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1、SMART CHARGINGGUIDEENGLISH EDITION1EDITORIAL CONCEPT&EDITORIAL COMMITTEEONTWERP&DESIGNPHOTOGRAPHYCONTACT DETAILSThe Smart Charging Guide is published by ElaadNL (The ElaadNL Foundation).Arnhem,29 February 2020Layout&Design Chris Karthaus Authors Frank Geerts,Eric van Kaathoven,Arjan Wargers and Paul
2、 BroosCo-authors Baerte de Brey,Rob Cillessen,Harm van den Brink,Lonneke Driessen,Bram van Eijsden,Lotte Gardien,Paul Klapwijk,Gijs van der Poel,Nazir Refa,Martijn Siemes,Thijs van Wijk,Marisca Zweistra Graphics Nazir RefaThanks to Celine van Aalst,Jan van Rookhuyzen,Harm-Jan Idema,Rick RoorCopyrigh
3、t ElaadNL,2020Please contact ElaadNL should you wish to use data or information published in this edition.Photos All photos by ElaadNL unless otherwise titled Cover Patrick van GemertUtrechtseweg 310 B426812 AR ArnhemTel 026 31 20 223Mail infoelaad.nlTwitter elaadNL Website www.elaad.nl Colophon 2CO
4、NTENTSForewordChapter 1 IntroductionChapter 2 The ChallengeChapter 3 Smart Charging Section 3.1:Technical layer Section 3.2:Communication layer Section 3.3:Organisation layer Section 3.4:Legal layerChapter 4 How can we ensure Smart Charging becomes the norm?FinallyList of abbreviations451
5、03Smart Charging is a crucial building block on the road to a sustainable energy system.ForewordKnowledge and innovation centre ElaadNL researches and tests the possibilities for Smart Charging.Together with our many partners,we conduct research into Smart Charging,i.e.smart and sustainable electric
6、 car charging.We believe that Smart Charging is a crucial building block on the way to a sustainable energy system for electric cars powered by sun and wind energy.But what is Smart Charging?Why is it necessary?What variants are there?Which parties play a role?How does it work in practice and what d
7、o we still have to do to make Smart Charging the norm?We looked for but could not find a publication that answered these questions.So we decided to publish this Smart Charging Guide ourselves,first in Dutch and now in English.We hope that it helps anyone who is not yet familiar with the form and fun
8、ction of Smart Charging,and that it provides new insights to those already familiar with it.I trust you will enjoy reading this guide,and should you be inspired,get in touch as we would like to work together in the further development and research of Smart Charging.Arnhem,29 February 2020 Onoph Caro
9、n,director ElaadNL 4INTRODUCTIONCHAPTER 1 5The light bulb replaces the gas lamp.Reliable,safe and clean light enters our households in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries reducing our dependency on daylight for both work and life.The arrival of household electrical appliances.Halfway t
10、hrough the twentieth century,household electrical appliances come into our lives:the fridge,freezer,washing machine,iron and vacuum cleaner.As a result,household chores are no longer a days work.The arrival of the electric car and solar panels.And now were in the middle of the third power revolution
11、,with solar panels on our roofs and electric cars on our driveways.We increasingly heat our homes with electricity,we plug in to power our mobility,and were starting to generate and store electricity ourselves,for example in our electrically powered cars.The increasing importance of power in our liv
12、es:electric driving and self-generation of sustainable power.The third power revolution6Introduction Europe is on the eve of a major mobility revolution.In a relatively short period,well switch from petrol and diesel to electric driving.Were on our way to achieving one of the key Paris 2015 climate
13、agreements:to reduce transport emissions.In the Netherlands,this key message was translated by the coalition government into the following aim:by 2030 all new passenger vehicles must be emission-free.At the same time,electricity production is changing dramatically as we move from fossil fuels like c
14、oal and gas to renewable sources like sun and wind.These two trends come together when charging electric cars.So,lets explore these trends a bit further.2030 emission freePhoto Petrol pumpSource:Pixabay7The first fuel-powered cars were built at the end of the 19th century;they were very difficult to
15、 drive and especially to start.To start the engine,the driver had to manually pump petrol to the carburettor float chamber,set the throttle and pre-ignition manually,and crank the engine.At the time,city officials saw the electric car as a much cleaner alternative to horse-driven transport,rather th
16、an the petrol-powered car.As early as 1907 at an international congress in Berlin,a discussion was held on the negative effect of exhaust gases on public health,as it was recognised that these contained up to 3.7 percent carbon monoxide.Thus,at the beginning of the 20th century,electric cars were ve
17、ry popular:they were cleaner,easier to operate,and much more reliable than petrol cars.Electric taxies could be found driving clients in all the worlds major cities,including New York,London,and even in Amsterdam.They sometimes had battery packs that could be changed within 5 minutes.Even then,when
18、charging the battery packs,the London Electric Cab Company took the amount of electricity available on the electricity grid into account:Smart Charging avant la lettre.Inventors like Edison and Marconi worked on new battery technologies as an alternative to existing lead-acid batteries,developing al
19、kaline and iron-nickel versions.In 1900,Ferdinand Porsche designed a plug-in hybrid car powered by wheel hub motors.Electric cars were also found in motor sport:in 1896,the first car race to be held in America on Rhode Island was won by an electric car.Electric cars:nothing new!Source Jan Wouters Th
20、e electric car:is its 1914 market share achievable in 2020?Photo Columbia Mark 68 Victoria electric vehicleSource:Corbis/Hall of Electrical History Foundation 8Photo (right)N.V.Electric lighting companySource:BrushRidderkerkOur future,our historyOn April 19,1886,the very first Dutch power station,th
21、e Electric Lighting company,started generating electricity at Kinderdijk,near Rotterdam.Thanks to this new invention,street lighting could now be powered by electricity,considerably reducing the costs of lighting and extinguishing gas lanterns.Moreover,this new form of power was much safer and cause
22、d less smell and smoke nuisance.The power station initially supplied power for up to 350 streetlamps in the area;not much later residents were allowed to buy energy for 12 to 15 guilders per light bulb per year.Thanks to this,the days of the old,smoky,oil and gas lamps were over;the electric bulb ha
23、d arrived.The impressive engine powering the plant ran from 12 oclock in the afternoon to 10 oclock in the evening.The power was supplied directly to the lamps of surrounding factories,while at the same time batteries were charged,providing power to those needing electricity outside this period.Arou
24、nd the same time,another pioneering invention was born:the automobile.As with the power plant,this innovation meant that existing forms of transport were replaced by a safer,cleaner and more modern means.The horse and carriage,excrement in the streets,and the hectares required for growing oats and s
25、traw as fuel were now history.This new car was no longer pulled by horses,but powered by an engine that got its energy from gasoline,steam or electricity.In the years before the First World War,these three types coexisted,each with its own advantages and disadvantages.However,after the war,the inter
26、nal combustion engine(ICE)took over and the electric car almost completely disappeared.It was considered an interesting experimental concept and,every now and then,it reappeared.A second generation of electric vehicles appeared in the 1990s;manufacturers including General Motors(EV1),Citron and Rena
27、ult built electric cars,often with lead-acid batteries.Not all these models were commercially available;Citron built electric delivery vans specifically designed for the French postal The N.V.Electric Lighting company9In the future,a fully sustainable energy system is possible.The essential conditio
28、ns for this are far-reaching electrification of,amongst others mobility,heat supply and major industries.All the power needed for this has to come from sustainable sources,in particular the sun and wind.But as these sources cant supply the same amount of electricity at any given time and every seaso
29、n,our future energy system will have to rely heavily on adjusting demand to supply and on energy storage.This is now possible for short term solutions,days Read more?The future Dutch full carbon-free energy system,KIVI December 2017A sustainable energy system is possibleand weeks using batteries,how
30、ever to bridge the seasons,we will need to store energy in a different form,for example in hydrogen.PhotoAssemblySource:Pixabay10service.However,due to the poor state of battery technology,the electric-powered car never became a commercial success.Until this century at least.Looking back to the star
31、t of the national grid and the arrival of the car shows us how promising this time was.Once again were in the middle of exciting times.In the 2015 Paris climate agreement,it was agreed that countries should take measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to limit further global warming.To
32、achieve this goal,EU member states agreed that the EU should reduce emissions by at least 40%by 2030.Ultimately,by 2050,emissions should be reduced to 80-95%of 1990 levels.These colossal challenges for humanity require ground-breaking solutions.First of all,there will be more intensive use of sustai
33、nable energy installations such as solar fields and wind farms on land and at sea.However,we will also see an increase in smaller,local initiatives in the field of sustainable energy,for example people generating and using their own solar energy,sending their electricity back to the grid,neighbourho
34、ods and regions independently managing a wind farm and sharing its energy.Figure 1 Share of sustainable electricity in the NetherlandsSource:PBL National Energy 2017Photo LandscapeSource:PixabayWind on landWind at seaSolarBiomass11Unfortunately,no one can use a crystal ball to gaze into the future.W
35、hich trends will have the most impact?Its difficult to predict how car use and car ownership will develop.This was also true when the city was filled with horses for our mobility and after they were quickly replaced by cars.And this is once again true.Will cars be driving autonomously?If so,to what
36、extent and what will the consequences be?What does that mean for charging these cars?Will plug-charging still be possible,or will it be wireless?And other questions arise about the way we use cars.How will car ownership develop?As cars remain unused most of the time,they could also be shared.If cars
37、 came when we needed them,we would only need about 15-25 percent of the current number of vehicles to meet our needs.However,the question is:will people,collectively,really want to get rid of their own cars?0000000010110010
38、0000100In addition,we have to expect the unexpected.For example,car use may become so interesting that it suppresses other options:instead of getting on an(electric)bicycle or bus,you simply let the car drive you.One thing is clear:much will change,and muc
39、h more than just the engine.But exactly what and what the future brings,remains uncertain.00000000Uncertainties about future mobility12One of the challenges to sustainable energy,however,is that its not always pr
40、esent in the same quantities;the sun doesnt always shine,the wind doesnt always blow strongly.Moreover,energy is often needed at times other than its production.The grid will thus have to adapt to a diverse and intermittent supply of renewable energy.While to date,the supply generated by power stati
41、ons has always adapted to demand,in the future,demand,e.g.when charging electric cars,will have to adjust to the supply available from solar and wind energy.The message to new and existing car manufacturers is clear:be sustainable and clean.Cities are extremely worried about air quality resulting fr
42、om petrol and diesel engine emissions.The dependence on fuel-producing countries,the CO2 emissions associated with combustion engines and their contribution to climate change,make an alternative necessary:electric cars.Car manufacturers are currently investing massively in developing electric vehicl
43、es.For the first time since the car appeared on the scene,electric cars have become competitive again.This is due to their rapidly improved performance,an ever-increasing range of models,and lower prices.Moreover,governments are setting massive targets for the sales of zero emission vehicles only.Th
44、e rise of the electric car seems unstoppable.The cars own revolution.PhotoSolar panels Source:Pixabay13Buses,trucks,boats and aircraftMobility electrification is about much more than private cars.In fact,electric transport is already extremely common in public transport systems.Think of trains,subwa
45、ys,trams and trolley buses;three-quarters of all passenger public transport kilometres are already powered by electricity.In the meantime,fossil-fuel driven buses are being rapidly replaced by electric ones,which means that by 2030 at the latest,the entire Dutch public transport system will be emiss
46、ion-free.The market for electric trucks is still in its infancy and currently it mainly involves converting existing vehicles and small production series.However,a range of models from different manufacturers is on its way.As soon as manufacturers have the production capacity,well see a spurt in the
47、 growth of these electric trucks.The price per kilometre is expected to be so much lower that it will no longer be financially viable to continue running on diesel.Its even possible that this transformation will be even faster than what weve seen to date with electric cars.And theres even more.The f
48、irst electric inland vessels are already sailing,and the first small electric aircraft are in flight.Norway aims to have all domestic flights powered electrically from 2040.Full electrification of sea-going vessels and large civil aviation aircraft for intercontinental flights still seems far away,b
49、ut small electric four-seater planes are now flying just as fast and as far as their predecessors.Within a decade,we expect this transformation to apply to almost all business forms of mobility,especially those where many kilometres are made.Electric is not only good for the environment,its the only
50、 way to be competitive in the near future.Public transport buses are rapidly becoming electric-powered.Photo QBuzz14Its quite clear:there will be many more electric cars driving further with increasingly improved batteries.However,all these cars have to be reliably and safely charged using the grid.
