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1、BRICS Digital Economy Report 2022 SStreet address:ITC 54-56,rue de Montbrillant 1202 Geneva,SwitzerlandPostal address:ITC Palais des Nations 1211 Geneva 10,Switzerland Telephone:+41-22 730 0111Fax:+41-22 733 4439E-mail:itcregintracen.orgInternet:http:/www.intracen.orgThe International Trade Centre(I
2、TC)is the joint agency of the World Trade Organization and the United Nations.International Trade Centre 2022In collaboration with:BRICS Digital Economy Report 2022About the reportDynamic business development and an improving policy environment mean the BRICS countries(Brazil,the Russian Federation,
3、India,China and South Africa)can become important players in the digital economy.Yet challenges remain to bridge the digital divide,upgrade skills and digital governance,and improve access to technology and finance.This report examines digital market trends and policy developments in the BRICS count
4、ries.It urges them to enhance cooperation through joint efforts to narrow the digital divide,advance digital governance discussions,improve measurement of the digital economy,catalyse cooperation among private-sector players and support development and uptake of new digital technologies.The report w
5、as prepared by ITC in collaboration with UNCTAD,in the context of the BRICS meetings hosted by China in 2022.Publisher:International Trade CentreTitle:BRICS Digital Economy Report 2022Publication date and place:Geneva,December 2022Page count:56ITC Document Number:TFPB-22-58.ECitation:International T
6、rade Centre.BRICS Digital Economy Report 2022.ITC,Geneva.The views and opinions expressed in this report are those of the authors and contributors,and do not necessarily reflect the views of the BRICS members,ITC and UNCTAD.For more information,contact:Quan Zhao:zhaointracen.orgITC encourages the re
7、printing and translation of its publications to achieve wider dissemination.Short extracts of this paper may be freely reproduced,with due acknowledgement of the source.Permission should be requested for more extensive reproduction or translation.A copy of the reprinted or translated material should
8、 be sent to ITC.Digital image(s)on the cover:Shutterstock International Trade Centre(ITC)ITC is the joint agency of the World Trade Organization and the United Nations.ForewordThe five BRICS countries(Brazil,Russian Federation,India,China and South Africa)have great potential to further advance the
9、digital economy.Large domestic markets,the growing middle class,relatively well-developed digital infrastructure and an expanding youth population with stronger digital skills make BRICS countries attractive destinations for investment in digital sectors.These competitiveness factors have translated
10、 into a boom of domestic digital companies,some of which are outcompeting international peers in the domestic market.To fully capture the benefits of digital transformation and ensure inclusive development for micro,small and medium-sized enterprises(MSMEs)and low-income populations,BRICS need to br
11、idge the digital divide,enhance education and skill development,support innovation and digital entrepreneurship,improve the policy environment and strengthen international cooperation.The BRICS cooperation mechanism can play an important role in forging mutual support among BRICS countries,as well a
12、s providing support to other developing countries.This publication reviews market developments in key segments of the BRICS digital economy,including digital infrastructure,e-commerce,data centres and cloud services,digital payments,artificial intelligence and big data,assessing the development pote
13、ntial and priorities.The report also examines the latest policy evolutions through a new framework covering national strategies,data governance,platform governance and ecosystem development.Through these market and policy analyses,the publication provides practical suggestions on further enhancing B
14、RICS cooperation in the digital economy.The suggestions are not only relevant to BRICS countries;they also apply to policymakers in other developing countries aspiring to enhance competitiveness in digital economy.This is because they address some of the common challenges faced by the developing cou
15、ntries,such as improving digital infrastructure,enhancing digital governance,improving measurement,catalysing private sector growth and facilitating uptake of new digital technologies.The International Trade Centre(ITC)helps MSMEs in developing countries access global digital markets.Our e-commerce
16、and digital economy projects enhance digital skills through training and coaching,connect MSMEs to markets and buyers,foster digital entrepreneurship,support policymakers to build conducive domestic policy environment and facilitate international cooperation on digital issues.ITC is pleased to have
17、collaborated with the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD)for this publication.UNCTAD plays a key role in supporting sustainable and inclusive digital development across the world through its three pillars of work:research and analysis,consensus-building and technical cooperati
18、on,as well as through convening partnerships and fostering stakeholder engagement.ITC works closely with UNCTADs eTrade for all initiative to provide technical assistance to help developing countries leverage opportunities in digital trade.We strive to close the digital divide and ensure that no one
19、 is left behind in the fast-growing digital economy.Pamela Coke-HamiltonExecutive DirectorInternational Trade CentrevAcknowledgementsThis paper was prepared by Rishab Raturi,ITC trade consultant,and reviewed by Quan Zhao and Jean-Sbastien Roure(both ITC)and Torbjrn Fredriksson and Wei Zhang(both UNC
20、TAD)The paper was produced under the supervision of Mohammad Saeed,Chief,Trade Facilitation and Policy for Business,and Rajesh Aggarwal,Director(officer in charge),Division of Market Development(both ITC).We would like to thank delegates from the BRICS countries for their review and comments on the
21、initial draft.We would like to thank Natalie Domeisen and Anne Griffin(both ITC),who oversaw the editing and production process;Jennifer Freedman,who edited the report;and Franco Iacovino and Serge Adeagbo(both ITC),who provided graphic and printing support.Thanks also to Christina OShaughnessy and
22、Richard Waddington for their editorial input in the preliminary phase of writing.Production of this publication received support from the Ministry of Commerce of the Peoples Republic of China.viContentsForeword vAcknowledgements viAcronyms xiExecutive summary xChapter 1 Importance of the digital eco
23、nomy for BRICS 2Broaden the scope of BRICS cooperation beyond e-commerce 2Roadmap of the report 4Chapter 2 Measuring the digital economy 6Scope and definition of the digital economy 6BRICS are trying to measure the digital economy 8Collaboration will improve digital economy measurement 9Chapter 3 Ma
24、rket trends in key digital economy segments 12Digital infrastructure 12E-commerce 16Data centres and cloud services 18Digital payments 20Artificial intelligence and big data 21Chapter 4 Policy developments in BRICS digital economy 26All BRICS have national strategies for developing digital economy 2
25、6Data governance 27Platform governance 31Ecosystem development35Chapter 5 Enhancing BRICS cooperation on digital economy 42Potential areas for further cooperation 42References46viiBoxBox 1 International efforts to enhance measurement of digital economy 10FiguresFigure 1 BRICS exported 31%of global I
26、CT goods in 2020 3Figure 2 BRICS exported 11%of global digitally delivered services in 2020 3Figure 3 Breaking down the digital economy 7Figure 4 Mobile cellular networks cover almost all BRICS populations(2021)13Figure 5 Russian Federation had most broadband connections in 2019 13Figure 6 Internet
27、use in BRICS countries has surged since 200015Figure 7 China has fastest average download speed among BRICS 15Figure 8 Few women in India use the internet(%of all women in each country)15Figure 9 Most BRICS mobile internets costs are below global average 15Figure 10 China has highest average downloa
28、d speeds among BRICS 17Figure 11 More than 70%of Russians use digital payments 17Figure 12 About 75%of internet users in China shop online 17Figure 13 China had 215 science and technology parks in 2021 19Figure 14 BRICS declarations target different aspects of digital development 43TablesTable 1 Ana
29、lytical framework for digital economy policies 26Table 2 Cybercrime legislation in BRICS countries29viiiAcronymsUnless otherwise specified,all references to dollars($)are to United States dollars,and all references to tons are to metric tons.AI artificial intelligenceB2C business-to-customerBRICS Br
30、azil,Russian Federation,India,China and South AfricaCade Conselho Administrativo de Defesa Econmica CAGR compound annual growth rateFDI foreign direct investmentfintech financial technologyG20 Group of TwentyGDP gross domestic productGSMA Global System for Mobile CommunicationsICT information and co
31、mmunication technologyIoT Internet of ThingsITC International Trade CentreMbps megabits per secondMSMEs micro,small and medium-sized enterprisesOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentUNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentixExecutive summaryThis report provides
32、an overview of market trends and policy developments related to the digital economy in the five BRICS countries(Brazil,the Russian Federation,India,China and South Africa).It suggests that BRICS can further enhance cooperation through joint efforts to bridge the digital divide,advance digital govern
33、ance discussions,improve measurement of digital economy,catalyse cooperation among private-sector players and facilitate development and uptake of new digital technologies.The International Trade Centre in collaboration with the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development prepared the report
34、in the context of BRICS meetings hosted by China in 2022.Defining and measuring the digital economy is toughThe world is on the verge of a new wave of digital transformation.New technologies such as 5G,artificial intelligence(AI),big data,blockchain and the Internet of Things and the rise of digital
35、 services,digital platforms and accelerated use of digital data across all sectors and industries are expected to have major impacts on the evolving shape of the digital economy.In this context,it is timely and imperative to broaden the scope of BRICS cooperation beyond e-commerce to focus on the la
36、rger picture of the digital economy.Although there are no official statistics,estimates from government documents suggest that the contribution of the digital economy to BRICS gross domestic product in recent years ranges from 2%in South Africa and 4%in the Russian Federation to 6.9%in India,7.8%in
37、China and 22%in Brazil.Collectively,BRICS countries account for about 30%of the global export of information and communication technology(ICT)goods,but only 11%of global export of digitally deliverable services.These estimates use different definitions and methodologies,however,which points to the k
38、ey issue of definition and measurement of the digital economy.There is no standard definition of the term digital economy,nor is there a global framework of indicators to measure it,although the Group of Twenty(G20)is developing a set of measurement guidelines and tools.BRICS countries have develope
39、d their own understandings of the digital economy,through various government strategies and reports.These understandings are largely aligned with the international guidelines,emphasizing the role of data as a key factor of production and the use of ICT to improve economic efficiency and capturing th
40、e broader scope of the transformative impact of digital technologies on the traditional sectors.Opportunities and challenges for BRICS digital economyBRICS countries have significant potential to develop the digital economy.Large domestic markets,the growing middle class,relatively well-developed di
41、gital infrastructure and an expanding youth population with stronger digital skills make BRICS countries attractive destinations for investment in digital sectors.These competitiveness factors have translated into a boom of domestic digital companies,some of which are outcompeting international peer
42、s in the domestic market.However,challenges remain for BRICS to tap into their digital potential fully.Digital divides need to be addressed for inclusive and sustainable growth.Rural and urban low-income populations,the unconnected and the unskilled are at high risk of being excluded from the rapid
