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1、World EnergyEmployment 2023The IEA examines the full spectrum of energy issues including oil,gas and coal supply and demand,renewable energy technologies,electricity markets,energy efficiency,access to energy,demand side management and much more.Through its work,the IEA advocates policies that will
2、enhance the reliability,affordability and sustainability of energy in its 31 member countries,13 association countries and beyond.This publication and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and b
3、oundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Source:IEA.International Energy Agency Website:www.iea.org IEA member countries:Australia Austria Belgium Canada Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Japan Korea LithuaniaLuxembourg Mexico Netherlan
4、ds New Zealand Norway Poland Portugal Slovak Republic INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY Spain Sweden Switzerland Republic of TrkiyeUnited Kingdom United States The European Commission also participates in the work of the IEAIEA association countries:ArgentinaBrazilChinaEgyptIndiaIndonesiaKenyaMoroccoSeneg
5、alSingaporeSouth AfricaThailandUkraineWorld Energy Employment PAGE|3 Abstract IEA.CC BY 4.0.Abstract The second edition of the World Energy Employment(WEE)report tracks the evolutions of the energy workforce from before the pandemic,through the global energy crisis,to today.The report provides a com
6、prehensive stock-take of energy employment with estimates of the size and distribution of the labour force across regions,sectors,and technologies.The dataset provides granularity on workers along the entire energy value chain,covering fossil fuel supply,bioenergy,nuclear,low-emissions hydrogen,powe
7、r generation,transmission,distribution,and storage;and key energy-related end uses,including vehicle manufacturing and energy efficiency for buildings and industry,among other segments.Additionally,WEE 2023 includes for the first time employment data for the extraction of selected critical minerals,
8、including copper,cobalt,nickel and lithium.This years report also benchmarks energy employment needs against an outlook to 2030 across IEA scenarios,outlining key policies that could help countries cultivate and maintain a skilled energy workforce throughout the energy transition.WEE 2023 explores i
9、n depth the risks of skilled labour shortages and how this may influence the outlook for the industry and includes new analysis on skills,certifications,wages,and job postings.The findings signal that the ongoing shifts in energy employment will continue and can present both opportunities and risks.
10、With the right enabling measures in place,policy makers,energy companies,labour representatives,educational and vocational training institutions,and other key stakeholders can work in concert to avoid labour transition risks while ensuring the transition to cleaner sources of energy remains people-c
11、entred.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|4 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Table of contents Table of contents Abstract.3 Executive summary.5 Introduction.9 Understanding the World Energy Employment report.10 Overview.12 Global labour markets in 2022.13 Total energy employment,2022.14 Energy employment trends.15 Road
12、 to 2030.24 Labour and skills.26 Labour and skills shortages.27 Job vacancy rates.30 Occupations and most in demand skills.36 Education pipeline.42 Wages.44 Gender representation.45 Fuel and minerals supply.47 Oil and gas.48 Coal.52 Bioenergy.55 Critical minerals.57 Hydrogen&electrolysers.59 Power s
13、ector.62 Overview.63 Power generation.64 Solar PV.65 Wind.67 Fossil fuel .69 Hydropower.72 Nuclear.73 Power transmission,distribution,and storage.76 Vehicles and end-use energy efficiency.80 Automotive.81 Efficiency jobs in buildings and industry.83 Annexes.86 Methodology.87 Glossary.92 Acknowledgem
14、ents.95 World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|5 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Executive summary Executive summary The second edition of the World Energy Employment report arrives at a time of extreme flux in the global energy sector.The last three years saw the Covid-19 pandemic precipitate sweeping layoffs,including i
15、n the energy industry,followed by the global energy crisis.Governments pursued urgent measures to ensure energy security,including unprecedented financial support for clean energy.Clean energy investment has grown by 40%over the past two years,creating strong demand from leading energy firms to brin
16、g on more workers in clean sectors.Still,the fragile global economic recovery and fresh geopolitical uncertainties continue to cast a shadow over the outlook for the industry and workers.Some regions continue to face tight labour markets and high interest rates,contributing to cautious hiring in par
17、ts of the energy sector.The World Energy Employment(WEE)2023 report tracks employment trends over the entire energy supply chain through this turbulent period by fuel,technology,sector,and region.The report also provides an outlook to 2030 for energy employment needs by sector across IEA scenarios,o
18、utlining key policies that could help countries cultivate and maintain a skilled energy workforce throughout the transition.More people work in the energy sector today than in 2019,almost exclusively due to growth in clean energy,which now employs more workers than fossil fuels.Energy employment rea
19、ched nearly 67 million in 2022 growing by 3.4 million over pre-pandemic levels.Clean energy sectors added 4.7 million jobs globally over the same period and stand at 35 million,while fossil fuels jobs recovered more slowly after layoffs in 2020 and remain around 1.3 million below pre-pandemic employ
20、ment levels,at 32 million.As a result,clean energy employment surpassed that of fossil fuels in 2021.More than half of job growth in this period is attributable to just five sectors:solar PV,wind,electric vehicles(EVs)and battery manufacturing,heat pumps and critical minerals mining.These five secto
21、rs employ around 9 million workers today.Solar PV is the largest of these sectors,at around 4 million jobs,while manufacturing of EVs and their batteries was the largest source of growth,adding globally well over 1 million jobs since 2019.Many of the new jobs are in construction and manufacturing,wh
22、ich represent over half of energy jobs today,and grew by 2.6 million jobs since 2019.The uptick of clean energy jobs occurred in every region of the world,with Chinas energy workforce undergoing an unprecedented reorientation toward clean energy.Clean energy jobs were the major driver of energy job
23、growth in virtually all parts of the world over the last three years,but several regions also saw fossil fuel employment rise above 2019 levels,notably India,Indonesia,and the Middle East.In regions that saw declines in fossil fuel jobs from 2019-22,clean energy outweighed these losses in all but a
24、few,notably Russia and North Africa.China,home to the World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|6 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Executive summary largest energy workforce today with nearly 30%of the global total,witnessed the largest rebalancing over the 2019-22 period,with clean energy jobs growing by 2 million and fossil
25、 fuel-related jobs falling by 600 000,largely in coal.Today,60%of Chinas energy workforce is employed in clean sectors,compared to just over 50%in 2019.Chinas build out of clean tech manufacturing has been a major source of employment growth.Chinas clean energy manufacturing sectors employ roughly 3
26、 million workers,accounting for 80%of solar PV and EV battery manufacturing jobs globally.Amid the many positive trends emerging for clean energy employment,skilled labour shortages are already plaguing the sector and require attention.The energy sector needs higher skilled workers than most other i
27、ndustries 36%of energy jobs are within high-skilled occupations by International Labour Organization definitions,compared with 27%in the broader economy.Job vacancy rates,a key indicator of labour shortages,have been rising for years in many major economies in the construction,manufacturing,utility
28、and other energy-related sectors.Construction occupations,which make up nearly half of new energy-related jobs to 2030 on a path to net zero,are facing particularly acute shortages,limiting the availability of labour needed to install clean energy technologies and retrofit buildings.A proprietary su
29、rvey of over 160 energy companies conducted by the IEA indicates that installation and repair work positions were the number one occupation segment for which respondents had the greatest difficulty hiring.This was mostly due to a lack of industry-specific knowledge.Developing a sufficiently large an
30、d skilled local workforce is an imperative in every region,as most energy jobs are tied to the location where installations are developed.Roughly 60%of energy jobs today cannot be offshored.The number of workers pursuing degrees or certifications relevant to energy sector jobs are not keeping pace w
31、ith growing demand.Science,technology,engineering and mathematical degrees relevant to the energy sector are not rising fast enough to meet demand for new workers with these credentials.The gap is even more severe for vocational jobs.Conferrals of certifications relevant to energy,such as electricia
32、ns and heating technicians,have flatlined in the United States and the European Union,and in China they fell by around 9%per year in the years leading up to the pandemic.Meanwhile,jobs demanding these certifications are projected to grow by around 8%per year through 2030 on a net zero aligned pathwa
33、y.Clean energy training programmes are becoming more available for instance 19 of the G20 members have training courses for solar PV installers but governments must address direct and indirect costs borne by workers pursuing retraining if this skilled labour gap is to be closed.Cultivating a skilled
34、 labour pool should be considered a key strategic pillar for regions looking to be competitive in new clean energy industries,as is attracting more women,who represent 15%of the energy workforce today.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|7 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Executive summary Many fossil fuel workers have t
35、he skills and specialisations needed to fill clean energy roles.We estimate that half of workers in fossil fuel sectors who face redundancy risks this decade have skills demanded by growing clean energy sectors.Many of these workers could switch into new roles with around four weeks of additional de
36、dicated training,such as the 1.2 million workers that could shift from fossil fuel heating to heat pumps and the 4 million workers who could shift from internal combustion engine(ICE)manufacturing to EVs between now and 2030 in the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario(NZE scenario).Much of this train
37、ing can be done on the job and within firms making the transition.For other workers,slightly more retraining would be required,such as is the case for oil and gas workers with skills relevant to the offshore wind,hydrogen and CCUS sectors.This transition risk is particularly acute for coal miners in
38、 emerging and developing countries.The coal supply workforce shrank by 225 000 jobs between 2019 and 2022,and under current policies is expected to further contract by 1.4 million jobs by 2030 however most losses in coal mining are related to improvements in labour productivity and other efficiencie
39、s.Coal employment declines would be higher in the NZE Scenario pathway.Many coal producing regions have already successfully managed coal transitions over the past century,generating important policy lessons for other regions.Targeted reskilling and community support policies for declining coal regi
40、ons can help transfer these workers to other sectors,like critical minerals.Our analysis finds that over 180 000 jobs were added in critical mineral mining in the last three years,and 40%of current coal miners work within 200 km of a critical mineral deposit.Oil and gas workers face less immediate t