51、Figure 2a Expected growth in electric cars up to 2035 in the Netherlands Figure 2b Expected share of electric cars as a proportion of the total fleet in the NetherlandsElaadNL Outlook(L)ElaadNL Outlook(L)ElaadNL Outlook(M)ElaadNL Outlook(M)ElaadNL Outlook(H)ElaadNL Outlook(H)Share EVs(%)Number of EV
52、s(millions)15InnovatorsAround 2010,we saw the arrival of the first modern electric cars on the market such as the Tesla Roadster,the Nissan Leaf,quickly followed by the Renault ZOE and the Tesla Model S.This was accompanied by large numbers of plug-in hybrids.Cars with a plug and charging points hav
53、e quickly grown from being an oddity to their current recognisable,but still modest,place on our streets.The Netherlands is an international leader in charging infrastructure development:unique in the world is that electric car drivers can use any charging point with their charge card.In the near fu
54、ture,well see a rapid growth of electric cars,from their current few percent points to 100 percent of all new cars in 2030.What you often see with the introduction of new devices is that their acceptance follows a set pattern.It starts somewhat hesitantly with the real pioneers(innovators),then slow
55、ly gains more mass(early adopters)and then takes over the market at an accelerated pace(majority).And of course,there will always be some people left behind(laggards).Its only the startEarly AdoptersThe electric car has moved on from its pioneering phase.Many more models are now available from a gre
56、ater range of car manufacturers.They are becoming more affordable and their range is increasing.The number of charging points is also growing,both on the street and increasingly at home and work.In addition,several networks of fast chargers are being installed across Europe,with increasingly higher
57、charging speeds.In the same period,we have seen a massive transformation to electrically-powered public transport buses,and we expect to see similar developments with electric trucks.Mass marketElectric driving has become the standard and the street scene is determined by electric cars.Not only are
58、there many new electric car models,the second-hand market is also electric-powered.Electric driving is cleaner,quieter,cheaper and more attractive than driving on fossil fuels.The grid is now the backbone for electric charging,in all shapes and sizes.Figure 3Innovation adaption curve.Source:wikimedi
59、a16ConclusionWe are looking at an expected substantial growth in the numbers of electric cars and in sustainable electricity production from solar panels and wind turbines.We predict that this growth will only accelerate further.Were still at the start of what is possible,and have to prepare for the
60、 future.In the next chapter,we discuss the challenges that this presents.How can we make the electric car an integral part of a sustainable energy system?In this booklet,we consider it a given fact that millions of cars will become electric,and that our future energy system will primarily be powered
61、 by sun and wind.PhotoTesla Semi-truckSource:TeslaThe expectation is that this growth will only accelerate further.17PhotoAlliander 18THE CHALLENGECHAPTER 219An electric car uses energy much more efficiently than a gasoline or diesel car.The combustion engines of the latter have an efficiency of 25-
62、35 percent;this means that roughly two thirds of the energy contained in the fuel is lost to heat via the cooling system and the exhaust;only one third is actually used to move the car.An electric motor is much more efficient and can achieve an efficiency of 90-95 percent.The energy loss in an elect
63、ric car is mainly due to the fact that the alternating current(AC)from the grid has to be converted into direct current(DC)that can be stored in the battery.The energy is then converted from DC to AC again because the cars electric motor runs on AC.CO2 emissionsTo make a fair comparison in energy co
64、nsumption and CO2 emissions between the conventional and the electric car,we have of course to look at the entire chain:from energy source to exhaust,even though an electric car doesnt have the latter!We call this well-to-wheel.Moreover,we also need to account for the energy required to produce a ca
65、r and,at the end of its life cycle,to recycle it.This leads to the following equation:Figure 4Energy and environmental aspects of passenger vehiclesSource:TNO(2015)The benefits of electric driving*In terms of electricity production,TNO examined two scenarios in the study:all-green electricity versus
66、 a mix of grey and green electricity,with emissions of 447 g/kWh.Diesel/petrolCompletely electric carOil production,refining&transport 27-300Motor emissions while driving 140-1700Electricity production and transport(including net loss)09-105*Vehicle manufacture and recycling4664Total213-24673-169CO2
67、-emissions in gram/kilometreEven with,mainly grey,electricity produced from coal and gas-fired power stations,on balance the electric car emits less CO2 than a gasoline or diesel car.Charging electric cars using energy from renewable sources only maximises the environmental benefit.Photo MotorSource
68、:Pixabay20ChallengeSo we see and expect an enormous growth of electric cars and of electricity generated by the sun and wind.The challenge we currently face is how to sustainably charge millions of electric cars without any problems.Can we generate enough electricity?Is that also possible from susta
69、inable sources such as sun and wind?Can all these cars charge at the same time?And will that power be available in the right places?These are the questions addressed in this chapter.Is there enough energy for all these electric cars?In 2030,some people predict a fleet of 1.9 million electric passeng
70、er vehicles;a quarter of all our cars.Charging these cars will require around 6 terawatt hours(TWh)of electrical energy per year-thats 6 billion kilowatt hours!This is easily calculated by estimating the number of kilometres driven by cars in the past and the number of kilometres that an electric ca
71、r can drive on 1 kilowatt hour.Moreover,electric buses,trucks and even inland vessels and small planes will need charging.If ultimately-perhaps in 2050?-all mobility is electric,this will require around 20 TWh of electricity.These numbers raise the question:can enough electricity be generated in the
72、 Netherlands for all these electric vehicles?Electricity production traditionally occurs in coal or gas-fired power stations and in nuclear power stations.Additionally,some industries and growers produce their own electricity with smaller production units or combined heat and power plants.In the Net
73、herlands approximately 31 gigawatts(GW)generation power is available.Theoretically,we can produce more than 270 TWh of electricity in 8,760 operating hours per year(365 days x 24 hours).But we dont need that maximum capacity at all times-far from it:we currently use around 120 TWh of energy every ye
74、ar.If 20 TWh is needed for all electric transport in 2050,an average of 2.3 gigawatts(GW)of production capacity is required;thats only 6 percent of existing theoretical production capacity.The challenge we face is:how can we sustainably charge millions of electric cars without any problems?21Photo E
75、VSource:US Department of EnergyHow does an EV work?Just like a fossil fuel powered car,an electric car has an engine that drives the wheels.However,an electric car engine doesnt get its energy from gasoline or diesel,but from a battery.Electric motors use energy much more efficiently;they have a lar
76、ger torque and speed range than combustion engines.This means an electric car doesnt need a gearbox.This has many advantages:the car has more space,and it saves on weight and maintenance.Moreover,an electric motor contains much less parts than an internal combustion engine,and no oil has to be measu
77、red or changed.An electric car therefore has lower maintenance costs.Another important feature of the electric motor is that it acts as a dynamo:when a car slows down,for example on a roundabout,the electric motor functions as a dynamo,recharging the battery.22This is certainly feasible because,at t
78、he moment,more than 50 percent of our capacity is only used at peak times.If you compare the 20 TWh needed to make all mobility electric with the current 120 TWh total,that amounts to a slightly less than 17 percent increase.But this wont be an immediate change;this is about a decades-long growth in
79、 electricity consumption.This must be feasible.Can it all be generated sustainably?The world is changing fast.Well stop using natural gas and coal in power plants and increasingly produce electricity through wind turbines and solar panels.At the end of 2018,we had almost 9 GW of installed generation
80、 capacity,producing 14 TWh in total.Moreover,with biomass and biogas,a few small hydropower stations and waste incineration plants all of which also produce green energy,in 2018 we produced a total of 18 TWh of energy from renewable sources.Sustainable energy production is growing fast:the Climate A
81、greement in the Netherlands states a target of 84 TWh energy in 2030.This includes 7 TWh small-scale solar power projects.Figure 5Solar and wind energy development in the Netherlands up to and including 2017source:CBS(Statistics Netherlands)EnTrance(2018)Wind on landWind at seaSolarShareShare of sol
82、ar and wind of total electricity production demandElectricity production(TWh)23Source WTT(LBST,IEA,World bank),TTW,T&E calculationsCars:Battery electric most efficient by farhttps:/www.transportenvironment.org/file/4477Source Driving under PowerThe hydrogen-powered electric carIn addition to battery
83、-electric powered cars,there is another type of electrically-driven car:the hydrogen fuel cell car.You fill your car with hydrogen gas under high pressure,and this is used in the fuel cell to generate electricity to power the electric motor.There are a number of claims:the car can be refuelled quick
84、ly and you can drive further on one tank.But for the time being,the supply of battery-powered electric cars is much larger,the modern versions have a comparable range,and they are much cheaper in all respects.A major disadvantage of hydrogen cars is the lower energy efficiency of the fuel cell car.H
85、ydrogen is not an energy source but an energy carrier and has to be produced first.At present,hydrogen is usually made from natural gas using an industrial process;this is of course not truly sustainable.Green hydrogen can be produced by electrolysis,but 20-35 percent of the energy is lost.The hydro
86、gen is then converted back into electricity by the fuel cell in the car;here too,around 35 percent of the energy remains unused.Thus,the energy chain efficiency of a hydrogen car is a factor 3 worse than that of a battery-electric car;this implies that three times as much green energy is needed for
87、hydrogen cars.Hydrogen may play a role in future mobility scenarios.However,for passenger cars and freight transport in the city and for many other applications,we expect battery-electric mobility to become dominant.To close,hydrogen will most likely play an important role in the energy transition i
88、n other ways:it can be used for high temperature heating in the industry,for(seasonal)storage of large quantities of energy,and as back-up energy.24We are also going to make maximum use of sea wind with a capacity of 11.5 GW,producing 49 TWh,wind parks on land as well as large solar parks.In other w
89、ords,if we prioritise electric transport and the targets set are achieved,then there is enough electricity from sun and wind for all our mobility requirements.Its worth mentioning that the Netherlands is not even a leader in this field.We must,however,be aware that sun and wind are not as manageable
90、 as gas and coal plants;the wind doesnt always blow and the sun doesnt always shine.The balance of the energy system will therefore change,and it can no longer be geared 100 percent to production by demand;it will partly have to happen the other way around.The next step in this thought process is to