43、digital transformation.On the other hand,these groups also represent growth potential,if they can be effectively brought into the digital economy by technological advancements and move from low to higher productivity activities.Dynamic market developmentsDigital infrastructure,e-commerce,data centre
44、s and cloud services,digital payments,AI and big data underpin competitiveness in the digital economy.BRICS countries have relatively developed digital infrastructures.Almost 90%of the populations are covered by 3G/4G mobile networks and 5G networks have started to roll out.The number of internet us
45、ers in BRICS countries has increased dramatically over the past 20 years,and the quality of internet access is constantly improving.The cost of mobile internet in BRICS countries is still higher than the global average,however,and womens access to the internet needs to be further enhanced.xWhile BRI
46、CS countries have large e-commerce markets,the share of online shoppers among internet users varies from around 20%in India and South Africa to 40%in Brazil and the Russian Federation,to almost 80%in China.Domestic and international e-commerce platforms are active in BRICS countries and e-commerce i
47、s expected to maintain rapid growth in the post-pandemic recovery.Data centres are key to the digital economy,as they store,process and distribute data.However,almost 80%of the worlds data centres are located in developed countries.Data centre markets in BRICS countries are expected to grow rapidly
48、due to increased demand,but further investment both capital and technological is needed to boost the share of domestic companies in the market.Although digital payments are widely used in BRICS countries,card payments and cash-on-delivery remain the preferred options in e-commerce transactions.Large
49、 and small companies in the BRICS countries are starting to use AI technologies,which is expected to transform many traditional industries,including energy,manufacturing,agriculture,healthcare and finance.Some BRICS countries have also begun to develop voluntary codes of AI ethics.BRICS work to impr
50、ove policy frameworksDeveloping the digital economy has been among the top policy priorities of the BRICS countries.All five countries have adopted national strategies and policies promoting the development of the digital economy.Governments have put in place policies and programmes to support devel
51、opment of the digital infrastructure,attract investments,sustain innovation and research,promote competition,protect consumer interests and regulate data flows that are essential to support growth and development of the digital economy.Policy frameworks related to the digital economy have continued
52、to improve in the BRICS countries,including policies on data governance(data protection and privacy,cybersecurity,algorithms and AI),platform governance(online consumer protection,competition,taxation,intermediary liability,labour policies)and ecosystem development(digital infrastructure,e-signature
53、s,education and skill development,financial regulations,trade and investment policies).How to strengthen BRICS cooperation on the digital economy?Guided by the BRICS Strategy for Economic Partnership 20202025 and other strategic initiatives,and building on previous achievements,BRICS countries could
54、 further enhance digital cooperation in the following areas:Bridge the digital divide Exchange information regarding policies on investment in digital infrastructure Finance digital infrastructure projects,such as through the New Development Bank Promote digital literacy,upskill small firms and supp
55、ort women-owned digital businesses Advance digital governance discussions Actively participate in digital governance discussions in various international forums,especially on data governance and competition policy Jointly advocate for bridging the digital divide at international level Improve measur
56、ement of the digital economy Regular exchanges among national statistical offices and timely sharing of data Supporting the G20 workstream on measuring digital economy Encouraging the private sector to contribute to data collection efforts Catalyse private-sector cooperation Host trade and investmen
57、t fairs and business-to-business matchmaking events Disseminate information about regulations and business opportunities Promote cooperation among business support organizations Facilitate movement of talent and businesspeople Facilitate development and uptake of new digital technologies Promote joi
58、nt science/technology research initiatives Strengthen exchanges among research institutions and universities Support cooperation between academia and business communitiesxiChapter 1 Importance of the digital economy for BRICSThe world is nearing a new wave of digital transformation.Emerging technolo
59、gies such as faster and better connectivity through 5G networks,new computational digital infrastructure based on artificial intelligence(AI)and big data,reorganization of business relationships and transactions through blockchain technologies,and enhanced machine-to-machine communication through ne
60、w sensors and the Internet of Things(IoT)are reshaping the global economy.Beyond these core ICT activities,the rise of digital services,digital platforms and accelerated use of digital data across all sectors and industries will have dramatic impacts on the evolving shape of the digital economy.Broa
61、den the scope of BRICS cooperation beyond e-commerceIn this context,it is timely and imperative to broaden the scope of BRICS cooperation beyond e-commerce to focus on the larger picture of the digital economy.E-commerce has been at the centre of the digital economy in the past decade,including in t
62、he BRICS countries,reshaping how businesses sell products and services to consumers.In the coming decade,however,faster transformation is expected in business-to-business transactions.Digital technologies will be used more than ever to reshape supply chains,disrupt existing forms of collaboration be
63、tween companies and create new digital collaborations in a fresh wave of Schumpeterian creative destruction.BRICS countries have considerable potential to develop the digital economy.Relatively large domestic markets and a growing middle class make BRICS countries attractive destinations for investm
64、ent in digital sectors.These countries also have well-developed digital infrastructures,with almost 90%of the population covered by 3G/4G mobile networks.1 1 International Telecommunications Union(2021).Digital Development Dashboard.Available at https:/www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Dashboards/Page
65、s/Digital-Development.aspx2 UNCTAD(27 April 2022.Global Investment Trends Monitor,No.41.Available at https:/unctad.org/system/files/official-document/diaeiainf2022d3_en.pdf3 See Asian Development Bank(July 2021).Digital technology and economic impacts of COVID-19:Experiences of the Peoples Republic
66、of China.Available at https:/www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/726171/adbi-wp1276.pdf.See also World Bank(2020).The Global Economic Outlook During the COVID-19 Pandemic:A Changed World.Available at https:/www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/06/08/the-global-economic-outlook-during-the-c
67、ovid-19-pandemic-a-changed-world Although levels of digital skills vary across segments of the population,demographics and growth patterns in BRICS countries indicate that younger generations which are likely to have stronger digital skills will continue expanding.This is particularly the case in So
68、uth Africa and India,which have high population growth rates and a median age of 28 and 28.7 years,respectively.However,China faces a rapidly aging population and the Russian Federation has been troubled by a stagnant/declining population,which may put downward pressure on the development of their d
69、igital economy.Meanwhile,major challenges remain for the BRICS countries to fully harness the digital economy for growth and sustainable development.Collectively,these economies account for about 30%of the global export of ICT goods,but only 11%of global exports of digitally delivered services.In IC
70、T goods manufacturing,BRICS countries are at the lower value-added end(manufacturing and assembly)of the value chains,while developed countries still dominate the higher value-added end(research and development,chip manufacturing).Although China and India are becoming significant global players in d
71、igitally deliverable services,the worlds largest digital companies are predominantly US companies.2 The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the digital transformation and made it more urgent than ever to develop the digital economy.Without digital technologies,the contraction of the global economy in
72、the first year of the COVID-19 crisis would have been steeper and longer.3 2Although the world is emerging from the pandemic,the global health crisis has left a permanent mark on the trajectory of the worlds economy.Companies have greatly increased investment to develop and adopt digital technologie
73、s and consumers have adapted to remote working,online shopping,e-education and digital entertainment.These changes are expected to be long term and have increased the urgency for firms and countries to adapt to the new normal of the accelerated development of the digital economy.Developing the digit
74、al economy has been among the top policy priorities of the BRICS countries.All five countries have adopted national strategies and policies to promote development of the digital economy.Governments have put in place policies and programmes to support development of the digital infrastructure,attract
75、 investments,sustain innovation and research,encourage competition,protect consumer interests and regulate data flows that are essential to support growth and development of the digital economy.However,much remains to be done to further improve the policy environment for the sustainable and inclusiv
76、e development of the digital economy.Digital divides between and within BRICS countries remain a substantial challenge.Lack of high-quality and affordable internet access and inadequate digital literacy persist.Cybersecurity also is a major obstacle to building trust in the use of digital services.M
77、any companies in the BRICS countries,especially micro,small and medium-sized enterprises(MSMEs),do not have adequate resources and support to adapt to the digitalization trends.BRICS countries need inclusive digital economy strategies.Compared with developed economies,BRICS countries have large shar
78、es of low-income populations at high risk of being excluded from rapid digital transformation.These include rural populations,the unconnected and the unskilled.On the other hand,these groups also represent an opportunity,as they can be brought into the digital economy by technological advancements a
79、nd move from low to higher productivity activities.Figure 1 BRICS exported 31%of global ICT goods in 2020Figure 2 BRICS exported 11%of global digitally delivered services in 2020Note:ROW stands for rest of the world.Source:UNCTADStat 2022Note:ROW stands for rest of the world.Source:UNCTADStat 202229
80、%71%BRICSROW89%11%BRICSROW3In China,for example,the growth of e-commerce has attracted workers from rural and urban informal sectors into courier and delivery services and created more than 3 million jobs.4 Given the possibility for technology to replace or reduce the need for low-skilled employment
81、,efforts to reskill the labour force should remain an immediate policy priority.5 MSMEs,which account for a major share of employment in all BRICS countries,will also need support in terms of skills and training to benefit from the promise of the digital economy.Roadmap of the reportThis report prov
82、ides a glimpse into the digital economy development of the BRICS countries.After this introductory chapter,Chapter 2 discusses challenges related to the scope and measurement of the digital economy and efforts of the BRICS countries in that regard.Improved measurement is vital to enable 4 See Govern
83、ment of China(2019).Annual Express Market Supervision Report.Available at http:/ World Economic Forum(2020).Future of Jobs Report.Available at https:/www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2020.pdf evidence-based decision-making and may potentially be an important area for BRICS cooperation.Chapte