41、ransitions risks,but the long-term decline of fossil fuels demand is already shaping labour trends in the industry.Around 150 000 fewer people work in oil supply than in 2019,where companies have been wary of rehiring given changing trends.Conversely,jobs in natural gas increased by 350 000 thanks t
42、o strong growth in LNG,making natural gas the only fossil fuel to have surpassed pre-pandemic employment levels by 2022.Future labour needs in oil and gas vary widely depending on the pace of the transition.Under current policies,the oil and gas workforce grows by nearly 300 000 workers by 2030 but
43、in the NZE Scenario employment falls by over 2.5 million.Some oil and natural gas companies are diversifying their portfolios into other energy sectors,which could guard against skill retention risks in the face of this uncertainty.In the NZE Scenario,job growth in hydrogen,CCUS,geothermal and biofu
44、el and biogas processing nearly offsets decreases in core oil and gas business to 2030.Higher wages in the energy sector have helped attract workers from other industries,but wage disparities between energy segments could impede the transfer of needed skills.Compensation in the energy sector is typi
45、cally higher than for similar occupations in the broader economy,mostly reflecting higher skilling requirements.For example,solar PV installers can earn World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|8 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Executive summary around 15%more than general roofers and 40%more than telecommunication installe
46、rs,occupations requiring comparable skills.Still,wages vary greatly across the energy sector,reflecting differences in skill level and the sectors ability to offer high compensation.Wage differentials could create headwinds for worker transfers within the energy sector and could contribute to some w
47、orkers switching out of the energy sector entirely.Today,workers in nuclear,oil and gas benefit from some of the highest wages in the entire economy.Some clean energy technologies offer comparable wages,as is the case in biofuel processing,while others like wind,solar and hydrogen see the average wo
48、rker earning 15-30%less today.In all scenarios,job growth outweighs declines to 2030,but avoiding skills shortages calls for more attention from policy makers,as does maximising the benefits of new jobs created.Based on todays policies,8 million clean energy jobs will be added worldwide by 2030,with
49、 fossil fuel jobs declining by 2.5 million,for a net increase of 5.7 million.The increase in energy jobs to 2030 would be even greater in the NZE Scenario,reaching 17 million.Supporting workers in declining fossil fuel sectors must go hand-in-hand with efforts to train the workers needed in clean en
50、ergy sectors,as skilled labour shortages are emerging as one of the primary risks to energy transitions.But energy job growth also presents one of the greatest opportunities for policy makers to rally public support for the energy transition,and policies can be designed in a way that raises working
51、standards and draws new and diverse people into energy.The IEA continues to deepen its analytical work that supports policy makers in making clean energy transitions people-centred,recognising that workers play an essential role in realising the low-carbon future and that ultimately,the transition m
52、ust prioritise improving lives and livelihoods to succeed.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|9 Introduction IEA.CC BY 4.0.Introduction In the past few years,the energy sector has undergone a period of remarkable change.First,Covid-19 upended global economies and energy demand.Russias invasion of Ukra
53、ine followed in early 2022,triggering the first truly global energy crisis.Global leaders responded swiftly and strongly by securing alternative suppliers,strengthening policies aimed at fast-tracking the shift to clean energy and providing an unprecedented level of finance to underpin the transform
54、ation of the energy market.Underscoring the dramatic changes underway,for the first time ever,our latest edition of the World Energy Outlook foresees a peak in the demand for all three fossil fuelsoil,gas and coalwithin this decade.The rapid growth of clean energy technologies combined with the vast
55、 ramifications of the global energy crisis are driving the shift away from fossil fuels and accelerating the transition to a low-emissions future.Countries emitting 70%of global greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions today have pledged to decarbonise their energy sectors,pointing to further acceleration on th
56、e horizon as new policy and private sector initiatives aim to align with these ambitions.These developments are having far-reaching repercussions for the energy industry and those who work in it today.Last year,the IEA published its inaugural World Energy Employment report,which provided the first c
57、omprehensive assessment and benchmark of the global energy labour force.This new edition updates how levels of employment changed throughout the pandemic and the energy crisis to 2022.It also analyses how demand for workers could evolve to 2030 under the government policies in place today and those
58、needed to achieve net zero energy sector CO2 emissions by 2050.Recent developments in energy employment trends over the 2019-22 period are drawing increasing attention to the risk of skilled labour shortages hindering the expansion of clean energy sectors.Labour and skills shortages are already tran
59、slating into project delays,raising concerns that clean energy solutions will be unable to keep pace with demand to meet net zero targets.Accordingly,this report provides in-depth analysis of labour market issues that may negatively impact some of the fastest growing clean energy sectors,highlightin
60、g key occupations and skills,looming shortages,education and training requirements,and remuneration levels.It also includes new insights on gender dynamics in training and in the workforce.Clean energy policymaking today is increasingly intertwined with labour policy.Attracting people to work in bur
61、geoning clean energy industries and managing the transition of workers in fossil fuel sectors are becoming crucial priorities for policy makers,industry,labour unions and civil society.The report aims to provide an objective look at employment trends across the entire energy supply chain,by sector a
62、nd by region.It also includes first-time estimates on employment in the critical minerals and hydrogen industries and provides examples of successful efforts by governments and companies to prepare their workforce for the clean energy transition.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|10 Introduction IEA.
63、CC BY 4.0.Understanding the World Energy Employment report The World Energy Employment 2023(WEE 2023)report builds on national labour statistics to provide a more comprehensive estimate of the energy workforce today and a forward view to 2030.Most labour statistics do not cover the energy sector in
64、detail,and while some traditional parts of the sector have dedicated subcodes,many emerging sub-sectors do not.The level of detail available is also not consistent across countries,and categories are not harmonised.In addition,energy jobs exist across economic activities,such as construction and man
65、ufacturing,which make the entire value chain difficult to capture without secondary surveys.Accordingly,this report uses modelled estimates and other data sources to arrive at estimates.A brief description of scope,definitions and approach follows,with more detail available in individual section cha
66、pters and in the Methodology section of the Annex.Scope of energy jobs The scope of energy and related employment categories and sub-sectors discussed in this report include:The supply of energy and related mineral supply includes oil,gas,coal,bioenergy,critical minerals,nuclear fuel supply and hydr
67、ogen.The power sector includes generation by source(solar,wind,hydropower,fossil fuels and nuclear),power transmission facilities and grids,distribution and storage.Key energy end uses include vehicle manufacturing and energy efficiency(buildings,industry,among many other sectors).The report conside
68、rs direct jobs related to the activities outlined,including upstream roles that are correlated to energy(e.g.turbine manufacturing,but not production of cement used in the foundation).We exclude other indirect jobs such as workers further upstream in non-energy specific roles and employment in relat
69、ed sectors such as auto mechanics whose positions depend on vehicle manufacturing.It also excludes induced jobs,defined as jobs supported by wages earned in the energy sector but spent elsewhere in the economy.Employment in non-energy businesses owned by energy firms are not included(e.g.workers at
70、hotels owned by enterprises or financial advisory services housed within energy firms).Informal workers are included.Part-time work is normalised to full-time equivalent(FTE)employment for consistent accounting.Approach The data presented in the report are modelled benchmarks relying on the IEAs com
71、prehensive databases of national energy systems as inputs for calibration,including investments,capacity additions,existing stock,production,international trade flows of clean energy goods and services,and sales of equipment and appliances.The modelled estimates are then calibrated against data from
72、 national labour statistics,corporate filings,company interviews,international World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|11 Introduction IEA.CC BY 4.0.organisations databases and academic literature.In addition,other valuable inputs include dedicated secondary surveys and studies on energy employment,such a
73、s the U.S.Energy and Employment Report(USEER),Canadas Labour Force Survey(LFS)and the United Kingdoms Low Carbon and Renewable Energy Economy(LCREE).Prevailing labour costs in each region,industry and occupation are used to benchmark the number of jobs per energy project that would be consistent wit
74、h the total investment,operating costs and earnings of different energy sub-sectors.Where labour costs are low,such as in India,building a project may employ far more people than it would in the most advanced economies.For this years report,the IEA conducted an expansive,in-depth survey of over 160
75、firms in the energy industry to gain better insight on the issues and problems they are facing in hiring skilled workers,trends in wages,labour needs by occupation and long-term plans.The anonymised findings are presented throughout the report.Key terminology The report gives employment broken down
76、by technology or sub-sector(e.g.oil supply,solar PV,etc.),but also presents jobs by region and via different schemas,notably:Economic activity.This refers to the categorisation of workers and activities as defined by the International Standard Industrial Classification(ISIC)Throughout the report,eco
77、nomic activities are aggregated to five groupings for simplicity:Raw materials,Manufacturing,Construction,Professionals and utilities,and Wholesale and transport.Occupations.This years report highlights employment by occupations and skill level,relying on the International Standard Classification of
78、 Occupations(ISCO)primarily,but also self-identified occupation titles used by firms in the energy industry today.Scenario descriptions The reports focus is predominately on todays energy employment trends,but also includes projections to 2030 for two scenarios used in the World Energy Outlook serie
79、s:The Stated Policies Scenario(STEPS),which is based on todays policy settings and considers aspirational targets and pledges only insofar as they are backed by detailed policies.The Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario(NZE Scenario),which sets out a narrow but achievable pathway for the global energ
80、y sector to reach net zero CO2 emissions by 2050.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|12 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Overview World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|13 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.A major shift in energy employment worldwide has been underway since the pandemic,with growth coming almost entirely from
