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1、U N I T E D N AT I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N T R A D E A N D D E V E L O P M E N T2022REVIEWOF MARITIME TRANSPORTNavigating stormy waters Geneva,2022U N I T E D N AT I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N T R A D E A N D D E V E L O P M E N T2022REVIEWOF MARITIME TRANSPORTNavigating stormy watersREVIEW
2、 OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022ii 2022,United NationsAll rights reserved worldwideRequests to reproduce excerpts or to photocopy should be addressed to the Copyright Clearance Center at .All other queries on rights and licences,including subsidiary rights,should be addressed to:United Nations Publicatio
3、ns405 East 42nd StreetNew York,New York 10017United States of AmericaEmail:publicationsun.orgWebsite:https:/shop.un.org/The designations employed and the presentation of material on any map in this work do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations concernin
4、g the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Mention of any firm or licensed process does not imply the endorsement of the United Nations.This publication has been edited externally.United Nations publica
5、tion issued by the United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUNCTAD/RMT/2022ISBN:978-92-1-113073-7 eISBN:978-92-1-002147-0ISSN:0566-7682eISSN:2225-3459 Sales No.E.22.II.D.42REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022iiiACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe Review of Maritime Transport 2022 was prepared by UNCTAD under
6、the overall guidance of Shamika N.Sirimanne,Director of the Division on Technology and Logistics of UNCTAD,and under the coordination of Jan Hoffmann,Head of the Trade Logistics Branch,Division on Technology and Logistics.Regina Asariotis,Mark Assaf,Celine Bacrot,Hassiba Benamara,Juan Luis Crucelegu
7、i,Poul Hansen,Jan Hoffmann,Argyro Kepesidi,Tomasz Kulaga,Renaud Massenet,Teresa Moreira,Anila Premti,Luisa Rodrguez,Hidenobu Tokuda,Pamela Ugaz and Frida Youssef made contributions to the report.The report benefitted from contributions from officials from the International Maritime Organization and
8、from regional commissions of the United Nations(ECE,ECLAC,ESCAP,and ESCWA):Julian Abril Garcia,Adel Alghaberi,Peter Adams,Eliana Barleta,Jan de Boer,Aicha Cherif,Yann Duval,Martina Fontanet Sol,Fouad Ghorra,Azhar Jaimurzina Ducrest,Sooyeob Kim,Dorota Lost-Sieminska,Ricardo Sanchez,and Lynn Tan.Comme
9、nts and suggestions from the following reviewers are gratefully acknowledged:Hashim Abbas Syed,Julian Abril Garcia,Takuya Adachi,Peter Adams,Roar Adland,Stefanos Alexopoulos,Mario Apostolov,Emilie Berger,Brje Berneblad,Pierre-Jean Bordahandy,Mary Brooks,Aicha Cherif,Trevor Crowe,Laurent Daniel,Bud D
10、ar,Neil Davidson,Ismael Cobos Delgado,Jan de Boer,Peter de Langen,Rolando Diaz,Thorsten Diephaus,Juan Manuel Dez Orejas,Simone Egerton,Minsang Eom,Mahin Faghfouri,Fredrik Haag,Mark Henderson,James Hookham,Richard Martin Humphreys,Anne Kappel,Eleni Kontou,John Manners-Bell,Sunhye Lee,Socrates Leptos-
11、Bourgi,Ignacio Lopez Chaves,Dorota Lost-Sieminska,Turloch Mooney,Alan Murphy,Sarah Oliver,Sascha Pristrom,Stefan Raes,Jean-Paul Rodrigue,Torbjrn Rydbergh,Peter Sand,Clemens Schapeler,Vivek Srivastava,Emily Stausbll,Stellios Stratidakis,Lynn Tan,Antonella Teodoro,Malay Trivedi,Patrick Verhoeven,Brand
12、t Wagner and Tengfei Wang,Experts from the International Chamber of Shipping reviewed Chapter 2.Comments received from UNCTAD divisions as part of the internal peer review process,as well as comments from the Office of the Secretary-General,are acknowledged with appreciation.The Review was edited by
13、 Peter Stalker.Administrative,editing,and proofreading support was provided by Wendy Juan.Magali Studer designed the publication.Overall layout,graphics and desktop publishing were undertaken by the Division of Conference Management of the United Nations Office at Geneva.Special thanks are also due
14、to Vladislav Shuvalov for reviewing the publication in full.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022ivTABLE OF CONTENTSAcknowledgements.iiiAbbreviations.xNote.xiiiForeword.xvOverview.xvii1.INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE.1A.International maritime trade flows.3B.Key trends shaping maritime transport.17C.Outloo
15、k.21D.Policy priorities and key action areas.232.MARITIME TRANSPORT SERVICES.31A.Moderate fleet growth in 2021.33B.Fleet owners face tighter environmental regulations.36C.Ship ownership and registration.39D.High levels of shipbuilding and less recycling.46E.Port and logistics services.49F.Conclusion
16、s and policy considerations.533.FREIGHT RATES AND TRANSPORT COSTS.59A.In 2021,container freight rates are sky-high,but in 2022 fall again.61B.Dry bulk freight rates reach record highs.68C.Tanker freight rates weak in 2021 but rise in 2022.72D.Summary and policy considerations.744.KEY PERFORMANCE IND
17、ICATORS FOR PORTS AND THE SHIPPING FLEET.79A.Port calls and turnaround times.81B.Port waiting time and cargo handling performance.85C.Lessons from the TRAINFORTRADE Port Management Programme.92D.Liner shipping connectivity.96E.Impact of the war in Ukraine.102F.Productivity of the world fleet.105G.Gr
18、eenhouse gas emissions from the world fleet.107H.Summary and policy considerations.1125.MARITIME TRADE FACILITATION.117A.Trade facilitation helps decongest the supply chain.119B.Emergency responses:trade facilitation for critical goods.122C.Trade facilitation for better port performance.125D.Public-
19、private collaboration.128E.Summary and policy considerations.131REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022v6.CONSOLIDATION AND COMPETITION IN CONTAINER SHIPPING.135A.Trends in consolidation.137B.Impacts of consolidation on markets.140C.Policy considerations.1467.LEGAL ISSUES AND REGULATORY DEVELOPMENTS.151A.
20、Commercial law implications of the COVID-19 pandemic.153B.Regulatory developments relating to international shipping,climate change and other environmental issues.155C.Seafarers.160D.Other legal and regulatory developments affecting transportation.164E.Summary and policy considerations.167Boxes1.1 I
21、mpacts of the war in Ukraine on the Arab region .151.2 Digitalization,e-commerce and logistics .192.1 Policy debates and initiatives on regional fleets.452.2 Subregional port throughput in Latin America and the Caribbean.504.1 Liner shipping connectivity in the Pacific SIDS.1005.1 The ASYHUB maritim
22、e initiative.1205.2 Multimodal aspects of eTIR.1215.3 UNCTAD Automated System for Relief Emergency Consignments .1245.4 The port community of Canal Tamengo,Bolivia(Plurinational State of).1275.5 Paraguays hinterland resilience.1285.6 Cameroon Port Community.1297.1 Concentration and cooperation in co
23、mpetition law.143REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022viFigures1 International maritime trade and world GDP.Selected years.xvii2 Changes in port calls per half year,world total.First semester 2019second semester 2021.xviii3 Annual growth of commercial fleet,19812022.Growth rate.xix4 Average age of the c
24、ommercial fleet,weighted by number of ships,by vessel type,20112022.xix5 Number of direct calls by region from 2020Q3 to 2022Q2.xx6 Shanghai containerized freight index(SCFI)monthly spot rates,September 2018 to September 2022,selected routes.xxi7 Impact of higher dry bulk freight rates and global gr
25、ain prices on consumer food prices,selected country groups(percentage change).xxiii8 Share of grains imported by bulk ships in total food imports,selected country groups,2019.xxiii9 Share of primary and processed food products in food imports mainly for household consumption,selected country groups,
26、2020(percentage).xxiii10 Market shares of top four,top ten and top twenty carriers,20112022.xxvi11 Average number of companies providing services per country,and size of the largest ship,Q1 2006Q2 2022.xxvii1.1 International maritime trade and global output,selected years.51.2 International maritime
27、 trade,billions of cargo ton-miles,20022022.51.3 Participation of developing countries in international maritime trade,selected years.61.4 International maritime trade,by region,2021.61.5 International maritime trade by cargo type,selected years.81.6 Global containerized trade,19962021.91.7 Global c
28、ontainerized trade by route,20192021.101.8 Navigating the path to normalization:Selected scenarios.222.1 Annual growth of the world fleet,19812022.332.2 Average age of merchant fleet,20112022.352.3 Bulk carrier fleet,average age weighted by carrying capacity by ship type and beneficial ownership,201
29、42022.372.4 Container ship fleet,average age weighted by carrying capacity by ship type and beneficial ownership,20142022.372.5 Oil tanker fleet average age weighted by carrying capacity by ship type and beneficial ownership,20142022.382.6 Beneficial ownership of the global fleet,percentage share,to
30、p 7 ship-owing countries,20142021,deadweight tonnage.412.7 Average fleet age in the top six registries,by deadweight tonnage,as of 1 January 2022.412.8 Average of the bulk carrier,container ship and oil tanker fleets in the top 6 flag of registration by dwt and percentage of each ship type in the to
31、tal fleet,as of 1 January 2022.442.9 World tonnage on order,selected ship types,20112022.472.10 World container port throughput by region(in 20-foot equivalent units),20212022,percentage share in total.492.11 Leading 20 global container ports,20202021.503.1 Growth of demand and supply in container s
32、hipping,20072022,percentage change.613.2 Shanghai Containerized Freight Index(SCFI)monthly spot rates,September 2018 to September 2022,selected routes.623.3 China Containerized Freight Index,Composite Index,September 2017September 2022.623.4 New ConTex Index,September 2017September 2022.63REVIEW OF
33、MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022vii3.5 Bunker prices,heavy fuel oil and very low sulphur fuel oil,monthly averages,from June 2020 to June 2022.653.6 Xeneta Shipping Index(XSI)Global.673.7 Baltic Exchange dry index,September 2017September 2022.683.8 Clarksons port congestion index percentages of deep-sea carg
34、o bulk carriers in port,September 2019September 2022.683.9 Average weighted earnings all bulkers($/day),July 2012July 2022.693.10 Impact of higher dry bulk freight rates and global grain prices on consumer food prices,selected country groups.703.11 Share of grains imported by bulk ships in total foo
35、d imports,selected country groups,2019.703.12 Share of primary and processed food products in food imports mainly for household consumption,selected country groups,2020.703.13 Average earnings,all tankers,June 2007June 2022.723.14 Baltic dirty tanker index and the Baltic Exchange clean tanker index.