91、 consider whether all the cars can be charged at the same time.Two things are needed for this:all the electricity must be able to be generated at that time,and the grid must also be able to transport it.This is where we reach the limits of our current systems.Figure 6Generation capacity solar and wi
92、nd,and the power demand of electric cars.25Too much of a good thing?Because you cant turn the sun and wind on or off,you need a much greater capacity to ensure enough power than with traditional power plants;the latter can always step up production if demand requires it.As the share of wind and sola
93、r energy grows,there is a greater chance that at certain moments,energy production will be so large that it exceeds the energy demand.In Germany and on occasions in the Netherlands,so much electricity is produced from solar and wind sources while there is too little demand that electricity prices fa
94、ll under zero.In these cases,you will be paid to tap electricity:a topsy-turvy world.This can happen at moments like a sunny Sunday afternoon with a lot of wind,as industry needs are then at a minimum.Any surpluses are often distributed abroad;however,as the Netherlands starts generating more sustai
95、nable electricity itself,it will be more difficult for Germany to rid itself of excess electric power.This can lead to the temporary shutdown of solar panels or wind turbines.This is called curtailment and is actually a waste of unused sustainable electricity.Fortunately there are other solutions wh
96、ich allow us to adjust the demand for electricity to the supply(demand response).A good example is to charge electric vehicles at that moment.Figure 7Electricity production and spot pricessource:https:/www.energy-charts.de/power_de.htmElectricity production in Germany in week 37 2019Price below 26Ca
97、n we generate enough power to charge all our electric cars at the same time?To answer this question,we have to understand that electricity must be generated at the same time it is needed.A device that requires a little bit of power over a long time has a completely different impact on the production
98、 capacity than a device that requires a lot of power in a shorter time.Think of a kettle:if a lot of electricity is required in a short time,it must also be possible to generate it at that time.Electric cars can charge a lot of electricity relatively quickly.If,in addition,there are large numbers of
99、 cars,in the scenario that everyone drives electrically this would be more than 8 million vehicles,and they all charge at the same time,the production capacity must therefore also be considerably extended in order to meet this peak demand.That effect is much greater than the predicted growth in tota
100、l electricity demand of around 17 percent.Photo Tennet27The electric car as pacemaker of the grid In Europe,the electricity grid operates at a frequency of 50 Hz.This means that the voltage has a waveform that varies 50 times per second between maximum positive voltage and maximum negative voltage.T
101、his can be seen as the nets heartbeat.This frequency is determined by the balance between electricity production and off-take.If there is more energy demand than generation,the frequency decreases,and if there is more generation than demand,it increases.It is important that this 50 Hz remains consta
102、nt as all our devices are designed for this.The frequency of the grid thus determines the speed,of for example an AC motor;if this deviates too much,it can start to run faster or slower than intended.Digital devices can also be disturbed by frequency changes.At the start of 2018,digital clocks were
103、6 minutes behind in the Netherlands and 25 other countries due to an imbalance between the energy grids of Serbia and Kosovo.If the grid becomes too unbalanced,this can lead to a failure of the entire electricity grid.Tennet,the high voltage network operator,manages this heartbeat in the Netherlands
104、,ensuring that it remains at 50 Hz.Tennet uses different energy markets for this and with continual checks.Balancing supply and demand was a relatively simple task in the fossil-fuel past:if the demand for energy increased,some more coal would simply be incinerated in the power stations.However,beca
105、use we now have more renewable energy in the form of wind and solar energy,the supply side has become more dependent on weather conditions and therefore less directly manageable.On the other hand,the demand side has also become more flexible.Electric mobility in particular offers an excellent opport
106、unity to adjust electricity demand to the amount of available electricity.The charging speed can be varied and,with the latest charging techniques,you can even supply power back to the grid.In this way,the electric car ensures that our grids heartbeat remains steady at 50 Hz.The electric car thus ac
107、ts as a pacemaker for the grid!28If 8 million cars are electric and they all started charging at six oclock in the evening(with a capacity of 11 kW),an additional 88 gigawatt(GW)of production capacity would be required at that time.That is four times as much production capacity as is currently avail
108、able:we would need to move from the current 31 GW capacity to 119 GW.However,this is a very unlikely scenario.To ensure this peak demand,we would have to develop a lot of extra wind turbines and solar parks or keep the old gas-fired power plants running for longer,or even extend them.In any case,it
109、would be an extremely expensive solution,requiring huge investments(roughly 90 billion)for energy production capacity only used for one hour a day.In addition to sufficient power generation at peak demand,we would also have to get this additional power to the right place at the right time:energy has
110、 to be transported via the electricity grid from the production location to the demand site at the moment it is required.Does the electricity grid have the capacity to transport all the electricity required for charging electric cars?Our electricity grid has a lot of spare capacity.On average,the gr
111、id load is only 20-30 percent of the maximum capacity.This is a logical consequence of the fact that the power grid was designed to cope with the highest expected electricity demand.This means that the power grid is only intensively loaded temporarily at peak times.Outside of these moments,the grid
112、has about 70 percent capacity left,spread across a whole day;thats more than enough to charge all the electric cars.We have calculated that approximately 17 percent extra power is needed for electric transport;20 TWh extra power against the current 120 TWh total.However,if the electricity demand as
113、a result of charging electric cars takes place mainly at peak hours,and if,at that moment,there is a high demand concentrated at certain locations,then a grid problem will arise.Photo CablesSource:Enexis29310,000 kilometres of cable!The Dutch electricity grid has 310,000 kilometres of cable connecti
114、ng 8 million customers,both consumers and business.There are three different voltage levels:low(230/400 Volt),medium(400 Volt-110kV)and high(110-380kV).The high-voltage grid is managed by Tennet,the national grid operator,and consists mainly of overhead lines on masts.The high-voltage grid has been
115、designed to be redundant in order to minimize the risk of power interruptions:there are two groups of lines for each route.The medium and low-voltage grids are owned by seven regional grid operators,of which Liander,Enexis and Stedin are the largest.The cables are underground.In every residential ar
116、ea there is a small transformer building that transforms 10,000 volts to 400 volts.The electricity cables in our streets are connected to a low-voltage rack in the transformer station.The standard home connection has a capacity of 3x25 ampere(17 kW)or 1x35 ampere(8 kW).At times,households have peak
117、consumption,for example when the oven,washing machine,vacuum cleaner and kettle are on at the same time.But this is unlikely to happen to everyone at the same time:simultaneity is low.As a result,the average household grid load,even during peak periods,is between 1 and 1.5 kW.For safety reasons,grid
118、 operators cater for this when installing new grids,ensuring an average of 4 kW(but not the 17 kW of the home connection).In this way,a problem only arises when everyone starts using a lot of power at exactly the same time.Photo Meter cupboard Source:Enexis30Suppose you come home from work somewhere
119、 between five and seven oclock,park the car on the street or on the driveway and start charging.Depending on the cartype,the car will charge for hours and demand a capacity of 3.7 to 11 kW from the grid(in some exceptional situations even 22 kW).Thats much more than an average household with no elec
120、tric car;an average household has a peak power demand of between 1 and 1.5 kW.If youre the only one in the street with an electric car,theres no problem;the grid has more than enough capacity for that.But if youre a trendsetter and the whole street starts driving electrically and everyone charges th
121、eir cars at similar times,local overload can occur.This causes the power cables and the transformers to heat up,and can eventually lead to a breakdown.This type of overload mainly arises in the low-voltage grid;grid operators call this local congestion.1 car:10 households in terms of capacity demand
122、Some modern electric car models have a capacity demand of more than ten times an average homes capacity peak demand.Some modern electric car models have a capacity demand of more than ten times an average homes capacity peak demand.However,be aware that this is about the capacity demand for power me
123、asured in kW,and not the amount of energy required in total,measured in kW-hours(kWh).31Masses of electric cars,masses of charging points!From 2030 onwards,all new cars on Dutch roads will be emission-free;a fleet of between 1 and 2.2 million electric passenger vehicles.And all these cars will need
124、to be charged.According to a recent forecast by ElaadNL,between 0.8 and 1.7 million charging points will be needed:a combination of home,work and public charging points.Given the current numbers of charging points,were looking at significant growth.This has led to an increase in connection requests
125、to the power grid and to the necessity to power up the grid to manage the increased number of home,work and street charging points.ElaadNLs middle scenario forecasts an average annual need for more than 23,000 new connections for public charging points and hubs on the grid.In 2035,this will have ris
126、en to 45,500 new grid connections,annually.Street chargingCurrently in the Netherlands there are nearly 8 million households,and about a third of these have their own driveway where people can park and charge at home.This means that two thirds of all households depend on public parking spaces and th
127、erefore will be dependent on the public charging infrastructure.The construction of this charging infrastructure is complex and time-consuming.Part of this complexity is the connection to the electricity grid.An application for connecting a new home to the grid is often known up to six months in adv
128、ance.However,when connecting a public charging station to the grid,things are different.The grid operator is obliged to ensure a grid connection is achieved within 18 weeks at the latest.For public charging points this currently takes between 10-18 weeks.However,if you buy an electric car,you want t
129、o be able to charge it immediately on delivery.Grid operators,municipalities and charge point operators all have to make every effort to ensure that the work can be carried out in the required time-frame.This means freeing up and training skilled personnel,making good agreements,having a roll-out vi
130、sion and placement policy with an efficient process and timely planning;all to ensure the charging infrastructure can be delivered on time.Figure 8Expected growth in the number of charging points in the Netherlands.public charging stationsHome charging pointscharging stations at the workplaceChargin
131、g Areas(charging stations)low scenario (total)High scenario(total)Number of charging points(in millions)32Essentially,there are two ways to deal with this:add to the grids strength,i.e.installing thicker cables and transformers with more capacity,or ensuring a better distribution of the power demand