81、clean energy jobs in 2019-2022 The global economy has been in a state of flux for the past three years,with energy at the heart of some of the turmoil.The lockdowns at the start of the Covid-19 pandemic gave way to major supply chain disruptions,followed by the global energy crisis,where volatile oi
82、l and gas prices contributed to upward pressure on global inflation levels.Central banks countered by sharply raising interest rates to curb inflation,which seem unlikely to abate in the near term.Labour markets have been directly affected by the turbulence,with economy-wide employment levels in man
83、y countries yet to return to their pre-pandemic levels.This issue is especially prominent in emerging market and developing economies,where levels of unemployment remain high,while informal jobs are on the rise.Conversely,many advanced economies continue to experience tight labour markets with unemp
84、loyment at historic lows.Energy employment has followed some of the same trends witnessed by labour more broadly as fossil fuel-related jobs contracted,but the global trend toward clean energy remains the driving force shaping the energy workforce.The early lockdowns of Covid-19 led to significant l
85、ayoffs in the energy industry,especially those employed in construction,manufacturing and extractive industries.Workers operating critical energy infrastructure,such as power plants,utilities,refineries,pipelines and shipping,were much less affected by the pandemic than those in other sectors.As the
86、 world gradually emerged from the first phases of the pandemic,many energy jobs returned,however others remained below 2019 levels,notably in fossil fuel supply,where long-term prospects for new investments remained uncertain.On the other hand,total clean energy investment grew by 32%between 2019 an
87、d 2022,with over half of that growth occurring in 2022 alone,boosted by a proliferation of government spending packages and rapid expansion of clean energy supply chains.As a result of these trends,global employment in the energy sector is surpassing the pace of the economic recovery and that of gen
88、eral employment.Global economy-wide employment remained around 1%lower in 2022 compared to 2019 levels,while jobs in the energy sector grew by more than 5%,reaching nearly 67 million jobs in 2022.This growth has come almost entirely from the clean energy sector,where employment jumped by over 15%bet
89、ween 2019-22,while fossil fuel-related jobs fell 4%.Energy employment is on course to increase further in 2023,in tandem with an escalation in investment for both clean energy and fossil fuels.In 2023,total energy employment is set to grow by an estimated 4.5%.Clean energy employment is forecast to
90、reach new highs,while a resurgence in new oil and gas projects,prompted by the energy crisis,will lead to a rebound in fossil fuel jobs in 2023,particularly for the construction of midstream infrastructure.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|14 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Global energy employment grew by m
91、ore than 5%over the 2019-2022 period,besting the average for recovery of economy-wide jobs Total global energy employment by year,2019-2023e Change in employment by sector,2019-2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Economy-wide jobs based on the World Banks World Development Indicators database.Clean energy sect
92、ors include low-emissions fuel sources,low-emissions power generation,power grids and battery storage,end-use efficiency,critical minerals extraction,and manufacturing of electric vehicles and their batteries.Fossil fuel sectors includes supply of oil,gas,and coal,as well as unabated fossil fuel-fir
93、ed power generation and internal combustion engine vehicle manufacturing.Please see the Annex for comprehensive definitions.10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80200222023eMillion workers-2%-1%1%2%3%4%5%6%Economy-wideEnergy totalClean energyFossil fuel-related industriesCompound annual growth rateWorld
94、Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|15 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Strong investment growth underpins energy employment trends,with spending on clean energy far outpacing fossil fuels since the pandemic Global investment and total employment by sector,2019-2023e IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:For 2023 data“e”indicates esti
95、mated total.Clean energy sector includes low-emissions fuel sources,low-emissions power generation,power grids and battery storage,end-use efficiency,critical minerals extraction,and manufacturing of electric vehicles and their batteries.Fossil fuel sector includes supply of oil,gas,and coal,as well
96、 as unabated fossil fuel-fired power generation and internal combustion engine vehicle manufacturing.Please see the Annex for comprehensive definitions.400 8001 2001 6002 000200222023eClean energyFossil fuelsBillion USD(2022)28 30 32 34 36 38200222023eMillion workersClean energ
97、yFossil fuels World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|16 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Clean energy employment surpassed fossil fuel-related jobs for the first time around 2021 Nearly 67 million people were employed in energy and related sectors in 2022,approximately 3%of total formal employment worldwide.Today,
98、around half of the global energy workforce is employed in clean energy a disproportionate share relative to its contribution to the energy sector,reflecting the higher labour intensity of building new energy infrastructure rather than operating existing assets.Clean energy jobs surpassed fossil fuel
99、-related employment around 2021,led higher by rapid investment growth.In fact,over half of the job growth since 2019 has been within a few key sectors:solar PV,wind,EVs,batteries,heat pumps,and critical minerals.Energy employment,for the purposes of this report,includes jobs in fuel supply(coal,oil,
100、natural gas,bioenergy,nuclear fuel,low-emissions hydrogen and critical minerals),the power sector(generation,transmission,distribution,and storage),and end-uses(vehicle manufacturing and energy efficiency in buildings and industry).More than 21.5 million people work in fuel supply,having exceeded pr
101、e-pandemic employment levels in 2022.The oil industry has the largest workforce in this sector,with 7.6 million workers,followed by coal with 6.2 million,natural gas with over 4.1 million,and bioenergy with 3.6 million.Fossil fuel supply sectors,which saw some of the biggest job losses during the pa
102、ndemic,have recovered much more slowly than clean energy segments,just reaching pre-pandemic levels in 2022.Coal mining jobs continue to decline,in part due to more mechanised mining in the Peoples Republic of China(hereafter,“China”)and other major producers,although this decline was interrupted by
103、 the temporary surge in coal during the energy crisis.Oil and gas investments have rebounded amid the crisis,but the pace of re-hiring remained tempered by uncertainty regarding long-term demand prospects in light of increasing climate action.This is particularly the case at international oil compan
104、ies(IOCs),whereas national oil companies(NOCs)laid off fewer workers in 2020 and are expected to pick up higher market share going forward.The power sector employs over 20 million workers,with 12.5 million in generation and 7.8 million in transmission,distribution and storage combined.Clean power em
105、ployment has followed the rapid expansion of renewables,surpassing pre-pandemic levels by 2021,and growing by another 900 000 jobs in 2022,with solar PV and wind providing more than 60%of the growth.Grid expansion projects continue to face delays in many regions,with employment relatively flat despi
106、te the proliferation of new projects.Around 13 million workers were employed in vehicle and EV battery manufacturing in 2022.Employment in vehicle manufacturing still remains below 2019 levels,in line with a decline in sales,but jobs related to the production of EVs and batteries have been growing r
107、apidly in recent years.Over 10.5 million people worked in energy efficiency-related jobs by 2022.Driven by record-high retail electricity and gas prices,employment in building retrofits and heat pumps expanded as homeowners focused on improving energy efficiency and reducing utility bills.But upgrad
108、es in industry and households slowed in the second half of 2022 as interest rates rose,impacting project economics.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|17 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Energy jobs span the entire energy value chain:extractive industries,manufacturing key energy technologies,construction of ne
109、w energy-related infrastructure,and the ongoing operation of systems that deliver energy reliably to end-users.In 2022,more than 8.5 million people,or 13%of energy sector employment,worked in the production of raw materials,including mining and extraction of fuels and critical minerals,and agricultu
110、re to produce bioenergy.Manufacturing of energy goods,including vehicles,clean energy technologies and refined petroleum products,employed 21 million workers(one-third of total jobs),with more than half of these in vehicle manufacturing.Construction employed over 14.5 million workers engaged in acti
111、vities such as building power plants and installing solar panels,which has been the fastest growing segment along the energy value chain.Within clean energy,construction represented 35%of employment compared to less than 10%in fossil fuels.More than 14.5 million workers are employed at utilities and
112、 in professional energy services,and other jobs in wholesale trade and transport account for 7.5 million.Energy is a global industry,yet most jobs are anchored where energy projects are built and operated-around 60%of todays energy jobs cannot be offshored.Jobs in manufacturing and in some professio
113、nal occupations can be concentrated in particular regions,however many remain proximate to their final market,as is the case for appliances and vehicles.China,the United States,Europe,Japan and Korea are each home to major centres of excellence or manufacturing hubs,which host globally active firms
114、that play a key role in energy supply chains.For instance,China is home to massive solar PV and battery supply chains,North America is the base for a large number of global oil and gas services companies,and Japan,Germany,Korea,and Denmark maintain a high share of manufacturing centres for energy eq
115、uipment such as turbines,grid-scale power electronics,and vehicles.Producer countries also have a higher share of their economy-wide employment coming from energy,especially in less diversified regions such as the Middle East,Africa and Central and South America.The leading factors driving the size
116、of each regions energy workforce are population,labour efficiency,wages,and the level of investment in new energy infrastructure.Accordingly,emerging market and developing economies are home to two-thirds of energy jobs,while advanced economies make up only one-third.China has the largest energy lab
117、our force,with more than 19 million workers in 2022.Chinas clean energy supply chains are already a major source of employment,accounting for roughly 60%of the countrys energy employment.China witnessed both the largest gains in clean energy jobs from 2019-22 and the biggest drop in fossil fuel empl
118、oyment,reflecting the sheer size of its energy sector.Europe and other Asia Pacific posted the next highest growth in clean energy jobs,followed by India.North America and Europe both witnessed declines in fossil fuel-related employment since 2019,with particularly steep labour cuts in the oil and g
119、as sector.North Americas high share of oil and gas jobs meant that pandemic-era layoffs remained the dominant trend in energy employment over the past three years.India and the Middle East were the only major regions to see growth in both clean energy and fossil fuel employment in the 2019-22 period
120、.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|18 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Employment in energy efficiency,low-emissions power and grids is larger than traditional fuel supply sectors,as investment in new clean energy infrastructure continues to surge Global energy employment in selected sectors,2022 IEA.CC BY 4.