36、July 2012July 2022.733.15 Average earnings,selected tankers,July 2019July 2022.734.1 Port calls per half year,world total,20182021.814.2 Monthly port calls,world total,January 2020September 2022.814.3 Proportion of container ships fully laden,world total,20182022.834.4 Change in port calls from 2019
37、 to 2021,world total,percentage.834.5 Changes in actual and scheduled port calls of container ships from 2019 to 2021,per cent.844.6 Global heatmap for the Container Port Performance Index 2022.854.7 Average rank of container port performance,by region,2020 and 2021.864.8 Average waiting time across
38、 30 major dry bulk/tanker handling economies,20182022,hours.874.9 Port cargo handling performance for dry bulk carriers,tons per minute and number of port calls for loading,2021.894.10 Port cargo handling performance for tankers,tons per minute and number of port calls for loading,2021.904.11 Revenu
39、e and cargo throughput,20162021.944.12 Labour costs as a proportion of revenue,20162021.944.13 Training cost as a proportion of labour costs,20162021.954.14 Womens participation in port workforces,2021.954.15 Liner shipping connectivity index,top 10 economies,2006Q12022Q2.964.16 Deployed capacity of
40、 container ships,selected economies,from 2006Q1 to 2022Q2,index.964.17 Maximum capacity of container ships,selected economies,from 2006Q1 to 2022Q2,index.974.18 LSCI,world and regional average from 2006Q1 to 2022Q2.974.19 Changes in direct calls by region,from 2020Q3 to 2022Q2,per cent.984.20 Deploy
41、ed capacity of container ships,selected developing economies,from 2006Q1 to 2022Q2.984.21 Average number of liner shipping services and its extensive and intensive margins,across intra-and inter-regional country pairs,global average,2006 to 2022.994.22 Average number of liner shipping services over
42、existing connections(intensive margin),by intra-and inter-region trade,selected regions,2006 to 2022.994.23 Number of weekly departures of all cargo ships in the Black Sea region for international shipping,1st week to 38th week in 2021 and 2022.1024.24 Composition of port calls in Ukraine by port,de
43、parture before and after the war and the BSGI.103REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022viii4.25 Monthly port calls in Ukraine by shipping sector,departure during January 2021 to September 2022.1034.26 Typical shipping route from Ukraine after the war.1034.27 Number of liner shipping services,ports in the
44、 Russian Federation by region,index).1044.28 Number of monthly voyages of container ships from and to the Russian Federation,by partner country.1044.29 Operational productivity of the world fleet,all ships,19602022.1054.30 Operational productivity of the world fleet,by fleet sector,available years f
45、or 19852022,cargo carried per fleet capacity.1054.31 Total CO2 emissions of world fleet by vessel type,annualized monthly,January 2012 to April 2022,million tons.1074.32 CO2 emission intensity by vessel type,monthly,gram per ton-mile.1074.33 CO2 emission intensity of container ships by ship size,gra
46、ms per ton-mile,2021.1084.34 Cumulative change from January 2012 in CO2 emission intensity,and contribution of ship size change of container ships,grams per ton-mile.1084.35 CO2 emission intensity and steaming speed of container ships,selected ship sizes,monthly,grams per ton-mile and knot.1084.36 T
47、otal CO2 emissions of the world fleet by flag state,annual,2011 to 2021,million tons.1094.37 Main flag states shares in world fleet CO2 emissions(million tons)and vessel supply(dwt),2021,percentage.1094.38 Average CO2 emissions per ton cargo transported of container ships on the trade lane from Far
48、East to North Europe for ten major carriers,quarterly,index.1104.39 Average CO2 emission per ton cargo transported,vessel size and age,and steaming speed of container ships on the trade lane from the Far East to North Europe for ten major carriers(Carriers A-J),averages over 2018Q12018Q4 and 2021Q22
49、022Q1,index(average across carriers in 2018Q1=100),TEU,year and knot.1104.40 Distribution of percentage deviation of actual CII from required CII,individual fleets,per cent of total fleet,2021.1115.1 Implementation of selected TFA articles that may help ease port congestion,percentage of members.119
50、5.2 Four principles of trade facilitation.1205.3 Degree of implementation of trade facilitation measures related to crisis,by the developed economies and the least developed countries.1226.1 Market shares of top four,top ten and top twenty carriers,20112022.1376.2 Average number of companies providi
51、ng services per country,and size of the largest ship,Q1 2006Q2 2022.1376.3 Global alliances in deep-sea container shipping,market share,percentage.1396.4 UNCTAD liner shipping connectivity index,2006 to 2022,world average and selected small island developing States.1416.5 Number of container ports s
52、erved by regular liner shipping services,quarterly,20062022.1446.6 Container freight and vessel earning rates,16 October 2009 to 21 October 2022.145REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022ixTables1 Time in port,vessel age and size,by vessel type,2021.xx1.1 International maritime trade,selected years.31.2 I
53、nternational maritime trade,20202021,by type of cargo,country group and region.41.3 World economic growth,20192022.71.4 Growth in the volume of merchandise trade,20192022.81.5 Containerized trade on main East-West and other containerized trader routes,20162021.101.6 Containerized trade on major East
54、-West trade routes,20142022.111.7 Dry bulk trade 20192021.121.8 Major dry bulk:exporters and importers,2021.121.9 Tanker trade,20192021.131.10 International maritime trade developments forecasts,20222027.212.1 World fleet by principal vessel type,20212022.332.2 Age of world merchant fleet,by vessel
55、type and flag of registration,2022.342.3 Average age by ship type and size class of 400 GT and above.382.4 Ownership of the world fleet,ranked by commercial value(million US$),2022,main vessel types.392.5 Ownership of the world fleet,ranked by carrying capacity in dead-weight tons,2022,national-and
56、foreign-flagged fleet.402.6 Leading flags of registration by dead-weight tonnage,2022.422.7 Leading flags of registration,ranked by value of total tonnage,2022(million US dollars)and principal vessel types.432.8 Deliveries of newbuilds by major vessel type and country of construction,2021.462.9 Repo
57、rted tonnage sold for ship recycling by major vessel type and recycling country,2021.482.10 World container port throughput by region,20202021.492.11 Trends in containerized trade and container port throughput JanuaryJune 2022 year-on-year variation.513.1 Revenues,profits,and volumes,selected contai
58、ner shipping lines,2021.653.2 Contract freight rates,inter-regional,20182021,$per 40-foot container.664.1 Time in port,vessel age and size,by vessels type,2021,world total.824.2 Port calls and median time spent in port,container ships,2021,top 25 economies.824.3 Top 25 ports under the Container Port
59、 Performance Index 2022.854.4 Waiting time to load and discharge for dry bulk carriers,top 30 economies by vessel arrivals,average values for first half of 2022 and changes from 2019.874.5 Waiting time to load and discharge for tankers,top 30 economies by vessel arrivals,average values for first hal
60、f of 2022 and changes from 2019.884.6 Port cargo handling performance for dry bulk carriers and tankers by ship size,top 10 economies by vessel arrivals for loading and global average,tons per minute for loading,2021.914.7 Port performance scorecard,20162021.936.1 Container shipping fleet deployment
61、 indicators,2006 and 2022.138REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xABBREVIATIONSASEANAssociation of Southeast Asian NationsASYCUDAAutomated System for Customs DataASYRECAutomated System for Relief Emergency Consignments BIMCOBaltic and International Maritime CouncilBWM ConventionBallast Water Management
62、 MMBtuBritish thermal units CAPEXcapital expenditureCCFIChina Containerized Freight IndexCIFcost,insurance and freightCIICarbon Intensity IndicatorCIMCChina International Marine Containers CLCInternational Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage CMA CGMCompagnie Maritime dAffrtement a
63、nd Compagnie Gnrale Maritime FOBfree on boardCH4methaneCO2carbon dioxideCOPConference of the PartiesCR4four-firm concentration ratioCSISCenter for Strategies and International Studies DCSADigital Container Shipping Association dwtdeadweight tonnageEBITearnings before interest,taxesEBPexperience-buil
64、ding phase ECA Economic Commission for Africa ECSAEast Coast of South America ECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe ECLAC United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean EDIElectronic Data Interchange EEDIEnergy Efficiency Design IndexEEXIEnergy Efficiency Existing
65、 Ship IndexEGCSexhaust gas cleaning systems ESCAP United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific ESCWA United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia eTIRelectronic International Road Transport systemEU ETSEuropean Union Emissions Trading SchemeFAL ConventionConvention o
66、n Facilitation of International Maritime TrafficFIATAInternational Federation of Freight Forwarders AssociationsFMCFederal Maritime CommissionFOBfree on boardREVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xiGDPGross domestic productGHGgreenhouse gasGTgross tonnageGVCglobal value chainHNShazardous and noxious subs
67、tances IATAInternational Air Transport AssociationICAOInternational Civil Aviation Organization ICCInternational Chamber of Commerce ICSInstitute of Chartered ShipbrokersILOInternational Labour OrganizationIMFInternational Monetary FundIMRBInternational Maritime Research and Development Board IMOInt
68、ernational Maritime OrganisationWISTAWomens International Shipping&Trading AssociationIOPC-FUNDInternational Oil Pollution Compensation FundsISOInternational Standards OrganizationISWG-GHGIntersessional Working Group on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships ITFInternational Transport Workers Federat
69、ionJCCJoint Coordination Centre JICAJapan International Cooperation Agency LACLatin America and the Caribbean LDCleast developed countryLLDClandlocked developing countryLLMCLimitation of Liability for Maritime Claims LNGliquified natural gasLPGliquified petroleum gasLSCILiner shipping connectivity i
70、ndex MARPOL ConventionInternational Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ShipsMENAMiddle East and North AfricaMEPCIMO Marine Environment Protection CommitteeMGOmarine gasoilMLCMaritime Labour ConventionMLETRUNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Transferable Records MSCIMO Maritime Safety Commi
71、tteeMSCMediterranean Shipping Company MSWmaritime single windowN2Onitrous oxideNMTDsnegotiable multimodal transport documents NORnotice of readiness REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xiiNTFCNational Trade Facilitation CommitteeOCHAOffice for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OECDOrganisation f
72、or Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOPECOrganization of the Petroleum Exporting CountriesPCSport community systemPIANCWorld Association for Waterborne Transport InfrastructurePPPspublic-private partnershipsPPSPort Performance ScorecardR&Dresearch and developmentRCEPRegional Comprehensive Economi
73、c Partnership SCFIShanghai Containerized Freight IndexSEEMPShip Energy Efficiency Management Plan SIDSsmall island developing StatesSOxSulfur oxideSPSSanitary and Phytosanitary Measures STCWStandards of Training,Certification and Watchkeeping for SeafarersSWIFTSociety for Worldwide Interbank Financi
74、al Telecommunication TBTTechnical Barriers to Trade TEUtwenty-foot-equivalent unitTFATrade Facilitation Agreement TIRTransports Internationaux Routiers UN/CEFACTThe United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business UNCITRALUnited Nations Commission on International Trade LawUNCLOS
75、United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea UNCTADUnited Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUNDESAUN Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNFCCCUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUNOHRLLSUN Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries,Landlocked D
76、eveloping Countries and Small Island Developing StatesVLCCsvery large crude carriers VLSFOvery low sulphur fuel oilWCOWorld Customs OrganizationWHOWorld Health OrganizationWTOWorld Trade OrganizationXSIXeneta shipping index REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xiiiNOTEThe Review of Maritime Transport is
77、 a recurrent publication prepared by the UNCTAD secretariat since 1968 with the aim of fostering the transparency of maritime markets and analysing relevant developments.Any factual or editorial corrections that may prove necessary,based on comments made by Governments,will be reflected in a corrige
78、ndum to be issued subsequently.This edition of the Review covers data and events from January 2021 until June 2022.Where possible,every effort has been made to reflect more recent developments.All references to dollars($)are to United States dollars,unless otherwise stated.“Ton”means metric ton(1,00
79、0 kg)and“mile”means nautical mile,unless otherwise stated.Because of rounding,details and percentages presented in tables do not necessarily add up to the totals.Two dots(.)in a statistical table indicate that data are not available or are not reported separately.All websites were accessed in Septem
80、ber 2022.The terms“countries”and“economies”refer to countries,territories or areas.Since 2014,the Review of Maritime Transport does not include printed statistical annexes.UNCTAD maritime statistics are accessible via the following links:All datasets:http:/stats.unctad.org/maritimeMerchant fleet by
81、flag of registration:http:/stats.unctad.org/fleetShare of the world merchant fleet value by flag of registration:http:/stats.unctad.org/vesselvalue_registrationMerchant fleet by country of ownership:http:/stats.unctad.org/fleetownershipShare of the world merchant fleet value by country of beneficial
82、 ownership:http:/stats.unctad.org/vesselvalue_ownershipShip recycling by country:http:/stats.unctad.org/shiprecyclingShipbuilding by country in which built:http:/stats.unctad.org/shipbuildingSeafarer supply:http:/stats.unctad.org/seafarersupplyLiner shipping connectivity index:http:/stats.unctad.org
83、/lsciLiner shipping bilateral connectivity index:http:/stats.unctad.org/lsbciContainer port throughput:http:/stats.unctad.org/teuPort liner shipping connectivity index:http:/stats.unctad.org/plsciPort call performance(Time spent in ports,vessel age and size),annual:http:/stats.unctad.org/portcalls_d
84、etail_aPort call performance(Time spent in ports,vessel age&size),semi-annual:http:/stats.unctad.org/portcalls_detail_sa Number of port calls,annual:http:/stats.unctad.org/portcalls_number_aNumber of port calls,semi-annual:http:/stats.unctad.org/portcalls_number_sa Seaborne trade:http:/stats.unctad.
