULUCF(2020)*:487.6 Mt CO2-eq;-20%since 2005,-22%since 2005 GHG emissions without LULUCF(2020)*:527.7 Mt CO2-eq;+1%since 2005,+24%since 1990 CO emissions from fuel combustion(2021):360.9
290、 Mt CO2-eq;-1%since 2005 CO2 emissions by sector(2021):electricity generation 47.6%,transport 24.3%,industry 24.3%,buildings 3.8%CO2 intensity per GDP(2021)*:0.302 kg CO2/USD(IEA average 0.186 kg CO2/USD)CO2 intensity per capita(2021):14.7 t CO2/capita(IEA average 8.28 t CO2/capita)*Land use,land-us
291、e change and forestry *Gross domestic product in 2015 prices and purchasing power parity(PPP).Overview From 1990 to 2020,Australias total GHG emissions excluding land use,land-use change,and forestry(LULUCF)increased by 24%,from 426 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent(Mt CO2-eq)to 528 Mt CO2-eq(Figure
292、3.1).Taking LULUCF into account,GHG emissions have decreased by 22%since 1990.LULUCF absorbed 40.2 Mt CO2-eq in 2020.LULUCF was traditionally an emitting source,with 200 Mt CO2-eq in 1990,but is a carbon sink since 2015.Increases in the LULUCF sink were driven by the decline in emissions from primar
293、y land clearing,forest cover expansion and a decline in the harvesting of native forests.The energy sector plays a critical role in GHG emissions.In 2020,79%of GHG emissions were energy-related,followed by agriculture(13%),industrial processes(6%)and waste(2%).Energy-related CO2 emissions stem mainl
294、y from electricity and heat generation.GHG emissions from coal accounted for almost 50%of emissions.Oil and gas production is driving an increase in GHG emissions,notably in fugitive emissions,such as methane from mining and extraction,but also energy-related CO2 emissions from LNG production.In Oct
295、ober 2022,the government joined the Global Methane Pledge alongside 130 signatories who collectively target a reduction in methane emissions by at least 30%by 2030(from 2020 levels)across all sectors.One of the first actions of the incoming government was to submit an updated NDC in June 2022.Aligni
296、ng with the efforts of other advanced economies,the NDC strengthened IEA.CC BY 4.0.3.ENERGY SECTOR RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE 38 Australias 2030 target to 43%below 2005 levels and reaffirmed its net zero emissions by 2050 target.In September 2022,the government passed the Climate Change Act,enshrini
297、ng these targets into law.The pace of emissions reductions in Australia must double to reach these goals.The latest Australian Long-Term Emissions Reduction Plan was submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)in 2021 and pre-dates the new NDC goal(DISER,2021).Figur
298、e 3.1 Greenhouse gas emissions by sector in Australia,1990-2020 and 2030 and 2050 targets IEA.CC BY 4.0.Australias GHG emissions mainly come from the energy sector.Despite a 20%decrease since 2005,the coming decade will require doubling the effort to reach a 43%decline.Notes:Mt CO2-eq=million tonnes
299、 of carbon dioxide equivalent;LULUCF=land use,land-use change and forestry.Source:UNFCCC,(2022).Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions From 2000 to 2021,Australias energy-related GHG emissions remained flat,fluctuating between a minimum of 338 Mt CO2-eq in 2000 and a maximum of 393 Mt CO2-eq in 201
300、7(Figure 3.2)and stood at 361 Mt CO2-eq in 2021.In 2021,electricity generation accounted for the largest share(47%)of energy-related GHG emissions,followed by transport(25%),industry(24%)and buildings(4%)(Figure 3.2).Emissions from electricity generation decreased between 2010 and 2020,after a peak
301、in 2016,as the use of coal in the power sector decreased.Conversely,emissions from transport and industry have slightly increased up to 2021.-1000 100 200 300 400 500 600 7001990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050Mt CO-eqTargetLULUCFWasteAgricultureIndustrialprocessesEnergy-
302、43%carbon neutrality-20%IEA.CC BY 4.0.3.ENERGY SECTOR RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE 39 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION Figure 3.2 Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions by sector and fuel in Australia,2000-2021 Greenhouse gas emissions by sector IEA.CC BY 4.0.Greenhouse gas emissions by fuel IEA.CC BY 4.