121、0.Notes:ICE vehicles=internal combustion engine vehicles,EVs=electric vehicles.Power grids include transmission,distribution and storage.Low-emissions power generation includes nuclear and renewables.End-use efficiency includes building retrofits,heat pumps and other equipment,appliances,and industr
122、y efficiency.Clean energy sectors include low-emissions fuel sources,low-emissions power generation,power grids and battery storage,end-use efficiency,critical minerals extraction,and manufacturing of electric vehicles and their batteries.Fossil fuel sectors include supply of oil,gas,and coal,as wel
123、l as unabated fossil fuel-fired power generation and internal combustion engine vehicle manufacturing.Please see the Annex for comprehensive definitions.2 4 6 8 10 12 14ICE vehiclesEnd-useefficiencyPowergeneration:low-emissionsGrids andstorageOil supplyCoal supplyGas supplyLow-emissionsfuelsUnabated
124、fossil fuelpowerEVs andbatteriesCriticalmineralsextractionMillion workersClean energyFossil fuels2019 World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|19 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Clean energy is the primary driver of worldwide energy employment growth and only in a few regions are fossil fuel jobs higher than pre-pa
125、ndemic levels Change in energy employment by sector and region,2019-2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Clean energy sectors include low-emissions fuel sources,low-emissions power generation,power grids and battery storage,end-use efficiency,critical minerals extraction,and manufacturing of electric vehicles a
126、nd their batteries.Fossil fuel sectors includes supply of oil,gas,and coal,as well as unabated fossil fuel-fired power generation and internal combustion engine vehicle manufacturing.Please see the Annex for comprehensive definitions.-1.0-0.500.51.01.52.02.53.0NorthAmericaCentral andSouthAmericaEuro
127、peAfricaChinaIndiaOther AsiaPacificRest ofworldMillion workersFossil fuelsClean energyNet change-2-10123456Total World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|20 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Asia hosts the worlds largest energy workforce owing to its substantial population,lower labour costs,brisk investment and siza
128、ble clean energy manufacturing sectors Energy employment by economic activity and by region,2022(thousand workers)IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:This map is without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any
129、territory,city or area.Please see the Annex for definitions of regional groupings.Other includes utilities,energy services professionals,and other jobs in wholesale trade and transport sectors.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|21 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Half of the job growth since 2019 is from solar
130、 PV,wind,EVs,batteries,heat pumps and critical minerals,with each sector growing annually by more than 6%Global employment growth and percent change in selected energy sectors,2019-2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Overall percent change from 2019-22.PV=photovoltaic,EV=electric vehicle.1 2 3 4 520
131、0222002220192022Solar PVEV&BatteriesWindCritical mineralsHeat pumpsMillion workers27%20%30%148%27%World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|22 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.The majority of jobs in the energy sector today cannot be outsourced overseas,a trend that remains true to 2030 Total employment by
132、 potential of outsourcing by region,2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Jobs considered unable to be offshored cannot be relocated outside the region because they are location-bound.Jobs considered to have the potential to be offshored could be performed abroad with little loss of quality.0%20%40%60%80%100%Nor
133、thAmericaCentral andSouthAmericaEuropeAfricaChinaIndiaOECD AsiaOther AsiaPotential to be offshoredOf which:vehicles manufacturingUnable to be offshored World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|23 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Fuel supply,power and end-use sectors are key sources of employment in every regionEnerg
134、y employment by region and sector,2022(thousand workers)North America Central and South America Europe Africa China India Other Asia Pacific Middle East Eurasia Global Supply:coal 100 100 100 100 3 100 1 600 700 50 300 6 200 Supply:oil and gas 1 700 1 000 700 1 300 1 100 800 1 100 2 800 1 300 11 700
135、 Supply:low emissions 200 900 300 600 500 600 600 50 100 3 700 Power:generation 1 000 800 1 500 600 4 500 1 300 1 900 400 400 12 500 Power:grids 1 000 400 1 000 400 2 200 1 600 800 200 200 8 000 End uses:vehicles 1 800 600 2 400 200 4 300 1 300 2 000 200 300 13 100 End uses:efficiency 1 400 300 1 60
136、0 500 3 500 1 200 1 600 200 200 10 700 Critical minerals 100 100 50 400 50 50 100 50 100 800 All energy 7 100 4 200 7 700 4 300 19 300 8 400 8 700 3 900 2 900 66 500 Notes:Power grids include transmission,distribution and storage.Vehicles include the manufacturing of all road vehicles(two-and three-
137、wheelers,passenger cars,light-duty commercial vehicles,buses and trucks)and batteries for EVs.Efficiency refers to energy efficiency in buildings(covering retrofits,heating,ventilation and air conditioning equipment,as well as appliances)and in industry.Values may not sum due to rounding.Employment
138、estimates for 2019 differ from WEE 2022 in some instances.These adjustments are largely due to changes in scope of the jobs considered and revisions to input data,such as national statistics.The direction of these revisions varies depending on the technology and geography.Overall,there has been a do
139、wnward revision of our 2019 energy jobs estimate by approximately 2.8 million worldwide.Please see the Annex for further information on historic revisions.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|24 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Climbing investment under todays policies will lead energy sector employment higher t
140、o 2030;growth will be even greater on a pathway to net zeroThe prospects for employment in the energy sector depend critically on the pace of the clean energy transition.This report sets out projections of the size and make-up of the global energy workforce to 2030 under two scenarios in the World E
141、nergy Outlook 2023:the STEPS takes account of current policy settings,and the NZE Scenario sets out a trajectory consistent with reaching net zero emissions by 2050.Unsurprisingly,the shifts in global energy employment are more pronounced in the NZE Scenario,reflecting the much higher energy sector
142、investment required to accelerate the transition.Yet,in both scenarios,job creation associated with clean energy technologies comfortably outweighs job losses in fossil fuel and related industries through to 2030.More than 5.7million additional jobs are created on a net basis in the STEPS and 17 mil
143、lion in the NZE Scenario.Meeting rising demand for skilled labour will be one of the primary challenges the energy sector faces in the coming decade.In some cases,the jobs lost in one sector could easily transfer to other roles.For example,workers involved in the assembly of ICE vehicles could switc
144、h to manufacturing EVs and batteries.In other cases,new jobs require workers with specific skills that are not widely available in todays labour market.This is of particular importance for the construction sector that already faces economy-wide labour shortages today,which could threaten the pace of
145、 the clean energy transition.Some of the needed skills may exist elsewhere in the energy sector,and workers from energy sub-sectors with falling labour needs,such as oil,gas and coal,could be retrained and redeployed in clean technology sectors.However,these jobs may not be in the same place and may
146、 not be a match for all workers.Attention will need to be paid to manage the transition risks in a just and people-centred way.The risks of labour shortages and the challenges posed by worker transitions are explored in-depth in this years report in a new chapter on labour and skills.Global energy e
147、mployment by scenario,2022-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Note:STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario,NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 902022STEPS 2030NZE 2030Million workers World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|25 Overview IEA.CC BY 4.0.Employment grows as new opportunities in clean energy
148、outweigh job losses in fossil fuels Changes in global energy employment by sector and scenario,2022-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Critical minerals includes only extractive activities.EVs=electric vehicles,ICE vehicles=internal combustion engine vehicles.STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario,NZE=Net Zero Emissi
149、ons by 2050 Scenario.-8-6-4-2024681012Oil and gas supplyCoal supplyLow-emissions fuelsCritical mineralsUnabated fossil fuel powerLow-emissions powerGrids and storageEnd-use efficiencyEVs and batteriesICE vehiclesMillion workers-24-18-12-6061218243036TotalSTEPSNZESTEPSNZEGains and lossesNet changeWor
150、ld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|26 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Labour and skills World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|27 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Labour and skills shortages threaten to slow the ramp up of clean energy technologies Worldwide,most countries have yet to return t
151、o pre-pandemic levels of employment,with the recovery uneven.Employers in advanced economies are struggling to hire skilled workers in historically tight labour markets.At the same time,structural mismatches between the jobs available and those desired in some emerging and developing economies are c
152、ontributing to record levels of vacancies despite high unemployment.These realities have converged to create extreme uncertainty for global labour markets.The energy sector,mid-transformation,is facing an additional,unique set of challenges.Firms in the clean energy sector are starting to report sho
153、rtages of both workers and sector-specific skills as a result of the recent strong growth in demand.Trends in online job advertisements indicate that energy sectors have some of the highest job vacancy rates,underscoring employers struggles to fill positions.Most of the jobs in clean energy sectors
154、are in labour-intensive construction and manufacturing,both of which are already facing worker shortages across the broader economy in most parts of the world.These two segments of the value chain account for much of the growth in energy employment through 2030 in all IEA scenarios.The construction
155、segment is among the worst affected by labour shortages.Many clean energy projects are highly reliant on construction workers for building power plants or installing solar panels.Markets across the globe are already facing shortages of construction workers and other tradespeople,such as electricians
156、,carpenters,concrete workers,welders,and pipefitters.The European Union is facing particularly severe shortages of tradespeople,including electrical engineering technicians,roofers,vehicle mechanics and truck drivers(see table).Labour shortages in the European Union by occupation and severity,2022 O
157、ccupation Number of countries with shortage Percent of shortages that are“high magnitude”Carpenters and joiners 18 38%Plumbers and pipefitters 18 38%Building and related electricians 18 40%Heavy truck and lorry drivers 18 73%Welders and flame cutters 17 54%Building construction labourers 15 38%Elect
158、rical mechanics and fitters 15 22%World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|28 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Occupation Number of countries with shortage Percent of shortages that are“high magnitude”Motor vehicle mechanics and repairers 14 33%Electrical engineering technicians 12 63%Roofers 11 78%
159、Note:“High magnitude”signifies“a lack of workers amounting to more than 3%of the current employment in that occupation.”Source:European Labour Authority,European Employment Services(EURES),Report on labour shortages and surpluses 2022.In China,the province of Jiangsu recently extended the upper age
160、limit for construction workers to cope with the shortages.Skills gaps in this segment threaten to limit the pace of the energy transition by impeding the ability of companies to deliver projects on time or take on new work.In many cases,the energy sector is competing directly with other industries f
161、or workers.For example,employment in building retrofits,already one of the fastest-growing sectors,is set to soar in the NZE Scenario,with 50%of existing buildings to be retrofitted to zero-carbon-ready levels by 2040.But this sector competes directly with the broader buildings industry for construc
162、tion workers that are already in short supply,making reaching targets challenging.In other sectors,such as clean power,existing labour shortages are exacerbated by the need for specific skills.Demand for electricians experienced with high-voltage power electronics,for instance,further shrinks the al
163、ready inadequate pool of potential hires for grid and wind developers.Manufacturing,another leading segment of clean energy job growth,is also facing difficulties staffing new positions.In China,the worlds manufacturing powerhouse,factories are struggling to fill jobs as the working population shrin