85、org/seabornetradeNational maritime country profiles:http:/unctadstat.unctad.org/CountryProfile/en-GB/index.htmlREVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xivVessel groupings used in the Review of Maritime TransportGroup Constituent ship typesOil tankers Oil tankersBulk carriers Bulk carriers,combination carri
86、ersGeneral cargo ships Multi-purpose and project vessels,roll-on roll-off(ro-ro)cargo,general cargoContainer ships Fully cellular container shipsOther ships Liquefied petroleum gas carriers,liquefied natural gas carriers,parcel(chemical)tankers,specialized tankers,reefers,offshore supply vessels,tug
87、boats,dredgers,cruise,ferries,other non-cargo shipsTotal all ships Includes all the above-mentioned vessel typesApproximate vessel-size groups according to commonly used shipping terminologyCrude oil tankersUltra large crude carrier 320,000 dead-weight tons(dwt)and aboveVery large crude carrier 200,
88、 dwtSuezmax crude tanker 125,000-199,999 dwtAframax/Long Range 2 crude tanker 85,000-124,999 dwtPanamax/Long Range 1 crude tanker 55,000-84,999 dwtMedium Range tankers 40,000-54,999 dwtShort Range/Handy tankers 25,000-39,000 dwtDry bulk and ore carriersCapesize bulk carrier 100,000 dwt and
89、 abovePanamax bulk carrier 65,00099,999 dwtHandymax bulk carrier 40,00064,999 dwtHandysize bulk carrier 10,00039,999 dwtContainer shipsNeo Panamax*Ships that can transit the expanded locks of the Panama Canal with up to a maximum 49m beam and 366 m length overall.Panamax Container ships above 3,000
90、20-foot equivalent units(TEUs)with a beam below 33.2 m,i.e.the largest size vessels that can transit the old locks of the Panama Canal.Post Panamax Fleets with a capacity greater than 15,000 TEUs include some ships that are able to transit the expanded locks.*12-14,999 TEU Neo-Panamax fleet includes
91、 some ships which are too large to transit the expanded locks of the Panama Canal based on current official dimension restrictions;15,000+TEU Post-Panamax fleet includes some ships which are able to transit the expanded locks.Source:Clarksons Research.Note:Unless otherwise indicated,the ships mentio
92、ned in the Review of Maritime Transport include all propelled seagoing merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and above,excluding inland waterway vessels,fishing vessels,military vessels,yachts,and fixed and mobile offshore platforms and barges(with the exception of floating production storage and offlo
93、ading units and drill-ships).REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xvFOREWORDRarely has the importance of maritime logistics for trade and development been more evident than during the last year.Historically high and volatile freight rates,congestion,closed ports and new demands for shipping following CO
94、VID-19 and the war in Ukraine have all had measurable impacts on peoples lives.With ships carrying over 80%of volume of global trade,higher shipping costs and lower maritime connectivity lead to higher inflation,shortages of food,and interruptions of supply chains all of which are among the features
95、 of the current global crisis.Concretely,the Review estimates that higher grain prices and dry bulk freight rates in early 2022 contribute to a 1.2 per cent increase in consumer food prices.Container ships spent 13.7 per cent longer in port in 2021 compared to 2020,exacerbating delays and shortages.
96、And during the last year,total green-house-gas emissions from the world fleet increased by 4.7 per cent.UNCTADs Review of Maritime Transport has assessed and accompanied developments in shipping and seaports since 1968.The experience and extensive data sets generated during the last decades help UNC
97、TAD provide a comprehensive and thorough assessment of the causes and impacts of the trends covered in the Review.And the message emanating from our analysis is clear:The world again needs the shipping industry to navigate through the rough seas of crises.The war in Ukraine has disrupted major shipp
98、ing routes and supply chains.It has also triggered record prices that could push tens of millions more people across the world into hunger and poverty this year,as has been stated by the UN Global Crisis Response Group.Maritime transport has a key role to play in cushioning the blow.Prices need to c
99、ome down to affordable levels,especially for developing countries,and for the world to have enough fertilizers to feed itself.Under the leadership of UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres,the United Nations has sought to address these two pressing concerns through the parallel implementation of two
100、initiatives:the Black Sea Grain Initiative,through which over ten million metric tons of grain have been shipped from Ukrainian ports,and the Memorandum of Understanding on Promoting the unimpeded exports of Russian Food and Fertilizers to the World Markets.Alongside Trkiye,a key player in this effo
101、rt,we signed the two agreements in Istanbul on July the 22nd.UNCTAD,and in particular our teams working on maritime logistics,provided essential support to these initiatives,which highlight the real development impact of UNCTADs policy research in this field.As the ongoing supply chain crisis is eas
102、ing,with decreasing freight rates and improving port performance,we must not lose sight of the actions needed to prepare for the long term development of the sector.We need a transparent multilateral framework for the decarbonization of maritime transport,to reduce uncertainty for policy makers and
103、industry alike.Confronted with uncertainty,ship owners have delayed some new building orders,and the average age of the world container ship fleet has increased from 10.3 to 13.7 years.We also need to ensure that the concerns of the developing countries,notably the most vulnerable economies includin
104、g Least Developed Countries and Small Island States,are addressed.We must avoid that the same countries that are most negatively affected by climate change and who have contributed the least to its causes would also be those who would be most negatively affected by climate change mitigation.Thus,loo
105、king beyond the horizon,the Review points to major challenges,but also opportunities for developing countries.Extensive data sets and analysis show how decarbonization,digitalization,and market consolidation require novel and collaborative policy responses.The Review of Maritime Transport 2022 provi
106、des the necessary assessment,and it is my hope that it will help to identify the solutions for a future world that counts on sustainable and resilient maritime supply chains.Rebeca Grynspan Secretary-General of UNCTADREVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xviiOVERVIEWNAVIGATING THROUGH SUPPLY CHAIN DISRUP
107、TIONS Maritime trade recovered in 2021,but in 2022 faces a complex operating environment fraught with risk and uncertaintyFollowing a 3.8 per cent decline in 2020,international maritime trade bounced back in 2021 with an estimated growth of 3.2 per cent,and overall shipments of 11 billion tons(figur
108、e 1).This was slightly below pre-COVID-19 levels,as trade was still hampered by the prolonged pandemic,an unprecedented logjam in global logistics caused by a large upswing in demand and acute shortages of capacity on the supply side.Growth was driven primarily by increases in demand for containeriz
109、ed cargo.Gas,and dry bulk shipping also increased while shipments of crude oil declined.-6-4-2 0 2 4 6 8 008200920000022GDPSeaborne tradeFigure 1 International maritime trade and world GDP Selected years(percentage annual change)Source:UNCTAD se
110、cretariat,based on UNCTADstat data and Review of Maritime Transport,various issues.GDP figure for 2022 based on table 1.1,World Output Growth,19912023,UNCTAD Trade and Development Report 2022.For 2022,UNCTAD projects maritime trade growth to moderate to 1.4 per cent,and for the period 20232027 to ex
111、pand at an annual average of 2.1 per cent,a slower rate than the previous three-decade average of 3.3 per cent.For many years the fastest growing segment was containerized trade,for which growth in 2022 is projected to be a tepid 1.2 per cent,before marginally picking up to 1.9 per cent in 2023.The
112、projected deceleration is a consequence not just of pandemic-induced lockdowns,but also of strong macroeconomic headwinds combined with a weakening in Chinas economy.In addition,faced with rising inflation and living costs,consumers are spending less,while to some extent switching expenditure from g
113、oods to services.For 2022,the operating landscape remains complex.Globally,inflation and living costs are rising.In China,which is the worlds largest exporter,a zero-COVID policy triggered shutdowns and disrupted manufacturing,logistics,and supply chains.In Ukraine,a major food exporter,since the be
114、ginning of the war ports in the Black Sea were closed.Industrial action and labour strikes in a number of world ports,including in Germany,the Republic of Korea,South Africa and the United Kingdom have also been affecting maritime transport.At the same time,a series of extreme weather events,with,fo
115、r example,floods,hurricanes and heatwaves across Australia,Brazil,Pakistan,East Africa,Europe and the United States are also having an impact.All these problems spell further trouble for global supply chains and logistics and for maritime trade.By the fourth quarter of 2022,projected global economic
116、 growth had been revised downward,with fears that the world economy could slip into recession and stagflation.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xviiiTo some extent,trade in ton-miles is being sustained by market and supplier substitution.The Russian Federation,faced with economic and other restrictiv
117、e measures,is seeking alternative markets,while European importers are considering other sources of supply.Ton-mile demand is also likely to be boosted as African countries source grain from more distant locations.Port calls change with rising congestion and shifts in liner shipping connectivityIn l
118、ine with maritime trade,port calls also bounced back in 2021 amid unmatched port congestion with hotspots being concentrated in the United States,Europe and China(figure 2).In Northern Europe,some shipping operators,seeking to boost efficiency,cut the number of port call locations per rotation.This
119、pushed up the volume of cargo exchange per call,while extending work time at terminals and putting pressure on the main ports.The effects of congestion and logjams rippled across a range of industries such as car manufacturing,healthcare and electronics,and notably through a serious shortage of semi
120、conductors.60 00050 00040 00030 00020 00010 000 0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000S12019S2S12020S2S12021S2All shipsContainer shipsDry bulk carriersDry breakbulk carriersLiquid bulk carriersLPG carriersLNG carriersFigure 2 Changes in port calls per half year,world total First semester 2019se
121、cond semester 2021 (year-on-year differences)Source:UNCTAD,based on data provided by MarineTraffic.Note:Ships of 1,000 GT and above,not including passenger ships and Ro/Ro vessels.Since the onset of the logistics disruptions in late 2020,there has been an overall global decline in liner shipping con
122、nectivity,though with variations between countries.The worlds most connected country remained China which widened its lead.And India extended its regional connections by upgrading port capacity.Similarly,in North Africa continued development of port infrastructure helped mitigate the impact of the p
123、andemic.These gains were offset by declines in connectivity elsewhere,including leading economies.In the United States of America,for example,container port operational performance was undermined by weakness in West Coast port infrastructure as a consequence of long-term underinvestment.But the pict
124、ure was even worse in parts of the developing world:over this period,most of Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean suffered significant reductions in direct connections.Trade recovery is confronted with low fleet growthIn 2021,the global commercial fleet grew by under three per cent second lowe
125、st rate since 2005(figure 3).The fastest growth,driven by global gas demand was for liquefied gas carriers followed by containerships and bulk carriers.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xixSince 2011,the fleet has been ageing.By number of ships,the current average age is 21.9 years,and by carrying ca
126、pacity 11.5 years.Bulk carriers remain the youngest vessels with an average age of 11.1 years,followed by container ships at 13.7 years,and oil tankers at 19.7 years(figure 4).-6-4-2024682589470200042005200620072
127、008200920000022-3.43.61.43.22.81.12.42.6811.14.22.9Figure 3 Annual growth of commercial fleet,19812022 Growth rate(percentage of the dwt)Source:UNCTAD calculations,based on data from Clarksons Research.Note:Propelled seagoing vessels of 100 gross tons and
128、above,as of 1 January 2022.27.123.821.919.713.711.0200002020212022YearsGeneral cargoOther types of shipsTotal fleetOil tankersContainer shipsBulk carriersFigure 4 Average age of the commercial fleet,weighted by number of ships,by vessel type,20112022Source