84、r 3 sets out market trends in key segments of the digital economy in the BRICS countries,including ICT,e-commerce,digital payments,cloud computing and data centres,digital platforms,digital services and AI.It offers a preliminary overview and discusses how market forces and technological advancement
85、s may shape business development in these areas.Chapter 4 discusses recent policy advances vis-vis the digital economy in BRICS countries,including on data governance,platform governance and development of the digital ecosystem.Chapter 5 reviews the outcomes of BRICS cooperation on the digital econo
86、my and proposes areas for further cooperation.4 ShutterstockChapter 2 Measuring the digital economyEvidence-based policymaking requires adequate statistics and data.However,measuring the digital economy remains a challenge for all countries.There is a lack of clarity on the scope of the digital econ
87、omy,and data and official statistics on key related activities are limited.The definition of the digital economy remains fluid and variable.Todays measurements largely focus on digital connectivity,e-commerce and estimates of the contribution of the digital economy to gross domestic product(GDP).To
88、better understand the reach and impact of the digital economy in BRICS countries,quality data are needed,both in terms of scope and granularity.Improved metrics on employment related to the digital economy,related trade and investment,business use of digital technologies in various sectors,education
89、 and skills development,and digital divides within countries(e.g.by gender,company size,rural and urban population)would help to provide a holistic assessment of the digital economy in BRICS countries.Scope and definition of the digital economy Despite its significance,there is no standard definitio
90、n of the term digital economy,nor is there a global framework of indicators to measure it,though some work has been done by the Group of Twenty(G20).Rapid innovation in digital technologies and business models,leading to the emergence of new digital businesses and activities,has contributed to this
91、definitional challenge.The scope and definition of the digital economy have evolved over time,along advancements and the adoption of digital technologies.Terms that were 6 Tapscott,Don(1994).The Digital Economy:Promise and Peril In The Age of Networked Intelligence.McGraw-Hill.7 Mesenbourg,Thomas(20
92、01).Measuring the Digital Economy.Available at https:/www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2001/econ/umdigital.pdf 8 The Economist Intelligence Unit,2010.9 See Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD)(2017).OECD Digital Economy Outlook 2017.Available at https:
93、/www.oecd.org/digital/oecd-digital-economy-outlook-284-en.htm;OECD(2020).A roadmap toward a common framework for measuring the Digital Economy.Available at https:/www.oecd.org/sti/roadmap-toward-a-common-framework-for-measuring-the-digital-economy.pdf10 OECD(2020),ibid.11 See,for exam
94、ple,Bulavko,O.,Belanova,N.,and L.Tuktarova(2020).Priority Directions of Digital Economy Development and Effectiveness of State Policy in the Informatization Field at Digital Age:Chances,Challenges and Future.12 Bukhta,Rumana,and Richard Heeks(2017).Defining,Conceptualizing and Measuring the Digital
95、Economy,Development Informatics Working Paper Series.Paper No.68.used prior to digital economy such as the internet economy were primarily linked to the use of the internet and its impact on the economy.6 By the early 2000s,this definition was expanded to include e-business,e-business infrastructure
96、 and e-commerce.7 The term digital economy emerged with improved internet connectivity and expansion of digital products and services.Initially,however,it often referred to the quality of a countrys ICT infrastructure and the ability of consumers,companies and governments to use ICT.8 As ICT technol
97、ogies continued to transform businesses and societies,more recent definitions have referred to digitalization and digital transformation that is,ways digital goods and services disrupt traditional sectors to explore cross-sectoral digitalization trends.9 The scope has been further broadened to inclu
98、de economic activities with information and knowledge as the key factors of production.10 While it is largely established that the core of the digital economy comprises the production of ICT goods and services,11 the outer layer of the digital economy remains fluid.The United Nations Conference on T
99、rade and Developents(UNCTAD)Manual for Production of Statistics on the Digital Economy(2020)provides a representation of the digital economy,consisting of a core(ICT goods and services,digital content),a narrow scope(core and economic activity from producers reliant on digital inputs),and a broad sc
100、ope(narrow scope and economic activity from producers significantly enhanced by digital inputs).Other studies suggest that the digital economy consists of the ICT sector plus segments of the economy that are essentially digital and do not have an analogue equivalent.12 6Figure 3 Breaking down the di
101、gital economySource:UNCTAD,Manual for Production of Statistics on the Digital Economy,2020BRICS countries have developed their own understandings of the digital economy.There are no laws or regulations in the BRICS countries that include a definition of the digital economy.However,some government st
102、rategies and reports13 reflect the official understandings of the digital economy:The State Digital Economy Programme of the Russian Federation describes the digital economy as an economic activity,in which the key factor of production is data in the digital form.14 Chinas National Bureau of Statist
103、ics released a document called Statistical Classification of the Digital Economy and its Core Industries in 2021.It not only provides a definition,but also a list of core industries for statistical purposes.Digital economy is a series of economic activities that take data resources as the key factor
104、 of production,modern information networks as an important carrier and the effective use of information and communication 13 There was no clear definition from the government documents of Brazil and India.14 Government of the Russian Federation(2017).Digital Economy of the Russian Federation.Availab
105、le at http:/static.government.ru/media/files/9gFM4FHj4PsB79I5v7yLVuPgu4bvR7M0.pdf.15 Statistical Classification of the Digital Economy and its Core Industries(2021).Available at https:/ Government of South Africa(2021).Invitation to Submit Written Submissions on the Proposed National Data and Cloud
106、Policy.Available at https:/www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/202104/44389gon206.pdftechnologies as an important driving force for efficiency improvement and economic structure optimization.15 South Africas Data and Cloud Policy describes digital economy as a hyper-connected economy charac
107、terized by a growing number of interconnected people,organisations and machines through the web and by the use of digital technology which includes advanced manufacturing,robotics and factory automation,new sources of data from mobile and ubiquitous internet connectivity,cloud computing,big data ana
108、lytics and artificial intelligence.16These understandings are largely aligned with the international guidelines,emphasizing the role of data as a key factor of production and the use of ICT to improve economic efficiency,and capturing the broader scope of the transformative impact of the digital tec
109、hnologies on the traditional sectors.Delineated based on nature of transactionDelineated based on productionMeasure of the digital economyEconomic activity of producers of digital content,ICT goods and servicesEconomic activity of producers reliant on digital inputsEconomic activity of producers sig
110、nificantly enhanced by digital inputsCORENARROWBROADEconomic activity,digitally orderd and/or digitally delivered7BRICS are trying to measure the digital economy Timely and accurate statistics are key to formulating evidence-based policies that can effectively enhance the digital economy.Among the B
111、RICS countries,with the exception of China,official statistics are not available to quantify the size of the digital economy.However,official statistics are usually available on the size and contribution of the ICT sector.Despite the lack of official statistics,government papers,academic studies and
112、 industry reports have attempted to estimate the size and share of the digital economy in the BRICS countries,using differing methodologies:Brazils Digital Transformation Strategy(E-Digital)a strategic initiative by the Brazilian federal government references a study estimating that the digital econ
113、omy accounted for 22%of Brazilian GDP in 2016 and that it could reach 25.1%of GDP in 2021.Estimates by McKinsey and Russian researchers indicate that the digital economy accounted for about 4%of Russian GDP in 20152017,with considerable potential for further growth.17 Indias Ministry of Electronics
114、and Information Technology estimated that the digital economy accounted for about 6.9%of GDP in 2019.18 Chinas Digital Economy Development Plan for the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021)19 suggested that the contribution of the core digital economy sectors to GDP was about 7.8%in 2020,with potential to grow
115、to 10%by 2025.20 17 Aptekman,A.,Kalabin,V.,Klintsov,V.,Kuznetsova,E.,Kulagin,V.,and I.Yasenovet(2017).Digital Russia:A New Reality.Digital McKinsey report.Available at https:/ Novikov,Sergey,and Sazonov,Andrey(2020).Digital economy development in Russia:Main trends analysis and assessment,in Espacio
116、s,Vol.41(Issue 05).Available at http:/ Government of India,Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology(n.d.).Indias Trillion-Dollar Digital Economy.Available at https:/www.meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/india_trillion-dollar_digital_opportunity.pdf19 The plan aims to accelerate the digital
117、economy,which includes a digital society and a digital government.See also https:/www.legco.gov.hk/research-publications/english/2021fs06-national-14th-five-year-plan-20210610-e.pdf20 Ibid21 Statement to the Media,Department of Telecom and Postal Service of South Africa.Available at:https:/www.dtps.
118、gov.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=17&catid=59&Itemid=10122 Nicholson,Jessica R.(2020).New Digital Economy Estimates.Available at https:/www.bea.gov/system/files/2020-08/New-Digital-Economy-Estimates-August-2020.pdf23 McKinsey&Company(2018).The rise of Digital Challengers:How digiti
119、zation can become the next growth engine for Central and Eastern Europe.Available at https:/ European Commission(n.d.).Digital Economy and Society Index(DESI)2021.Available at https:/ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/redirection/document/8056325 Government of the Russian Federation(2017),op.cit.26 Governmen
120、t of India(n.d.),op.cit.South Africas Department of Telecom and Postal Service estimated that the digital economy contributed 2%of GDP in 2017.21 As a comparison,the United States Bureau of Economic Analysis found that the digital economy accounted for 10.2%of GDP in 2020.22 McKinsey estimated that
121、the GDP share of the digital economy of the European Union Big 5(France,Germany,Italy,Spain and the United Kingdom before Brexit)was about 6.9%.23 The value added of the ICT sector accounted for 4.9%of the European Unions GDP in 2019,according to the European Commission.24 BRICS countries have come
122、up with their own methodologies to measure the digital economy.The State Digital Economy Programme of the Russian Federation set out indicators related to the digital economy.These include domestic spending in the digital economy as a share of GDP,share of households and socially significant infrast
123、ructure objects with broadband access to the internet,availability of data-processing centres,volume of storage and data-processing services,downtime as a result of cyberattacks and sale or rent of software.25 In India,the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technologys methodology to quantify t
124、he digital economy includes data from information technology and business process management,digital communication services such as telecommunications,domestic electronics manufacturing,and direct subsidy transfers.26Three pillars have been identified to capture the economic value of the digital eco
125、nomy in India,including digital foundation(spectrum availability,internet download speed,internet affordability,and e-government platform and services),digital reach(size 8of the mobile internet user base,availability of local-content websites,and data consumption),and digital value(use of e-governm