164、ks and new workforce entrants increasingly favour white-collar positions over trades or factory work.In 2022,approximately 30%of all energy manufacturing jobs were in China.Chinas Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security,along with other departments,estimate that by 2025 the country is liable
165、 to face a worker shortage for almost 30 million manufacturing jobs,including over 9 million in power equipment,1 million in new energy vehicles and over 250 000 in offshore engineering equipment.The limited availability of adequately skilled workers has intensified competition for staff both within
166、 and between different energy industries,including renewables and oil and gas.These shortages are being addressed in multiple ways.For instance,oil and gas firms have been reticent in hiring given the uncertain macroeconomic outlook,making do largely with their existing workforce or relying more on
167、consultancies and outside contractors.Manufacturers of specialty grid equipment and turbines have taken a similar approach.Numerous companies are also offering more generous compensation packages to attract new staff as well as pursuing active reskilling of existing workers.Other businesses have shi
168、fted their operations to regions with a bigger pool of skilled labour.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|29 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Policy approaches adopted to tackle skills shortages also vary across industries,regions and countries.The European Union,for instance,has provided finan
169、cial and organisational support for some key energy industries,including batteries,heat pumps and wind,and creating skills partnerships to identify how to train new workers.As a part of the European Skills Agenda,which includes an ambitious target to upskill and reskill 120 million adults annually o
170、ver 2020-25,the European Commission launched the European Year of Skills in 2023 to address the skills shortages across the continent.This initiative is designed to empower people and companies,especially small and medium-sized businesses,by promoting the reskilling and upskilling of workers needed
171、to facilitate the green and digital transitions and accelerate innovation and competitiveness.In the United States,the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 provides financial incentives for apprenticeships in an effort to expand its clean energy workforce.India has set up exchange programmes with the Uni
172、ted States and some other countries to develop the curriculum needed to train workers for domestic clean energy firms.Providing the right regulatory framework to ensure the competitiveness of a net zero industry will be key in meeting climate targets.In Europe,the Green Deal Industrial Plan hopes to
173、 help scale up the EUs manufacturing capacity for net zero technologies through various industrial policies.A pillar of this plan centres on reskilling and upskilling strategic industries by setting up dedicated programmes such as the Net-Zero Industry Academies.Many national clean energy transition
174、 initiatives are tied to efforts to reduce the corporate and geographic market concentration of the manufacturing of critical components and technical expertise for everything from solar PV,wind,and batteries to other key equipment like pumps,compressors,and turbines.Over-reliance on individual supp
175、liers and countries has contributed to bottlenecks in developing new projects in a number of regions,prompting companies to increasingly diversify suppliers and develop local capacity.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|30 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Job vacancy rates,a key indicator for l
176、abour shortages,have been rising for years in construction,manufacturing,utilities and other energy-related sectors Job vacancy rates in energy-related industries in the United States and the European Union IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Vacancy rates,often used as a proxy for labour shortages,represent the nu
177、mber of job vacancies in an industry as a share of all jobs in that industry,filled or unfilled.“Utilities”differs in scope between regions;US utilities include“transport,warehousing and utilities”,while EU utilities include“electricity,gas,steam and air conditioning supply.”Sources:U.S.Bureau of La
178、bor Statistics,Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey(dataset),accessed September 2023,and Eurostat,Job Vacancy Statistics(dataset),accessed 14 September 2023.2%4%6%8%2001820202022ConstructionManufacturingUtilitiesUnited StatesVacancy rate2%4%6%8%2001820202022Economy-wideEurope
179、an UnionWorld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|31 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.A global shortage of construction workers threatens clean energy installations and efficiency improvements Clean energy jobs by supply chain segment and skilled labour availability in the construction sector IEA.CC
180、BY 4.0.Note:Construction skilled labour availability data is drawn from 89 markets across Africa,Asia Pacific,Europe,the Middle East,Central and South America,and North America.Source:IEA analysis based on data from Turner&Townsend Global construction cost performance,2023.Construction skills availa
181、bility in selected markets,2023ConstructionOtherShortageIn balanceSurplusClean energy employment by supply chain segment,2022AvailabilitySupply chainWorld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|32 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Established clean energy sectors such as solar PV and wind need mostly ins
182、tallers and technicians,whereas newer technologies need more highly skilled workers Job postings for selected energy occupations in the United States,Canada,and the United Kingdom IEA.CC BY 4.0.Source:IEA analysis based on data from Lightcast.4080120160 4 8 12 162012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022GWSolar
183、PVSolar TechnicianSolar InstallerSolar EngineerSolar ElectricianInstalled capacity(right axis)Thousand vacancies481216 50 100 150 2002012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022GWBatteriesBattery ElectricalDesign EngineerBattery ElectricalControls EngineerBattery AutomotiveElectrical SystemsEngineerInstalled capac
184、ity(right axis)Vacancies501001502001 5003 0004 5006 0002012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022GWWindWind TechnicianWind EngineerInstalled capacity(right axis)Vacancies9182736 200 400 600 8002012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022GWHeat PumpsHeat PumpTechnicianHeat PumpInstallerHeat PumpEngineerResidential heatpump sale
185、s(rightaxis)VacanciesWorld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|33 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Energy companies are reporting significant hiring difficulties Share of energy companies reporting perceived greater hiring difficulties than non-energy companies by occupation,2023 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:
186、Results of the IEAs survey for the World Energy Employment 2023 report.Survey respondents were asked to indicate whether they perceived greater difficulties in hiring than non-energy companies for each occupation.For instance,a respondent might perceive more difficulty in hiring solar panel installe
187、rs than a roofing company hiring similar candidates.5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%AdministrativeProduction/manufacturingManagement/professionalSalesInstallation/repairShare of respondentsWorld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|34 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.The energy sector requires more highly skil
188、led labour than many other industries The energy sector requires more highly skilled,specialised energy workers than many other industries,with 36%of the energy workforce typically requiring some form of tertiary education,and 51%some vocational training(see Annex for full explanation of skill level
189、s).Just 13%of energy employment is considered low-skilled,with this labour concentrated in emerging market and developing economies.This estimate likely fails to capture the full extent of informal employment,which is often low-skilled and is also concentrated in those countries.By contrast,most lab
190、our-intensive tasks performed by low-skilled workers in advanced economies have been mechanised,automated or outsourced.Global energy employment by skill level,2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Many of the most prominent skilled labour shortages facing the clean energy industry today are in vocational roles.Most o
191、f these medium-skilled energy occupations require further specialisation beyond generic occupations common in energy today.Examples include HVAC specialists,who may retrain to install heat pumps,or electricians who are trained to install batteries or solar PV.Many companies have identified a lack of
192、 workers with energy specialisations as a particular barrier for them.In a survey of over 160 energy companies conducted by the IEA for this report,installation and repair positions were the number one occupation segment for which respondents perceived hiring was more difficult for them than for non
193、-energy companies,mostly due to a lack of industry-specific knowledge.Targeting workers currently in related occupations can reduce the skilling burden.For example,it can take as little as three to five days for a plumber or gas boiler engineer to qualify as a heat pump engineer,while newcomers may
194、require up to four years of training.Additionally,pre-existing certifications should look to integrate new clean energy skills into current curricula to ensure all new conferrals include these needed skills.There is also a need to create new certifications and curricula to reflect emerging skill req
195、uirements,especially for new industries like CCUS and low-emissions hydrogen.Many energy firms have developed in-house training programmes to teach these skills on 13%51%36%Energy employment15%58%27%LowMediumHighEconomy-wide employmentWorld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|35 Annexes Labour and skills IE
196、A.CC BY 4.0.the job,but this comes at an added cost to industry.The time and cost barriers for retraining can be an even steeper barrier to workers themselves.For contractors or self-employed energy workers,time spent retraining may also involve a loss of income.Bootcamps,such as La Solive in France
197、,are targeted to upskill those currently active in the workforce,minimising the time commitments required to pursue the needed reskilling.Validation of skills,especially those that are not associated with an existing accreditation or formal education,can help improve the efficiency of hiring and imp
198、rove the liquidity of the labour market for new energy segments.While there is currently no universal skills validation framework specific to energy,over 165 countries have adopted National Qualification Frameworks for the classification and recognition of knowledge and competencies for particular i
199、ndustries and occupations.Identifying new skills needs within the clean energy sector and integrating them within these frameworks will help foster a more efficient approach to upskilling workers.Many of these initiatives and frameworks are concentrated in advanced economies;the energy transition in
200、 emerging market and developing economies will occur in a distinct context that translates into different skilling needs.While moving to codify energy qualifications remains important to minimise the safety and financial risks associated with energy transition work,in many emerging and developing ec
201、onomies these efforts will be secondary to the broader goals of achieving higher youth education levels,formalising the economy,and raising the base skill level of the greater workforce.Indias Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship,for example,aims to build an ecosystem of skill developm
202、ent,with energy as just one component.Examples of sector-specific occupations by energy technology Solar Wind Photonics technicians Atmospheric and space scientists Solar energy systems engineers Line installers and repairers Solar PV installers Wind energy engineers Solar sales representatives and
203、assessors Wind energy operations managers Solar thermal technicians Wind turbine service technicians Nuclear Batteries Nuclear criticality safety engineers Battery testers Nuclear reactor operators Battery maintainers(emergency storage)Nuclear R&D technicians Battery inspectors Nuclear waste process
204、 operators Battery repairers Radiation protection technicians Plant and system operators Heating,ventilation,and air conditioning(HVAC)EVs HVAC engineers Automotive service technicians and mechanics Installers Electronics engineers Mechanics Engine and other machine assemblers Service sales represen
205、tatives Software developers Sheet metal specialists Team assemblers World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|36 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Degrees and certification programmes may not meet the needs of the clean energy sector Many companies in the clean energy sector will require an increasing
206、 number of workers with degrees in science,technology,engineering,and mathematics(STEM).The conferral of STEM degrees has been rising in some major economies,notably the United States,China and India,as students seek degrees that will help them secure stable work and income throughout their careers.