129、:UNCTAD calculations,based on data from Clarksons Research.Average ship age has been increasing partly because,in the wet and dry bulk sector especially,shipowners have been uncertain about future technological developments and the most cost-efficient fuels,as well as about changing regulations and
130、carbon prices.To benefit from the current high freight and charter rates,they have therefore kept their older ships in operation.In 2020,in terms of gross tons,ship deliveries contracted,but in 2021 they increased by 5.2 per cent.Nevertheless,shipbuilding volumes remain below the 20142017 levels.Mar
131、itime trade recovery faces unprecedented port congestion and unreliable schedulesThe global logistics logjam started in late 2020 and intensified in 2021.Congested ports struggled to cope with increased demand,as they and their hinterland connections were often short of equipment,of labour and of st
132、orage facilities.As a result,in 2021 global average container schedule delays doubled.And on REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxthe Far East and North America routes,between the first quarter of 2020 and the last quarter of 2021,delays increased from two days to 12.Meanwhile,between 2020 and 2021,me
133、dian turnaround time for container ships increased by 13.7 per cent(table 1).Table 1 Time in port,vessel age and size,by vessel type,2021(world total)Source:UNCTAD,based on data provided by MarineTraffic.Note:Ships of 1,000 GT and above.Not including passenger ships and Ro/Ro vessels.Vessel typeMedi
134、an time in port(days)Median time in port,annual change(%)Average size(GT)of vessels Maximum size(GT)of vessels Average cargo carrying capacity(dwt)per vesselMaximum cargo carrying capacity(dwt)of vesselsAverage container carrying capacity(TEU)per container shipContainer ships0.8013.737 223237 2003 4
135、31Dry breakbulk carriers1.172.15 46391 7847 427116 173Dry bulk carriers2.112.332 011204 01457 268404 389LNG carriers1.130.995 356168 18974 522155 159LPG carriers1.03-1.510 54161 00011 79964 220Liquid bulk carriers0.981.315 739170 61827 275323 183All ships1.054.821 732237 20026 997404 3893 431Port co
136、ngestion was initially concentrated in three hotspots:China,Northern Europe,and the West Coast of the United States.But as shipping lines redeployed ships to the busier and more profitable United States and China routes other countries suffered even more.Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean,fo
137、r example,lost more than 10 per cent of their direct liner shipping connections(figure 5).Many developing countries were faced with late arrival of vessels and shortage of containers.13.5Latin America andthe Caribbean12.4Africa3.7Europe2.9Asia and Oceania2.6Northern America7.2World1510 50Figure 5 Nu
138、mber of direct calls by region from 2020Q3 to 2022Q2(percentage change)Source:UNCTAD,based on data provided by MDS Transmodal.In addition,carriers seeking greater profitability changed their shipping patterns,stopping calls at certain ports.Since the beginning of the pandemic,schedule reliability ha
139、s dropped consistently,resulting in losses to shippers totalling$510 billion.Shippers have complained about this and the withdrawal of shipping capacity,especially from smaller and vulnerable developing countries,as well as about high charges for demurrage and detention,and called on governments to
140、scrutinize the industry more closely.Congestion and logistical problems persist in 2022,prompting rerouting and new regional services in Asia In 2022,the pandemic continued to disrupt supply chains and maritime transport,with many ships stuck in port.Over the period 20162019,port congestion had caus
141、ed around 32 per cent of world REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxiAs of mid-2022,many pandemic-driven conditions were unwinding.Capacity constraints were easing,spot freight rates moderating(but still above the pre-pandemic levels),and volumes were not increasing so fast.Less port congestion frees
142、up more shipping supply and helps dissipate logistics logjams and the supply-chain crunch.Nevertheless,maritime trade conditions and logistics could deteriorate depending on the state of the world economy.Divergent freight rate pathways with high volatility and uncertainty loomingAt the start of 202
143、2,container freight rates remained high and volatile,though they started to drop in the second quarter of the year.Future rates will be driven by a number of factors,working singly or in combination,suggesting greater volatility and an overall downward trend in some segments.These include increased
144、uncertainty regarding demand,the extent of port congestion,potential new supply chain disruptions,and the effects of the war in Ukraine,including increased fuel costs.containership fleet capacity to be held up at ports,but by July 2022 the proportion had reached 37 per cent.In spring 2022,Chinas zer
145、o-COVID policy led to lockdowns in Shenzhen and Shanghai,two of its largest manufacturing and commercial centres,requiring carriers to reroute to alternate ports such as Ningbo.To fill the gaps left by the redeployment of ships to the more lucrative East-West trade lanes,Asian regional carriers laun
146、ched new intra-Asia services or enhanced existing loops to provide additional calls.Container freight rates reach historic highs In 2021,the shortage of shipping capacity and continued disruptions caused by COVID-19,combined with a rebound in trade volumes boosted container freight rates to record l
147、evels.By mid-2021,rates had peaked at four times their pre-pandemic levels.Container carriers also faced extra expenses,but were able to post record profits.Spot container freight rates also surged on other routes,including those to developing regions.For example,in 2019 on the China to South Americ
148、a(Santos)route the rates per TEU were around$2,000 but by December 2020 were$6,543,and by December 2021 had reached$10,196.Over the same period,December 2020December 2021,rates per TEU on the Shanghai to South Africa(Durban)route increased from$2,521 to$6,450 and on the Shanghai to West Africa(Lagos
149、)route increased from$2,521 to$7,452(figure 6).02 0004 0006 0008 00010 00012 00014 000Sep-2018Dec-2018Mar-2019Jun-2019Sep-2019Dec-2019Mar-2020Jun-2020Sep-2020Dec-2020Mar-2021Jun-2021Sep-2021Dec-2021Mar-2022Jun-2022Sep-2022SCFI Shanghai-Europe(base port)Container Freight Rate($/TEU)SCFI Shanghai-Med(
150、base port)Container Freight Rate($/TEU)SCFI Shanghai-WC America(base port)Container Freight Rate($/FEU)SCFI Shanghai-EC America(base port)Container Freight Rate($/FEU)SCFI Shanghai-W Africa(Lagos)Container Freight Rate($/TEU)SCFI Shanghai-S Africa(Durban)Container Freight Rate($/TEU)SCFI Shanghai-S
151、America(Santos)Container Freight Rate($/TEU)SCFI Shanghai-SE Asia(Singapore)Container Freight Rate($/TEU)Figure 6 Shanghai containerized freight index(SCFI)monthly spot rates,September 2018 to September 2022,selected routesSource:UNCTAD secretariat,based on data from Clarkson Shipping Intelligence N
152、etwork.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxiiBy early 2022,freight rates had already started to decline on some routes,and from mid-year there was a drastic downturn.Over four weeks between August and September,there was a double-digit fall.By the third week of September,the Shanghai Container Freigh
153、t Index had dropped by nearly 60 per cent.Nevertheless,these rates are more than double the pre-pandemic averages.Container freight rates can be expected to decline further as merchandise trade normalizes and newly built vessels enter the market.But freight rates and their volatility will increasing
154、ly be shaped by environmental regulations.In 2023,the IMOs Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index(EEXI)and Carbon Intensity Indicator(CII)measures will come into force for all vessel types.These will likely reduce shipping capacity as they stipulate slower sailing speeds to save fuel and will require
155、 some vessels to be retrofitted or recycled.For dry bulk shipping,by September 2022 rates had softened as congestion eased and Chinas economy slowed.Future demand will be affected by a persistent pandemic and its impact on supply chains,a global economic slowdown and volatile commodity prices,while
156、the supply will depend on fleet growth,for which in 2022 deliveries only grew by 3.6 per cent.Dry bulk freight rates are further being disrupted by the war in Ukraine as well as by higher operational costs arising from the energy transition and new environmental regulations.For oil tankers,freight r
157、ates can be expected to increase with a potential rise in oil demand and trade and a reshuffling of global oil flows resulting from the war in Ukraine.There is also likely to be some fall in capacity as the IMOs EEXI and CII regulations take old tankers out of markets.Digital trade facilitation spee
158、ds up customs clearance,and the release of goods,particularly during emergenciesMany supply chain disruptions and logistical logjams can be eased through trade facilitation,especially in the developing and least developed countries,and particularly by digitalization which enhances transparency,speed
159、s up clearance,allows for risk management and pre-arrival processing,and enables more responsive and agile processes.Indeed,had COVID-19 struck a few decades earlier the disruption would have been far worse.A number of trade facilitation solutions specifically aim to cut waiting and clearance times
160、in ports.Some speed up documentary processes,including pre-arrival processing,with the use of e-documents and electronic payments.Others relate to enabling the separation of release from clearance where goods can be conveyed directly to warehouses of trusted importers to await subsequent clearance,o
161、ften not even undergoing physical inspections.Trade facilitation also provides for specific measures for shipments of medical supplies,emergency goods,and perishable cargoes,with expedited procedures.The war in Ukraine disrupts food and energy supplies and moves shipping into sharp focusThe war in U
162、kraine,and the related economic restrictive measures,are affecting maritime transport far beyond Europe and the war zone.The war dented global business confidence,amplified uncertainty and increased volatility.The effects rippled across commodity and financial markets,and supply chains,with serious
163、implications for food and energy security as well as for inflation and the cost of living.Inflation had already started rising in 2021 amid high freight rates,but the war in Ukraine further drove up commodity prices and inflation,opening up the prospect of stagflation and a global recession.Ukraine
164、and the Russian Federation are among the worlds breadbaskets;they provide around 30 per cent of the worlds wheat and barley,one-fifth of its maize,and over half of its sunflower oil.The Russian Federation is also a major supplier for other critical products:together with Belarus,the country exports
165、around a fifth of the worlds fertilizers,and is leading exporter of natural gas and the second-largest exporter of oil.The war thus has serious implications for commodity shipments and food security and has brought shipping and ports to the forefront of public attention.The war stopped grain shipmen
166、ts through Black Sea ports,with dire consequences for poor countries.In 2021,Ukraines grain exports had been about 4.2 million tons per month,totalling 50 million tons for the year.By early March 2022 they had dropped to zero.Food prices,which had already been increasing,then soared.Dry bulk freight
167、 rates also increased because of the war in Ukraine,rising energy costs,and the prolonged pandemic.An UNCTAD simulation projects that higher grain prices and dry bulk freight rates can contribute to a 1.2 per cent increase in consumer food prices(figure 7).The price increases will be slightly higher
168、 in middle-income economies whose food imports depend more on dry bulk shipping(figure 8).Low-income economies have limited capacity in primary food processing and import more processed food which arrives in containers(figure 9).REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxiii00.20.40.60.81.01.21.41.61.2World
169、Impact from dry bulk freight ratesImpact from global grain pricesTotal1.1Low income1.4Lower middle income1.2Upper middle income0.8High incomeFigure 7 Impact of higher dry bulk freight rates and global grain prices on consumer food prices,selected country groups(percentage change)Source:UNCTAD calcul
170、ations based on data provided by Clarksons Research,Shipping Intelligence Network,the IMF,International Financial Statistics,Direction of Trade Statistics and Consumer Price Index,UNCTADstat,and the World Bank,World Integrated Trade Solution,Commodity Price Data(The Pink Sheet)and A Global Database
171、of Inflation.30.8World18.8Low income44.0Lower middle income40.4Upper middle income19.7High incomeFigure 8 Share of grains imported by bulk ships in total food imports,selected country groups,2019(percentage)Source:UNCTAD calculations based on data provided by Sea/(www.sea.live)and Food and Agricultu
172、re Organization,Food Balances.30.369.7World8.591.5Low income37.462.6Lower middle income28.671.4Upper middle income30.469.6High incomePrimary food productsProcessed food productsFigure 9 Share of primary and processed food products in food imports mainly for household consumption,selected country gro