132、.The first option is sometimes unavoidable,but its not an attractive option for a number of reasons.Firstly,its expensive:an estimated 40 billion.Moreover,all streets in the Netherlands would have to be dug up with considerable inconvenience to all involved.Thirdly,the question arises as to whether
133、this is even feasible:the Netherlands has a great shortage of technical personnel.Thats why the grid operators only want to strengthen the grids in those places where other solutions do not offer sufficient help.In many places,grid operators will have to extend the medium-voltage grid in order to be
134、 able to connect wind turbines and solar parks.The introduction of fast charging points may also lead to an increased demand from the grid;for example consider the effect of bus depots where 60-300 electric buses are charged overnight.33Solar carsWill all future electric cars be equipped with solar
135、panels so that they charge themselves?The Fisker Karma was fitted with a sunroof producing modest amounts of power.Currently,two solar-powered electric car models have been presented commercially that can drive as much as possible using their own-generated power:the Lightyear One and the Sono Sion.N
136、o need to charge again?That car manufacturers are trying to make electric cars as efficient as possible and integrate solar panels is an amazing development.But the potential of a solar-sunroof is not unlimited:even on a sunny day it will probably not charge your battery at a 100%,depending off cour
137、se on battery size,millage and the solar panels production.So in most cases(if you dont live in Australia)it will probably still be necessary to charge your cars batteries from the grid or from your own solar panels,from time to time.If solar cars were to become successful,it would certainly have a
138、great impact on charging and the electricity grid;there would be less demand from car-charging,especially in the summer.Photo(left)Lightyear One.By Lightyear.(Right)Sion.By Sono Motors GmbHA few years ago,five graduate students from Eindhoven University of Technology started the Lightyear company.Th
139、eir first car is the Lightyear One the electric car that charges itself.The roof of Lightyear One is fitted with solar cells that provide enough energy to charge the battery during the day.The Sion solar car is fitted with solar cells on the roof,on both sides,on the bonnet and on the rear.With a fu
140、ll battery,the Sion has a range of 240 kilometres.No need to charge again?34Although strengthening the existing grid will sometimes be necessary,the other option is generally much more attractive.We need to see whether the extra power demand from electric cars can be better distributed.In particular
141、,spreading charging over time opens up many opportunities.You simply plug in when you get home,but thanks to smart technologies,for example,your car only charges for the required number of hours in the middle of the night when there is low demand but the wind turbines continue to turn smoothly.At th
142、e same time,your neighbours car will be charged immediately as he has to drive a long way that same evening.So everyone on your street can plug in at the same time,but we ensure that the demand is distributed according to need,thereby preventing grid congestion.In other words,we are going to charge
143、smartly:Smart Charging!ConclusionGenerating enough power for all these electric cars has to be possible,and we will be able to generate it sustainably.But if we all charged our cars at full capacity at the same time,a huge extra peak demand would occur that we would not be able to deal with easily.W
144、e would have to install extra power plants and increase the networks strength considerably,otherwise it wouldnt be possible.But if you look at everyday use,its actually very easy to charge all these cars.The car itself must become an integral part of a sustainable energy system.So if we do it smartl
145、y and spread our charging times,we can easily and sustainably charge millions of electric cars.In other words,Smart Charging is a necessary condition for massive and sustainable electric car charging.Smart Charging is a necessary condition for massive and sustainable electric car charging.3536SMART
146、CHARGINGCHAPTER 3 37One day in the future.On a day in the near future,Eva gets up and gets ready for a busy day at work.She drives her electric car to work 30 kilometres away and plugs it in at the parking lot under the office.Thanks to smart techniques,the car knows that Eva has no external appoint
147、ments and that theres more than enough energy in its batteries to get home.Colleagues cars are therefore given priority when charging.Evas car only charges when the power demand is low and the solar panels on the roof provide enough power to charge cars.When she drives home at the end of the day,the
148、 battery is almost full again.Once at home,she plugs her car in,as do most of her neighbours who have also just arrived home.Because she doesnt have to leave that evening and theres enough energy left,her car supplies her home with electricity until she goes to bed.The car starts charging again at n
149、ight with electricity from a wind farm on the outskirts of the city.The following morning,fully charged with renewable energy,her car is ready for a new day!02:0020:0014:0008:0038If we want to charge all our electric cars smoothly and sustainably,well have to do this smart with the help of Smart Cha
150、rging.But what exactly does that mean?How does it work and whats involved?Thats what this chapter is about.First,we look at the essence of Smart Charging and then we use the four-layer model to look at Smart Charging from different angles.The essenceSmart Charging is essentially a control signal tha
151、t indicates when and at what speed an electric car is charged.You simply plug in your car,but it may not always immediately start charging.Smart technology ensures that it is charged at the best time and at an optimum speed.This optimisation can take place,for example,when the sun and the wind can p
152、rovide enough sustainable electricity,i.e.it charges when the sun is shining or the wind is blowing.In this way,it avoids traffic jams in power consumption,by charging outside peak hours or at a lower charging speed during peak hours.Another optimisation factor is price,as the car will then only cha
153、rge when the electricity prices are lowest.Of course,you can also choose to start charging immediately at maximum speed.With Smart Charging,the demand for electricity from an electric car is always adjusted to match your and the environments needs in such a way that theres always enough power to mee
154、t the demand.The next step in Smart Charging is using the car for energy storage for purposes other than driving.This means that you not only use power as required by the car for driving,but that your car acts as a power supply.This technique is commonly referred to as V2G(Vehicle to grid)or V2X(Veh
155、icle to anything).Others speak of bidirectional charging or power recycling.The power stored in your car can,for example,be used to power your own home,the neighbourhood,or even fed back into the grid.Smart Charging is essentially a control signal that indicates when and at what speed an electric ca
156、r is charged.3940Incidentally,V2G is not yet a standard electric car feature.A number of Japanese cars can do it via a DC charging station where the cars direct current(DC)is converted to alternating current(AC)for use at home or on the grid.Until recently,that was only possible with a fast charging
157、 station.Bidirectional charging and discharging via an AC charging station,currently used for standard charging,is still under development.Renault ZOEs are now being co-developed in a pilot project in Utrecht that can discharge using AC charging points.For both variants of Smart Charging -adjusting
158、the demand to needs or using the car as a power provider a lot has to be done to ensure that this will work properly.The four-layer modelFor Smart Charging to work well,it must,of course,be technically feasible.Both communication and IT must match and be secure.Moreover,rules and regulations have to
159、 be in place to make it possible from an organisational and legal point of view to ensure that stakeholders can work together.4142The elements of the Smart Charging four-layer model:1.Technical layer2.Communication layer 3.Organisational layer4.Legal layerThe first layer,that of technology,is about
160、the components that make Smart Charging technically possible,the possibilities and limitations that technology provides,and the data.For example,somewhere in the Smart Charging ecosystem there must be components that send and receive a control signal.If there is no intelligence anywhere in the hardw
161、are,you couldnt charge smartly other than by plugging in or plugging out at the right times.But more than the fact that nobody wants to go out in the middle of the night and plug in their car to harvest low-priced power from wind turbines,this isnt what we mean by Smart Charging.In other words,the d
162、evices must contain smart components the charging station and the car,or via another route such as a home energy management system.The technical layer is also about data:data on power consumption,battery state of charge,et cetera.The technology also determines the bandwidth within which Smart Chargi
163、ng is possible:the power used to charge the battery that enters the Smart Charging point from the grid can never be more than the maximum transmitted at every link in the chain.The second layer is the that of communication between devices.This specifies which routes a Smart Charging control signal c
164、an follow and which languages(ICT protocols)are required.The devices-charging station,car,or other route-must not only have components that can communicate with the outside world.They must also be able to talk to each other in the same language so that they understand each other.And that communicati
165、on must be secure,so cybersecurity is a crucial feature in this layer.TechnicallayerCommunicationlayer43Direct and Alternating current AC/DCElectric car batteries,in fact all batteries,work on direct current(DC),while electricity from the socket is alternating current(AC).During normal charging,an i
166、nverter in the car converts AC to DC.With fast chargers,the inverter is in the charging station and the battery receives DC from the charging station.Note that the plugs and cables for fast charging are different from those used for normal charging.Inventor Thomas Edison had to set up a completely n
167、ew system for generating and transporting electricity in order to make his light bulbs burn.He did that with direct current(DC).But soon after,a competitive system was introduced:the alternating current(AC)system.Later on,another inventor,Nikola Tesla,became embroiled in this and a fierce battle eru
168、pted over which system was to become the standard.This was brilliantly won by the AC camp as this enabled electricity to be more easily transported over larger distances.However,this was only made on the understanding that DC would always remain important in applications such as batteries.All modern
169、 electronics also work on DC.Currently,there are those who advocate the entire grid to become DC.SourceAC/DC:The Savage Tale of the First Standards War Tom McNichol,201344The third layer is about how we organise it all.Who sends control signals,with which profiles,and with which strategies?And how d
170、o these all come together?How can we regulate this?Several parties have a stakeholder interest in Smart Charging:the motorist,the car manufacturer,the charging station operator,an Electric Mobility Service Provider,the municipality,the grid operator,the energy supplier,a possible aggregator,et ceter
171、a.These interests can sometimes run parallel,but can also be conflicting.So we have to set up the system in such a way that it can handle stakeholder needs.In addition,a key aspect is that the system that actually controls charging makes intelligent combinations of the input from the diverse group o