207、In the European Union,by contrast,the share of university students graduating with STEM degrees has dropped over the last decade,contributing to major shortages in STEM occupations.Higher education does not capture the full skill needs of the energy industry.For more than half of the 30 million addi
208、tional clean energy workers on which the energy transition will depend in the NZE Scenario through 2030,vocational education and training(VET)is often a better fit.But despite recognition that VET will be critical to the green transition,these programmes are not expanding fast enough to meet the gro
209、wing demand in the energy industry.In China,for example,enrolment in vocational education has been falling for years,with the proportion of high school students in vocational schools dropping from 60%around the turn of the century to 35%in 2020.This may in part be attributed to a poor image of VET a
210、mong students,as well as a lack of understanding of the career and salary options that follow completion of vocational programmes.In addition,training courses tailored to fast-growing energy technologies are not always available.In the wind industry,for example,a lag between technical developments a
211、nd training content,as well as insufficient training capacity,is contributing to a lack of properly trained workers.Similarly,the electricity sector is facing a shortage of skilled workers for the construction of transmission lines.In Australia alone,15 000 more workers are projected to be needed by
212、 2025 to build new transmission lines.To ensure that workers can meet the evolving job and skill needs,close co-ordination between governments,agencies,education institutions and industry will be vital.Governments are best placed to facilitate greater exchange between the education institutions that
213、 train energy workers and the industries that need them.A more responsive and inclusive education system would enable existing low-skilled or underqualified workers to more easily receive additional training so that they too can gain the skills required by clean energy companies.As a central point o
214、f concern,it is essential that workers be involved in these discussions.Achieving a just transition for workers can be achieved by a tripartite social dialogue among governments,employees and their labour organisations,and employers.Examples of such collaboration already exist.In Scotland,the Energy
215、 Skills Partnership agency connects the university sector with industry as a means of adapting STEM degrees to the needs of the energy transition,particularly in zero-carbon transport and construction.Similar initiatives include the Houston Energy Transition Initiative and the EU Pact for Skills.Wor
216、ld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|37 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Vocation-specific clean energy technology training courses are available in many major economies,though coverage varies by technology Training course availability by clean energy technology in selected major economies,2023 IEA
217、.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Training courses refer to programmes which offer official certification,including vocational education.University qualifications and HVAC courses(unless specifically referring to heat pumps)have been excluded,as they are available in all the countries displayed.Not available=trainin
218、g courses not available.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|38 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Conferral of STEM degrees has been rising in most major economies STEM bachelors degrees awarded in select economies IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:European Union excludes Bulgaria,Croatia,Cyprus1,2,Malta,and R
219、omania due to data unavailability.Different data sources may create slight discrepancies in scope:China includes sciences and engineering;India includes science,engineering and technology;the United States and the European Union include engineering,manufacturing,construction,natural sciences,mathema
220、tics and statistics.Sources:IEA analysis based on data from Chinese Ministry of Education National Base Statistics(accessed July 25,2023),Indian Department of Higher Education All India Survey of Higher Education(accessed July 26,2023),OECD.Stat Education at a Glance(accessed July 26,2023),and the U
221、S Institute of Education Sciences,National Center for Education Statistics,Digest of Education Statistics(accessed July 25,2023).5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 202002020020Percent of STEM in alldegrees conferred(right axis)Hundred thousand graduatesChinaInd
222、iaEuropean UnionUnited StatesWorld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|39 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Education in vocational trades relevant to energy has stagnated or declined,despite demand for these workers growing rapidly,including in the energy sector Job growth by skill level to 2030 in t
223、he NZE Scenario and conferral of relevant degrees in China,the United States and European Union IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:European Union excludes Bulgaria,Croatia,Cyprus1,2,Malta,and Romania due to data unavailability.Different data sources may create slight discrepancies in scope:STEM degrees include sci
224、ences and engineering for China;the United States and the European Union include engineering,manufacturing,construction,natural sciences,mathematics and statistics.Vocational data for China includes upper secondary vocational education in energy resources and new energies,manufacturing,and petroleum
225、 and chemicals;EU vocational data includes upper secondary vocational education in engineering,manufacturing,and construction and architecture;US vocational data refers to associate degrees and certificates below the associate degree level in construction trades,engineering technologies and engineer
226、ing-related fields,and mechanics and repair,”as upper secondary vocational education is not commonplace in the United States.Sources:IEA analysis based on data from Chinese Ministry of Education National Base Statistics(accessed July 25,2023),OECD.Stat Education at a Glance(accessed July 26,2023),an
227、d the US Institute of Education Sciences,National Center for Education Statistics,Digest of Education Statistics(accessed July 25,2023).-10%-8%-6%-4%-2%2%4%6%8%10%ChinaUnited StatesEuropean UnionJob growth(2022-30)Conferral of STEM degrees(2014-20)High-skilled positionsCompound annual growth rateChi
228、naUnited StatesEuropean UnionConferral of relevant vocational diplomas(2014-20)Medium-skilled positionsWorld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|40 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Workers from fossil fuel sectors can help address some of the skills demand,but for others making energy transitions peo
229、ple-centred is vital to their successThe changes in employment ushered in by the clean energy transition need to be carefully managed to minimise the social costs,maintain social license,and ensure labour does not become a bottleneck for the transition.Making transitions just for workers is thus bec
230、oming an increasingly important policy consideration,notably in communities intertwined with fossil fuel industries that are set to contract as the energy system is decarbonised.So far,most transition plans target coal communities,with an increasing focus on how best to support the diversification o
231、f oil and gas producing companies and their workers.Fossil fuel-related job losses and potential for inter-industry worker transfer in the NZE Scenario,2022-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.All net job losses in the energy sector through 2030 are in fossil fuels and related industries,with particularly steep cuts
232、 in coal supply and a rapid shift from ICE vehicle manufacturing to EVs.In some fossil fuel industries,workers already possess skillsets that can be highly applicable to other sectors:more than half of fossil-fuel related losses from 2022 to 2030 in the NZE Scenario are potentially transferable to o
233、ther industries with retraining.Oil and gas workers,for example,tend to have skills needed in bioenergy processing,carbon capture,utilisation and storage(CCUS),hydrogen production,and geothermal.The UKs North Sea Transition Deal,for example,includes plans to shift personnel from the oil and gas indu
234、stry to offshore wind and other clean energy sectors.Similarly,workers in ICE manufacturing may make a relatively straightforward switch to EV manufacturing,which booms in the NZE Scenario.Workers in other industries,especially coal mining,will be more challenging to transfer.Some highly skilled coa
235、l miners working in modern,mechanised mining operations have many of the skills needed to transfer to related mining activities,such as critical minerals,though employment growth in this sector is unlikely to compensate for all coal job losses.However,coal mines in emerging and developing economies
236、are less mechanised and rely heavily on unskilled workers.Coal transition risks are thus highly concentrated in these countries,where 90%of the coal supply jobs lost in the NZE Scenario through 2030 are located.Many of these job losses are set to occur under todays policies already,owing in-7-6-5-4-
237、3-2-10CoalOil and gasUnabatedfossil fuelpowerICE vehiclesMillion workersPotentialtransferwithretrainingWorld Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|41 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.part to efforts to further modernise mining,particularly in China.As a result,the STEPS sees over 650 000 jobs lost in c
238、oal mining by 2030.Upskilling workers and helping them identify and obtain commensurate employment opportunities will be essential to ensuring they are not left behind in the energy transition.In South Africa,for example,the Sector Jobs Resilience Plan for coal identifies mine rehabilitation and rep
239、urposing,manufacture and maintenance of renewable energy equipment,and beneficiation of coal waste as potential avenues for industrial diversification and skills development among miners.In all cases,governments will need to comprehensively assess the profiles of workforces in declining sectors to u
240、nderstand their skillsets,compensation expectations,ages,and desire to reskill to determine the most appropriate strategy for reskilling or workforce phasedown.Some industries facing declining labour needs,for example,are working with unions to establish long-term plans and offer early retirement pa
241、ckages to workers who are not ideal candidates for reskilling.The coal transition in Germanys Ruhr region demonstrates how this bottom-up approach with a tripartite dialogue among coal companies,trade unions and governments can minimise the economic and social fallout and achieve a just transition f
242、or workers,as well as a successful transformation from a coal-driven industrial economy to a thriving knowledge-based one.The European Union has recognised skilling as a prerequisite for a successful and just transition,identifying“skills”as one of the four pillars of its Green Deal Industrial Plan.