173、ups,2020(percentage)Source:UNCTAD calculations based on World Bank,World Integrated Trade Solution.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxivProspects improved in July 2022 as the United Nations,the Russian Federation,Trkiye and Ukraine agreed the Black Sea Grain Initiative.The initiative allows exports
174、from Ukraine of grain,other foodstuffs,and fertilizers,including ammonia,to resume through a safe maritime humanitarian corridor from three key Ukrainian ports:Chornomorsk,Odesa,and Yuzhny/Pivdennyi,to the rest of the world.A Joint Coordination Centre(JCC)was established in Istanbul to monitor imple
175、mentation of the deal.Shipments monitored by the Initiative began on 1 August.As of 12 October 7.2 million tons of grains and other foodstuffs had left Ukraine.This freed up some space in Ukraines silos still full from previous harvests,but more grain needs to be exported to allow for storage of the
176、 new harvest.Equally important is resuming fertilizer exports.One major obstacle for grain-carrying ships from Ukraines Black Sea ports is insurance.Ships from the Russian Federation also face high vessel insurance premiums.The war alters trading patterns and disrupts supply chainsFollowing the war
177、in Ukraine,trade patterns are shifting as buyers seek substitute suppliers,who are usually more distant,adding to ton-miles.Nigeria,for example,is now sourcing potash from Canada,while Egypt is importing wheat from India,as are several East Asian countries.African countries are importing more grain
178、from Brazil,while China is expected to switch its corn sources to Brazil and buy more from the United States.The European Union is also likely to import more corn from Brazil and from the United States.Oil and gas trades are also being reconfigured as the war deeply challenged global energy supply.B
179、ans on Russian exports are likely to boost global coal demand,while also stimulating investment in renewable electricity,which will in turn boost the demand for minor bulk metals.There have also been impacts on container shipping.Nine of the top-ten global container lines have suspended operations i
180、n the Black Sea region,while other logistics businesses have exited the Russian market.As a result,between the first and second quarters of 2022 Ukraine lost all its liner shipping connections.Over the same period,the Russian Federation lost 50 per cent of its liner services for its ports in the Bla
181、ck Sea,Baltic Sea and the Far East.The fall in direct connections to the Black Sea area has affected global logistics,and amplified port congestion in Europe.Moving ahead,the wars impact on container shipping is likely to deepen as a protracted war will dampen global economic growth,cut consumer spe
182、nding power and reduce demand.It will also increase oil prices,inflation,and the cost of living,and add economic and investor uncertainty.The Russian Federation and Ukraine are not deeply integrated into global networks for container shipping.Nevertheless,because the two countries supply metals used
183、 in the manufacture of cars and renewables the war is amplifying global supply chain disruptions.In addition,restrictions have made it difficult for shippers and logistics service providers to use the ChinaEurope rail route which runs through the Russian Federation.They are,however,finding new route
184、s,such as the Middle corridor and the Trans-Caspian International Transport Route.Seafarers are affected by the lasting pandemic,and by new disruptions In 2022,based on lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic,governments,seafarers and shipowners agreed amendments to theILO Maritime Labour Convention,whic
185、h aimed to strengthen ship health and safety policies and improve seafarer access to medical care ashore and to communications lines with their loved ones.The International Chamber of Shipping also released guidelines for ship operators and shipping companies,covering seafarer health and wellbeing,a
186、nd vaccination best practices.WHO has issued guidance for the management of COVID-19 on cargo ships and fishing vessels,and has started work towards an international instrument on pandemic preparedness and response.In April 2022,the IMO adopted a resolution on the evacuation of seafarers from war zo
187、nes around the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.The organization has also encouraged continuing efforts to create safe maritime corridors and evacuate seafarers from affected areas,and issued guidance on the impact of the situation in the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov on insurance or other financial se
188、curity certificates.Pandemic-related disruptions affect international commercial contracts With more than 80 per cent of global merchandise trade carried by sea,and much of global commodities trade conducted on cost,insurance,freight(CIF)and free on board(FOB)terms,the pandemic has legal implication
189、s for many closely interconnected commercial contracts.In all cases where performance is REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxvdisrupted,delayed,or has become impossible,legal consequences and claims arise,involving complex jurisdictional issues and increasing the need for costly dispute resolution.Co
190、mmercial risks arising from the pandemic should be fairly allocated through suitably drafted contractual clauses,but considerations will differ depending on the type of contract and the relative bargaining power of the parties.Governments can also provide support,for example by strengthening formal
191、and informal dispute resolution mechanisms and by considering possible mandatory controls on container demurrage accruing at pandemic-affected ports.MARITIME TRADE IN A RAPIDLY CHANGING AND UNPREDICTABLE WORLDMaritime transport and trade systems are thus evolving in complex global economic environme
192、nt and being buffeted by cascading disruptions.But they are also being reshaped by other global factors that can trigger structural shifts.These include climate change and the energy transition,the need for sustainability and resilience,digitalization and e-commerce,and growing market and industry c
193、onsolidation.E-commerce expansion outlives the pandemic driven by changing consumer habits and technology The pandemic resulted in a surge in e-commerce for consumer goods transported in containers.Even as the pandemic eases and the global economy reopens,these trends are continuing.Shippers,retaile
194、rs and supply chain managers are increasingly adjusting their operations and reassessing their logistics systems.Major maritime businesses have,for example,been extending their activities by tapping areas such as air freight,final-mile delivery,and e-commerce logistics.In 2021 Maersk,for example,the
195、 second world largest container line,acquired various e-commerce logistics companies,including a cloud-based logistics start-up that specializes in technology solutions for B2C warehousing for the fashion industry.Ecommerce is acutely time-sensitive so shipping and port operators need to speed up th
196、eir services to remain competitive while also differentiating themselves.This will entail changing shipping patterns and port operations,and extending warehousing capacity.Going forward,digital tools that enable e-commerce growth,collaboration and data sharing will all be important for reaping the f
197、ull benefits of the growing e-commerce segment.Digitalization transforms trade and transport Disruptions are accelerating the use of technology to navigate through the complexities of transport planning and supply chain operations.In a post-COVID,post-war era,higher expectations of rapid delivery pu
198、t a premium on efficiency,optimization,reliability,visibility,resilience,predictability,and sustainability.If maritime transport operators are to navigate through this new environment,they will need to find innovative business models,and use more advanced digital technologies.Digitally enabled shopp
199、ing boosts trade.At the same time,other technologies,such as automation which may reduce the need to offshore production to take advantage of lower labour costs,will probably constrain trade flows.Either way,maritime transport and trade will need to adjust and adapt to technology,and an important pa
200、rt of this is to defend information and communication systems and infrastructure against ever present threats to cybersecurity.Governments and international organizations must therefore make every effort to close digital divides in transport and logistics and ensure that developing countries can als
201、o ride the digitalization wave.Frequent disruptions and geopolitical risks fuel supply chain reconfiguration debate The limitations of the just-in-time supply chain model have been exposed not only by the pandemic but by other disruptors observed over the past decade,including,earthquakes,floods,blo
202、ckage of strategic maritime passages,trade tensions and restrictive trade measures.In 2022,supply chains were further threatened by the deteriorating geopolitical environment especially those that relied on one or two suppliers,whether for food,energy or parts and components.These risks were spotlig
203、hted by the 20212022 semiconductor shortages,whose effects rippled across many industries,notably car manufacturing,electronics,and healthcare.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxviThese developments have reignited the debate over globalization and the future of lean supply chains.Rather than relying
204、 on just-in-time models,some companies are therefore revising their operations and considering adopting just-in-case and just-enough business models and seeking other ways to build resilience,supply chain integrity and continuity.Instead of seeking lowest-cost solutions,more companies are pursuing b
205、est-cost options that balance manufacturing and transportation costs against factors such as supply chain resilience and environmental sustainability.While the debate is ongoing,thus far there is no evidence of a mass exodus from distant manufacturing.Reshoring may not be feasible for all manufactur
206、ers because domestic suppliers will require the capacity to rapidly scale up operations as well as build the required expertise.In these circumstances,shifts in sourcing are likely to be more gradual.Authorities need to ensure competitive markets in the face of industry consolidation Often in respon
207、se to oversupply of capacity,the container shipping sector has undergone horizontal consolidation through mergers and acquisitions,including outside shipping.Shipping carriers have also pursued vertical integration by investing in terminal operations and other logistics services.They are also workin
208、g together in consortia and alliances.As a result,between 1996 and 2022,the top 20 carriers increased their share of container-carrying capacity from 48 to 91 per cent.And over the past five years the four largest carriers increased their market shares so as to control more than half of global capac
209、ity(figure 10).An important consideration is the number of companies that provide services in each country.Generally,this has been falling.As indicated in figure 11,between 2006 and 2022 the average number dropped from 18 to 13.At the same time,the average size of the largest ship arriving in each c
210、ountry almost tripled.As ships expand faster than volumes,this tends to squeeze out smaller competitors.Compared with 2006,the number of companies offering services to importers and exporters rose in 56 countries,but fell in 110 countries,and notably in several small island developing States,where a
211、 duopoly of just two carriers dropped to a monopoly of one.Vertical integration has enabled the four largest container shipping lines to offer more of their own terminal services.Today the two largest container terminal operators,in terms of throughput,are China Cosco Shipping and APM Terminals,both
212、 of which are affiliated to two major Chinese and Danish shipping lines.The most common form of collaboration is strategic alliances.Since 2015,the proportion of global capacity controlled by carrier members of such alliances has increased to more than 80 per cent.Today,the top nine container operat
213、ors organize their East-West route services through three strategic alliances that include no smaller carriers.Integration has given carriers and their alliances stronger negotiating and bargaining positions vis-vis the port authorities,as they now have two seats at the table as both tenants of term
214、inals and providers of shipping services.20000202024550556065707580859095Top 20Top 10Top 4Figure 10 Market shares of top four,top ten and top twenty carriers,20112022(percentage)Source:UNCTAD,based on data provided by Alphaliner.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPOR
215、T 2022xxviiTo meet climate goals,shipping and ports look to alternative fuelsShip owners face more stringent environmental regulations.On 1st January 2023 three new IMO regulations come into force aiming to reduce maritime greenhouse gas emissions and the environmental impact of ships.One is the CII