172、f stakeholders.Intelligent and automated decision-making is needed to satisfy all the stakeholders needs.The fourth layer is the legal set of contracts,laws and regulations,i.e.the contracts that the parties draw up and the laws and regulations within which they operate.Smart Charging starts with an
173、 agreement between the person who can provide flexibility(for example,charging an electric car later or less quickly)and the person who needs this flexibility.Agreements can therefore vary from long-term in the form of an annual contract,or be more flexible.Worth noting here is the issue of who play
174、s which role?What is available on the market,and what about public parties?Can grid operators,for example,pay for flexibility or offer other contracts(including flexibility)and can they intervene if theres a risk of overloading the grid?At the moment the law provides for room for experimentation so
175、we can gain experience with various forms of flexibility,especially related to Smart Charging.However,structural solutions are still limited at this moment in time.These four layers together form the key components of the Smart Charging ecosystem.Several parties have an interest in Smart Charging.Or
176、ganisationallayerLegallayer45The third generation of electric cars is on its way!Two major barriers to buying electric cars are rapidly disappearing.Range anxiety(how far can I still drive?)is now on the return.You can charge your car faster,there are increasing numbers of charging points,and the ba
177、tteries have an ever increasing capacity.At the same time,purchase costs are falling:the threshold is now much lower.An example;the Nissan Leaf was introduced in the Netherlands eight years ago with a 24 kWh battery and just over 100 kilometres radius.It was pioneering at the time,but this was not e
178、nough to convince the masses.The second generation of Nissan Leaf is now available with a 40 kWh battery and a range of over 200 kilometres;more than double the previous version.There is now a plus version with a battery capacity of 62 kWh.The electric car of the future will have many fewer restrict
179、ions.The expectation is that by 2025,the third generation of electric cars will have sufficient range for everyone and that recharging will only take 15 minutes,if necessary.These cars will then be the standard and equivalently priced to petrol powered cars,while they are much cheaper to use.Because
180、 car manufacturers see these vehicles as key models,production is fully underway and the current longer delivery time for electric cars will be a thing of the past.Thus,in the near future,electric cars will have become the best option.The second-hand market will also pick up:second-generation electr
181、ic cars will be affordable for starters or as a second car,in addition to the increasing numbers of shared(second)cars.Source NVDEAnnounced EVs up to 50.000 euroFrom priceRange463.1 Technical layerThere are two main parts to the technical layer:components and data.These determine whether Smart Charg
182、ing is possible and within which bandwidth.Three elements are crucial to this:the ability to send a control signal,the available data,and the maximum charging capacities.Wheres the intelligence?As noted earlier,for the crucial element of control you need intelligence embedded somewhere in the Smart
183、Charging ecosystem.This intelligence comes from a Smart Charging Management system which can be found in a number of places:the car,the charging station,a home energy management system,or even the grid.It can operate as a stand-alone system and can make independent decisions.But the intelligence can
184、 also be located more centrally;in this case the signal passes through a communication connection with the local components.The advantage of centralised solutions is they can combine information across locations.Intelligence in the Smart Charging ecosystemLocal stand-alone Central to the cloudCar Ba
185、ttery management system Connected carCharging station ControllerBack office systeemPower grid Smart meter&local smart gridGrid management system operatorsRelated energy systemsHome energy management system&Building energy management systemOnline energy management platforms Smart Charging is possible
186、 with any of these solutions.Experience with these options varies considerably;most research data currently comes from Smart Charging stations in the public arena.Photo Circuit Board Source:Pixabay47Expected rapid growth in fast charging stationsFast charging stations and regular charging stations c
187、omplement each other.Fast charging is faster but more expensive,and isnt(yet)possible at your front door,however theyre both indispensable if you drive further than your cars battery limit.In addition to the expected large growth of regular charging stations,we also predict substantial growth in the
188、 number of fast charging stations.At this moment,e-drivers can fast-charge at about 200 locations in the Netherlands,with a total of 1,000 fast-charging stations.We expect this number to more than double between now and 2025;an eight-fold increase may also be feasible.The market is already diverse;d
189、ifferent providers have all entered this market with different motives,ideas and considerations.We see charging stations operated by car manufacturers like Tesla,by independent providers like Fastned,but also by the traditional petrol stations that want to serve electric cars and their drivers.In ad
190、dition,a group of entrepreneurs are adding fast charging to their service,for example,roadside restaurants and supermarkets.The power generated by a fast charger is also rapidly increasing;the latest electric car models can now charge at 350 kW.Promising location (50-100 kW)Promising location (175-1
191、750 kW)Promising location (700-1750 kW)Existing location(50 150 kW)Figure 948But recently also pilot projects have started with Smart Charging in home-and office environments.And other options with intelligence in the car(connected car)or in the smart meter are being investigated.How fast can you ch
192、arge?Smart Charging also depends on the maximum charging speed available,as this determines the bandwidth of charging capacity.Charging speed is expressed in kilowatts(kW)and depends on a number of factors.Firstly,the car has a maximum charging speed which differs between models and brands.Secondly,
193、the charging point determines the maximum available power which depends on the type and whether several cars are charging at the same time.And finally,the connection from the charging station to the grid has a maximum capacity.Therefore,the charging speed is determined by the weakest link in the cha
194、in.Thus a cars own capacity,the charging station,or the connection to the grid determine the cars charging speed at any given moment in time.Smart Charging also depends on the maximum charging speed available,as this determines the bandwidth of charging capacity.49Wireless charging!Parking with wire
195、less,plug-in-free charging,or even charging while you drive on a specially equipped road:these are only two examples of a number of experiments with wireless induction charging techniques.How does wireless charging work?Its based on two magnetic coils:one in the ground and one under the vehicle.Inve
196、rters ensure that a high frequency current flows through the primary coil into the ground;this connects to the secondary coil in the car;a gap of 15 centimetres between the coils is possible.The cars coil connects to an inverter,which then charges the battery.Its an efficient process,above 90%is ach
197、ievable.However,this is still lower than plug-connected charging where returns of more than 95%are possible.Car manufacturers are still fully committed to cable-charging.With the advent of larger batteries and therefore a greater range,there is less need to plug in after every ride,and for really lo
198、ng distances,fast or superfast charging should be possible.Currently,cable-charging is still the best option.However,it would be an advantage for many not to need a daily home-charging session.Moreover,in the context of Smart Charging,it would be best to have cars continually connected to the grid a
199、s often and for as long as possible.Wireless charging makes this feasible.In the future,we would expect self-driving cars to be able to self-charge;wireless charging would seem the best way to facilitate this.Another great advantage of wireless charging would be the reduced impact on our streets,as
200、fewer charging points will be needed.At the moment,wireless charging is only possible by making post-purchase adaptations to existing electric cars.BMW is the only manufacturer to officially offer a wireless charging system.Currently,high charging capacity experiments are being carried out on electr
201、ic buses.However a so-called pantograph looks more promising for high power bus charging.Figure 10Wireless chargingPhotoRotterdam tests wireless charging 50Adjustable charging speedsThe Smart Charging ecosystem becomes even more complex if we take into account that the effective charging speed is in
202、fluenced by other energy users and providers.If many devices simultaneously require power at the location,for example cars,heat pumps,elevators,and data centres,or,alternately,if power is fed into the grid from solar panels,EV charging speed can be adjusted to ensure an optimal balance.Currently,a n
203、umber of variants of Smart Charging are available that can,dependent on user-needs,determine effective power distribution.If many cars are simultaneously connected to a charging station or centre,the maximum charging speed is adjusted downwards.This simple form of Smart Charging is called local load
204、 balancing.There are many other options.At home,for example,information from the smart meter can be used to adjust the car charging speed to household consumption:the speed can be optimised to match electricity consumption in and around the house.Cars can charge less or not at all at times of peak d
205、emand;they can even supply extra power(V2H Vehicle to Home).This shows that a lot is possible even within the existing grid connection.This is also true for an office location,where the charging needs and grid connection can be determined on the basis of the annual peak power consumption.51PhotoFast
206、ned fast chargingSource:Fastned52Smart Charging can therefore be used to optimize the total energy consumption at the location and to minimize the size(and therefore the costs)of the grid connection.Most employees with an electric car will be in their office for a large part of the day,therefore the
207、 time when their EV is charged becomes less important.The office buildings energy management system can optimize charging.On sunny days,for example,the afternoon would be optimal for EV charging,using the power from solar panels,and in poor weather conditions,the first cars could be charged in the m
208、orning.The situation is somewhat different when we look at fast chargers.A location which only has fast chargers,for example along motorways,is expected to have a high peak consumption.If all the charging points are occupied,demand for electricity is at a maximum,while consumption plunges to zero if
209、 no cars need charging.In other words,power consumption can fluctuate enormously.Depending on the demand or throughput speed at the charging points,fast charging station operators could install a large battery,partly powered by solar panels.This can then be used to accommodate the peaks which occur
210、when many of the charging points are in use.At quieter moments,the battery can recharge.However,this solution only becomes attractive if the investment in these large batteries is lower than the additional cost of a more powerful grid connection.53When generating electricity,a magnet rotates between
211、 three separate magnetic fields,with three distinct wave cycles(phases).Each phase is connected to a single power wire.Most household appliances only require a 1 phase connection.However,in some cases,appliances that use a lot of electricity such as electric hobs or ovens are connected to 2 or even
212、3 phases.In the metre cupboard,as a safety precaution,each phase is fitted with a fuse to protect against short circuits or overloads.Maximum charging speeds The difference between 1 and 3-phase chargingElectric carsMany of the first generation EVs only charge using 1 phase,with a maximum current li