126、ent services,digital media,e-commerce and digital payments).Chinas Academy of Information and Communications Technology,a scientific research institute under the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology,introduced a framework in 2020 to measure the size and contribution of the digital economy
127、.It covers digital industrialization,industry digitization,digital governance and digital value development.Digital industrialization mainly refers to the added value of the core digital industries such as ICT,electronics manufacturing,internet economy and software industry.Industry digitization ref
128、ers to the added value and efficiency gains of the application of digital technologies to non-digital sectors.Using this rather broad definition,which includes both the core digital economy industries and digital transformation of traditional industries,the Academy of Information and Communications
129、Technology estimates that Chinas digital economy accounts for about 30%of GDP.The official Digital Economy Development Plan,however,puts this share at only 7.8%in 2020.This shows that different scopes and definitions can result in considerable differences in the estimated size of the digital economy
130、.That is why it is important to develop,at the global level,a common set of standards to measure the digital economy.Collaboration will improve digital economy measurement BRICS countries are trying to improve measurement of the digital economy,including developing methodologies and exploring mechan
131、isms to collect data.These efforts are key for evidence-based policymaking and improving the policy environment for developing the digital economy.Considering the dynamic nature of the digital economy and continuous advancement of the technologies and business models,methodologies and data collectio
132、n efforts must be updated regularly and extend beyond core ICT goods and services,to capture new developments.Domestic efforts to improve measurement should be closely linked with international efforts to develop common standards and methodologies.International standards can provide useful guidance
133、based on good practices of countries with more experience in data collection and analysis.Active participation by the BRICS countries in international discussions on digital economy measurement can provide useful insights from developing country perspectives.It will also focus attention on the chall
134、enges that developing economies face and leverage international support to address them.Experiences from the BRICS countries can also offer lessons for other developing countries seeking to develop their digital sectors and shape a development-focused agenda in international forums.Inter-BRICS coope
135、ration on digital economy statistics is also important.The various methodologies and classifications used by the statistical agencies sometimes together with the agencies that oversee digital economy development reflect not only the wisdom on improving statistics,but also the strategic thinking abou
136、t the direction and priorities to upgrade the digital economy in individual BRICS countries.Information exchange among statistical agencies and digital economy lead agencies can go a step beyond peer learning about the measurement methodologies.Such an exchange can dig deeper into the rationales and
137、 goals behind the statistical methodologies and explore what works best in individual BRICS countries.9Box 1:International efforts to enhance measurement of digital economy1 OECD,A roadmap toward a common framework for measuring the Digital Economy(2020),see https:/www.oecd.org/sti/roadmap-toward-a-
138、common-framework-for-measuring-the-digital-economy.pdf2 G20 and Instituti Naionale di Statistica,Measurement of the Digital Economy(February 2021),see https:/www.mise.gov.it/images/stories/documenti/Chair_Summary_Measurement_of_the_digital_economy.pdf3 International Monetary Fund,Chinas Digital Econ
139、omy:Opportunities and Risks(2019),see https:/www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2019/01/17/Chinas-Digital-Economy-Opportunities-and-Risks-464594 OECD,A roadmap toward a common framework for measuring the Digital Economy(2020),see https:/www.oecd.org/sti/roadmap-toward-a-common-framework-for-measu
140、ring-the-digital-economy.pdf5 UNCTAD,Manual for the Production of Statistics on the Digital Economy(2021),see https:/unctad.org/system/files/official-document/dtlstict2021d2_en.pdf6 Ibid.The G20 has emerged as an important multilateral forum for advancing efforts to improve measurement of the digita
141、l economy.All BRICS countries are members of the G20 and are actively involved in the relevant G20 taskforces.The Digital Economy Task Force,established by the G20 in 2017,has been developing approaches to measure the digital economy in close collaboration with international organizations including
142、UNCTAD,the International Monetary Fund and the OECD.The G20 has defined digital economy broadly to include all economic activity reliant on,or significantly enhanced by the use of digital inputs,including digital technologies,digital infrastructure,digital services and data.It refers to all producer
143、s and consumers,including government,that are utilising these digital inputs in their economic activities.1 Under the Argentine presidency in 2018,the G20 published a Toolkit for Measuring the Digital Economy.It is designed to motivate the development of a stronger evidence base for analysis and pol
144、icymaking.Work to define indicators for the toolkit began in 2020 under the Saudi Arabian presidency.Besides deploying indicators that address ICT access and usage and how businesses leverage digitalization,the indicators also address issues such as jobs and skills.Under the Italian presidency in 20
145、21,work was further intensified with an additional focus on measuring AI and the digital gender divide.2The OECDs Going Digital Toolkit examines digital developments in the OECD and accession countries,as well as BRICS countries.It examines digital developments across 33 core indicators,including ac
146、cess to the internet,market openness and the use of digital technologies(such as firms buying cloud services).The International Monetary Fund has studied the digital economy in some BRICS countries.It calculated,for example,that with a broad definition(including online platforms,platform-enabled ser
147、vices and suppliers of ICT goods and services),the Chinese digital economy represented 30%of GDP in 2018,compared to around 20%in Brazil,India and South Africa(no data were available for the Russian Federation).3 The International Monetary Fund also identified the limitations of available concepts,d
148、efinitions,price compilation and accounting techniques.4 UNCTAD published its Manual for the Production of Statistics on the Digital Economy to help statistical agencies,particularly in developing countries,measure the digital economy.This manual aims to support the production of digital economy sta
149、tistics that are internationally comparable,including those on the ICT sector,trade of ICT goods and services(including of ICT-enabled services)and the use of ICT by businesses.5 According to UNCTAD,governments must consider the implications of digitalization for policies related to areas such as th
150、e labour market(including potential job creation and destruction),education and skills development,innovation,sectoral development,competition,consumer protection,taxation,trade,environmental protection and energy efficiency,as well as regulation related to security,privacy and data protection.6 10
151、ShutterstockThis chapter examines market developments in key segments of the BRICS digital economy,including digital infrastructure,e-commerce,data centres and cloud services,digital payments,AI and big data.These segments were selected because they either play an infrastructural role for the digita
152、l economy(such as digital networks,data centres and cloud services),are key applications(such as e-commerce and digital payment)or represent key areas for future competitiveness in the digital economy(such as AI and big data).This is not an exhaustive list.Other aspects of the digital economy could
153、be included in future updates of this report,such as semiconductors,electronics manufacturing,advanced robotics and electrical vehicles.The dynamism of the digital economy in BRICS countries is reflected in the vitality of their tech companies and investments in tech start-ups.BRICS countries are ho
154、me to some of the most promising technology unicorns,which are private start-up firms valued at more than$1 billion.As of February 2022,Brazil had 22 unicorns in the core digital economy sector.In India,86 of 90 unicorns fall within the digital economy.China has 207 tech unicorns,and most unicorns i
155、n the Russian Federation and South Africa are in tech sectors.27Data and business cases used in this chapter are primarily from industry sources and are used to provide illustrative examples.Digital infrastructure Accessible and affordable internet access is the cornerstone for the BRICS digital eco
156、nomy.Mobile broadband coverage,use of smartphones,cost and speed of internet access,and use of digital payments are considered to be the main parameters to measure the quality of digital infrastructure.27 Data are from 2021.See https:/ for Brazil,https:/ China and https:/ for India.Wildberries and A
157、vito are two unicorns in the Russian Federation and Go1 is based in South Africa.28 GSMA(2021).The Mobile Economy:China 2021.Available at https:/ Independent Communications Authority of South Africa(2021).The State of 5G in South Africa:From Readiness to Recommendations.Available at https:/www.icasa
158、.org.za/uploads/files/ICASA-2021-5G-Annual-Report.pdf30 The Economic Times(2022).5G network:Own 5G network in final stages,India now part of 6G development31 See Global Speedtest(January 2022)at https:/ BRICS countries have high levels of mobile network penetration.They work continuously to enhance
159、internet access further and address challenges such as regional disparity due to last-mile connectivity and inadequate levels of digital literacy.While 4G is the leading mobile technology in most BRICS countries,the key determinant of future competitiveness in the digital economy is the next generat
160、ion of networks,such as 5G.With faster speed,lower latency,lower energy consumption and more connected devices per base station,5G is expected to enable new connected businesses,such as autonomous vehicles,Internet of Things,telemedicine and virtual reality.China and South Africa started commercial
161、deployment of 5G networks in 2019 and 2021,respectively.China had reached 387 million 5G subscribers by the end of 2021 and the number is expected to increase to 450 million by 2025.Mobile operators in China are expected to invest$210 billion in mobile networks up to 2025,of which 90%will be dedicat
162、ed to 5G technology and infrastructure.28In South Africa,leading telecom operators are still at an early stage of 5G network development.29 Brazil and India are set to roll out 5G services in 2022,with the former auctioning 5G frequencies in November 2021,and India being expected to do so in early 2
163、023.30 The Russia Federation has scheduled 5G rollout in 2024.The number of internet users in BRICS countries continues to rise,largely due to better accessibility and lower costs.The quality of internet access is also improving,though with the exception of China,the average mobile download speeds a
164、cross BRICS countries are still below the global average.31India and South Africa also fall below the global average for fixed broadband download speed of 61 megabits per second(Mbps).Despite this,working-age internet users in South Africa reportedly to spend more than 10 hours Chapter 3 Market tren
165、ds in key digital economy segments12Figure 5 Russian Federation had most broadband connections in 2019Source:Global System for Mobile Communications(GSMA),2022Figure 4 Mobile cellular networks cover almost all BRICS populations(2021)Source:International Telecommunication Union,2021.For Brazil,Region
166、al Center for Studies on the Development of the Information Society,2020.Population covered by mobile cellular networkPopulation covered by at least a 3G mobile networkPopulation covered by at least a 4G mobile networkBrazilChinaIndiaRussian Fed.South Africa007080900
167、50180200South AfricaTotal number of 3G and 4G sim cards divided by population in BRICS countriesBrazilChinaRussianFederationIndia13online every day(in 2020),followed closely by Brazil at upwards of nine hours online daily on average.32 Gender digital divides continue to persist in some BR