216、 regulation,on the basis of which 30 to 40 per cent of containerships and dry bulk carriers were considered non-compliant in 2021.The most immediate way to reduce emissions is slow sailing.But ship owners can also retrofit their ships with energy-efficient technologies so as to use alternative fuels
217、 such as LNG,methanol,ammonia,or electricity,or make operational changes.This will drive up costs and affect insurance coverage,as well as future access to investment and capital.Alternative fuels currently cost two to five times as much as conventional fuel so are not yet commercially viable.Fleet
218、owners can,however,keep their options open with dual-fuel vessels.As of 1 March 2022,almost 40 per cent of the orderbook consisted of ships capable of running on one or more fuels.To scale up the use of alternative fuels,ports need to provide low-emission energy supply infrastructure.Ports,carriers
219、and everyone involved in maritime supply chains can redefine the competitive landscape for low-emission shipping.This could,however,create a two-tier system of ports and corridors in which only small proportion are alternative-energy-ready.This would limit the number of potential routes.Climate chan
220、ge mitigation and adaptation in maritime transport:two sides of the same coin Adapting ports to the impacts of climate change is a growing concern for policymakers and industry alike,but progress on the ground remains slow.There is a growing risk of climate change impacts threatening ports,with impo
221、rtant implications for the sustainable development prospects of the most vulnerable nations.At COP26 in Glasgow the Clydebank Declaration aimed by 2025 to establish six zero-emission green corridors entirely decarbonized maritime routes between two or more ports.Also at that conference,the Climate V
222、ulnerable Forum,comprising more than 50 developing countries,issued the Dhaka-Glasgow Declaration which included a call for the IMO to work on a mandatory GHG levy on international shipping.To accelerate efforts on climate change mitigation,the IMO has started work on a revised GHG Strategy for cons
223、ideration in 2023,as well as on mid-term measures,including some that are market-based.In addition,there are proposals to establish an International Maritime Research and Development Board,and a related fund which could finance the development of zero-GHG technologies to be available to all countrie
224、s.Other proposals for market-based measures include the use of generated funds for financing climate change adaptation investments,especially in the most vulnerable economies.At the EU level,regulatory proposals are under consideration to extend the EU Emission Trading Scheme to maritime transport a
225、ctivities;if and when adopted,these could have potentially important implications for both intra and extra EU trade.5 000 7 000 9 000 11 000 13 000 15 000 17 000 19 000 21 000 23 000 25 00057912325 2006 Q1 2006 Q4 2007 Q3 2008 Q2 2009 Q1 2009 Q4 2010 Q3 2011 Q2 2012 Q1 2012 Q4 2013 Q3 201
226、4 Q2 2015 Q1 2015 Q4 2016 Q3 2017 Q2 2018 Q1 2018 Q4 2019 Q3 2020 Q2 2021 Q1 2021 Q4 2022 Q2Companies per country,averageLargest ship,TEUFigure 11 Average number of companies providing services per country,and size of the largest ship,Q1 2006Q2 2022Source:UNCTAD,based on data provided by MDS Transmo
227、dal.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxviiiReducing pollution from shipping As well as emitting CO2,ships are a major sources of air pollution.From 2020,to comply with theInternational Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,1973/1978,ships operating worldwide,have had to use fuels tha
228、t contain less than 0.5 per cent sulphur.In 2021,the IMOs Marine Environment Protection Committee adopted updated guidelines for exhaust cleaning systems,as well as a resolution urging the voluntary use of cleaner alternative fuels or methods of propulsion that could contribute to the reduction of b
229、lack carbon emissions from ships operating in or near the Arctic.Another major form of maritime pollution is associated with bunker oil spills.Work continues at the IMO on developing a claims manual for the Bunker Oil Pollution Convention,2001 which governs liability for bunker oil spills from vesse
230、ls other than tankers.Care should be taken in further related work to ensure that the manual effectively responds to the needs and concerns of claimants,including in vulnerable developing countries.In November 2021,reacting to the ever-growing crisis of plastic pollution the IMO adopted a strategy o
231、n marine plastic litter from ships.And in March 2022,UNEP adopted a resolution to start work towards an international legally binding instrument to end plastic pollution.Discussions also continue on elaborating the text of an international legally binding instrument under the UNCLOS 1982 on the cons
232、ervation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction.Maritime transport needs to keep pace with change and ensure resilience Faced with a rapidly changing operating landscape,along sudden disruptions,the maritime trade and transport industry,including shi
233、pping,ports,and shippers,has little option but to keep pace with change.Returning to a pre-COVID and pre-war normal seems less and less likely,so maritime trade stakeholders will need to strike balances between a new,and often competing,sets of objectives and priorities.Already,and largely accelerat
234、ed by the pandemic,industry stakeholders are shifting focus and revisiting plans and strategies.While the pace of this trend may vary across shipping segments and stakeholders,much of maritime transport industry is putting more priority on customer relations,managing risks,stronger planning,prepared
235、ness,resilience and digitalization.They are also increasingly reinventing their own image and service offerings including by tapping new business areas and frontiers with end-to-end control over supply chains.The maritime industry should also build womens skills and achieve gender equality The ports
236、 industry is still dominated by men.The UNCTAD TRAINFORTRADE Port Performance Scorecard(PPS)gathers data from 58 port entities and in 2021 found that women made up only 17 per cent of the overall port workforce.Most were employed in management where they were 43 per cent of workers,though the propor
237、tion was higher in Asia at 60 per cent.But for cargo handling women were only 8 per cent of workers,and for port operations only 6 per cent.Ports need to conduct more training for both women and men.In 20202021,training was only a small proportion of labour costs,partly because ports reallocated fun
238、ds to managing the pandemic while also switching to cheaper online and distance learning.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxixPRIORITY ACTION AREAS 1.Governments should control the pandemic and mitigate its impact on the most vulnerable This calls for better access to vaccines,testing and to therapi
239、es,particularly in developing countries.Governments will need to minimize lockdowns and restrictions that could unduly penalize recovery in vulnerable economies.2.Support growth,protect the poorest,and enable trade Promote economic growth and strengthen macroeconomic frameworks,while taming inflatio
240、n and reducing financial vulnerability.Help the most vulnerable by promoting food security and reducing poverty.Avoid export and import restrictions that compound disruptions.3.Tackle supply side infrastructure and services constraints Before investment,carefully assess potential changes in shipping
241、 demand.Enhance transport infrastructure,improve port performance and productivity,enable connectivity,expand storage and warehousing space and capabilities,minimize labour and equipment shortages,and generally make ports and their hinterland connections more efficient and adequate to handle shifts
242、in demand.Develop and upgrade port infrastructure and hinterland connections while involving the private sector.Develop regional fleets and shipping services to tackle high transport costs and other challenges faced by developing countries.4.Implement transport and trade facilitation solutions at po
243、rts and borders Speed up processes through digitalization,particularly pre-arrival processing,electronic payments,and e-documents.Continuously simplify procedures and requirements and remove those no longer needed.For any trade measure,choose the least trade restrictive.Adopt smart and green trade l
244、ogistics systems and remove legal and regulatory obstacles to the use of electronic documents.Facilitate crew changes and address the seafarers crew change crisis,through collective action by governments and industry.Coordinate efforts,enhance collaboration,share information and prepare for coordina
245、ted solutions.Employ real-time,digital platforms and electronic single windows using the AIS/GIS system.5.Move to a clean-energy and low-emissions future Establish a predictable global regulatory framework for investing in the energy transition and decarbonization.Raise awareness of the new IMO regu
246、lations and support implementation and compliance.Help ports in developing countries harness the energy transition and decarbonization.6.Encourage digitalization and tapping the opportunities from e-commerce Help developing countries expand the use of digitalization and e-commerce,and adopt smart ma
247、ritime logistics.Provide more training,particularly for the use of new technology.Upgrade trade facilitation and logistics infrastructure and services,including last-mile logistics.7.Monitor freight rates and charges Monitor industry trends and,when necessary,take action to ensure level playing fiel
248、d that does not exclude smaller players,including stakeholders in developing countries.Establish monitoring tools and performance measurements,including regional maritime indices and freight observatories.Introduce mandatory controls on demurrage charges for containers at ports,and strengthen formal
249、 and informal dispute resolution mechanisms.REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022xxx8.Ensure competitive markets Strengthen the capacity of national regulators as well as competition and port authorities,especially in SIDS and LDCs and introduce more transparent indices for freight costs,similar to thos
250、e available for the main shipping routes.Competition and port authorities should work together respond to vertical integration of carriers with measures to protect competition.Strengthen international cooperation on cross-border,anti-competitive practices in maritime transport,including on the basis
251、 of the UN Set of Competition Rules and Principles,and using the expertise of UNCTAD.9.Build resilience Establish a long-term vision and resource mobilization strategy for resilient and sustainable maritime supply chains.Help developing countries build capacities to anticipate,prepare for,respond to
252、,and recover from,significant multi-hazard threats,by promoting agile and resilient maritime transport systems.Invest in risk management and emergency preparedness for pandemics and other disruptive events in ports and maritime supply chains.Upscale capacity-building and affordable infrastructure fi
253、nance for climate change adaptation and resilience-building of seaports and other critical transport infrastructure in developing countries.When reconfiguring supply chains and deciding on where to locate production for more resilient supply chains,options should be carefully assessed to balance eff
254、iciency and cost savings,and concerns for national security,autonomy,self-reliance and resilience.Employ more women in ports and scale up staff training as a resilience-building strategy.10.Revitalize multilateral cooperation Build stronger and more effective multilateral cooperation frameworks that
255、 can reduce conflict and disruptions,accelerate a robust and inclusive global recovery,address climate change and its impacts,and move towards low-carbon growth.International maritime trade flows,which had declined in 2020 by 3.8 per cent,bounced back in 2021 with 3.2 per cent growth,to a total of 1
256、1.0 billion tons only slightly below pre-pandemic levels.The recovery was supported by an easing in the pandemic,with corresponding overall improving economic conditions and increased consumer spending.However,the revival in maritime trade was still constrained,not just by recurring COVID-19 disrupt
257、ions but also by unprecedented port congestion and a global logistics logjam.Compounded by shortages of equipment and labour,these constraints also resulted in higher freight rates and less reliable services.In 2022,the fragile recovery lost steam.There was fresh disruption from the war in Ukraine,w
258、hich contributed to global increases in inflation and the cost of living.At the same time there were new waves of COVID-19 that further disrupted supply chains,particularly in China which had a zero-COVID policy.The world now faces the prospect of recession and stagflation.For 2022,UNCTAD expects ma
259、ritime trade growth to slow to 1.4 per cent,or lower should the headwinds intensify.The war in Ukraine has also caused shifts in trade patterns and partners,generally extending the distances that goods have to travel as registered in an increase in total ton-miles.The pandemic and the war have harde