213、mited to 16A,corresponding to a charging speed of 3.7kW(16A x 230V x 1 phase).This applies to almost all plug-in hybrid electric cars.Car manufacturers have since developed a number of models that charge at a maximum current of 32A with a charging speed of 7.4kW(32A x 230V x 1 phase).There are even
214、some models where 3 phase charging is possible.We expect the vast majority of new car models to be fitted with a 3-phase charger with a current of(at least)16A per phase and a charging speed of 11kW(16A x 230V x 3 phases).These models can also charge if only 1 phase is available,only this will then
215、be slower.However,if less than 6A is available,the car will stop charging.Charging pointsStreet-side charging points almost always have 3 phases.As a charging station never knows what kind of car will be connected,it always reserves the maximum current for all 3 phases.If an EV indicates that it can
216、 only charge on 1 phase,most of the current charging points reserve all 3 phases for this car.Moreover,at the request of the grid operator,the power wires are usually twisted across the 2 sockets,so that if two 1-phase cars are being charged,2 different power wires(phases)are used.This helps maintai
217、n an even distribution across the 3 phases.At home users can choose between 1 and 3 phase chargers.This usually depends on their EV model.Home chargers are always connected to a separate group in the metre cupboard.In the case of a 3-phase home charger,the mains connection must also have 3 phases;in
218、 some cases the grid has to be reinforced from a 1 to 3-phase connection.54Fast charging stations located on motorways serve this purpose.Some of the charging stations will be shared by different groups of users.A city centre charging station will commonly be used by office staff during the day,by v
219、isitors in the afternoon or evening,and by residents in the evening and at night.There are also a number of specific user groups such as taxis,shared cars or inner-city logistics.This variety of users influences the options for Smart Charging.At locations where the parking time is longer than the ti
220、me required to top up the car,there are a number of logical options for Smart Charging.The most important possibilities for Smart Charging are home-charging and/or office-charging,or when the car is parked for a longer period,for example at a theme park.Home Office Visit TravelShort stay Extended st
221、ay Short stay 8 hourparkpark Stop&Go 7 en 17 en 6 en 6 en 164,1-11-20 tot-55Three main control options form the essence of a Smart Charging session:charging can be speeded up,slowed down,or paused.However,if bidirectional charging(V2G)is available,this adds a fourth option:energy supply.From an elec
222、trical engineering perspective,decharging is exactly the same as charging,only in the opposite direction.In this case the direction is opposite to charging-energy leaves the battery so the number of kilometres charged is negative.The options to manage charging are fairly obvious:charging can be fast
223、er,slower or even paused.59How we charge an electric car differs substantially from how we fill up our cars with fuel.Charging leads to different behaviours and habits.Although some electric car drivers use the fast chargers located along our motorways,which to some extent is comparable to refuellin
224、g,the majority of drivers charge their cars at their destination.This is usually at home,on private property or in the neighbourhood on the street,but it can also be at work or during a visit.Filling a tank completely usually only takes a few minutes,however,with an electric car you use the time tha
225、t the car is parked to fill it up,with new energy.As a car usually spends up to 95 percent of the time parked,there is more than enough time to charge it at the most ideal moment.The charging behaviour we currently see gives us insights into future developments.However,todays users are a specific gr
226、oup that usually consist of lease and business drivers.This group is not representative of future users.An average car clocks up around 13,000 km per year in the Netherlands,with privately owned vehicles traveling less at around 11,600 km,and commercial vehicles at around 23,000 km.We expect the lar
227、ge group of vehicles not used for commuting to show a different charging behaviour than the current frequent driver.What the charging behaviour of future users will look like exactly is highly dependent on variables such as the cost of charging,the development of available charging infrastructure an
228、d capacities,and the acceptance or adoption of Smart Charging.Charging in the future:new habits!A few(rounded)numbers as an illustration:8 million passenger cars.An average of 13,000 km/year.Energy consumption is 0.2 kWh/km,so 2,600 kWh/year.Average battery capacity is 50 kWh.Assuming 35kWh per char
229、ge.Each car is then charged approximately 75 times a year.Or,1.4 times a week.Car-charging can easily be spread over all seven days.60The Smart Charging control options lead to a charging profile or strategy.An example:instead of standard,undirected charging(blue straight line),the car charges more
230、at a certain time and less at other times.In the graph above,the charging profile indicates the charging speed(green line)and the area under the charging profile represents the total amount of charged energy(kWh).Different Smart Charging techniquesThe control options for an individual charging sessi
231、on are not deployed randomly;they are based on conscious choices and strategies.An individual session profile is often partly the result of an optimisation over several ongoing charging sessions.Choices are made that are not only beneficial for the individual session but also for the group.Optimisin
232、g a group of charging sessions is similar to what the energy world terms demand-side management(DSM)or demand-side response(DSR).DSM is used to mitigate strong peaks and troughs in a consumption pattern and to balance the energy profile.How this is achieved depends to a large extent on the basic pro
233、file;this is mainly determined by usage.For example,the basic profile of a house is very different from that of an office,a hotel,a store or a location with fast chargers.Figure 11Example of Smart Charging versus standard charging 61Most people are aware of terms like cryptocurrency(with Bitcoin as
234、the best-known example),blockchain,and perhaps even distributed ledger technology(DLT),however we wont go into details of the underlying technology here.Currently,many people are experimenting to see where and how these promising techniques can be applied in practice.One of those applications is in
235、the Smart Charging ecosystem.In the current charging infrastructure,we pay with a charging card and in the future,this will be replaced with certificates(public key infrastructure).Cryptocurrency,blockchain and Smart ChargingOne of the pilot projects incorporated blockchain technology in a charging
236、station.IOTA(a form of DLT)was chosen:there are no extra transaction costs and no(data)mining is involved.In this situation,when charging an EV using a cable,a connection is created between the car and the charging station.The car indicates how much energy it wants to charge and the charging station
237、 tells the car how much this will cost before placing the transaction on the IOTA network.The charging station waits until the network approves the transaction costs,then the car can start charging.All transactions in a Smart Charging ecosystem could use the IOTA network.For example,your solar panel
238、s could supply power to the neighbours electric cars,and the grid operator could possibly reward clients for using less or more energy at specific times of the day.These transactions can be made by anyone and are not bound by national borders.As the IOTA network stores everything,a complete audit tr
239、ail of supplied power and the associated costs is available:everything is fully automated.62 Valley filling:more or faster charging at periods of low energy demand.Stimulation:faster charging when more sustainable(or cheap)electricity is available.Load shifting:slower charging at times when peak loa
240、ds are imminent;EVs then charge faster at other times.Energy conservation:at the time of charging,the speed is reduced to less than the technical maximum for the entire charging period.Peak clipping/peak shaving:less rapid charging at times when there is a risk of peak loads.Power production:resuppl
241、y of energy from the EV.Valley fillingLoad shiftingPeak clippingStimulation(sun)Energy conservationStimulation(wind)Power production(V2G)Depending on the basic profile,a number of Smart Charging techniques can be applied.There are a number of options to optimise Smart Charging sessions:Figure 12Simp
242、lified representation of Smart Charging techniques63The Eindhoven flexmarket testAs part of the European Interflex project,researchers at Strijp S in Eindhoven are investigating a future energy market by creating a local,flexible market.If the grid operator requires flexibility because(in the test)t
243、heres a threat of grid overload,flexibility can be purchased on the market.This could then be provided by a neighbourhood battery or from EV Smart Charging.Researchers are Photo InterflexSource:Interflex investigating how this type of flexible market could work,what it involves,and how effective it
244、may be.The projects aim is to effectively monitor and manage the entire local energy system.Communication protocols are being further developed for this.Flexibility is auctioned in the Interflex project.64In these charging strategy visualisations,we disregard local electricity generation options suc
245、h as solar panels,battery storage or an EV with a feed-in function.The presence of local generation has a number of consequences and creates additional possibilities.In the case of solar panels,the basic grid profile at the location in question will be the first to change,as solar generation cannot
246、be controlled.If there is no energy consumption,electricity is supplied to the grid.The maximum energy supply to the grid is limited by the size of its connection;this may be a physical or legal capacity limit e.g.the customer has agreed a certain maximum with the grid manager.Curtailment occurs whe
247、n the generation capacity cannot be fully utilized because the grid connection has insufficient(contracted)capacity,and the power peak of the production must therefore be reduced.The alternative to limiting generation is to stimulate local consumption;this can be done by charging EVs or a fixed batt
248、ery.It is also possible to opt for a strategy to charge batteries when sufficient free grid capacity is available,and to supply it back when demand is high;thereby preventing peaks in demand.Taking this one step further:the car can function as an energy supplierWhen electricity is added to the grid,
249、the situation becomes far more complex as well as more interesting.In this case,both speed and time can vary and be adapted to a number of strategies.For example,the EV can support the grid at times of high demand,or it can store locally generated electricity from solar panels and supply it to a hom
250、e in the evening.The car can even become a power trader,by demanding energy at times with low prices,and resupplying it when prices are higher.In other words,by using the EV as a buffer,Smart Charging strategies can be implemented even more effectively.ConclusionThe technical layer therefore determi
251、nes whether it is possible to charge smartly,which routes are possible,how data can be customised and delivered,and within which bandwidth.This then provides us with initial insights as to how charging profiles and strategies can be used with Smart Charging.65663.2 The communication layer Crucial to
252、 Smart Charging is the ability of various devices to communicate with each other.We look at the different routes that can be used for this,but also at the language which devices use to safely talk to each other.Different routesThere are many possible routes of communication,but in all cases,the Smar