168、ICS countries.The global gender parity rate that is,the proportion of women who use the internet divided by the proportion of men is 0.87.33 Brazil has the highest gender parity rate among the BRICS countries at 1.1,meaning that internet penetration is higher among women than among men in Brazil.Thi
169、s is followed by China with 1.0 and the Russian Federation at 0.99.India has a score of 0.6.No data are available for South Africa.Brazil and the Russian Federation have the highest share of women using the internet(85%),followed by China(71%).Only 15%of women in India are internet users.34 Improvin
170、g womens access to the internet is critical for inclusive development of the digital economy.Reducing the cost to access the internet can help bridge the digital divide for women.With the exception of South Africa,the 32 McKinsey(2021).Brazil 2020 Opportunity Tree.Available at https:/ UNCTAD(2021).D
171、igital Economy Report:Cross-border data flows and development:For whom the data flow.Available at https:/unctad.org/system/files/official-document/der2021_en.pdf;and International Telecommunication Union database,https:/www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Dashboards/Pages/Digital-Development.aspx 34 Int
172、ernational Telecommunication Union(2021).Individuals using the internet(from any location),by gender and urban/rural location(%).Available at https:/www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2021/December/IndividualsUsingInternetByGender.xlsx Information from South Africa is not available
173、.35 See Telecom News(May 2020).Cost of data in China drops 93%as US still looks overly expensive.Available at https:/ also GSMA(2021),The Mobile Economy:Russia&CIS 2021.Available at https:/ Mobile Economy:Asia Pacific 2021.Available at https:/ GSMA(2021).The Mobile Economy:China 2021,op.cit.cost of
174、mobile internet in the BRICS countries is lower than the global average.The use of smartphones and digital payments is rising in BRICS countries.Smartphones are key to the digital economy,as they enable access to digital information and transactions,especially with the growing use of e-payments.Abou
175、t 85%98%of mobile subscribers in BRICS countries use smartphones.35 Digital payments have also become increasingly popular in BRICS countries due to easier access using smartphones,safer transactions and innovative financial technology(fintech)solutions supported by regulatory sandbox safety mechani
176、sms.By 2021,almost 87%of people aged above 15 years old,in the Russian Federation and China,had made or received digital payments,according to the latest available data in the World Bank Findex Report.The share was slightly lower in South Africa at 81%,Brazil at 77%,and 35%in India.14Figure 6 Intern
177、et use in BRICS countries has surged since 2000 Figure 7 China has fastest average download speed among BRICS Note:Figure shows percentages of population.Source:International Telecommunication Union,2021Note:Figure shows speed in Mbps in 2020.Source:Speedtest,2022Figure 8 Few women in India use the
178、internet(%of all women in each country)Figure 9 Most BRICS mobile internet costs are below global average Source:International Telecommunication Union,2021Note:Figure shows 2 gigabyte data-only broadband baskets in US dollars.Source:ITU,2021BrazilChinaIndiaRussian Fed.South Africa2000202001020304050
179、6070809000180BrazilChinaIndiaRussian Fed.GlobalSouth AfricaMobile broadband speedsFixed broadband speeds020406080100BrazilChinaIndiaRussian Fed.SouthAfricaNo dataWomen using internet0SouthAfricaBrazilWorldmedianChinaRussianFederationIndia15E-commerceE-commerce has be
180、en a prominent segment in the digital economy.People across the world have turned to digital platforms to shop online,with the global online retail sales share of total retail sales rising from 16%in 2019 to 19%in 2020.That level was sustained into 2021,36 boosted by the COVID-19 pandemic.BRICS coun
181、tries are large e-commerce markets,but the adoption of e-commerce varies.The share of online shoppers among internet users varies from around 20%in India and South Africa to 40%in Brazil and the Russian Federation,to 75%in China.The business-to-customer(B2C)e-commerce segment has grown,with an estim
182、ated valuation of$1.37 trillion in China(2021),$85.4 billion in India(2021),$42.6 billion in the Russian Federation(2021),$39.3 billion in Brazil(2021)and$7.3 billion in South Africa(2021).37 These numbers are industry estimates as official statistics are not available.Brazils 2019 B2C e-commerce sa
183、les grew by 7.6%over 2018 and represented 1.1%of national GDP.The pandemic accelerated the adoption of e-commerce as 7.3 million Brazilian users purchased online for the first time,and online sales grew by 47%in the first half of 2020.38 Food,personal care,cosmetics,furniture and electronics are som
184、e of the most popular categories of e-commerce purchases.The major e-commerce platforms in Brazil are Magalu,Casas Bahia,Mercado Libre,A and Amazonare.In 2021,Amazon reported revenues of$2.6 billion while Casas Bahai generated revenue of$2.4 billion.Magalu emerged as Brazils biggest e-commerce playe
185、r,with revenue of$3.3 billion in 2021.These three e-commerce platforms collectively accounted for 30%of online sales in Brazil.39 36 UNCTAD(25 April 2022).COVID-19 boost to e-commerce sustained into 2021,new UNCTAD figures show.Available at https:/unctad.org/news/covid-19-boost-e-commerce-sustained-
186、2021-new-unctad-figures-show#:text=New%20UNCTAD%20figures%20show%20that,of%20restrictions%20in%20many%20countries.See also UNCTAD(May 2021).Covid-19 and E-commerce:A Global Review.Available at https:/etradeforall.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Covid-19-and-E-Commerce-2021-Executive_Summary_English_0
187、4_22.pdf37 See J.P.Morgan,2020 E-Commerce Payments Trends Report:Brazil.Available at https:/ payments trends:China,available at https:/ E-commerce Payments Trends Report:India,available at https:/ eCommerce market in Russia,available at https:/ e-commerce market in South Africa,available at https:/
188、UNCTAD(2021).The UNCTAD B2C E-Commerce Index 2020:Spotlight on Latin America and the Caribbean,Technical Notes on ICT for Development No.17.Available at:https:/unctad.org/system/files/official-document/tn_unctad_ict4d17_en.pdf.See also Latin America Business Stories(28 August 2020).E-commerce sales
189、grew 47%in the first half of 2020 in Brazil,the biggest increase in 20 years.Available at https:/ E-CommerceDB,The eCommerce market in Brazil.Available at https:/ Forbes(December 2021).Want To Own The Amazon Of Latin America?Checkout MercadoLibre.Available at https:/ E-CommerceDB,The eCommerce marke
190、t in Russia,op.cit.42 Sputnik News(14 September 2021).Ministry of Economic Development of Russia:E-Commerce orders between Russia and China account for 70%of the total cross-border e-commerce orders in Russia.Available at:https:/ Forbes citing GlobalData study available at:https:/ the countrys vast
191、size across diverse geographic areas,some e-commerce platforms such as Amazon and Mercado Libre are investing in logistics infrastructure.Mercado Libre controls about 85%of its logistical network,which enables shorter delivery times for a wider range of products.40The Russian Federations e-commerce
192、retail market was estimated at$30 billion in 2021,according to e-commerceDB.41 The largest platforms were Wildberries,Ozon,AliExpress,Russiam,MVideo and DNS-Shop.The most popular e-commerce market segments are electronics and appliances,fashion,furniture and appliances,food and personal care.E-comme
193、rce between the Russian Federation and China is growing rapidly due to geographical proximity and transportation networks.Russian consumers made 250 million cross-border e-commerce purchases in 2020,with 70%originating in China,according to Russias Ministry of Economic Development.42 Cross-border e-
194、commerce has become a key topic in bilateral policy dialogues to address issues such as online consumer protection,customs procedures,intellectual property protection and e-payment security.Chinese firms have been localizing operations in the Russian Federation by setting up warehouses and establish
195、ing partnerships with local companies as a way to expand cross-border e-commerce trade.Indias e-commerce retail market was estimated at$61.1 billion in 2020 and is expected to reach$120 billion in 2025.43 Major e-commerce players include Amazon India,Flipkart(owned by Walmart)and JioMart.Popular e-c
196、ommerce market segments include consumer electronics,apparel,food and grocery,and jewellery.Mobile commerce accounts for an estimated 16Figure 10 China has highest average download speeds among BRICS Note:Figure shows download speeds in Mbps in 2020.Source:GSMA,2020Figure 11 More than 87%of Russians
197、 use digital payments Figure 12 About 80%of people in China shop online in 2021Source:World Bank Global Findex Report,2021Source:World Bank Findex Report 202001030507090BrazilChinaIndiaRussian Fed.SouthAfricaNo dataSmartphonesTotal mobile connections0%20%40%60%80%100%RussianFederationSout
198、h AfricaChinaBrazilIndiaUsed a mobile phone or the internet to pay bills(%age 15+)Made or received a digital payment(%age 15+)10%35%59%87%28%81%60%86%43%77%Used a mobile phone or the internet to buy something online(%age 15+)0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%South AfricaBrazilChinaRussianFederationIndia8
199、%46%14%80%35%1749%of all e-commerce transactions,and businesses are adapting to this trend.Global firms have invested in the Indian e-commerce market.Walmart,for instance,invested$1.2 billion in Flipkart in 2020 after buying a majority stake in 2018.Cross-border e-commerce accounted for nearly 20%of
200、 the total e-commerce market in 2018,with the United States,China and Australia being the main overseas markets where Indian consumers bought products online.44China has one of the worlds biggest online retail markets,with estimated sales of$1.8 trillion in 2020,according to the report by the Minist
201、ry of Commerce.45 Mobile commerce dominates the market,accounting for$873 billion of the total.Alibaba,JD.com and Pinduoduo are among the largest e-commerce firms in China.Chinese cross-border e-commerce imports represent major business opportunities,including for companies from other BRICS countrie
202、s.Around 42%of Chinese online shoppers have bought goods or services from abroad and cross-border sales constituted 58%of Chinas e-commerce markets in 2019,according to a study by J.P.Morgan.46 Another report suggests that 158 million online shoppers in China bought foreign products in 2020.47 Most
203、cross-border purchases are made from Hong Kong China,Japan and the United States.Top e-commerce market segments include clothes and apparel,consumer electronics,travel,household goods and health and beauty products.Chinese e-commerce platforms are also venturing overseas.Some 960 million Alibaba con
204、sumers 180 million of whom were international bought goods or services in 2020.AliExpress,Alibabas global B2C e-commerce arm,has sellers from Turkey,the Russian Federation,Spain and Italy,among others.Alibaba also actively acquires local e-commerce platforms,such as Daraz in Pakistan and Lazada,the
205、Southeast Asian online retailer.44 This figure seems to indicate cross-border e-commerce based on purchases Indian online shoppers made from abroad.See J.P.Morgan,2020 e-Commerce Payments Trends Report:India,op.cit.45 China Ministry of Commerce(2021).China E-commerce Report(2020).Available at https:
206、/ See J.P.Morgan(2019).E-commerce payments trends:China,op.cit.47 South China Morning Post(19 January 2022).Chinas 150 million online shoppers,overseas suppliers fear coronavirus mail contamination threat.Available at https:/ E-CommerceDB(2021).The e-commerce market in South Africa,op.cit.49 Ibid.50
207、 See Deloitte Digital(February 2021).Digital Commerce Acceleration:Increased online purchases present new opportunities for digital commerce players.Available at https:/ See https:/www.westerncape.gov.za/site-page/e-commerce-south-africa-and-western-capeThe B2C e-commerce market in South Africa saw
208、sales of$5 billion in 2021.48 The biggest player in the South African e-commerce market is Takealot,with revenues of$602 million,followed by Superbalist,with$85 million,and Woolworths.These top three platforms accounted for 15%of online revenue in the country.49 Clothing,electronics,footwear,househo
209、ld appliances and health products are the most popular categories among online shoppers.Ordering fresh foods online as a result of pandemic-related lockdown measures gave grocery delivery apps a boost.50 UberEATS competes with the local platform,Mr.Delivery,in this segment.While most South African e