260、ned geopolitical risks and provided further reasons for retreat from globalization,and accelerated other trends in consumer behaviour with more extensive digitalization.The maritime seascape is also being transformed by demands for more resilience and sustainability and the need to decarbonize requi
261、ring stakeholders to adjust rapidly to change while remaining relevant,profitable,and customer-centred.Policy makers also need to keep their sights on longer-term goals.The immediate disruptions should be seen as opportunities for positive structural change for maritime transport to embrace digitali
262、zation and decarbonization and the transition to alternative sources of energy.In an increasingly unpredictable environment,policy makers can design new forms of resilience and build more secure supply chains that avoid further fragmentation of the world trading system.1 INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE
263、1.INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE3A.INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE FLOWSThis chapter reviews international maritime trade flows,covering 2021 and extending until mid-2022.Section A looks at the performance across market segments while Section B considers the disrupted and unpredictable environment and ot
264、her influences.Section C presents the outlook,and Section D sets out some considerations for the way forward.1.In 2021,maritime trade surged in response to economic recovery In 2020,because of the fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic,international maritime trade contracted by nearly four per cent,but
265、in 2021 there was a rebound as the global economy started to recover and continued consumer spending,along with an easing in pandemic-related restrictions.Maritime trade grew by 3.2 per cent to a total of 11 billion tons only slightly below the pre-pandemic level(tables 1.1 and 1.2,figure 1.1).Never
266、theless,the recovery was uneven.Containerized cargo,gas,and dry bulk shipping expanded,while shipments of crude oil declined from 16.0 to 15.5 per cent of maritime trade.Table 1.1 International maritime trade,selected years (millions of tons loaded)Source:Compiled by the UNCTAD secretariat based on
267、data supplied by reporting countries and as published on the relevant government and port industry websites,and by specialist sources.Dry cargo data for 2006 onwards has been revised and updated to reflect improved reporting,including more recent figures and a better breakdown by cargo type.Since 20
268、06,the breakdown of dry cargo into“Main bulk”and“Dry cargo other than main bulk”is based on various issues of the Shipping Review&Outlook and Seaborne Trade Monitor,produced by Clarksons Research.Total maritime trade figures for 2021 are estimated based on preliminary data or on the last year for wh
269、ich data were available.a Tanker includes crude oil,refined petroleum products,gas,and chemicals.b Main bulk includes iron ore,grain,coal,bauxite/alumina and phosphate.Starting in 2006,“Main bulk”includes iron ore,grain,and coal only.Data relating to bauxite/alumina and phosphate are included under“
270、Dry cargo other than main bulk”.c Other dry cargo includes minor bulk commodities,containerized trade,and residual general cargo.YearTankeraMain bulkbOther dry cargocTotal cargo19701 4404487172 60519801 8716081 2253 70419901 7559881 2654 00820002 1631 1862 6355 98420052 4221 5793 1087 10920062 6981
271、6763 3287 70220072 7471 8113 4788 03620082 7421 9113 5788 23120092 6411 9983 2187 85720102 7522 2323 4238 408 20112 7852 3643 6268 77520122 8402 5643 7919 19520132 8282 7343 9519 51320142 8252 9644 0549 84220152 9322 9304 16110 02320163 0583 0094 22810 29520173 1463 1514 41910 71620183 2013 2154 603
272、11 01920193 1633 2184 69011 07120202 9183 1964 53110 64520212 9523 2724 76110 9854REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022Table 1.2 International maritime trade,20202021,by type of cargo,country group and regionSource:Compiled by the UNCTAD secretariat based on data supplied by reporting countries and as p
273、ublished on the relevant government and port industry websites,and by specialist sources.Dry cargo data for 2006 onwards has been revised and updated to reflect improved reporting,including more recent figures and a better breakdown by cargo type.Total maritime trade figures for 2021 are estimated b
274、ased on preliminary data or on the last year for which data were available.a Other tanker includes refined petroleum products,gas,and chemicals.Note:Since March 2021,the category“transition economies”is no longer used by UNCTAD.Economies formerly classified as“transition economies”and located in Eur
275、ope,are reassigned to the“developed regions”grouping,and the economies formerly classified as“transition economies”and found in Asia,are reassigned to the“developing regions”grouping.For more extended time series and data before 2021 see UNCTADstat Data Center at http:/unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/Tabl
276、eViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=32363.Country group YearGoods loadedGoods dischargedTotalCrude oil Other tanker tradea Dry cargoTotalCrude oil Other tanker tradea Dry cargoMillions of tonsWorld 2020 10 644.9 1 715.4 1 202.7 7 726.8 10 633.9 1 864.1 1 223.6 7 546.2 2021 10 985.4 1 700.4 1 252.0 8 033
277、.0 10 975.5 1 846.4 1 273.3 7 855.8 Developed economies 2020 4 820.7 438.7 489.2 3 892.8 4 110.1 878.2 395.9 2 836.0 2021 4 936.1 428.7 502.8 4 004.5 4 277.9 878.8 429.9 2 969.2 Developing economies 2020 5 824.3 1 276.7 713.5 3 834.0 6 523.8 985.9 827.7 4 710.2 2021 6 049.3 1 271.6 749.2 4 028.5 6 6
278、97.6 967.6 843.3 4 886.6 Africa 2020 736.2 235.1 84.2 417.0 509.9 30.7 107.2 372.0 2021 762.4 226.4 99.8 436.2 553.2 24.9 118.5 409.8 America 2020 1 372.6 202.0 75.1 1 095.5 589.6 39.1 129.4 421.2 2021 1 382.7 190.1 70.9 1 121.8 637.7 36.4 128.9 472.3 Asia 2020 3 701.0 838.1 547.2 2 315.7 5 410.5 91
279、5.4 586.8 3 908.4 2021 3 889.3 853.5 574.0 2 461.8 5 492.4 905.6 591.0 3 995.8 Oceania 2020 14.5 1.5 7.1 5.8 13.8 0.7 4.4 8.7 2021 14.8 1.6 4.5 8.7 14.3 0.7 4.9 8.7 Country group YearGoods loadedGoods dischargedTotalCrude oil Other tanker tradea Dry cargoTotalCrude oil Other tanker tradea Dry cargoP
280、ercentage shareWorld 2020 100.0 16.1 11.3 72.6 100.0 17.5 11.5 71.0 2021 100.0 15.5 11.4 73.1 100.0 16.8 11.6 71.6 Developed economies 2020 45.3 25.6 40.7 50.4 38.7 47.1 32.4 37.6 2021 44.9 25.2 40.2 49.9 39.0 47.6 33.8 37.8 Developing economies 2020 54.7 74.4 59.3 49.6 61.3 52.9 67.6 62.4 2021 55.1
281、 74.8 59.8 50.1 61.0 52.4 66.2 62.2 Africa 2020 12.6 18.4 11.8 10.9 7.8 3.1 12.9 7.9 2021 12.6 17.8 13.3 10.8 8.3 2.6 14.0 8.4 America 2020 23.6 15.8 10.5 28.6 9.0 4.0 15.6 8.9 2021 22.9 14.9 9.5 27.8 9.5 3.8 15.3 9.7 Asia 2020 63.5 65.6 76.7 60.4 82.9 92.8 70.9 83.0 2021 64.3 67.1 76.6 61.1 82.0 93
282、.6 70.1 81.8 Oceania 2020 0.2 0.1 1.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.2 2021 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.2 1.INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE5Maritime trade has also been quite volatile.In comparison with the previous year,in January 2021 trade fell three per cent,before increasing by nine per cent in May,then by 0
283、.4 per cent in December.1 There was also a revival in trade adjusted for distance travelled.In 2020,according to Clarksons Research,total ton-miles fell by 1.5 per cent but in 2021 increased by 3.1 per cent,to 58,988 billion(figure 1.2).Growth would have been stronger without recurring waves of COVI
284、D-19 and a logistics crunch.Broken global supply chains,with imbalances in demand and supply,created global manufacturing bottlenecks resulting in many shortages,notably for semiconductors and computer chips,with serious ramifications-6-4-2 0 2 4 6 8 0082009200016201
285、7200212022GDPSeaborne tradeFigure 1.1 International maritime trade and global output,selected years (percentage annual change)Source:UNCTAD secretariat,based on UNCTADstat data and Review of Maritime Transport,various issues.GDP figure for 2022 based on table 1.1,World Output Growth,19912
286、023,UNCTAD Trade and Development Report 2022.Source:UNCTAD secretariat,based on estimates from Clarksons Research(Clarksons Research,2022b).a Includes iron ore,grain,coal,bauxite/alumina,and phosphate.b Estimated.c Forecast.Notes:Ton-miles are estimated by Clarksons Research based on its own data on
287、 seaborne trade and maritime distances.Given methodological differences,containerized trade data in tons sourced from Clarksons Research as reflected in figure 1.2 and figure 1.5 of this report,are not comparable with MDS Transmodal data on containerized trade measured in twenty-foot equivalent unit
288、(TEU)and presented in figures 1.6 and 1.7 and tables 1.5 and 1.6.20042005200620072008200920000192021b 010 00020 00030 00040 00050 00060 00070 000200220032022cMain bulkaOther dry cargoContainerOilGasChemicals2020Figure 1.2 International maritime trade,billions of carg
289、o ton-miles,200220226REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022for electronics and car manufacturing.2 The recovery was also stifled by port congestion and lack of both equipment and labour for both ports and for inland transport,all of which made services less reliable,and raised costs.By mid-2021,container
290、 freight rates were four times higher than pre-pandemic levels.3In 2021,the worlds leading maritime trade-handling centres were the developing countries,which accounted for 55 per cent of global goods loaded(exports)and 61 per cent of goods discharged(imports)(figure 1.3).Historically,the developing
291、 countries have mainly exported raw materials to developed regions.Over the years,however,the patterns have altered as developing countries have increased manufacturing and consumption;since 2017,imports have overtaken exports.The developed countries contributed the remaining 44.9 per cent of export
292、s and just 39 per cent of imports.Behind these headline figures there are substantial regional differences,with most of the change being driven by countries in Asia,particularly China which have become more closely integrated into global manufacturing networks.In 2021,Asia remained the worlds leadin
293、g loading and discharge cargo centre(figure 1.4),accounting for 42 per cent of exports and 64 per cent of imports.Then came the Americas,followed by Europe,Oceania and Africa.LoadedDischarged 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 700200020052006200720082009200001920202021Fi
294、gure 1.3 Participation of developing countries in international maritime trade,selected years(percentage share in total tonnage)Source:UNCTAD secretariat,based on the Review of Maritime Transport,various issues,and table 1.2 of this report.AsiaAmericasEuropeOceaniaAfrica 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70Loaded
295、Dicharged422315Figure 1.4 International maritime trade,by region,2021(percentage share in world tonnage)Source:UNCTAD secretariat,based on table 1.2 of this report.1.INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE72.Recovery was fuelled by bullish growth in world GDP and trade in goods Maritime trade recove
296、red in 2021 with the gradual reopening of economies and greater availability of vaccines.After contracting by 3.4 per cent in 2020,world GDP increased by 5.8 per cent in 2021,the fastest growth in more than five decades(table 1.3).The rebound was underpinned by government support measures,estimated
297、at$16 trillion globally,4 and the release of pent-up consumer demand.Nevertheless,due partly to variations in vaccination roll-out and the extent of government support,there were notable differences between countries.In the developed countries,economic output expanded by 5.2 per cent:in the European
298、 Union GDP increased by 5.4 per cent and in the United States by 5.7 per cent.In developing countries,growth was 6.8 per cent,driven largely by output in Asia:South Asia grew by 6.8 per cent and East Asia by 6.5 per cent.Chinas growth was 8.1 per cent while Indias was 8.2 per cent,despite a second w
299、ave of infection in the second quarter of 2021.In Japan the recovery was slower,with GDP expanding in 2021 by only 1.7 per cent.In Western Asia GDP increased by 6.2 per cent.In Latin America and the Caribbean output rose by 6.6 per cent and in Africa by 5.1 per cent,and also recovered in the least d
300、eveloped countries,albeit growing slower than before the pandemic.In tandem with growth in the world economy and sustained consumer spending,there was a recovery in world merchandise trade as measured by the average growth for imports and exports.The upturn started in the third quarter of 2020 and g
301、ained further steam in 2021.In 2021,world merchandise trade,which had slumped by 5.2 per cent in 2020,grew by 9.7 per cent faster than before the pandemic(table 1.4).For exports,the recovery was driven by countries in Asia where they increased by nearly 13.3 per cent.Region or economy2002
302、2aWorld2.6-3.4 5.8 2.6 Developed economies1.8-4.5 5.2 1.7 of which:United States2.3-3.4 5.7 1.9 European Union(27)1.8-5.9 5.4 2.0 United Kingdom1.7-9.3 7.4 2.6 Japan-0.2-4.5 1.7 1.0 Developing economies3.7-1.7 6.8 3.7 of which:Africa 2.8-2.6 5.1 2.7 East Asia 4.1 0.4 6.5 3.2 of which:China6.0 2.3 8.