303、0.Electricity generation covers half of emissions by sector.By fuel,coal is responsible for the largest part of emissions,but the total of coal emissions has come down in Australia.Notes:Mt CO2=million tonnes of carbon dioxide;Mt CO2-eq=million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent.Energy-related gree
304、nhouse gas emissions do not include fugitive emissions from fuels.Source:IEA,(2022a).Although Australia is the fourth-largest coal-producing country in the world,domestic GHG emissions from coal are decreasing,mainly in power generation.Almost half of GHG are emitted from coal(44%).GHG emissions fro
305、m oil constantly increased from 122 Mt CO2-eq in 2010 to 139 Mt CO2-eq in 2019,driven by rising energy consumption in the transport sector.They then dropped in the next two years to 130 Mt CO2-eq in 2021,following transport disruptions due to the Covid-19 pandemic.Emissions from natural gas use rose
306、 by more than 30%from 2010 to 2021 due to its increasing role in electricity generation.GHG emissions from natural gas accounted for 75 Mt CO2-eq in 2021.0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450Mt CO-eqBuildingsIndustryTransportElectricity andheat generation0 50 100 150 200 250Mt CO-eqCoalOilNatural gas
307、IEA.CC BY 4.0.3.ENERGY SECTOR RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE 40 Emission drivers and carbon intensity Australias GDP saw uninterrupted growth for two decades,increasing by 71%between 2000 and 2019.In 2020,GDP slightly declined by 2%due to the Covid-19 pandemic but recovered in 2021(Figure 3.3).Meanwhile
308、,the countrys population increased by 35%between 2000 and 2021.Despite the increase in GDP and population,GHG emissions have been relatively stable,leading to a 35%decrease in the emissions intensity of the economy(GHG emissions/GDP)from 2000 to 2021.Over the same period,the countrys emissions inten
309、sity of energy supply decreased by 9%and that of electricity generation fell by 10%.Figure 3.3 Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions and main drivers in Australia,2000-2021 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Australias energy-related GHG emissions are largely decoupled from economic growth but not yet from electricity
310、 generation or total energy supply.Notes:GDP=gross domestic product;GHG=greenhouse gas;TES=total energy supply.Source:IEA,(2022a).Australias energy exports and climate change Australia is a net exporter of energy commodities(coal,LNG and others),and in 2021,41%of its GHG emissions arose from export-
311、oriented sectors1.For the period up to March 2022,Australias territorial emissions(485 Mt CO2-eq)were higher than its consumption-based emissions(419 Mt CO2-eq).Emissions associated with the production of exports were 208.6 Mt CO2-eq and those related to consumption of imports 141.1 Mt CO2-eq.Consum
312、ption-based per capita emissions were 16 t CO2-eq,significantly higher than the world average(4.5 t CO2-eq)and other advanced economies,for instance,the European Union(8.6 t CO2-eq).1 National Inventory Report data were accessed via the online Australian Greenhouse Emissions Information System.For c
313、onsumption/production inventory breakdowns,data tables from the March 2022 quarterly update of Australias National Greenhouse Gas Inventory were used.See:https:/www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/nggi-quarterly-update-march-2022.pdf.0.60.81.01.21.41.61.82.0Index 1=2000GDPPopulationGHG e
314、missionsGHGemissions/TESGHG/electricitygenerationGHGemissions/GDPIEA.CC BY 4.0.3.ENERGY SECTOR RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE41 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION Oil and gas production,mining,and exports have grown strongly in Australia.According to the governments latest data,in 2022,emissions released in A
315、ustralia in export production were 208.6 Mt CO2-eq,which is almost 50%more than for exports in 2004-05(the base year of Australias Paris Agreement target).Since 2005,Australia has reduced emissions by 41%from its domestic-facing sectors,while those from its export-facing sectors have risen by 47%,ac
316、cording to the latest data(DCCEEW,2021).In October 2022,Australia joined the Global Methane Pledge2 alongside 130 signatories who collectively committed to cut methane emissions by 30%by 2030 from 2020 levels across all sectors.In the 2022-2023 Budget,the government allocated funding for developing
317、technology and innovation in agriculture to address methane emissions.In the energy sector,the government aims at capturing waste methane to generate electricity,capturing or avoiding fugitive emissions from coal mines and gas infrastructure.Reforms to the Safeguard Mechanism are planned to incentiv
318、ise the industry sector to reduce emissions,including reductions of methane emissions from industrial and resource activities.Globally,many signatories of the Global Methane Pledge are now developing national action plans with actions and targets to reduce methane emissions from fossil fuel operatio