210、-commerce buyers used domestic websites or online marketplaces,an estimated 27%made purchases from the United States and 14%from Europe.51 Data centres and cloud services Data centres are facilities where a large group of networked computer servers are hosted.They are key to the digital economy,as t
211、hey store,process and distribute data,supporting the operation of websites,apps and software,as well as digital transactions.New technologies for cloud services,data storage and processing,as well as certain governmental regulations requiring local storage of domestically generated data,are among th
212、e main factors that drive demand for data centres.While the North American region has the highest number of data centres,growth in the BRICS countries has been rapid.Data centres are critical to the digital economy as they provide safer operation and storage of data.There are several types of data c
213、entres,including enterprise data centres,which are typically built and used by a single organization(common among tech giants)and colocation or managed service data centres,which rent out rack space to third parties(common for non-tech companies).18Colocation data centres are highly concentrated in
214、developed countries.As of January 2021,almost 80%of the worlds 4,714 co-location data centres were based in developed economies,mainly in North America and Europe.Only 897 were in developing countries,notably in Asia,with 154 in China.52 Colocation data centres are widely used in BRICS countries,as
215、a firm can rent space in a data centre at cost-efficient rates.Science and technology parks also play an important role in the development of the digital economy,as they create an ecosystem for innovation among research institutions,businesses,academia and markets.Brazils data centre market is expec
216、ted to grow to$2.6 billion by 2026.53 COVID-19 has caused rapid shifts towards remote working and cloud services,52 UNCTAD(2021).Digital Economy Report,op.cit.53 Mordor Intelligence.Brazil Big Data Analytics Market.Available at https:/ Global Newswires(December 2020).Brazil Data Center Market-Growth
217、,Trends,and Forecasts(20202025).Available at https:/ Businesswire(October 2021).Brazil Cloud and Data Centre Space,Power,&Pricing Market Report 20212025.Available at https:/ Verdict(November 2021).Tencent Cloud launches first data centre in Latin America,available at https:/www.verdict.co.uk/tencent
218、-cloud-launches-first-data-centre-in-latin-america/57 Arizton(n.d.).Russia data center market size will witness investments of USD 2.02 billion by 2026,available at https:/ Businesswire(September 2021).Russia Cloud and Data Centre Market Growth Report 2021-2025,available at https:/ many firms migrat
219、ing to cloud services or private networks and updating their encryption services to extend user data protection.54 Several data centre,hosting and telecommunication providers have entered the enterprise cloud market.Major cloud providers include Adentra,GVT,Vivo and Telefonica.55 Tencents cloud unit
220、 plans to open a data centre in Brazil.56 Data centres in the Russian Federation are expected to see investments worth$2.02 billion by 2026.57 As per the Digital Economy Program(see Chapter 4),national telecom providers including Rostelecom have expanded data centres in the country.Most of these are
221、 in the Moscow and St.Petersburg areas,and the goal is to create a geographically diverse national network of data centre facilities.58 Figure 13 China had 215 science and technology parks in 2021Source:On data centres,Datacentremap(China,Russian Federation,South Africa);Livemint(India);Techerati(Br
222、azil)0500Brazil73259635521ChinaIndiaRussian Fed.South AfricaNo,of colocation data centersNo,of science and technology parks19Sberbank has announced plans to build a large data centre in the Saratov Oblast.59 Yandex,a major web service provider that operates multiple data centre
223、s in the country and one in Finland,said in September 2021 that it would open a cloud centre in Germany in 2022.60 The Indian data centre market is expected to reach$1.5 billion in 2022.61 Rollout of 5G is expected to increase data usage and industry experts expect that capacity of data centres will
224、 double by 2023 to meet rising demand and digitalization growth.62 Investments by both local and international players in data centres are expected to be worth$4.6 billion a year by 2025,according to the National Association of Software and Service Companies.63Chinas data centre market was valued at
225、$13 billion in 2020 and is expected to reach$36.2 billion by 2026.64 Given rapidly increasing market demand,China must deploy more data centres to match its digital economy trajectory.65 Most of the worlds 597 hyperscale data centres are located in the United States(39%at the end of 2020),followed b
226、y China with 10%.66 To expand the big data industry into a$470 billion sector by 2025,China aims to build several clusters of data centres over the next three years.67 Alibaba Cloud is the leader in the cloud market,though Huawei Cloud,Tencent Cloud and Baidu AI Cloud are also key players in the mar
227、ket.Collectively,these four providers accounted for 80%of the market.68 59 Data Centre Dynamics(September 2021).Sberbank to build data center in Balakovo,Russia,available at https:/ Capacity(September 2021).Russias Yandex to open data centre facilities in Germany,available at https:/ Markets and Mar
228、kets(n.d.).India Data Center Market,available at https:/ Business Standard(August 2021).Indias data centre industry capacity to double by 2023 to 1,008 MW,available at https:/www.business- Livemint(24 December 2021).Data centre firms ramp up capacity in India.Available at:https:/ Mordor Intelligence
229、.China Data Center Market-Growth,Trends,COVID-19 Impact,and Forecasts(20222027).Available at https:/ China-US Focus(November 2021).Conflicts of Chinas Data Center Industry.Available at https:/ UNCTAD(2021).Digital Economy Report,op.cit.67 Reuters(December 2021).China outlines vision for four mega da
230、ta centre clusters,available at https:/ China Internet Watch(April 2022).China cloud computing market in 2021;top 4 have 80%market share.Available at https:/ Techerati(November 2021).South Africa holds the majority of African data centres.Available at https:/ Techish(January 2022).Cybersecurity firm
231、 Acronis opens Cloud Data Centre in South Africa.Available at https:/tech- See https:/ See https:/www.cetic.br/en/tics/tic-covid-19/painel-covid-19/4-edicao/H4W/Most South African data centres are located in or near the urban centres of Cape Town and Johannesburg.The country accounts for 54%of the d
232、ata centre floor space for the entire African continent.69 South Africa remains a favoured destination to establish data centres and has the potential to become a gateway to the region.Swiss cybersecurity firm Acronis launched a new cloud data centre in Johannesburg in January 2022.70 Digital paymen
233、tsThe global digital payment market is expected to grow from$88.1 billion in 2021 to$180.2 billion by 2026.71 Many countries are actively promoting digital payments because they are more efficient and secure and offer better measurement in digital transactions.Growth in smartphone use,mobile commerc
234、e,digital services and apps is also driving rapid adoption of digital payments.Credit card and digital payments are the top methods for online transactions in Brazil.Although credit cards remain the leading method for online transactions,digital payments are catching up quickly.A 2021 survey found t
235、hat Pix was the No.2 method of payment used to purchase goods and services online in Brazil,statistically tied with credit cards.72 Boleto bancrio,a domestic push payment method regulated by the central bank,is also a popular method to pay online.20The Central Bank of Brazil released Pix in 2020.The
236、 instant payment platform allows immediate transfers and payments and is free for end consumers.73 Pix can be integrated into e-marketplaces,delivery,e-commerce and banking apps,offering a seamless and secure solution for online payments.Federal emergency relief programmes also drove up the use of d
237、igital wallets during the pandemic,as some required requests to be submitted through a mobile phone application and money was transferred to a virtual account.Cash-on-delivery remains the preferred mode of payment for e-commerce in the Russian Federation.74 Cash-on-delivery accounts for most online
238、payments,while digital wallets(such as QIWI,Yandex Money and Web Money)are increasingly used.International cards are also used for online transactions.Cards and cash-on-delivery are the preferred methods in India.Cards are the most-used method to pay online,with debit cards preferred over credit car
239、ds.75 According to a survey,cards were used in nearly 29%of online shopping transactions in India by 2020.76International brands,including Visa,Mastercard and American Express,are widely accepted and used,as is RuPay,a domestic card.Digital wallets are expected to overtake cards by 2023.77 Establish
240、ed digital wallet brands include Amazon Pay,Paytm,Google Pay and PayPal.Cash-on-delivery is also an important channel,but has declined as more Indians open bank accounts.Home-grown digital wallets remain a preferred method of online payment in China.The digital wallet market,dominated by WeChat Pay,
241、Tenpay and Alipay,is forecast to grow at 12%compound annual growth rate(CAGR)until 2023.78 Cards are less significant:just two of every 10 online payments are made using cards.73 Bank of International Settlements(23 March 2022).Central banks,the monetary system and public payments infrastructures:le
242、ssons from Brazils Pix.BIS Bulletin No.52.Available at https:/www.bis.org/publ/bisbull52.pdf74 Hawk,Stephen(2002).The development of Russian e-commerce:the case of Ozon.Management Decisions,vol.40 No.7,pp.702709.See also the Paypers(2014),Preferred payment methods in Russian Federation.Available at
243、https:/ J.P.Morgan(2020).E-commerce Payments Trends Report:India,op.cit.76 Ibid.77 Business Today(2 March 2022).E-commerce transactions to grow by 96%to touch$120 bn by 2025.Available at https:/www.businesstoday.in/latest/corporate/story/e-commerce-transactions-to-grow-by-96-to-touch-120-bn-by-2025-
244、fis-report-324517-2022-03-0278 J.P.Morgan(2019).E-Commerce payments trends:China,op.cit.79 World Bank(2019).South Africa:Digital Economy Diagnostic.Available at https:/openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/33786/South-Africa-Digital-Economy-Diagnostic.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y80 Statis
245、ta(n.d.).Revenues from the artificial intelligence(AI)software market worldwide from 2018 to 2025.Available at https:/ Statista(2022).Forecast of the global big data market.Available at:https:/ See Microsoft(n.d.).Impacto real para um futuro melhor:Plano de compromisso com Brasil 2019-2020.Available
246、 at https:/ See https:/www.data.ai/en/apps/ios/app/guiabolso-controle-financeiro-e-planejamento-de-gastos/and Bonham,John(2010).GuiaBolso:How machine-learning is changing competition landscape for Financial Institutions in Brazil,available at:https:/digital.hbs.edu/platform-rctom/submission/guiabols
247、o-how-machine-learning-is-changing-competition-landscape-for-financial-institutions-in-brazil/WeChat Pay and Alipay have begun to integrate credit cards issued by global brands,including Mastercard,Visa and American Express,into their payment services to draw more international consumers.Cash-on-del
248、ivery and digital payments dominates in South Africa.Some 60%of South African adults have made or received digital payments,according to the World Bank.The use of cards and other electronic payment instruments remains low,however.Even among South Africans holding a transaction account with a bank,33
249、%still withdraw all their money as soon as it is deposited.79 Artificial intelligence and big dataThe global AI software market is forecast to grow rapidly in the coming years,reaching an estimated$126 billion by 2025.80 The overall AI market includes a wide array of applications such as natural lan
250、guage processing,robotic process automation and machine learning.Greater adoption of big data which is expected to grow to$103 billion by 2027,buoyed by fast-growing mobile data and cloud computing traffic goes hand-in-hand with the rapid development of AI technologies.81Industrial firms in Brazil h