253、t Charging signal must be communicated to the car or the charging station.There are currently three main routes to activating Smart Charging:1.Smart Charging via charging infrastructure(Charger-centric)In this example,the grid operator gives a signal that runs via the back office system to the Smart
254、 Charging station,which in turn permits the car to charge faster or slower.Many Smart Charging tests currently being conducted in the Netherlands on public charging points are managed in this way,for example the frameworks for the FlexPower and INVADE projects.The signals in the example are provided
255、 by the grid operator,but they could also be from other stakeholders,like the energy supplier.2.Smart Charging via car(Car-centric)This route that runs via the car is also termed Telematics;the combination of telecommunications and data available in modern cars.The car manufacturer thus receives rea
256、l-time information about the car and can send information to the car.This system can also be used to generate a Smart Charging control signal which could be provided by a party needing flexibility-the regional grid operator,the national grid,or another party-or through an intermediary,a so-called ag
257、gregator.This signal runs via the car manufacturer to the EV which then starts charging faster or slower.Whereas the charging infrastructure route requires fixed charging points,car-centric charging involves moving cars where control signals will have to be sent,for example,on the basis of GPS coord
258、inates,which the car manufacturer then translates to those cars charging in that specific area.67Why open standards are so important Open standards in IT communication between different devices like charging station,car or back-office systems need to be transparent,user-friendly,and offer consumers
259、freedom of choice.Open standards lead to better solutions because many parties work together on an equal basis,leading to cheaper solutions.These better,cheaper and widely available solutions will accelerate the roll-out of the Dutch charging infrastructure and ensure that Smart Charging is a succes
260、s.Smart Charging requires communication for transmitting control signals,so it is essential that a universal language is used to enable control of each charging station via any back office system,regardless of brand(OCPP).At the same time,every EV has to be able to talk to every station(ISO 15118)an
261、d possibly even to the solar panels on your roof,independent of brand:there must be no lock-ins tying users to a specific brand.Finally,open protocols strengthen the export position of the Dutch EV-sector:as an open standards leader,the Netherlands has access to other markets.developing a shared pro
262、tocol,each stakeholders interests are assured,and joint solutions can be introduced faster.Knowledge-sharing between a range of parties and countries leads to incremental gain:through open cooperation,new ideas and best practices spread faster.Electric transport is a global market where internationa
263、l cooperation is a must.Open protocols are good for the export position of the Dutch EV industry as products developed here can be used in other countries without any modification.Open protocols for the charging infrastructure can be reused,enabling interaction with other devices such as heat pumps
264、and solar panel inverters.0000More benefits An open infrastructure is good for the Dutch e-driver.The OCHP and OCPI open protocols give the Dutch e-driver easy access to more charging points,both at home and abroad.Innovation and competition is encouraged.
265、This translates into better services,lower prices and more new services such as Smart Charging,Plug&Charge,Car-sharing,et cetera.Open protocols help to accelerate the introduction of e-driving in the Netherlands.Parties that invest in charging infrastructures(companies,municipalities,provinces)have
266、the freedom of provider-choice.They can choose the best price/quality ratio,add new providers to their existing infrastructure,and develop new services.There is a large number of e-driving stakeholders:the consumer,hardware makers,Electric Mobility Service Providers,energy companies,municipalities,c
267、ar manufacturers.By 00000000683.Smart Charging via Energy Management SystemThe Smart Charging signal can also be sent via an Energy Management System(EMS).Increasing numbers of(office)buildings and homes now mana
268、ge their own energy consumption In addition to providing information about the buildings consumption,EMSs also protect the connection against overloading in the event of excessive consumption.It would also be applicable to charging an EV if the charging station is connected to the building.In this r
269、oute,the grid operator or another party determines whether the EMS can charge the car faster or slower.Currently,many protocols have been developed specifically for Energy Management Systems;we expect that these protocols will become increasingly compatible with EV standard protocols.Open standards
270、and protocolsStandards and protocols play an important role in all these routes;these are the languages that determine how one device communicates with the other.These are preferably open,developed so that they can be used by the entire industry and stakeholders.The Netherlands is at the forefront o
271、f the development of open communication standards for charging electric cars,and the international community is following.In recent years,together with many national and international stakeholders,a number of open communication protocols have been developed,namely OCPP,OSCP and OCPI.Below,we define
272、these acronyms in relation to Smart Charging.For the sake of clarity,we have not included roaming protocols.OCPP(Open Charge Point Protocol)is an open protocol for communication between the charging station and the central backend system of the charging point operator.It controls the entire charging
273、 transaction.OCPP was initiated by ElaadNL in the Netherlands and developed further in recent years by a broad international group of EV-industry stakeholders.OCPP is the de facto international standard and is currently applied in more than 100 countries worldwide.OCPP is now managed by the Open Cha
274、rge Alliance,an international industry alliance with 136 members from dozens of countries on five continents.OCPP makes it possible to pass on Smart Charging signals from the central backend system to the charging station.000000100101
275、0000OSCP(Open Smart Charging Protocol)is an open communication protocol between the charging station management system and the grid operator(regional grid or national grid operator).It communicates the capacity limits within which cha
276、rging can occur without causing grid overload.This protocol also originated in the Netherlands,however it is not often used in practice.Open ADR(Open Automated Demand Response)is an open standard for exchanging Demand Response signals,or signals related to price or charge control.This enables Smart
277、Charging signals to be sent between parties,for example from the grid operator(DSO)to a charge point operator(CPO).The communication is based on IP communication networks such as the internet.This protocol is widely supported.In the United States it is commonly used.OCPI stands for Open Charge Point
278、 Interface between a CPO and a Third Party,usually being a charging service provider(Electric Mobility Service Provider=EMSP),but this could also be another party such as an energy supplier or aggregator.OCPI originally only worked peer-to-peer,but now also supports Roaming Platforms(including e-)vi
279、a a hub-to-peer connection.OCPI is a Dutch initiative with wide international support.The protocol provides real-time information about the charging station such as location,availability,prices,billing,as well as ensuring OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer(read Car)BRP Balance Responsible PartyDSO
280、Distribution System OperatorCPO Charge Point OperatorTSO Transmission System OperatorEMSP Electric Mobility Service ProviderFigure 13Communication,protocols and standards 71In 2017,a pilot project called Frequency Containment Reserve(FCR)was started to investigate whether electric vehicles could sup
281、port Tennets primary reserve market.The aim was to see whether the charge capacity could be adjusted within 15 seconds and that an update to the actual capacity could be registered every 4 seconds.This is necessary to manage changes to the grid frequency.Results showed that approximately 95%of the c
282、harge profiles reach the charging station within 2 seconds.The project team concluded that it is possible to respond quickly enough in almost all cases,with the exception of offline charging points.The researchers reached a number of interesting findings:The standard speed of charging cars is set at
283、 the maximum,which means that they can only demand less power and not more.This can be solved by setting a lower default charging level.At night,the collective charge capacity drops practically to zero as all cars are charged.At that time,no power is available to manage the balance.In a year,the col
284、lective charge capacity is too low for about 25%of the time.Project FCR:maintaining balance using electric carsIf Smart Charging were to be used optimally,this would change(see figure below)and the desired minimum power would always be available.The so-called PWM signal used to communicate the maxim
285、um charging current to the vehicle from the charging point can become distorted in a(long)charging cable.The vehicle will therefore always interpret the control signal as being lower than that sent by the charging point.Although the so-called mode-3 power control works continuously in principle,not
286、every power level can be reached.Depending on the design of the vehicles charging electronics,the vehicle can probably only make a number of intermediate steps between the minimum current of 6 amps and the maximum current of(usually)16 amps.This differs per model.In addition,for some car models,a hi
287、gher minimum current rating can apply,e.g.12A.Another finding is that vehicles may always charge slower than indicated by the control signal.This occurs naturally when the cars battery is almost fully charged,but it can also happen at any time during the charging session.And finally its important th
288、at the charging point clock is correctly synchronized with the charging providers charging profiles.Should they differ,the charging behaviour can be different.Intermediate steps by test car model AIntermediate steps by test car model BFigure 14 Figure 15Total Power in a weekPower(M)Day of the month
289、November 201672bilateral roaming.The Smart Charging functionality has been included in the most recent version of the protocol(v2.2).ISO 15118 is an international protocol for communication between car and charging station.In addition to its extra focus on security,an added value is that it makes it
290、 possible to communicate the users departure time and the cars energy requirement(how full the battery is)from the car to the charging station.This then makes it possible to charge smarter,more efficiently,and better match the drivers wishes.In addition,it allows the Smart Charging control signal to
291、 be communicated between the car and the charging station.CybersecurityAn extremely important aspect in all cases of communication is cybersecurity.The Smart Charging signal must be sent safely,without anyone being able to see or adjust it.Both the grid and our mobility are crucial in modern society
292、;they even form part of the critical infrastructure.Thus they have to be well-protected.As more electric cars come into circulation and charging/discharging becomes an increasingly important part of the energy system,there is a growing need for cybersecurity.By linking our mobility to our energy sup
293、ply and vice versa,it is essential that we ensure that the charging station network is stable and secure(non-invasive).73As there are increasing numbers of EVs,and not all of them will be fully charged at the same time,gaining insights into charging behaviour are increasingly relevant.Which choices