319、ns.This includes limiting leaks and flaring in the oil and gas industry,reducing coal mine methane emissions,and increasing measurement-based monitoring.Climate targets Consistent with the requirements of the Paris Agreement,Australias emissions reduction targets are economy-wide,as in many UNFCCC p
320、arties.With the Climate Change Act 2022,the Australian Government legislated an increased commitment to reduce GHG emissions by 43%by 2030,compared to 2005 levels,and net zero emissions by 2050.The 43%reduction target translates into a 50%reduction by 2030 from 1990 levels.The Climate Change(Consequ
321、ential Amendments)Act 2022 changed 14 other acts to focus government institutions on achieving those targets,including the Northern Australia Infrastructure Facility,Export Finance Australia,the Australian Renewable Energy Agency,the Clean Energy Finance Corporation,the Clean Energy Regulator,CSIRO
322、and Infrastructure Australia.This more ambitious emissions reduction target of-43%has strong cross-party support and compares with other advanced economies targets,including 55%in the European Union,40%in Korea below 2018 levels,40-45%in Canada below 2005 levels,46-50%in Japan below 2013 levels and
323、50-52%in the United States from 2005 levels.The Australian Governments 2022 Emissions Projections show that the country is on track to achieve a reduction of 32%below 2005 levels by 2030,which is considered the baseline scenario(DCCEEW 2022b),as reflected in Figure 3.4.This scenario builds on the an
324、nouncements and goals from the Powering Australia plan,which was formalised through laws and budgets by end of 2022.Additional efforts and policies are needed to meet the new 43%reduction goal.The“with additional measures”scenario can achieve a 40%reduction in emissions on 2005 levels 2 For more inf
325、ormation,visit:https:/www.globalmethanepledge.org.IEA.CC BY 4.0.3.ENERGY SECTOR RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE 42 by 2030.This scenario reflects the Safeguard Mechanism3 reforms and the national 82%renewable electricity target,which are under consultation and design.Announced funding and policies,such a
326、s the Powering the Regions Fund,the National Electric Vehicle Strategy and the National Reconstruction Fund,are not yet included in this scenario.According to the emissions projections,from 2020 to 2030,most of the decreases in emissions are projected to come from the electricity sector due to the s
327、trong uptake of renewables supported by national,state and territory policies.Emissions are projected to increase in the transport,agriculture and LULUCF sectors(DCCEEW,2022b).Figure 3.4 Historical and projected emissions reductions in Australia,2020-2035 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:Mt CO2-e=million tonnes o
328、f carbon dioxide equivalent.Source:DCCEEW,(2022b).Under the Climate Change Act 2022,the Minister for Climate Change and Energy is required to present an Annual Statement to Parliament,having regard to the CCAs advice.The Annual Climate Change Statement to Parliament is the main mechanism for the Aus
329、tralian Government to outline its approach and progress towards reaching its 2030 and 2050 emissions targets.Based on advice from the CCA,the governments Climate Change Statement will track progress annually.On 1 December 2022,the Australian Government presented the first Annual Climate Change State
330、ment to Parliament(DCCEEW,2022b),which included a government response to the CCAs recommendations.The CCA has also proposed a methodology for assessing progress,under which it aims to establish and track indicators for economic development and the transformation to net zero and identify additional m
331、easures(CCA,2022).The Minister of Climate Change and Energy has accepted the CCAs advice to develop a new net zero by 2050 plan that sets expectations and the sequence for when,how and by how much emissions should be reduced across different sectors of the economy(CCA,2022).This will allow the gover
332、nment to track progress,identify sectoral pathways and seize the economic opportunities from the transformation to net zero.3 The Safeguard Mechanism applies to facilities with scope one covered emissions of more than 100 000 t CO2-eq per year.250 300 350 400 450 500 550202020224202520262
333、027202820292030203342035Mt CO2-eqBaseline of 32%below 2005 levelsEmission budget trajectory-minus 43%targetHistorical emissionsWith additional measuresCumulative emissions budget(2021-2030)With additional measures 40%below 2005 levelsIEA.CC BY 4.0.3.ENERGY SECTOR RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE 43 ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION The Australian Treasurys climate modelling is being strengthened t