303、1 3.9 South Asia3.1-4.5 6.8 4.9 of which:India4.5-6.6 8.2 5.7 Western Asia(excluding Cyprus)1.5-3.5 6.2 4.1 Latin America and the Caribbean-0.0-7.2 6.6 2.6 of which:Brazil1.2-3.9 4.6 1.8 Caribbean1.8-9.6 5.2 4.0 Economies in Transition2.6-2.6 4.9-6.1 of which:Russian Federation 2.2-2.7 4.7-7.4 Least
304、 developed countries(LDCs)4.2-0.3 3.0 3.1 Table 1.3 World economic growth,20192022(annual percentage change)Source:UNCTAD secretariat,based on table 1.1,World Output Growth,19912023,UNCTAD Trade and Development Report 2022.a Forecast.Note:Calculations for country aggregates are based on GDP at const
305、ant 2015 dollars.8REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022On the import side,North America,Latin America and the Caribbean,and Asia all recorded double-digit growth rates.5 3.A multi-paced recovery with a boom for containerized trade and improvements for dry bulk,but a stall for oilIn 2021,there was steady
306、 growth for containerized trade,gas shipments,and for dry bulk commodities iron ore and grains(table 1.1,table 1.2 and figure 1.5).But crude oil shipments declined constrained by high oil inventories,oil production cuts,and lower demand for transport fuel as a result of the pandemic,and slowing dema
307、nd in China.Table 1.4 Growth in the volume of merchandise trade,20192022(annual percentage change)Group/countryVolume exportsVolume imports20022b20022bWorlda0.5-5.29.73.5 0.5-5.2 9.73.5 North America0.4-8.96.53.4-0.6-5.9 12.6 8.5Latin America and the Caribbean-1.3-4.95.61.6-1.8
308、-10.7 25.45.9 Europe0.6-7.87.91.8 0.3-7.3 8.3 5.4Commonwealth of Independent States-0.1-1.70.5-5.8 8.3-5.5 9.1-24.7Africa-0.4-8.15.26.0 3.1-14.77.77.2Middle East-1.3-8.91.414.6 11.2-10.18.411.1 Asia0.90.513.32.9-0.4-1.0 11.1 0.9Source:UNCTAD secretariat,based on data sourced from WTO Trade Statistic
309、s and Outlook.Trade growth to slow sharply in 2023 as global economy faces strong headwinds.Press Release.Press/90.5 October.a Refers to average of export and imports.b Forecast.Source:UNCTAD Review of Maritime Transport,various issues.For 20062021,the breakdown by cargo type is based on Clarksons R
310、esearch,Shipping Review and Outlook,Spring 2022 and Seaborne Trade Monitor,various issues.Note:19802005 figures for“Main bulk”include iron ore,grain,coal,bauxite/alumina,and phosphate.Starting in 2006,“Main bulk”includes iron ore,grain,and coal only.Data relating to bauxite/alumina and phosphate are
311、 included under“Other dry cargo”.a Tanker trade includes crude oil,refined petroleum products,gas,and chemicals.02468525200020052006200720082009200001920202021Tanker tradeaMain bulkContainerOther dry cargoFigure 1.5 International mari
312、time trade by cargo type,selected years(billions of tons loaded)1.INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE9Containerized trade boosted by restocking and consumer demand Containerized trade performed well in 2021,boosted by the pandemic-led demand for consumer goods,particularly from East Asia.Volume,which had d
313、eclined by 1.3 per cent in 2020,rebounded in 2021,reaching 165 million 20-foot equivalent units(TEU)(figure 1.6).This was propelled by improved global economic conditions,combined with released pent-up demand,restocking,and continued spending on consumer goods,increasingly through e-commerce.In 2021
314、,the top five container exporters,accounting for almost half the traffic,were China,the United States,Viet Nam,the Republic of Korea and Japan.China alone accounted for about 30 per cent.6 In the United States,the boom on the Transpacific route reflected the impact of stimulus spending.Around 40 per
315、 cent of total containerized trade was on the main East-West routes between Asia,Europe and the United States(figure 1.7).Non-mainlane East-West routes such as South Asia-Mediterranean accounted for 12.9 per cent,while South-South trades,such as Sub-Saharan Africa to Latin America and the Caribbean,
316、accounted for 12.5 per cent,and North-South,such as Africa to Europe,for 7.8 per cent.In Asia,which is at the heart of global manufacturing,parts and components of goods cross borders several times and contribute 27 per cent of world containerized trade flows equivalent to the combined share of non-
317、mainlane East-West,South-South and North-South flows.Other routes accounted for the remaining shares.Non-mainlane East-West routes such as South Asia-Mediterranean accounted for 12.9 per cent,while South-South trades,such as Sub-Saharan Africa to Latin America and the Caribbean,accounted for 12.5 pe
318、r cent,and North-South,such as Africa to Europe,for 7.8 per cent.In 2021,all these routes recovered,with more robust performance across the main East-West and non-mainlane East-West and South-South routes(table 1.5).Trade on non-mainlane East-West routes increased by 10.5 per cent,a positive outcome
319、 despite a second wave of COVID-19 in South Asia during the second quarter of 2021.Intra-Asian flows dominated this trade as the region is at the heart of global manufacturing where goods parts and components cross borders several times.Performance across container shipping lanes also varied dependi
320、ng on the direction of trade headhaul or backhaul(table 1.6).Volumes on the Transpacific route increased by 15 per cent,reflecting 20 per cent growth on the peak East Asia to North America leg.Meanwhile,trade on the backhaul journey fell Million TEU(left axis)Percentage annual growth-10-505101520 0
321、20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 042005200620072008200920000021Figure 1.6 Global containerized trade,19962021(million 20-foot equivalent units and percentage annual change)Source:UNCTAD secretariat,based on data from MDS Transmo
322、dal(MDST),World Cargo Database,September 2022.https:/www.mdst.co.uk.10REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2022Source:UNCTAD secretariat,based on data from MDS Transmodal(MDST),World Cargo Database,September 2022.https:/www.mdst.co.uk.Note:Non-mainlane Est West:Trade involving Western Asia and the Indian Su
323、b-continent,Europe,North America,and East Asia.North-South:Trade involving Oceania,Sub-Saharan Africa,Latin America,Europe,and North America.South-South:Trade involving Oceania,Western Asia,East Asia,Sub-Saharan Africa,and Latin America.0554045North-SouthSouth-SouthNon-mainlaneEast WestIn
324、tra-RegionalMain East West202120202019Figure 1.7 Global containerized trade by route,20192021(market shares in percentages)Table 1.5 Containerized trade on main East-West and other containerized trader routes,20162021(thousand 20-foot equivalent units and percentage annual change)20019202
325、02021TEUMain East-West routes54 167 57 173 59 844 59 058 58 717 66 273 Other routes 80 825 86 03288 778 91 497 89 902 98 860 of which Non-mainlane East West 17 992 19 043 19 035 19 945 19 282 21 303 North-South11 105 11 726 12 062 12 102 11 769 12 932 South-South15 531 16 917 18 173 18 889 18 428 20
326、 715 Intra-Regional36 197 38 347 39 509 40 561 40 423 43 910 World total134 992143 205148 622 150 555 148 619 165 133 Percentage changeMain East-West routes3.95.54.7-1.3-0.612.9Other routes 1.406.53.23.0-1.6(Non-main lane)1.46.43.23.1-1.710.0Of which Non-mainlane East West 2.65.80.04.8-3.310.5North-
327、South-0.45.62.90.3-2.79.9South-South-1.78.97.43.9-2.412.4Intra-Regional2.75.93.02.7-0.38.6Source:UNCTAD secretariat,based on data from MDS Transmodal(MDST),World Cargo Database,September 2022.https:/www.mdst.co.uk.Note:Non-mainlane Est West:Trade involving Western Asia and the Indian Sub-continent,E
328、urope,North America,and East Asia.North-South:Trade involving Oceania,Sub-Saharan Africa,Latin America,Europe,and North America.South-South:Trade involving Oceania,Western Asia,East Asia,Sub-Saharan Africa,and Latin America.1.INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE11by 1.6 per cent.Trade on the Asia-Europe rou
329、te increased by ten per cent,supported by growing volumes from East-Asia to Europe(14.7 per cent).Trade on the Transatlantic route increased by 14 per cent,driven by 18.7 per cent growth in volumes shipped from Europe to North America where consumer demand was booming.However,the surge in containeri
330、zed trade stumbled against a number of obstacles unprecedented supply-side capacity constraints,logistical bottlenecks,port congestion and lockdowns.Container shipping and trade entered a perfect storm tight shipping availability combined with shortages in inland transport and logistics capacity,inc
331、luding equipment,port labour,drivers,storage and warehousing.Trans-PacificAsiaEuropeTransatlanticEastbound Westbound Total Trans-Pacific Eastbound Westbound Total Asia-Europe Eastbound Westbound East Asia-North America North America-East Asia Northern Europe and Mediterranean to East Asia East Asia
332、to Northern Europe and Mediterranean North America to Northern Europe and Mediterranean Northern Europe and Mediterranean to North America Total Transatlantic 2008 13.8 5.5 19.2 5.0 14.1 19.1 2.8 3.1 5.8 2009 11.5 5.5 17.0 5.0 11.7 16.7 2.2 2.5 4.7 2010 13.3 6.3 19.6 5.5 13.9 19.4 2.5 2.9 5.4 2011 1
333、3.5 6.8 20.3 6.1 14.6 20.7 2.7 3.1 5.7 2012 14.4 6.6 21.0 6.0 14.1 20.1 2.6 3.3 5.9 2013 15.0 7.0 22.0 6.1 14.4 20.5 2.7 3.4 6.1 2014 16.1 7.0 23.2 6.3 15.4 21.8 2.8 3.7 6.4 2015 17.4 6.9 24.2 6.4 15.0 21.3 2.7 3.9 6.6 2016 18.1 7.3 25.4 6.8 15.3 22.1 2.7 3.9 6.6 2017 19.3 7.3 26.6 7.1 16.4 23.5 2.9 4.2 7.1 2018 20.7 7.4 28.0 7.0 17.3 24.3 3.0 4.5 7.5 2019 19.9 6.8 26.7 7.2 17.5 24.8 2.9 4.6 7.6 2