243、Well-crafted training and reskilling programmes that offer certifications can facilitate career switches for energy workers.Developing effective training benefits from stronger co-ordination among public institutions,private firms,and academia to ensure new curricula and support matches industrys ne
244、eds.These dialogues should ensure that the workers do not bear the onus of reskilling,and that this responsibility is managed by industry through on-the-job training and other support.This balance influences a range of factors,such as wages,labour market liquidity,and the attractiveness of certain r
245、egions to industry.Creation of well-rounded training curricula is a necessary but insufficient action on its own to achieving a properly skilled workforce;ensuring accessibility and affordability of these programmes is equally important.Facilitating the participation of under-resourced workers can h
246、elp ensure more equitable access to these new job opportunities.Support measures could include low-cost public transportation to technical schools,online options for training programmes,and reimbursement for the costs associated with upskilling,among others.Social dialogue with workers,employers,civ
247、il society and government must form an important component of decision-making processes related to the design of labour transition plans,collective bargaining agreements,labour standards and measures to promote diversity and inclusion.Large-scale engagement can be time-consuming but tends to save ti
248、me later and yields more durable outcomes.The International Labour Conference adopted a resolution at its 11th session in June 2023 laying out guidelines for a just transition for affected workers,including the role of governments,employers,and labour representation should play in these multi-stakeh
249、older dialogues.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|42 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Wages in the energy sector are typically higher than pay for similar occupations Wages vary across the energy sector,but well-established industries such as oil,gas and nuclear still pay more than most newer
250、 sectors such as solar PV and batteries.This reflects a higher share of skilled labour in these sectors as well as the ability of established industries to offer more competitive compensation packages.For example,53%of jobs in nuclear and 46%of jobs in oil and gas typically require at least a bachel
251、ors degree,whereas this share stands at 34%for solar PV.Even vocational roles such as construction may require greater specialisation than in other industries,parlaying into higher pay.This wage gap acts as a barrier to shifting workers from oil and gas to clean energy sectors,especially for late-ca
252、reer workers.Still,compensation in the energy sector is generally higher than in similar occupations in the broader economy,reflecting a greater degree of specialisation required in most roles.Solar PV installers,for example,can earn around 15%more than roofers and 40%more than telecommunication ins
253、tallers,jobs which require comparable skills.Similarly,HVAC installers can earn much more than average technicians,providing incentives for workers to retrain and gain qualifications for that profession.Still,there are a few clean energy jobs where this is not the case.For instance,battery assembler
254、s earn less than assemblers in other specialised manufacturing sectors.Wage premiums in energy are playing an important role in attracting needed skilled labour.Around 60%of the companies that took part in the IEAs Energy Employment Survey 2023 reported raising remuneration in the last year to attra
255、ct staff,in most cases by more than the rate of inflation.For example,in the United States,energy sector pay rose by around 7.5%on average in 2022,compared to just over 1%economy-wide and inflation of 6.5%.This trend affords opportunities for blue collar workers to upskill and move into higher payin
256、g roles.For those workers that require additional skills to enter the energy sector,wage premiums must be sufficiently high to incentivize them to spend the time and money pursuing retraining.Government financial support for retraining can help reduce those premiums.Pay is not the only mechanism to
257、attract workers,who also value other benefits and working conditions such as flexible hours,less travel and a job they view as having a positive impact.In some energy sub-sectors,travel can be a major part of the work,as is the case for teams developing solar PV or wind farms,working on oil and gas
258、rigs or mining critical minerals.Labour unions can play a role in helping workers negotiate for higher pay and better working conditions,however their prominence in the energy sector varies markedly by sector and region.Labour representation tends to be higher in the well-established sectors such as
259、 the power industry,coal mining and oil production,while new energy industries tend to have less union representation.The implications of clean energy transitions are becoming a prominent aspect of labour negotiations,notably in vehicle manufacturing.The IEAs Clean Energy Labour Council brings toget
260、her key labour representatives to highlight best practices that help ensure just and equitable labour outcomes through the clean energy transition.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|43 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Workers in oil and gas supply generally earn more than in other energy indus
261、tries,creating a barrier for those who may need to switch sectors because of the transition Average annual earnings per worker in selected energy sectors and regions,2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Source:The IEA developed this figure based on data from the Economic Research Institute(ERI).This figure includes o
262、nly the countries available in the ERI database.10 00020 00030 00040 00050 00060 00070 00080 00090 000100 000Advanced EconomiesEmerging market and developing economiesMedianAverage wage(USD,2022 MER)Coal supplyOil and natural gas supplySolar PVWind World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|44 Annexes Labour
263、 and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Jobs in the energy sector tend to pay more than comparable occupations in the broader economy,rewarding the additional skills they demandAnnual salaries compared in selected energy and non-energy occupations,2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Technician refers to trained workers that
264、 perform general,complex and advanced assembly of products according to established specifications and instructions,and undertaking high precision calibration using testing instruments.Installer refers to workers that perform installations,repairs,inspections,reassembly,replacements,and refits produ
265、cts as required.Assemblers refers to a worker that utilises tools and machines to assemble parts and fabricate products.Reads and follows a bill of materials.Handles and manipulates small parts.Ensures that parts and finished products pass quality control checks.Source:The IEA developed this figure
266、based on data from the Economic Research Institute(ERI).This figure includes only the countries available in the ERI database.10 00020 00030 00040 00050 00060 00070 00080 00090 000100 000EnergyNon-energyEnergyNon-energyEnergyNon-energyEnergyNon-energyAdvanced economiesEmerging market and developing
267、economiesMedianUSD(2022,MER)TechnicianAssemblerInstallerElectrician World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|45 Annexes Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.Women make up less than one-fifth of the energy workforceWomen have historically been underrepresented in the energy world.With net growth in energy employ
268、ment exclusively in the clean energy sector through 2030,the transition offers an opportunity to redress this trend with more inclusive policies,at both the company and government levels.Currently,women make up less than 20%of the global energy workforce well below the global economy-wide average of
269、 40%.The share of women in senior management positions in major energy firms is similar to that of the broader economy,at around 18%,according to the IEAs Gender and Energy Data Explorer.Narrowing the gender imbalance depends,in part,on increasing the number of women entering vocational or education
270、al programmes relevant to energy,which continue to be dominated by men.In the United States,the number of women graduates in these fields is rising slightly,while the share of women awarded STEM bachelor degrees is gaining more significant ground,at over 40%in both India and the United States as of
271、2020.This is in stark contrast to the European Union,where the share of STEM degrees awarded to women has remained relatively flat at around 15%since 2013.Closing the gender employment gap also requires raising participation levels of women in construction and manufacturing,which account for a signi
272、ficant share of energy jobs and remain dominated by men.The IEAs Gender Diversity Initiative has developed a set of indicators in an attempt to assist efforts to narrow the gender divide.Data indicators include the rates of gender balance in decision-making,entrepreneurship and innovation,and whethe
273、r men and women have similar opportunities through wage-gap analysis.Global employment by gender,2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Employment shares are from the International Labour Organization(ILO)covering 48 countries for the energy sector.Senior management shares are IEA calculations based on the Refini
274、tiv PermID database.In emerging and developing economies,skilling programmes targeting women can help expand the available labour force and support growing local businesses.In 2019,the Kenyan Ministry launched a Gender Policy mechanism to raise the level of gender awareness in the energy sector,whil
275、e international programmes in partnership with Bhutan,Nepal,and Sri Lanka also provide examples of potential policies to address the gender gaps in these regions.20%40%60%80%100%Economy-wideEnergy sectorShare of employmentMenWomenWomen in seniorleadership World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|46 Annexes
276、 Labour and skills IEA.CC BY 4.0.The number and share of women STEM graduates is rising,but remains well below halfShare of STEM bachelor degrees awarded to women in selected countries/regions IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:European Union(EU)data excludes Bulgaria,Croatia,Cyprus1,2,Malta,and Romania due to dat
277、a unavailability.Different data sources may create slight discrepancies in scope:India includes science,engineering and technology;the United States and the EU include engineering,manufacturing,construction,natural sciences,mathematics and statistics.Sources:US National Center for Education Statisti
278、cs,OECD,and Indian Department of Higher Education.100 000200 000300 000400 000500 000600 000700 000800 000900 0001000 00010%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%2002020132020Share of graduatesShare of men STEMgraduatesShare of women STEMgraduatesTotal women STEMgraduates(right axis)United StatesEu
279、ropean UnionIndia World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|47 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0.Fuel and minerals supply World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|48 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0.Oil and gas jobs are back above pre-pandemic levels,thanks to strong growth in LNG The gl
280、obal oil and gas industry employed over 11.5 million people in 2022,with around 7.6 million associated primarily with oil and 4.1 million with natural gas.Though total employment has recovered to above pre-pandemic levels,largely due to increased investment in midstream activities and liquefied natu
281、ral gas(LNG),the number of workers focused primarily on oil remains below 2019 levels.The global trend masks important regional differences which help explain why employment in oil and gas has returned to pre-pandemic levels before a recovery in investment,now expected in 2024.A third of the growth
282、in oil and gas employment between 2019 and 2022 occurred in the Middle East the only region where upstream oil and gas investment surpassed pre-pandemic levels.NOCs,which dominate the industry in the region,tend to have lower per-worker productivity than IOCs.As such,the average number of workers pe
283、r dollar invested in upstream oil and gas in NOCs is about three times higher than those in IOCs.Upstream investment remained below pre-pandemic levels in other regions in 2022,though this did not always result in lower employment.Most regions with major NOCs saw fewer layoffs during the pandemic th
284、an IOCs,with the notable exception of China,where ongoing efforts to improve productivity of its oil majors continued to reduce headcount.Many IOCs have been reticent in rehiring alongside the economic recovery from the pandemic.Some firms had already started to cut oil investments and staffing from
285、 their peaks around 2015,with the plunge in oil prices at the start of the pandemic accelerating this process.Despite a rebound in oil and gas revenues to record highs and an increase in investment in 2021-22,IOCs have not increased hiring,possibly due to lingering uncertainty around long-term emplo
286、yment needs.Instead,many IOCs have increasingly relied on oil field service companies and other contractors,which largely consist of lower-quality jobs.Rehiring has remained particularly limited in North America,which accounts for about 70%of upstream oil and gas employment in advanced economies.As
287、in the Middle East,South America has also seen the launch of several large new oil projects,led mainly by IOCs,which has fuelled job growth.They include ExxonMobils USD 10 billion Yellowtail project offshore of Guyana and the USD 2.5 billion installation of Mero 4,the floating production,storage and
288、 offloading unit led by Petrobras in Brazil.New investments in refining have also contributed to an increase in oil jobs in Africa,with major refineries such as Dangote in Nigeria coming online.A growing share of jobs in the gas industry are in LNG.Investment in LNG projects jumped in 2022,reaching