251、ave started to adopt AI solutions.Industry sources suggest that Brazilian GDP could increase by 7.1%by 2030 as a result of large-scale adoption of AI.82 Fintech is considered to be a natural adopter of AI.Brazilian fintech firm GuiaBolso offers a popular mobile application that uses AI to organize t
252、he personal finances of users.83 AI is transforming traditional sectors such as agriculture and mining.Solinftec is a company devoted to optimizing agricultural processes through data collected by sensors 21installed in agricultural machinery and meteorological stations.84 Traive,an agri-fintech fir
253、m,aims to support access to finance through an alternative credit system that estimates a clients mortgage loan performance in real time.This AI-powered application is expected to have supported 2,500 MSME agribusiness operations by 2020.85Large companies have also begun to incorporate smart product
254、ion methods.Vale,Brazils top mining company,has established an integrated operations centre in Minas Gerais to integrate the production chain using AI technologies.Brazils major industries,such as oil,gas,minerals and agriculture,are expected to be the main adopters of big data.According to the esti
255、mates,the Latin American big data and analytics market is expected to reach$8.5 billion by 2023 with a CAGR of 19.2%.Brazil leads this,accounting for 46.7%of overall sales.86 Major players include QlikTech,Splunk Inc.,TIBCO Software Inc.,Tableu Software LLC and Cortex Intelligence Tecnologia S.A.87
256、The Russian Federation is making headway on AI adoption.The value of the Russian AI market was estimated at$3.8 billion in 2021,with a market growth rate of 9.6%.88 The country was home to 168 AI start-ups in 202089 and around 480 firms developing AI technologies.90 Sberbank,a majority state-owned f
257、inancial-services company,has earmarked RUB 112 billion($1.96 billion)for AI development until 2024.91 Firms also use AI for healthcare.The Celsius project,for instance,uses AI technology to diagnose CT scans 84 See https:/ Inter-American Development Bank(July 2020).Artificial Intelligence for Socia
258、l Good in Latin America and the Caribbean:The Regional Landscape and 12 Country Snapshots.Available at https:/publications.iadb.org/publications/english/document/Artificial-Intelligence-for-Social-Good-in-Latin-America-and-the-Caribbean-The-Regional-Landscape-and-12-Country-Snapshots.pdf86 Frost&Sul
259、livan(23 April 2018).Brazil and Mexico Stand as Front-runners in the Latin American Big Data Market,says Frost&Sulllivan.Available at https:/ Mordor Intelligence.Brazil Big Data Analytics Market,op.cit.88 Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology(April 2021).Artificial Intelligence Almanac:2020 Ind
260、ex Report.Available at https:/cset.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/t0395_Russia_AI_report_EN.pdf89 Tracxn(2 April 2022).Artificial Intelligence Startups in Russia.Available at https:/ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace(8 May 2020).Developing Artificial Intelligence in Russia:Objectives and
261、 Reality.Available at https:/carnegiemoscow.org/commentary/82422.The figure is 480 according to Artificial Intelligence Almanac,op.cit.91 Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology,op.cit.92 AI Code of Ethics.See https:/a-ai.ru/code-of-ethics/93 International Data Corporation(October 2021).India Art
262、ificial Intelligence Market to Reach US$7.8 Billion by 2025 Growing at a CAGR of 20.2%.Available at https:/ Deloitte(December 2021).State of AI in India.Available at https:/ McKinsey Analytics(December 2021).The state of AI in 2021.Available at https:/ Stanford University(2021).AI Index Report.Avail
263、able at https:/aiindex.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/2021-AI-Index-Report_Master.pdf97 Mascarenhas,N.,and K.Park(29 March 2022).India dominates Y Combinators latest startup batch(again).Available at https:/ The Economic Times(17 August 2020).India-Dutch collaborative start-up Leven Medical
264、 unveils smart ventilators with AI,ML.Available at https:/ COVID-19 patients.Kaspersky Lab,a Russian cybersecurity firm,has developed a new system for monitoring digital security using AI to predict anomalies and automatically prevent or stop cyberattacks.Several leading AI actors including Yandex,M
265、TS,Sberbank,Gazprom and the Russian Direct Investment Fund have joined a voluntary code of AI ethics since 2019.The code establishes ethical guidelines to build trust in innovation and development of AI technology as well as effective application.92 India is recognized as a leading adopter of AI amo
266、ng emerging economies.Indias AI market is expected to reach$7.8 billion by 2025.93 The Indian retail industry is the top adopter of AI technologies and services,followed by telecom and fintech.94 The software services,product development and contact centre automation industries are also frontrunners
267、 in adopting AI.95 India has one of the highest AI skill penetrations across education,finance,hardware and networking,manufacturing,and software and IT services.96 More than half of Indian start-ups now use AI,according to the National Association of Software and Service Companies.97 AI also plays
268、a role in bridging development gaps.A Dutch-Indian healthcare start-up,Leven Medical,launched low-cost,AI-powered ventilators that can capture patient information for better medical intervention decisions.98 The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics,together 22with Microso
269、ft and the state government in Andhra Pradesh,has harnessed AI to power a sowing app.Artificial intelligence algorithms are used to monitor crop and soil health,where AI-based analytics solutions help to plan events such as crop harvesting,pest control and fertilization to optimize yields.99 Indian
270、firms are investing heavily in big data,with expenditures expected to have reached$2 billion in 2021.100 The banking industry has adopted big data to overcome challenges in an unpredictable business environment,improving customer service and enhancing productivity and performance.Telecommunication c
271、ompanies are using big data analytics to understand customers,business and overall operations.101 Big data has also been used in the healthcare industry.India launched an app during the pandemic that used big data to help identify people potentially exposed to COVID-19 through contacts.India is one
272、of the top big data analytics markets,and the National Association of Software and Service Companies has predicted that the the countrys analytics industry will reach$16 billion by 2025.102 Major players include Mu Sigma,Dractak Analytics,IBM Corporation,Sigma Data Systems and Capgemini SE.China is
273、a leading global player in AI development and adoption.Chinas AI market was estimated at$62.7 billion in 2021,with projected growth of 30.4%CAGR in 20192024.103 The number of core AI firms in China was estimated at 260 in 2020,with a collective 99 International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-
274、Arid Tropics(9 January 2017).Microsoft and ICRISATs intelligent cloud pilot for agriculture in Andhra Pradesh increase crop yield for farmers.Available at https:/www.icrisat.org/microsoft-and-icrisats-intelligent-cloud-pilot-for-agriculture-in-andhra-pradesh-increase-crop-yield-for-farmers/100 Livem
275、int(24 August 2021).Spending on big data,analytics by Indian enterprises to touch$2bn in 2021:IDC.Available at https:/ International Data Corporation(24 August 2021).Need to Adopt a Data-Driven Culture by Indian Enterprises Propels Big Data and Analytics Spending to US$2 Billion in 2021,Reports IDC.
276、Available at https:/ Mordor Intelligence.India Big Data Technology&Service Market Growth,Trends,COVID-19 Impact,and Forecast(20222027).Available at https:/ International Data Corporation(December 2020).2020-2021 China AI Computing Power Development Evaluation Report.104 China Daily(25 November 2020)
277、.China at the forefront of AI adoption.Available at https:/ See World Intellectual Property Organization(September 2021).China Leads the World in AI Related Patent Filing.Available at https:/www.wipo.int/about-wipo/en/offices/china/news/2021/news_0037.html#:text=In%20the%20past%20decade%2C%20China,t
278、he%20first%20in%20the%20world.106 Deloitte(2020).AI Enablement on the Way to Smart Manufacturing:Deloitte Survey on AI Adoption in Manufacturing.Available at file:/C:/Users/ameri/Downloads/deloitte-cn-cip-ai-manufacturing-application-survey-en-200116.pdf107 Li,Daitian,Tong,Tony W.,and Yangao Xiao(Fe
279、bruary 2021).Is China Emerging as the Global Leader in AI?Harvard Business Review.Available at https:/hbr.org/2021/02/is-china-emerging-as-the-global-leader-in-ai108 McKinsey Global Institute,Artificial Intelligence:Implications for China(April 2017).Available at https:/ CNBC(25 August 2015).Alibaba
280、 is using AI to take on Amazon,Microsoft.Available at https:/ Financial Times(January 2022).China sets the pace in adoption of AI in healthcare technology.Available at https:/ Science and Technology Daily(December 2021).Chinas Big Data Industry to Exceed 3 Tln RMB by 2025.Available at http:/ Ibid.va
281、lue of$11 billion.104 China has filed 389,571 patents in AI,accounting for three-quarters of the global total,according to the World Intellectual Property Organization.105 Meanwhile,the number of robots installed in China grew by 500%between 2012 and 2020.106 Large data sets are critical to developm
282、ent of AI,and Chinese firms have access to assemble large databases.Didi,a China-based ride-sharing firm,processes an estimated 70 terabytes of data,with 9 billion routes planned a day and 1,000 car-hiring requests a second.107 Baidus autonomous cars can operate within limited environments.108 Aliba
283、bas cloud computing vertical,Aliyun,launched its AI platform in 2015,which allows developers and companies to use Alibabas e-commerce data to predict consumer behaviour.109 The country has also made considerable progress with AI in healthcare.Airdoc,a Beijing-based medical AI group,became the first
284、company to gain regulatory approval for its AI-driven retina-scanning software to be deployed in hospitals.110 Chinas big data industry is forecast to surpass$470 billion by 2025,according to a development plan for the big data industry during the 14th Five-Year Plan period(20212025)released by the
285、Ministry of Industry and Information Technology.111 The total revenue of big data was estimated at$105 billion in 2020.112 China has 23eight big data pilot zones and five big data industrial demonstration bases.113 The Government has created supporting policies to use big data,such as the internet+s
286、trategy focusing on integrating internet technologies into traditional industries.The internet+agriculture strategy,for example,highlights opportunities for technology to transform traditional farming methods through better data about the land,weather and markets for selling produce.Major Chinese pl
287、ayers in big data include IBM China Company Ltd.,SAP China,Huawei Technologies Co.,Alibaba Cloud Computing Company and Inspire Group Ltd.114 The South African AI market is poised for fast growth.The country leads the continent in AI adoption with a robust ecosystem that includes numerous technology
288、hubs and research groups.An estimated 100-plus companies in South Africa are either integrating AI solutions into their existing operations or developing new solutions using AI.115 IBM,for instance,operates AI-oriented research labs in the country.113 L,Review and outlook of Chinas technology and co
289、mmunications industry in 2020.Available at https:/ Data Centre Committee(2020).Ministry of Industry and Information Technology announced the list of 2019 national new industrialization industry demonstration bases(data centers).Available at http:/ Mordor Intelligence.Investment Opportunities of Big
290、Data Technology in China Growth,Trends,COVID-19 Impact,and Forecasts(20222027).Available at https:/ Atlantic Council(November 2018).Coming to Life:Artificial Intelligence in Africa.Available at https:/www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Coming-to-Life-Artificial-Intelligence-in-Africa
291、.pdf116 Kene-Okafor,Tage(21 January 2021).South African start-up Aerobotics raises$17M to scale its AI-for-agriculture platform.Available at https:/ Financial Times(16 May 2020).MomConnect lets expectant mothers know what to expect.Available at https:/ See Data Prophets,https:/ Atlantic Council,op.c
292、it.Start-ups in South Africa are using AI to support agriculture and health.Aerobotics,an AI start-up funded by Naspers,is using artificial intelligence to help farmers manage their farms,trees and fruits.116 MomConnect,an AI chatbot initiated by the National Department of Health,connects an estimat