294、were made by Smart Charging algorithms and what were the consequences?This is the idea behind the Transparent Charging Station project.A prototype was introduced in 2017 and won a 2018 Dutch Design Award in the category Product.The project makes visible what is currently invisible,and will be integr
295、ated into the FlexPower project in Amsterdam.In this project,electric shared-cars are given priority;they are charged faster during off-peak hours,optimizing sun and wind power use.Together with the municipality,we are working on the best ways to provide transparency.The transparent charging station
296、 project74Charging stations should only be controlled by recognised legal persons and organisations.Three points are important:Secure communication from and to the charging station through the use of,amongst others,secure protocols,servers,and infrastructure.Physical charging station security by,amo
297、ngst others,using sensors that detect unauthorized use of a charging station,secure encryption key storage,and secure software development processes.A secure(mobile)network and server infrastructure.In order to support governments that tender for charging stations,ENCS(European Network for Cyber Sec
298、urity)and ElaadNL have drawn up requirements for the field of cybersecurity.ConclusionThe communication layer describes the routes and languages via which the various devices communicate with each other.Much of this communication runs through open standards,emphasizing the need for excellent cyberse
299、curity.75Large-scale testing of Smart Charging algorithmsAs part of EU Horizon2020 program INVADE,Smart Charging was performed on over 1,000 public charging points for a full year.The charging points were virtually relocated to two neighbourhoods in the Netherlands to simulate the near future scenar
300、io in which all cars are electric.Charging profiles were formed as the result of grid capacity limits from the neighbourhoods and commercial decisions added by the commercial optimiser.These requirements were matched in a data platform created specially for INVADE,after which the resulting profile w
301、as sent back to all chargers.Each change in available grid capacity or the number of active sessions resulted in recalculation of the charging profiles.Although more than half of the sessions received significantly lower charging speeds,no differences in total charged energy were measured between se
302、ssions,indicating enough flexibility in the connection time.The project also showed that extra measures are likely to be needed during peak times in winter,where researchers found that the available grid capacity mismatched the lower boundary precondition used in this project during early evening.Ph
303、oto Nynke Arends763.3 Organisational layerThe third is the organisational layer.It describes the interests and strategies of the stakeholders involved in the Smart Charging ecosystem.Ultimately,these translate into wishes for a specific Smart Charging profile.One of the major challenges we face is t
304、hat they do not all lead to the same desires.Who wants to charge smartly and why?To start with,lets see which stakeholders are involved,and what their stake is.These are quite diverse:consumers(e-drivers),car manufacturers,battery producers,charging station operators,charging station producers,servi
305、ce providers,aggregators,energy suppliers,(sustainable)energy producers,but also municipalities,provinces and the central government.They include national grid operator Tennet and the regional grid operators(medium and low voltage grid).There are probably others which we have forgotten!What are thei
306、r interests and why would they want to charge smartly?The consumer,preconditions and preferencesThe interests of e-drivers naturally play a crucial role in Smart Charging;after all,its the consumers who have to drive and charge their electric car.Their car is primarily a means of transport to get th
307、em from A to B without any problems.Their needs are paramount when it comes to Smart Charging.They need a range of options ranging from the opt-out charge me now for urgent charging needs,to a(self-determined)lower action-radius limit for Vehicle to Grid,with for example,a no discharge option if onl
308、y 30 kilometres is left in the battery.In addition to being able to determine use preconditions,consumers preferences are also important.Will drivers opt for charging as economically as possible or as sustainably as possible,which in practice may lead to the same charging profile?Will consumers mana
309、ge their own choices,or will they let their smart home energy management system or app do this as much as possible behind the scenes?In other words,its important for e-drivers 77Using EVs to store solar energyIn the Utrecht neighbourhood of Lombok,the electric car is increasingly becoming part of a
310、sustainable energy system.The idea:solar panels on public buildings,for example schools,provide electricity to power electric shared cars at times when there is a surplus.In turn,the cars can supply electricity to the grid at peak demand times.Together with Renault,a number of Dutch partners develop
311、ed charging points and cars that can both charge and discharge.Special to his project is that DC chargers(fast chargers)are not required;any public charging station location anywhere on the street(working on AC)is potentially suitable.Fast chargers are much more expensive and larger and therefore le
312、ss suitable for large-scale rollout.Another special feature is that the communication between the car and the station takes place through specially developed open protocols that allow every charging station and car manufacturer to work via the same system.This makes a global rollout possible!His Roy
313、al Highness King Willem Alexander,together with Jrme Pannaud(r),director of Renault Benelux and Robin Berg(l),director of We Drive Solar,opened the first European V2G project in Utrecht on 21 March 2019.Photo We drive Solar78to be able to state their own preconditions and preferences,and that these
314、are used when interpreting Smart Charging needs.All this should not lead to consumers being faced with extra demands on their time and/or effort.However,a car remains unused most of the time,and is usually plugged into a charging station,so there are plenty of opportunities for Smart Charging that b
315、enefit the consumer.Smart Charging can mean:that you charge more cheaply(at those times when the electricity price is lowest),that you charge more sustainably(making optimum use of your own solar panels or the local wind farm)and in the case of bidirectional charging(V2G),store electricity from sola
316、r panels for later use.In some Smart Charging projects,motorists can also charge faster at certain times(FlexPower project).Thanks to Smart Charging,more charging points can be added to the same grid connection.For example,a car park can be fitted with more charging points without the need for a hea
317、vier and more expensive grid connection;this also applies to charging bays.Moreover,there are a number of indirect benefits.For example,a massive application of Smart Charging can prevent the need to reinforce power grids,thereby reducing the need for additional power plants.Avoiding these costs wil
318、l result in less high energy bills.Companies:making money with Smart ChargingA range of businesses are involved in the Smart Charging ecosystem;they are competing to gain a position on the currently unregulated market for charging infrastructure and charging services.All have developed propositions
319、that respond to customer needs,while providing a healthy revenue stream.The customer agreements and the business model determine who,in the end,will control the Smart Charging chain.The various(smart)charging customer propositions almost always include a combination of mobility,electricity,and digit
320、ization.And the positioning of the customer propositions are usually centred around the vehicle,the charging infrastructure,or location.Below,we have included the best-known Smart Charging stakeholders.It should be noted that these companies use a number of suppliers and sub-contractors,including ba
321、ttery manufacturers,installation businesses,IT companies,car sharing providers,consultants,and many more.79PhotoJacco van der Kuilen80Car manufacturersAs car manufacturers continue to work on reducing car emissions,they will increasingly move to manufacturing electric cars.This increase in numbers o
322、f EVs in turn has many consequences.Amongst others,that all these new EVs will have to be charged,sustainably and problem-free.We have already noted that Smart Charging is an essential element of this future picture.A number of manufacturers,including Renault and Nissan,have also embraced the idea o
323、f bidirectional charging.This makes your car,just like your solar panels,part of a sustainable home or neighbourhood network.Another important effect is that electric cars require much less maintenance,so this will lead to other business models.For example,the major car brands will provide other inn
324、ovative services,such as fast charging points and supplying power for car charging.Perhaps Volkswagen will purchase electricity on a large-scale so that you can charge your VW cheaply.And perhaps were increasingly moving from being car owners to forms of rental construction;mobility as a service.Ano
325、ther important strategic aspect is the way in which the Smart Charging control signal is given.If this goes through the car,this reinforces the position of the car industry.Data availability also becomes crucial;with Smart Charging,youll want to know how much power is stored in your battery(the stat
326、e of charge),but who owns that information,and(how)is it shared?Consumer-groups need to initiate this discussion,but we currently see that the car manufacturers and associates will retain most of the power in determining who sees what.Charge Point Operators,or CPOsWhen Smart Charging is used more ch
327、arging points can be connected to a grid connection or to your own transformer,so that more charge transactions are available without any loss of driver comfort.This is possible in the public arena,as well as in car parks or,for example,under an office building.CPOs will be able to meet consumers mo
328、bility needs by providing a charging service,as well as offering flex services to flex-users.This will lead to an increased number of CPO business models.Charge Point ManufacturersCharge Point Manufacturers will,logically,play an important role.They will have to provide products that can cope with S
329、mart Charging,with secure software that 81Experience with the Jedlix Smart Charging appWhoever wants to can already start Smart Charging.Some companies already provide Smart Charging services for companies and e-drivers.Startup Jedlix is the best known of these,providing a service driven by a smartp
330、hone app.After installing the app,Jedlix customers can charge smart at a select group of public charging points or at home.In practice this mainly means that charging occurs in the middle of the night when the wind Photo Jedlix appSource:farms are fully running and there is little demand for electri
331、city,thereby saving charging costs.The benefits are shared with app users.Jedlix client charging behaviour was analysed over a period of months;a total of more than 10,000 anonymized charging sessions from nearly 140 different e-drivers.The results were as expected:in general it appears that Smart C
332、harging reduces charging in the morning and evening peaks.The total energy demand shifts to the night hours,with a 47%lower consumption at evening peak times(18:00-21:00).SmartStandardTimeType of charging sessionTotal energy demand(april and may 2018)per hour(kWh)82communicates via the appropriate p
333、rotocols and open standards.The Netherlands has a large charging station industry;we expect that with these innovations they can be international leaders in this field.By providing charging stations in semi-public spaces(at IKEA,the office or hotel)and private charging stations in peoples homes,they often have direct contact with customers and can apply smart solutions if desired.Electric Mobility