289、USD 37 billion an increase of almost one-third since 2021.Russian Federation(hereafter“Russia”)s invasion of Ukraine triggered a number of new LNG projects,including an increase in floating storage and regasification units(FSRUs):Germany alone has received three FSRUs so far,with three more expected
290、 online ahead of the 2023-24 winter.Additionally,about 60 liquefaction and regasification terminals are currently under construction or coming online worldwide.This led to an overall 18%increase in LNG-related jobs in 2022,with World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|49 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IE
291、A.CC BY 4.0.construction alone supporting nearly 150 000 jobs out of a total of 560 000 in the LNG sector.The oil and gas industry is now facing a hiring crisis,exacerbated by the layoffs made at the beginning of the pandemic.Concerns about career security and the impact of the energy transition hav
292、e made new workforce entrants hesitant to commit to a career in the oil and gas sector,especially in advanced economies.In the United States,for example,the number of petroleum engineering graduates fell by over 80%between 2017 and 2022.In addition,a growing number of oil workers have expressed inte
293、rest in moving out of the industry.The skills shortage is further exacerbated by an ageing-out of workers.Retaining and recruiting the skills needed in the oil and gas industry is further complicated by uncertainty about the pace of the energy transition and its impact on the sector.Employment in oi
294、l supply,which includes exploration,development,production and other jobs related to the upstream sector,grows by around 120 000 jobs worldwide,or 2%,to 7.7 million by 2030 in the STEPS,while the number of jobs in gas supply rises by 180 000,or 4%,to 4.3 million.The Middle East accounts for half of
295、that increase.By contrast,worldwide,the oil and gas sector sees a decline of more than 2.5 million jobs,or around 20%,over the same period in the NZE Scenario.These uncertainties highlight the importance of building a flexible workforce.Employers may need to expand their oil and gas labour forces in
296、 the coming years to accommodate short-term growth in fossil fuel demand,but they must also be prepared to retrain and upskill their existing labour forces to shift to other,cleaner energy sectors and more diverse project portfolios.The outlook for the demand for labour also varies across regions.In
297、 2022,producers in emerging and developing economies employed around 80%and 75%of all oil and gas supply workers,respectively.These shares are likely to grow over 2023-30 as advanced economies seek to curb their production and consumption of fossil fuels more quickly than in emerging and developing
298、economies,shifting labour demand to clean energy sectors.The mobility and skills of oil and gas workers have already made them highly sought after by employers in other parts of the energy sector and non-energy industries.For example,chemical engineers in refineries can make use of existing skills f
299、or making hydrogen,biofuels and synthetic fuels.Similarly,engineering skills such as seismic interpretation,drilling,reservoir mapping and flow assurance are highly applicable to the carbon capture and storage(CCS)and geothermal industries.In 2022,the US Department of Energy granted more than USD 16
300、0 million to establish a consortium of experts with the aim of identifying labour needs in geothermal energy and drawing insights from best practices in the oil and gas industry.There are limits on the transferability of skills to clean energy sectors.Not all the clean energy jobs that are created w
301、ill be co-located or share the same skills as those lost.Late-career workers may also be reluctant to switch industries as they likely earn more in oil and gas than the wages in most clean energy sectors:oil and gas workers are among the highest paid workers in any sector thanks to their high level
302、of skilling,well-established labour representation,and the need to compensate for occupational hazards and mobility requirements.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|50 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0.Not all the oil jobs lost during the pandemic have been replaced,with international com
303、panies reluctant to rehire,while gas sector employment continues to expand everywhere Employment in oil and gas supply by region in 2022 and by scenario in 2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:The gas supply chart includes employment in natural gas production,transportation and LNG.STEPS=Stated Policies Scenari
304、o,NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.15%5%7%12%8%23%13%17%North AmericaCentral and SouthAmericaEuropeAfricaChinaOther Asia PacificEurasiaMiddle EastGas14%10%5%11%11%12%10%27%Oil 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 920192021 2022STEPS NZEMillion workersOil supply203020192021 2022STEPS NZEGas supply2030 World Energy
305、 Employment 2023 PAGE|51 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0.The majority of oil and gas workers focus on upstream projects,but the share of midstream activities and LNG is rising Employment in oil and gas supply by supply chain segment,2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:These figures include emplo
306、yment in oil production,transportation,and refining.Midstream excludes all LNG-associated employment,including LNG transport.Our estimates do not include workers who are employed at retail fuelling stations,as many of these jobs are connected to services and are not linked exclusively to oil(station
307、s also sell biofuels,CNG and electric charging service,as well as an array of other items).65%17%18%RefiningOil7.6 millionemployees57%15%14%14%UpstreamMidstreamLNGDistribution utilitiesNatural gas4.1 millionemployees World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|52 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0
308、.Global coal supply employment continues to fall,even as production rose by 7%,largely due to efforts to improve productivity Global employment in the coal industry continues to contract,with the total number of jobs down to 6.2 million jobs in 2022.The decline of coal supply employment in China slo
309、wed in 2022,while employment in India continues to climb slowly,with labour productivity gains partially offsetting rising demand as the sector increasingly opens to private sector players.Increased coal production in advanced economies during the energy crisis did not translate into more jobs,thoug
310、h it did momentarily slow the fall in coal employment.Coal supply employment remains concentrated in Asia,with China,India,and Indonesia together accounting for nearly 85%of all coal supply jobs worldwide in 2022.Coal mining in these three countries is less mechanised than in advanced economies.In C
311、hina and India,for example,around ten times more workers are required per tonne of coal produced than in Australia or the United States.This highlights the potential for massive gains in labour productivity,which can allow employment to remain stable or even decrease as production rises.For example,
312、for each coal mining job created in China between 2000 and 2022 due to increased production,1.5 jobs were rendered redundant by productivity improvements.As a result,approximately 2.6 million jobs were lost while Chinese coal production grew by over 3%per year on average.These regions also have a mu
313、ch larger informal coal workforce than in advanced economies.Informal workers,included in the estimates,often earn far less than formal workers and face poor working conditions.Of the fossil fuel supply sectors,coal employment is set to decline the most.In the STEPS,employment worldwide decreases by
314、 over 20%to 4.7 million jobs in 2030,a drop of 1.4 million.Part of this decline is due to improvements in labour productivity and mechanisation,as well as declines in coal production.Job losses are much bigger in the NZE Scenario,with employment plunging by 45%,or by 2.8 million jobs,to 3.4 million
315、in 2030.Helping redundant coal workers find alternative employment and dealing with the social impact of mine closures will become increasingly urgent as energy transitions advance.Chinas experience with scaling back coal employment offers lessons in this regard.In 2013,China instituted reforms to s
316、hut down illegal mining,consolidate coal mines,and improve competitiveness that halved coal mining employment in the country by 2020.In 2016,the Ministry of Finance allocated CNY 100 billion(USD 15 billion at a 2016 exchange rate)to an Industrial Special Fund,which was set up to support newly-unempl
317、oyed coal mine workers through direct welfare payments,job creation,early retirement benefits and help with finding other work.By the time the fund closed in 2020,it had helped 1 million former coal workers find new jobs.Additional aid from the provinces was also made available.Nonetheless,a calcula
318、tion of assistance per worker helped indicates that the financial aid was likely insufficient to support all coal mining workers who lost their jobs.Moreover,today around 90%of workers live within 400 km of a critical mine or deposit,potentially offering new opportunities.World Energy Employment 202
319、3 PAGE|53 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0.Labour productivity increases,driven primarily by mechanisation and automation,are the main causes of declining coal employment Changes in coal mining employment in China,2020-2022 IEA.CC BY 4.0.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 102000GainsLosses2022Productio
320、n-relatedProductivity-relatedMillion workers World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|54 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0.Coal jobs,which are concentrated in China and India,are set to continue their decline as labour productivity rises Employment in coal supply by region in 2022 and by scena
321、rio in 2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:Includes coal production and transportation,but excludes coal transformation for blast furnaces and coke ovens.STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario,NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.51%27%11%4%North AmericaCentral and South AmericaEuropeAfricaChinaIndiaOther Asia Paci
322、ficRest of world 1 2 3 4 5 6 7201920212022STEPSNZEMillion workers2030 World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|55 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0.Biofuel and biogas employment is set to grow as fuel blending targets ratchet up Brazil,Indonesia,and the United States together account for just
323、over 30%of the 3.6 million people working in the bioenergy industry globally in 2022.This includes growing feedstocks,processing them,building and operating biofuel and biogas production facilities,and delivering those fuels to market.However,producing biomass pellets,processing crop residues and wa
324、ste,and producing charcoal are excluded.Around 40%of all the jobs in this sector are related to growing and processing feedstocks.Biofuel demand worldwide rose by 5%to just over 2 million barrels of oil equivalent per day(mboe/d)in 2022,equal to 4%of transport sector oil demand.The gains largely ref
325、lect a rebound in oil demand from lower pandemic levels,but also efforts in some countries to increase production for use of locally produced biofuels in the wake of the energy crisis.The outlook for demand growth is projected to be about 40%lower in 2022,while at the same time some countries,includ
326、ing Brazil,China and Indonesia,saw important increases in liquid and gaseous biofuel investments from the previous year.Moreover,a number of countries with flexibility to increase blending rates,notably Argentina,India,and Indonesia,did so to reduce oil imports.Biogas production relies on a large nu
327、mber of small facilities reliant on crop residuals,manure,municipal solid waste and wastewater.China was the largest producer in 2022,followed by Europe and the United States.A large number of new facilities around the world were completed in 2022,with more slated to come online in 2023,contributing
328、 to growth in new construction-related jobs.In the United States alone,over 120 biogas facilities were under construction or brought online in 2022,while about 300 new plants came online in Europe over 2022.Employment in the bioenergy sector as a whole is poised for further expansion.The total numbe
329、r of jobs globally reaches approximately 4 million by 2030 in the STEPS,based on a projected 50%increase in global fuel production.Biogas and biomethane production also increases around threefold,with most of the gains occurring in Europe,with an additional USD 18 billion of investment in the pipeli
330、ne through the end of this decade.Most of the employment growth in this sector is in feedstock production and processing.In the NZE Scenario,bioenergy use grows much more quickly,boosting employment to almost 6 million by 2030.While solid bioenergy is not considered in our estimates of total employm
331、ent,it can be sizable,especially where charcoal is used as a primary cooking fuel in the developing world.Those jobs are typically informal,covering the harvesting,processing and distribution of charcoal and fuelwood.Some estimates show that nearly 7 million people work in the charcoal trade in sub-
332、Saharan Africa alone.World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|56 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0.Ambitious new policies for biofuels and biogas point to significant growth in the workforce to 2030,but getting on track for net zero by 2050 would require a much bigger increase Employment in bi
333、oenergy supply by value chain step,2019-2030 IEA.CC BY 4.0.Notes:STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario,NZE=Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.1 2 3 4 5 6 7201920212022STEPSNZEMillion workers2030New projectsOperating plantsGrowing feedstocksProcessing feedstocks World Energy Employment 2023 PAGE|57 Annexes Fuel and minerals supply IEA.CC BY 4.0.Mining critical minerals for clean energy technologies curre