293、ed 1.8 million expectant mothers with pre-and post-natal services and various kinds of healthcare advice.117 AI is also used in the finance and insurance sectors.DataProphet focuses on machine learning solutions for businesses by designing predictive analytics and conversation agents.118 Customers o
294、f digital insurance platform Naked enjoy lower costs because AI is used in risk assessment.South African universities and technology hubs have proven to be strong drivers of AI innovation.The LaunchLab at Stellenbosch University,for example,successfully incubates student-led start-ups in areas inclu
295、ding blockchain,fintech,three-dimensional printing and AI.119 24 ShutterstockPolicies and regulations play a key role in shaping the development trajectory and safeguarding the long-term development of the digital economy in BRICS countries.Conducive policies in areas of online consumer protection,c
296、ompetition,data protection and privacy,cybersecurity and others are essential to ensure market functioning,address potential market failures and secure development gains.This chapter sets out recent policy developments relating to the digital economy in the BRICS.As discussed in Chapter 1,data and p
297、latforms are at the core of the digital economy.Digital economy polices can be broadly grouped into three categories:data governance,platform governance and ecosystem development.National strategies also play an important role in providing overall direction and goals.Table 1 sets out a framework for
298、 examining the policy issues covered in this chapter.Data governance is at the core of digital economy policies.It includes laws and regulations on data and cybersecurity,and increasingly also algorithms and AI.In this area,it often requires development of new laws and regulations as data is a new s
299、ubject in economic development.The second category,platform governance,may require adjusting laws and regulations,such as consumer protection,competition,taxation,IP protection and labour policies,to the new context of the digital economy.The third category,ecosystem-related policies such as infrast
300、ructure,education,financial regulations,trade and investment policies,and e-signatures are important as they provide inputs essential to the development of the digital economy.120 See Estratgia Brasileira para a Transformao Digital(2018)at https:/www.gov.br/mcti/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/comunicado
301、s-mcti/estrategia-digital-brasileira/estrategiadigital.pdf.The English version of the Brazilian strategy can be found at https:/www.gov.br/mcti/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/comunicados-mcti/estrategia-digital-brasileira121 See Brazil Digital Inclusion Programme(2004),Connected Citizen Project Computer
302、s-For-All plan and Decree No.5.542 of 2005,establishing the Connected Citizen Project Computers for All.122 The Strategy for the Development of the Information Society in the Russian Federation for 20172030(2017)defines a digital economy ecosystem as a partnership of organizations ensuring the conti
303、nuous interaction of their technological platforms,applied internet services,analytical systems,information systems of public authorities of the Russian Federation,organizations and citizens.See Office of the President,Strategy for Information Society Development until 2030 approved,available at htt
304、p:/en.kremlin.ru/acts/news/54477Table 1 Analytical framework for digital economy policies National strategiesData governancePlatform governanceEcosystem developmentData protection and privacy Cybersecurity Algorithms and AIOnline consumer protection Competition Taxation of the digital economyInterme
305、diary liability Labour policies Digital infrastructureEducation and skill development Financial regulations Trade policies Investment policies E-signaturesAll BRICS have national strategies for developing digital economyNational strategies seek to provide a vision,identify strategic actions,set goal
306、s and milestones,and mobilize resources.All BRICS countries have national guiding policies related to the development of the digital economy,in the forms of strategies,programmes or roadmaps.Brazils national digital strategy document is the Estratgia Brasileira para a Transformao Digital(2018),also
307、known as E-Digital.120 It builds on previous policies that promoted internet penetration and digital inclusion in the country.The main goals of the document include enabling digital transformation,enhancing access to ICT and developing online trust.121 The relevant governmental agencies are updating
308、 the document.The Russian Federations Digital Economy Program(2017)seeks to create an ecosystem of the digital economy by 2030.122 The main goals of this policy are developing existing legal and regulatory frameworks,building digital skills and enhancing digital infrastructure Chapter 4 Policy devel
309、opments in BRICS digital economy 26investments.The Digital Economy of the Russian Federation programme puts into action the timelines,indicators for measurement and mechanisms to create a robust digital economy,as set out in the policy.123 Indias National Digital Communications Policy(2018)promotes
310、the development of the digital economy.124 This policy focuses on developing digital infrastructure,deployment of 5G technology,use of big data and job creation in the digital communications sector.The Digital India Programme(2015)also supports the development of the digital economy in the country.1
311、25 Chinas Digital Economy Development Plan for the 14th Five-Year Plan(2021)126 sets out strategic indicators and objectives to 2025,including the target of increasing the contribution of the core digital economy sectors to 10%of national GDP.127 Developing national information network infrastructur
312、e and creating a country-wide integrated big data centre are among the major expected outputs of the plan.Commercial deployment of 5G and testing 6G are also key initiatives.South Africas National Development Plan of 2030 sets out the following priorities of digital development:promoting infrastruct
313、ure investment,supporting local demand on digital goods and employing foreign expertise of key international organizations and bodies.128 This is supported by the National e-Strategy,which seeks to develop ICT use throughout the value chain and accelerate uptake and usage of ICT in various social an
314、d economic sectors.129 123 Office of the President,available at http:/kremlin.ru/events/president/news/57425.See also Presidential Decree No.204(2018)on the National Objectives and Strategic Tasks of the Russian Federations Development in the Period up to 2024.For example,Forecast of Scientific and
315、Technological Development of the Russian Federation for the Period until 2030.See also the National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation(2015)and the Information Security Doctrine of the Russian Federation(2016).The Strategy for Scientific and Technological Development(2016)sets out national
316、policy objectives in scientific and technological development and emphasizes the importance of digital production technologies124 National Digital Communications Policy(2018),available at https:/dot.gov.in/sites/default/files/EnglishPolicy-NDCP.pdf.See also National Policy of Information Technology(
317、2012),available at https:/meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/National_20IT_20Policyt%20_20.pdf;and,National E-Governance Plan(2006),available at:https:/cag.gov.in/uploads/media/PC-03-National-e-gov-plan-202.pdf125 Specific policy areas include the development of national broadband highways,
318、providing mobile connectivity to achieve universal access,enhancing public internet access to maximize delivery of e-services to citizens and promoting electronic manufacturing.See Digital India,Vision,available at:https:/www.digitalindia.gov.in/content/vision-and-vision-areas.Several public digital
319、 platforms that pre-dated the Digital India programme and were subsequently absorbed by it have built scale across the country over the years.Aadhaar(2009)was launched to give every citizen a unique identity number;BharatNet(2012)was introduced to connect all village councils or gram panchayats with
320、 1,000 Mbps internet connectivity;and DigiLocker(2015)created a cloud-based platform to issue,exchange and verify certificates and documents.Other notable policies that supported the development of the digital economy and pre-dated the Digital India programme are the National Policy on Information T
321、echnology(2012),which laid out the vision to use information technology and the internet to expand the economy substantially,and the National E-Governance Plan(2006),which envisioned the creation of shared data and service centres.126 The plan aims to accelerate the digital economy,which includes a
322、digital society and a digital government.See also Factsheet:National 14th Five-Year Plan,available at https:/www.legco.gov.hk/research-publications/english/2021fs06-national-14th-five-year-plan-20210610-e.pdf127 Government of China,State Council(2021).The State Council on Printing and Distributing N
323、otice of the“14th five-year”Digital Economy Development Plan.Available at http:/ South Africa National Development Plan.Available at https:/www.gov.za/issues/national-development-plan-2030129 Government of South Africa,Staatskoerant(10 November 2017).Digital Society South Africa:South Africas Nation
324、al e-Strategy towards a thriving and inclusive digital future.Available at https:/www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201711/41242gen887.pdf130 Luca Belli,Cybersecurity Policymaking in the BRICS Countries:From Addressing National Priorities to Seeking International Cooperation,available at
325、http:/www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0200008131 Art.3 of the General Data Protection Law reads as follows:This Law applies to any processing operation carried out by a natural person or by a legal entity governed by public or private Law,regardless of the medium,
326、the country of its headquarters,or the country where the data are located,provided that:I-the treatment operation is carried out in the national territory;II-the processing activity aims to offer or supply goods or services or the processing of data of individuals located in the national territory;o
327、r III-the processed personal data was collected in the national territory.1 Personal data whose holder is there at the time of collection are considered collected in the national territory.2.The data processing provided for in item IV of the caput of art.4 of this Law.The section below examines poli
328、cies related to data governance,platform governance and development of digital ecosystem.Data governance Data protection and privacyData protection and privacy regulations are at the core of data policies,as they determine the access to and use of data.BRICS countries have called attention to data s
329、ecurity and development of local digital sectors in their data regulations.130 All have data localization requirements that obligate retention and storage of certain types of personal data within the country.Laws setting data localization requirements can include national security laws,laws regulati
330、ng tax and financial records,employment laws or export control laws.Data regulations in the BRICS countries also tend to emphasize data security and focus on developing local digital sectors and maximizing economic and social benefits of data for citizens and the national economy.Brazils General Dat
331、a Protection Law(2018)has been in effect since 2020.It applies to all entities or people that process personal data collected or processed in Brazil,as well as to processing activities that are targeted towards individuals in Brazil.131 The government authority responsible for safeguarding protectio
332、n of personal data,the National Data Protection 27Authority,was established in 2020 and has already initiated investigations into WhatsApps privacy policy changes as well as a data breach by a credit-research firm.132 In 2021,the national Senate approved an amendment to the national constitution tha
333、t made protection of personal data a fundamental right in the Brazilian Constitution.133 Besides the General Data Protection Law,Brazils Open Data Policy134 requires that all data contained in databases of agencies and entities of the federal and foundational federal public administration in the form of open data are accessible to the public.The main objectives of this policy include:Promoting the